TTsC- 


--^  \  O  V  Cii, 


EDUUIN  READING 

SEf  24  1946 

raNDOONMOtOGICIIl 


Cljarles;  (g.  Eeigner 


<Cl)ucation  i^eabingBoom 

PRINCETON   THEOLOGICAL 

SEMINARY 
PRINCETON,  NEW  JERSEY 


^^<i 


,  •  ^«   ■{ 


■^    I  I,  ■■■»  i»iiT  —*■ IJMWWMiM 


A  FIRST  GLIMPSE  OF  JERUSALEM 

From  the  slopes  of  the  Mount  nf  olives,  near  tlic  I'cn4  of  the  lirtlianv  uirriaije  mail.  In  the  hiiniediate  foreground, 
Jewish  ktraves.  Across  the  t,'or>,'e  of  the  Kidron.  on  the  ancient  temple  platform,  the  Mosipie  el-Aksa  anil  the  Dome  of  he 
Kock.  On  the  sky  line,  almost  over  the  dome  of  the  Mos^iuc  cl-Aksa,  the  Citadel  with  the  Tower  of  Ilavid;  over  the 
typrcss  trees  the  white  tower  of  the  (".erman  Church  of  the  Redeemer ;  farther  north  the  dome  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Scpulchcr  and  the  tower  of  the  Latin  Patriarchate. 
Pcrmimi'in  uf  William  H.  Hnu 


A  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible 

By  JOHN   D.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Oriental  and  Old  Testament  Literature 
in    the    Theological   Seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J. 


WITH 


MANY     NEW    AND     ORIGINAL 

MAPS    AND     PLANS 


AND 


AMPLY   ILLUSTRATED 


Third  Edition 
Revised  Throughout  and  Enlarged 


philadelphia 

The  Westminster  Press 
I  9  I  I 


TENNENT  COLLEGE 

OF  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATIOM 


Copyright,  1898,  1903,  1911,  by  The  Trustees  of 
The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication  and  Sabbath- 
School  Work. 

Sixteenth    Thousand. 


Second  Edition.  Published  January,  iqos 
Reprinted  April,  iqoy 


Third  Edition,  Published  March,    iQii 


PREFACE. 


This  Dictionary  covers  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  both  the  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions,  together  with  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  in  the  Revised  Version.  The  Cambridge  edition  of 
1857,  minion  24mo,  has  been  the  standard  of  reference  for  the  canonical 
books  of  the  Authorized  Version.  The  inclusion  of  one  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, and  only  one,  was  determined  by  its  unique  intrinsic  worth,  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  being  conspicuous  among  the  apocryphal  writings  for 
its  value  to  the  historian  and  the  biblical  student  as  throwing  much  light  upon 
an  important  period  of  Jewish  history  between  the  death  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  at  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  and  the  birth  of  Christ, 
which  inaugurated  a  new  order  of  things.  The  other  books  of  the  Apocrypha 
have  by  no  means  been  neglected  :  they  have  been  laid  under  constant  con- 
tribution, and  their  available  material  has  been  employed  ;  but  it  was  not 
deemed  desirable  to  devote  an  article  to  every  proper  name,  or  to  register 
every  divergent  spelling,  which  occurs  in  these  writings.  To  have  done  so 
would  have  encumbered  the  pages  with  material  of  slight  value  at  most,  and 
of  no  use  to  the  student  of  the  Bible. 

The  book  aims  to  be  a  dictionary  of  the  Bible,  not  of  speculation  about 
the  Bible.  It  seeks  to  furnish  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  things  biblical. 
To  this  end  it  has  been  made  a  compendium  of  the  facts  stated  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  of  explanatory  and  supplementary  material  drawn  from  the  records 
of  the  ancient  peoples  contemporary  with  Israel ;  it  has  been  adequately  fur- 
nished with  authoritative  illustrations,  not  pictures  drawn  from  the  imagina- 
tion, but  actual  delineations  of  the  very  things  themselves  ;  and  it  has  been 
fully  equipped  with  accurate  maps,  all  recent,  and  most  of  them  drawn  spe- 
cially for  this  work  from  the  latest  authorities.  The  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture which  is  frequently  involved  in  the  statement  of  the  facts  will,  it  is 
believed,  be  found  to  be  sober,  fair,  and  just. 

The  variations  in  the  orthography  of  Scripture  proper  names  have  been 
noted  in  the  respective  articles.     Neither  the  Authorized  Version  nor  the 


iv  PREFACE. 

Revised  Version  is  thoroughly  consistent.  When  several  methods  of  spelling 
the  same  name  exist,  the  choice  will  depend  upon  individual  taste.  The 
writer  may  perchance  prefer  one  orthography,  the  reader  another.  There 
may  also  be  circumstances  which  make  a  rare  spelling  preferable  in  particular 
cases.  The  reader  may  rest  assured  that  no  form  has  been  admitted  to  the 
pages  of  the  Dictionary  which  is  not  supported  by  authority.  What  that 
authority  is  may  be  seen  by  turning  to  the  proper  article. 

The  pronunciation  of  anglicized  Scripture  proper  names  is  still  in  a 
chaotic  state.  In  the  majority  of  names  the  syllabification  and  accentuation 
have  never  been  settled.  Even  the  systems  of  pronunciation  most  in  vogue 
are  unnecessarily  inconsistent.  A  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion has  been  so  largely  based  on  the  forms  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  trans- 
lators gave  to  the  Hebrevv  names.  These  translators  did  not  transliterate  the 
names  in  accordance  with  any  fixed  rule ;  and,  as  a  result,  names  of  similar 
formation  and  pronunciation  in  Hebrew  appear  in  different  forms  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin ;  and  often,  when  quite  similar  in  appearance  in  English, 
retain  the  divergent  Greek  or  Latin  pronunciation.  In  many  cases  this  is 
intolerable.  The  present  work  follows  in  the  main  the  system,  of  Webster  in 
the  division  into  syllables  and  the  position  of  the  accent.  The  departures  are 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  certain  classes  of  words.  The  pronunciation 
adopted  is  always  supported  by  good  authority,  and  is  in  the  interest  of  con- 
sistency. When  once  the  syllables  and  the  accent  of  the  anglicized  biblical 
name  have  been  determined,  its  correct  pronunciation  in  the  mouth  of  every 
person  of  true  English  instinct  follows  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  letters  are 
sounded  as  they  would  be  under  similar  circumstances  in  an  ordinary  English 
word.  The  exceptions  are  that  the  g  is  soft  in  only  one  name,  Bethphage 
(pronounced  Beth'pha-je),  and  ch  is  always  hard  and  sounded  like  k,  except  in 
Rachel  and  cherub.  The  latter  word  is  scarcely  an  exception,  for  it  is  not  a 
proper  name.  The  proper  name  Cherub,  a  place  in  Babylonia,  is  pronounced 
according  to  rule  (Ke'rub). 

The  meaning  of  proper  names  has  been  given  whenever  it  is  known.  The 
cases  are  many  where  it  has  been  necessarily  omitted  or  stated  cautiously. 
Even  where  there  is  no  note  of  caution,  the  reader  must  be  on  his  guard  ;  for 
although  the  general  signification  of  the  name  may  be  perfectly  clear,  the 
shade  of  meaning  which  lent  the  name  flavor  among  those  who  bestowed  it 
may  elude  discovery.  Judah  means  an  object  of  praise  ;  but  it  might  be  an 
expression  either  of  thankfulness  on  the  part  of  the  parents  to  God,  or  satis- 


PREFACE.  V 

faction  in  the  child ;  either  God  or  the  child  might  be  thought  of  as  praise- 
worthy. Jehoviih-jireh  means  Jehovah  doth  see ;  but  the  special  sense  may 
be,  Jehovah  doth  provide. 

In  regard  to  the  modern  names  of  places  in  Palestine,  the  orthography  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  has  been  adopted,  except  that  the  elevated 
comma  is  employed  to  represent  the  Arabic  consonant  alif,  and  the  inverted 
comma  to  represent  the  guttural  ain  ;  compare  Alphabet.  This  is  the  rule  ; 
but  occasionally,  for  special  reasons,  the  etymology  is  more  fully  indicated  by 
the  diacritical  points  conventionally  used  by  Semitists.  These  points  will 
cause  no  inconvenience  to  the  uninitiated,  and  will  utter  their  own  voice 
to  the  philologist. 

Persons  are  genealogically  described  as  far  as  possible  according  to  the 
method  of  registration  which  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  namely,  by  the 
tribe,  family,  and  father's  house.  This  is  a  minor  feature,  but  it  is  a  novel 
one,  and  it  adds  materially  to  the  proper  identification  of  personages  and  to  a 
correct  understanding  of  the  genealogies. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Dictionary  the  author  has  had  the  cooperation  of 

his  colleagues  the  Reverend  Professors  Benjamin  Breckinridge  Warfield,  D.  D., 

LL.  D.,  and  George  Tybout  Purves,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  who  have  furnished  the 

articles   pertaining  to  New  Testament   introduction   and  several    others   on 

important  related  subjects.     To  each  of  these  articles  the  initials  of  its  author 

are  appended. 

J.  D.  D. 

August  17,  1898. 


PREFACE  TO   THE   THIRD   REVISED   EDITION. 


The  Dictionary  has  been  revised  throughout,  somewhat  enlarged,  and 
greatly  enriched.  The  orthography  of  the  proper  names  according  to  the 
American  revision  of  the  Bible  has  been  noted.  The  articles  on  geography, 
history,  and  chronology  reflect  the  light  that  has  come  during  the  decade  that 
is  just  closing.  Most  of  the  articles  on  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments have  been  elaborated  and  often  materially  enlarged,  chiefly  in  order  to 
show  the  place  which  the  books  have  occupied  in  the  life  of  the  church,  to 
exhibit  the  personal  traits  of  the  writers,  and  to  reveal  the  large  outlook  of 
these  men  upon  God  and  the  world.  New  articles  have  been  introduced, 
without,  however,  changing  the  scope  of  the  work  ;  and  other  articles  have 
been  recast  or  rewritten,  when  by  doing  so  greater  simplicity  and  clearness 
seemed  attainable ;  and  they  have  been  enlarged  whenever  experience  in  the 
use  of  the  book  during  the  past  twelve  years  has  shown  that  its  practical 
utility  would  be  increased.  The  maps  with  which  the  Dictionary  is  furnished, 
both  in  the  midst  of  the  text  and  as  an  appendix,  are  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  biblical  students.  They  are  accurate,  they  illustrate  the  state- 
ments and  discussions  in  the  geographical  articles,  and  they  are  free  from 
eccentricities  in  the  identification  of  sites. 

J.    D.    D. 

January  ii,  191  i. 


M  APS. 

The  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Powers Appendix 

Nineveh,  the  Great  City pa^e  542 

Arabia  <<       4S 

Lands  of  the  Sojourn  and  Wandering Appendix 

Egypt  and  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai pas^e  1.9 1 

Mount  Sinai "      726 

Palestine  as  Divided  Among  the  Twelve  Trices Appendix 

The  Dominions  of  David  and  Solomon " 

The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel " 

Lower  Galilee  and  Esdraelon " 

Sea  of  Galilee page  244 

Hill  Country  of  Eastern  Jud^a  and  Benjamin Appendix 

The  Shephelah  or  Low  Country,  Philistia  and  Sharon  .     .  " 

The  South  Country,  Edom  and  Moab page  8 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ Appendix 

Region  of  the  Decapolis page  172 

Palestine  and  Adjacent  Countries,  Illustrating  Maccab^an 

AND  Early  Apostolic  History Appendix 

The  World  as  Known  in  the  Apostolic  Age " 

Sr.  Paul's  First  and  Second  Journeys ,     .  " 

St.   Paul's  Third  Journey  and  Journey  to  Rome      ....  " 

Plan  of  Jerusalem,  with  Adjacent  Territory " 

Jerusalem:  the  Modern  City  and  Ancient  Remains     .     .     .  page  369 


r 


^     t»-«S^ 


A  DICTIONARY 


THE  BIBLE. 


Aa'ron   [etymology  doubtful.     The  name 
possibly  means  bright,  shining]. 

The  brother  of  Moses  and  his  senior  by 
three  years  (Ex.  vii.  7).  He  was  a  descend- 
ant of  Levi  through  Kohath  and  Amram 
(Ex.  vi.  14-27).  As  we  do  not  read  of  perils 
attending  his  infancy,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
he  was  born  before  the  promulgation  of  the 
nefarious  Egyptian  edicts  dooming  the  He- 
brew male  children  to  death.  He  was 
younger  than  his  sister  Miriam  (q.  v.).  He 
married  Elisheba,  daughter  of  Amminadab 
and  sister  of  Nahshon,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
who  bore  him  four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Elea- 
zar,  and  Ithamar  (Ex.  vi.  23;  Num.  iii.  2). 
When  Moses  at  Horeb  was  called  to  stand 
forth  as  the  deliverer  of  his  oppressed  coun- 
trymen, and,  wishing  to  escape  the  mission, 
complained  that  he  was  "slow  of  speech,  and 
of  a  slow  tongue,"  God  repelled  the  objec- 
tion, and  said,  "Is  not  Aaron  the  Levite  thy 
brother?  I  know  that  he  can  speak  well." 
Aaron  was  forthwith  in.structed  to  go  out 
and  meet  Moses  in  the  wilderness.  He  did 
so.  The  brothers  met  and  embraced  each 
other  (Ex.  iv.  10-16,  27).  Returning  to  Egypt, 
they  gathered  together  the  elders  of  Israel 
and  intimated  to  them  the  approaching  de- 
liverance (29-31).  Aaron  acted  as  the  spokes- 
man and  agent  of  Moses  and  carried  the  rod 
in  the  first  interviews  with  the  elders  and 
with  Pharaoh,  and  during  the  first  three 
plagues  (iv.  30;  vii.  2,  9,  19  [by  the  com- 
mand of  Moses  and  hence  Moses'  act,  xvii. 
r>]  ;  viii.  5,  KJ).  But  soon  afterwards  Moses 
partly  dispensed  with  the  agency  of  Aaron, 
and  thenceforth,  whenever  the  rod  was  used 
svnibolicallv,  it  was  in  the  hand  of  Moses 
himself  (ix."23  ;  x.  13,  and  cp.  22 ;  xiv.  16,  21 ; 
xvii.  5  ;  Num.  xx.  11).  Aaron  and  Hur  sup- 
ported Moiies'  arms  during  the  battle  with 
Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  12).  When  the  covenant 
between  Jehovah  and  Israel  was  entered  into 
at  mount  Sinai,  the  ceremony  of  its  ratifica- 
tion was  concluded,  as  usual,  by  a  common 
meal  spread  for  the  contracting  parties. 
Aaron  and  two  of  his  sons  with  Moses  and 
seventy  elders  of  Israel  were  appointed  to 
I)artake  of  this  meal  as  the  legal  representa- 
tives of  the  nation  and  to  beliold  the  vision 
of  the  God  of  Israel  at  the  cei'emony  (Ex. 


xxiv.  1,  9,  10).  During  the  prolonged  stay 
of  Moses  in  the  mount,  tlie  people  became 
impatient  at  the  absence  of  their  leader  and 
turned  to  Aaron  with  the  demand  that  he 
make  them  gods  to  go  before  them.  Aaron 
weakly  yielded  and  made  the  golden  calf 
( Ex.  xxxii.).  According  to  instructions  which 
Moses  received,  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  to 
fill  the  office  of  priest.  Accordingly,  after 
the  tabernacle  had  been  completed,  and  was 
ready  for  actual  services  to  begin,  Aaron  and 
his  four  sons  were  solemnly  consecrated  to 
the  priesthood  by  being  anointed  with  oil  and 
clothed  in  splendid  typical  official  vestments 
(Ex.  xxviii. ;  xl.  13-16;  Lev.  viii.).  Aaron 
was  thus  the  first  high  priest,  an  office  which 
he  filled  for  nearly  forty  years.  Shortly  after 
leaving  Sinai,  he  joined  with  Miriam  in  find- 
ing fault  with  Moses  for  having  married  a 
Cushite  woman  (Num.  xii.  1-16).  The  re- 
bellion of  Korah  was  directed  as  much 
against  the  exclusive  priesthood  of  Aaron 
and  his  sons  as  again.st  the  civil  authority 
of  Moses.  The  divine  appointment  of  Moses 
and  Aaron  to  their  respective  offices  was  at- 
tested by  the  destruction  of  the  rebels ;  and 
Aaron's  right  to  the  priesthood  was  further 
and  specially  vindicated  by  the  budding  of 
tlie  rod  taken  for  Levi  and  inscribed  with 
Aaron's  name  (Num.  xvi.  and  xvii.).  Toward 
the  close  of  the  journey  in  tlie  wilderness, 
when  the  people  were  encamped  for  the  sec- 
ond time  at  Kadesh,  Aaron  and  Moses  dis- 
honored God  by  their  conduct  when  they 
smote  the  rock.  For  this  sin  they  were 
denied  the  privilege  of  entering  the  prom- 
ised land  (Num.  xx.  1-13).  Soon  afterwards, 
when  the  Israelites  were  encamped  at  Mo.se- 
rali,  by  divine  direction  Aaron  was  led  by 
Moses  up  mount  Hor  and  stripped  of  his 
sacred  vestments,  vvhich  were  transferred  to 
his  son  Eleazar.  There  he  died,  at  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  years. 
The  nation  publicly  mourned  for  him  thirty 
days  (Num.  xx.  23-29;  xxxiii.  37-39;  Dent. 
X.  6).     See  Priest  and  High  Priest. 

Aa'ron-ites,  in   the  Hebrew  text  simply 
Aaron,  the  name  lieing  used  collectively. 

The  priestly  descendantsof  Aaron  (1  Chron. 
xii.  27;  xxvii.  17,  A.  V.). 

1 


Abaddon 


Abel 


A-bad'don  [destruction,  ruin]. 

1.  Destruction,  luin  (Job  xxxi.  12);  the 
place  of  the  dead,  synonymous  with  the 
grave  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  11),  Slieol  (Job  xxvi.  6; 
Prov.  XV.  11,  E.  v.),  and  deatli  (Job  xxviii. 
22). 

2.  A  name  of  the  angel  of  the  abyss,  who 
is  called  in  Greek  Apollyon  (Ecv.  ix.  11). 

A-bag'tha. 

One  of  the  seven  chambei'lains  of  the  Per- 
sian king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10).  These 
chamberlains,  guardians  of  the  harem,  min- 
istered iu  the  presence  of  the  king  (i.  10, 
11).  They  were  eunuch.s,  as  the  Hebi-ew  title 
denotes  and  custom  required  ;  and  hence 
were  probably  foreigners  and  liable  to  bear 
foreign  names. 

Ab'a-nali,  R.  V.,  in  A.  V.  Abana ;  in  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  Amanah  (q.  v.),  of  A.  V.  Amana 
[The  name  probably  means  stony]. 

One  of  the  two  rivers  of  Damascus ;  pre- 
sumably the  more  important,  for  Naaman, 
of  that' city,  mentions  it  first  (2  Kin.  v.  12). 
It  is  probably  the  Barada,  the  Chrysorrhoas 
of  classical  writers,  which  rises  in  a  large  blue 
pool  of  unfathomable  depth  on  the  high  plain 
south  of  Zelx'dany  on  Anti-Lebanon,  twenty- 
three  miles  fniHi  1  )amascus,  rushes  in  a  south- 
easterly course  down  the  mountain,  and  then, 
turning  eastward,  runs  along  the  north  wall 
of  the  city,  to  be  lost  finally  in  an  inland 
lake,  the  middle  one  of  three  existing.  It 
flows  sluggishly  through  the  plain,  but  on 
its  passage  through  Damascus  it  has  a  rapid 
course.  Not  less  than  nine  or  ten  branches 
are  taken  from  it,  yet  to  the  end  it  continues 
both  deep  and  broad.  It  is  the  chief  cause  of 
the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Da- 
mascus. A  canal  drawn  off  from  it,  Nahr 
Banias,  still  preserves  the  memory  of  its  old 
name. 

Ab'a-rim  [those  beyond]. 

A  mountain  range  on  the  east  side  of  Jor- 
dan, sloping  abruptly  from  the  plateau  of 
Moab  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan  valley. 
On  it  was  a  station  of  the  Israelites  just  be- 
fore they  reached  the  low  plains  of  Moab, 
opposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47,  48).  It 
was  from  mount  Abarim  and  the  peak  of  it 
called  Nebo  that  Moses  was  directed  to  look 
across  at  the  promised  land  (Num.  xxvii.  12  ; 
Deut.  xxxii.  49 :  xxxiv.  1).  In  the  R.  V.  Aba- 
rim is  mentioned  in  Jer.  xxii.  20,  with  Leba- 
non and  Bashan  ;  in  the  A.  V.  it  is  rendered 
"  passages." 

Ab'ba  [Aramaic,  father]. 

A  term  borrowed  from  childhood's  language 
to  express  filial  address  to  Ood  (Mark  xiv.  36  ; 
Rom.  viii.  15;  Gal.  iv.  6).  The  corresponding 
Hebrew  word  is  Ab  ;  it  is  common  in  com- 
pound proper  names  in  the  forms  Ab  and 
Abi,  as  Abimelech,  Abner  or  Abiner,  Eliab. 

Ab'da  [Aramaic,  .servant,  probably  mean- 
ing servant  of  God]. 

1.  The  father  of  Adoniram  (1  Kin.  iv.  6). 


2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Shammua  (Neh. 
xi.  17).     See  Obadiah  12. 

Ab'de-el  [servant  of  God]. 
The  father  of  Shelemiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 
Ab'di  [servant  of,  a  contraction  of  servant 
of  God]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari.  He 
was  the  son  of  Malluch,  and  father  of  Kishi 
(1  Chron.  vi.  44).  The  Abdi  of  2  Chron.  xxix. 
12  seems  to  be  the  same  man. 

2.  Son  of  a  certain  Elam  (Ezra  x.  26). 
Ab'di-el  [servant  of  God]. 

A  Gadite,  residentinGilead  (1  Chron.  v.  15). 
Ab'don  [servile]. 

1.  The  son  of  Hillel,  a  native  of  Pirathon, 
in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  judged  Israel, 
or  a  portion  of  it,  eight  years,  and  is  the  elev- 
enth judge  in  the  order  of  enumeration.  He 
had  forty  sons  and  thirty  sons'  sons,  who  rode 
on  as  many  ass-colts — a  sign  of  rank  in  days 
when  the  Hebrews  did  not  yet  have  hor.ses. 
He  was  buried  in  his  native  place  (Judg.  xii. 
13-15). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  Benjamin,  a. 
son  of  Shashak,  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  viii.  23,  26,  28). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  the  firstborn  of  Jehiel  of 
Gibeon  and  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron. 
viii.  30  ;  ix.  35,  36).    See  KiSH  2. 

4.  An  official  of  king  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20) ;  see  Achbor. 

5.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Asher,  given, 
with  its  suburbs,  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shon  family  (Josh.  xxi.  30 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  74). 
Abdon  is  perhaps  identical  with  the  ruins  of 
'Abdeh,  ten  miles  north  of  Acre. 

A-bed'ne-go  [servant  of  Nego,  probably 
the  same  as  Nebo]. 

The  name  given  by  the  prince  of  the  eu- 
nuchs at  Babylon  to  Azariah,  one  of  the  three 
faithful  Jews"  afterwards  miraculously  saved 
from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7 ;  iii.  12-30 ; 
1  Mac.  ii.  59).' 

A'bel,  I.  [breath,  vapor ;  applied  to  Abel 
apparently  from  the  shortness  of  his  life  ;  or 
perhaps  the  name  means  son]. 

A  younger  son  of  Adam,  and  by  calling  a 
shepherd.  Abel  was  a  righteous  man  (Mat. 
xxiii.  35;  1  John  iii.  12) ;  one  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament worthies  whose  conduct  was  con- 
trolled by  faith  (Heb.  xi.  4).  He  oflered  to 
God  a  lamb  from  his  flock,  which  was  ac- 
cepted. It  was  not  the  kind  of  oflering,  but 
the  character  of  the  oflerer  that  God  re- 
spected. As  brought  by  Abel,  the  offering 
showed  the  surrender  of  the  heart  to  God. 
The  offering  of  the  best  further  revealed  the 
sense  of  obligation  and  gratitude  to  God  as 
the  sole  bestower  of  the  good,  to  whom  all 
thanks  were  due.  It  expressed  the  conscious- 
ness in  the  offerer  of  entire  dependence  upon 
God  for  daily  blessing  and  the  desire  for 
the  continuance  of  God's  favor.  In  one  in 
whom  the  sense  of  sin  was  deep,  it  set  forth 
the   entire   dependence  of  the   sinner  upon 


Abel 


Abib 


God's  unineritL'd  nierc-y.  Cain's  character  was 
difli-rent  from  Abel's;  and  being  rejected  he 
at  the  promptings  of  envy  slew  Abel  (Gen.  iv ). 
The  nltiniate  ground  of  Abel's  acceptance  l)y 
God  was  the  atoning  blood  of  Christ. 

A'bel,  II.  [a  grassy  place,  a  meadow]. 

1.  The  same  as  Abel-beth-maachah  (2  Sam. 
XX.  14,  15,  18). 

2.  In  1  Sam.  vi.  18  it  is  apparently  an  er- 
roneous reading  for  'Eben,  stone  ;  see  E.  V. 

A'bel-beth-ma'a-cah  and  Abel  of  Beth- 
maacab,  in  A.  V.  written  Maachah  [Abel, 
■i.  e.  Meadow  near  Beth-maacah]. 

A  lortitied  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20;  2  Kin.  xv.  29).  It  was  re- 
nowned for  wisdom  (2  Sam.  xx.  18).  During 
Sheba's  revolt  Joab  was  about  to  assault  it, 
but  "a  wise  woman  "  flung  the  rebel's  head 
over  the  wall,  and  saved  the  town  (14-22). 
It  was  one  of  the  places  captured  by  Ben-ha- 
dad  at  the  instance  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20). 
Tiglath-pileser  II.  took  it  with  other  Naph- 
talite  towns,  carrying  the  inhabitants  captive 
to  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Its  site  was 
probably  at  Abil  el-Kamh,  a  small  Christian 
village  on  a  ri.sing  ground  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, about  twelve  miles  north  of  lake  Huleh 
and  almost  directly  opjiosite  Dan.  The  Der- 
dara  flows  swiftly  along  at  the  bottom  of  the 
western  side  of  the  mound  t)n  which  the  vil- 
lage stands,  and  the  country  on  every  side  is 
well  watered  and  very  fertile.  In  2  Chron. 
xvi.  4,  it  is  called  Abel-maim,  Abel  by  the 
water. 

A'bel-cher'a-mim  [meadow  of  vineyards]. 

A  place  east  of  the  .Jordan  to  which  Jeph- 
thah  pursued  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  xi.  33, 
R.  v.). 

A'bel-ma'im.     See  Abel-beth-ma.'Vcah. 

A'bel-me-ho'lah  [meadow  of  dancing]. 

A  town,  apparently  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
where  Elisha  was  born  (Judg.  vii.  22;  1  Kin. 
iv.  12;  xix.  16).  It  was  fixed  by  Jerome  ten 
Roman  miles  south  of  Scythopolis,  the  Scrip- 
ture Bethshean.  Conder  places  it  at  'Ain 
Helweh. 

A'bel-miz-ra'im.     See  Atad. 

A'bel-sbit'tim  [meadow  of  acacias].  See 
Shittim. 

A'bez,  in  R.  V.  Ebez  [whiteness,  tin]. 

A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  20).  Not 
identified. 

A'bi.     See  Abijah  6. 

A-bi'a.     See  Abijah. 

A-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  a  father]. 

The  Hebrew  name  is  usually  rendered  Abi- 
jah in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, with  but  two  exceptions  in  E.  R.  Y. 
(1  Chron.  ii.  24;  vi.  28),  and  always  so  in  A. 
R.  V.     See  Abi.jah. 

A-bi-al'bon  [fath  r  of  strength]. 
One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31.  The  Septuagint  supi)orts  the  reading  Abiel 


in  this  passage,  which  is  the  name  he  bears  in 
1  Chron.  xi.  32. 

A-bi'a-saph,  or  Ebiasaph  [father  of  gath- 
ering, perliaps  in  the  sense  of  removing  re- 
proach]. 

A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah  (Ex. 
vi.  16,  18,  21,  24 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  23 ;  ix.  19). 

A-bi'a-thar  [fiither  of  abundance]. 
A  priest,  the  son  of  Ahimelech,  of  the  line 
of  Eli.  On  the  slaughter  by  Doeg  at  the  in- 
stance of  king  Saul  of  the  priests  at  Nob, 
Abiathar  e.scaped,  carrying  the  ephod  with 
him  ;  and,  as  was  natural,  cast  in  his  lot  with 
David  (1  Sam.  xxii.  20-23).  When  David  at 
length  ascended  the  throne,  Zadok  and  Abia- 
thar apparently  shared  the  high-priesthood 
between  them  (cp.  1  Chron.  xv.  11, 12  ;  2  Sam. 
xv.  24  seq. ;  xv.  .35,  etc.).  The  mention  of 
-\himelech.  son  of  Abiathar,  as  priest  with 
Zadok  in  2  Sam.  viii.  17,  is  regarded  by  some 
as  a  copyist's  error,  whereby  the  names  of 
father  and  son  were  transposed.  But  the 
number  of  allusions  to  Ahimelei-h,  the  son  of 
Abiathar,  as  i)riest,  is  so  great  that  an  error  is 
improbable  (1  Chron.  xviii.  16,  Septuagint; 
xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  A  simpler  explanation  is 
that,  since  Abiathar  was  becoming  quite  old 
(he  was  about  seventy  years  of  age  at  the 
time  of  Absalom's  revolt),  his  son  and  legal 
successor  assumed  the  burdensome  priestly 
functions  and  was  called  priest,  as  Phinehas 
served  during  the  lifetime  of  Eli  and  was 
called  priest  (1  Sam.  i.  3  ;  ii.  11).  The  aged 
Abiathar  remained  faithful  to  the  king  dur- 
ing Absalom's  rebellion,  and  rendered  the 
fugitive  monarch  great  service  (2  Sam.  xv. 
24,  29,  35,  36;  xvii.  15;  xix.  11)  ;  but  when 
later  Adonijah  sought  to  wrest  the  succession 
to  the  throne  from  Solomon,  Abiathar  cast 
his  priestly  influence  with  the  military  in- 
fluence of  Joab,  another  old  man,  in  favor  of 
the  attractive  aspirant  (1  Kin.  1.  7).  Though 
this  attempt  failed,  he  again  favored  Adoni- 
jah after  David's  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  12-22). 
For  this  he  was  deposed  from  the  high-priest- 
hood, and  Zadok,  a  priest  of  approved  loyalty, 
but  of  the  other  branch  of  the  Aaronic  fam- 
ily, was  put  into  his  place  (1  Kin.  ii.  26,  35). 
His  deposition  involved  that  of  his  sons, 
Ahimelech  and  Jonathan  ;  and  thus  the  rule 
of  the  house  of  Eli  came  to  an  end,  according 
to  prophecy  (1  Sam.  ii.  31-35).  The  passage  in 
1  Kin.  iv.  4  i)robably  refers  to  the  time  im- 
mediately prior  to  his  deposition.  Abiathar 
is  alluded  to  by  our  I^ord  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Mark  11.26). 

A'bib  [an  ear  of  corn]. 

The  month  which  the  Hebrews  were  di- 
rected to  make  the  first  of  the  year  in  com- 
memoration of  their  departure  from  Egypt 
(Ex.  xii.  1,  2;  xiii.  4).  Harvest  began  in  it. 
The  feast  of  unleavened  bread  or  the  pass- 
over  fell  during  the  month  (Ex.  xii.  1  seq. ; 
xxiii.  15;  Dent.  xvi.  1).  The  Jewish  months 
following  the  moon^  and  ours  being  fixed,  the 
two  cannot  be  made  exactly  to  correspond. 


Abida 


Abijah 


ATiib  most  nearly  approaches  our  month  of 
March,  tlioujih  in  some  years  its  end  moves 
some  distance  into  our  April.  After  the  cap- 
tivity the  name  Abib  gave  place  to  Nisan 
(Nell.  ii.  1 ;  Esth.  iii.  7).     8ce  Year. 

A-bi'da,  in  A.  V.  once  Abidah  (Gen.  xxv. 
4)  ail  inconsistency  from  which  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  is  free  [fatiier  of  knowledge]. 

A  descendant  of  Abraham  through  Midian 
(Gen.  xxv.  4  ;  1  Chron.  i.  33). 

A-bi'dan  [father  of  a  judge,  or  the  fkther 
judgeth]. 

The  representative  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  in  the  wilderness.  His  father's 
name  was  Gideoui  (Num.  i.  11;  ii.  22 ;  vii. 
60,  ti5  ;  X.  24). 

A-bl'el  [father  of  strength,  or  God  is  a 
father]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  the  father  of  Kish  and 
of  Ner,  and  the  grandfather  of  Saul  and  of 
Abner  (1  Sam.  ix.  1 ;  xiv.  51).     See  Kish  2. 

2.  An  Arbathite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  C!hron.  xi.  32),  called  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31  Abi-albon  (q.  v.). 

A-bi-e'zer  [father  of  help]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Manasseh  through 
Machir,  and  founder  of  a  family  (Josh.  xvii. 
2;  1  Chron.  vii.  18);  abbreviated  in  Num. 
xxvi.  30  to  lezer  (A.  V.  Jeezer).  The  judge 
Gideon  belonged  to  this  family  (Judg.  vi.  11). 

2.  Collectively,  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  34;  viii.  2). 

3.  One  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27; 
1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 

A-bi-ez'rite. 

One  belonging  to  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  11,  24  ;  viii.  32).  In  Num.  xxvi. 
30  abbreviated,  and  E.  V.  has  lezerite,  A.  V. 
Jeezerite  ;  but  the  spelling  should  rather  be 
lezrite  to  accord  with  the  Hebrew  and  be  con- 
sistent with  Abiezrite. 

Ab'i-gail,  in  R.  V.  once  Abigal  [perhaiis, 
lather  of  exultation]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Nabal.  She  was  a  woman 
of  good  ujiderstanding,  and  of  a  beautiful 
countenance,  and  on  the  death  of  her  first 
liusl)and  became  one  of  David's  wives  ( 1  Sam. 
xxv.  3.  14  44 ;  xxvii.  3 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  2).  When 
the  Anialekites  captured  Ziklag  they  took 
lier  captive,  but  she  was  rescued  by  her  hus- 
band after  lie  had  defeated  the  enemy  (1  Sam. 
XXX.  ."),  18).  She  bore  to  him  a  son  called 
(  liileab  (2  Sam.  iii.  3)  or  Daniel  (1  Ciiron. 
iii.  1) 

2.  A  sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  Ui) ;  not. 
however,  a  daughter  of  Jesse,  but  of  Nahash 
(:i  Sam.  .xvii.  2."),  in  Ii.  V.  Abigal).  She  was 
llie  mother  of  Aiiiasa. 

Ab-i-ha'il  [lather  of  strength].  In  the 
Hebrew  text  the  /(  is  a  different  letter  in  the 
iianie  of  the  iiieii  and  in  tliat  of  the  women. 
The  dilference  is  coninioiily  attributed  to  an 
early  misreading  of  tiie  text. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Jleraii  (Num. 
iii.  35). 


2.  Wife  of  Abishur  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

3.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  Wife  of  king  Rehoboam  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Eliab,  David's  brother  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 

5.  Father  of  queen  Esther  (Esth.  ii.  15j. 

A-bi'hu  [He,  i.  e.  God,  is  father]. 

A  son  of  Aaron.  He  shared  in  the  privi- 
leges, in  the  sin.  and  in  the  fate  of  Nadab 
the  eldest  son,  and  like  him  died  childless 
(Ex.  vi.  23;  xxiv.  1 ;  xxviii.  1  ;  Lev.  x.  1-7; 
Num.  iii.  2). 

A-bi'lmd  [probably,  father  of  praisewortlii- 
ness]. 

A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  the 
family  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  viii.  3). 

A-bi'jali,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  four  times 
Abiah  (1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chron.  ii.  24;  vi.  28; 
vii.  S),  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Abia  [Jehovah  is  a 
father]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Hezron,  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  24,  A.  E.  V.).  See 
Abiah. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  tiie  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  eighth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  (i,  10).      See  8  below. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  Be- 
cher  (1  Cliron.  vii.  8). 

4.  The  younger  son  of  Samuel,  appointed 
by  his  father  a  judge  in  Beersheba,  but  who 
proved  corrujit  (1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chron.  vi. 
28).     See  Abiah. 

5.  A  son  of  Jeroboam.  While  yet  a  child 
he  fell  dangerously  sick.  Jeroboam  sent  his 
queen  in  disguise  to  the  prophet  Ahijah,  who 
had  predicted  that  he  should  obtain  the  king- 
dom, to  inquire  what  the  issue  of  the  sick- 
ness would  be.  The  prophet  recognized  the 
queen,  notwithstanding  her  disguise,  de- 
nounced judgment  against  Jeroboam  for  his 
apostasy  from  Jehovah,  and  added  that  the 
child  would  die  at  once,  and  that  alone  of 
all  that  household  he  would  obtain  honor- 
able burial,  because  in  him  was  found  some 
good  thing  toward  the  Lord  God.  All  came 
to  pass  as  the  seer  had  foretold  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
1-18). 

6.  The  name  given  in  Chronicles  to  the  son 
and  successor  of  Rehoboam,  called  in  Kings 
Abijam  (2  Chron.  xii.  16  ;  xiii.  1-xiv.  1) ;  see 
Abijam. 

7.  The  mother  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix. 
1).  In  2  Kin.  xviii.  2  she  is  called  with 
great  brevity  Abi. 

8.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  4,  7). 
Possibly  he  was  a  representative  of  the  old 
course  of  Abijah,  but  the  connection  cannot 
be  established,  and  in  view  of  Ezra  ii.  36  seq. 
is  not  jn-obable.  In  the  next  generation,  a 
father's  house  among  the  priests  bore  this 
name  (Neh.  xii.  17).  The  father  of  John  the 
Bi'j'tist  belonged  to  this  family  (Luke  i.  5). 

!).  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 


Abijam 

father's  house,   signed  the  covenant  in  the 
(lays  of  Nehcmiah  (Neh.  x.  7). 

A-bi'jam  [possibly,  father  of  the  sea]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Rehoboam  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  His  mother's  name  was 
Maacah,  a  descendant  of  Absalom  (1  Kin. 
XV.  2  ;  2  Chron.  xiii.  2).  He  sinned  after  tlie 
manner  of  his  father,  and  had  not  a  heart 
true  to  Jehovah.  The  kings  of  Judah  had 
not  yet  become  reconciled  to  the  revolt  of  the 
ton  tribes,  and  Abijam  continued  the  war 
with  Jeroboam  which  his  father  had  waged 
(1  Kin.  XV.  6,  7).  According  to  2  Chron.  xiii. 
3,  compared  with  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9,  the  whole 
jiopulation  ''able  to  go  ft>rtli  to  war"'  was 
under  arms.  In  the  slauglitcr  which  accom- 
panied the  warfare,  half  a  million  men  of 
Israel  were  slain  (2  Chron.  xiii.  16-20).  Abi- 
jam had  fourteen  wives,  twenty-two  sons, 
and  sixteen  daughters  (2  Chron.  xiii.  21). 
He  reigned  three  years,  and  died,  leaving 
his  son  Asa  to  succeed  him  in  the  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  XV.  1-8;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1).  Abijam  is 
called  in  Chronicles  Abijah. 

Ab-i-le'ne  [Greek  'Abilene,  so  called  from 
Abila,  its  capital,  and  that  again  probably 
from  the  Semitic  'abel,  a  meadow). 

A  tetrarchy  near  Anti-Lebanon.  Its  cap- 
ital Abila  lay  upon  the  Barada,  18  or  20 
miles  N.  W.  from  Damascus,  in  part  upon 
the  site  of  the  modern  village  of  es-Suk. 
There  is  a  romantic  gorge,  with  a  Roman 
road  cut  in  the  clilF,  a  cemetery,  a  number 
of  tall  pillars,  a  stream  below  and  the  so- 
called  "tomb  of  Abel"  above.  The  local 
tradition  that  Abel  was  buried  here  doubtless 
originated  in  the  similarity  of  sound  between 
Abel  and  Abila.  Of  the  formation  of  the 
tetrarchy  Josephus  makes  no  mention.  In 
Luke  iii.  1  it  is  referred  to  as  separate  from 
the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  and  as  governed  by 
Lysanias  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius. 
Likewise  an  inscription  at  Abila,  dating 
frcm  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  mentions  Lysan- 
ias as  tetrarch  of  Abilene  at  that  time.  Some 
years  later  the  two  tetrarchies  are  still  dis- 
tinct; for  Caligula,  790  A.  ti.  c,  bestowed  the 
"tetrarchy  of  Philip,"  now  dead,  and  the 
"  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias  "  upon  Herod  Agrip- 
pa,  the  Herod  of  the  book  of  Acts  (Antiq. 
xviii.  (>,  10).  and  Claudius  confirmed  to  him 
"Abila  of  Lysanias"  (xix.  5,  1). 

There  was  an  Abila  in  Peraea,  ea.st  of  Gad- 
ara,  but  it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

A-bim'a-el  [composition  of  the  name  still 
unknown]. 

A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Joktan.  It 
may  denote  a  person,  a  tribe,  or  a  locality, 
and  is  to  be  sought  in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  28 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  22). 

A-bim'e-lech  [father  of  the  king]. 

1.  The  personal  name  or  official  title  of  a 
king  of  Gerar,  at  whose  court  Abraham  at- 
tempted to  pass  Sarah  otf  as  his  sister  (Gen. 
XX.  1-18).     The  king  and  the  patriarch  at  a 


Abishag 

later  period  entered  into  a  covenant  with  each 
other  (xxi.  22-34). 

2.  A  king  of  the  Philistines  at  Gerar,  at 
whose  court  Isaac  attempted  to  pass  oflf  Re- 
bekah  as  his  sister,  and  with  whom  he  also, 
like  his  father,  at  last  formed  a  covenant 
(Gen.  xxvi.  1-33). 

3.  The  son  of  the  judge  Gideon  by  a  con- 
cubine. This  woman  was  a  native  of  She- 
chem,  where  her  family  had  influence.  One 
natural  penalty  of  polygamy  is  that  the  sons 
by  one  mother  tend  fiercely  to  quarrel  with 
those  by  another ;  and  Abimelech,  obtaining 
assistance  from  his  mother's  relatives,  killed 
seventy  sons  of  his  father  on  one  stone  at 
Ophrah,  the  native  city  of  the  family.  One 
son  only,  Jothara,  escajied  from  the  massacre. 
Then  Abimelech  was  elected  king  of  Shechem. 
Before  he  had  ruled  three  years  he  and  his 
subjects  were  at  variance,  and  his  throne, 
founded  in  blood,  had  begun  to  totter.  A 
plot  against  him  was  formed  by  Gaal.  It 
came  to  the  ears  of  Zebul,  Abimelech's  sec- 
ond in  command.  Gaal  was  defeated  and 
driven  out  of  Shechem,  the  city  being  after- 
wards destroyed  and  sowed  with  salt.  A 
thousand  men  and  women  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  its  tower  were  burnt  to  death. 
When  Abimelech  shortly  afterwards  was  be- 
sieging Thebez,  he  was  mortally  wounded  by 
a  millstone  dropped  on  his  head  from  the 
city  wall  by  a  woman.  Regarding  it  as  dis- 
honorable to  be  killed  by  a  female,  he  or- 
dered his  armor-bearer  to  draw  his  sword 
and  slay  him,  which  he  did  (Judg.  ix.  1-57). 

4.  See  AoHiSH. 

.5.  A  priest,  a  son  of  Abiathar  ( 1  Chron.  xviii. 
16).  The  spelling  is  doubtlessa  copyist's  error 
for  Abimelech.  The  Septuagint  reads  Abime- 
lech ;  .see  also  1  Chron.  xxiv.  6,  etc. 

A-bin'a-dab  [father  of  liberality]. 

1.  A  man  of  Kirjath-jearim,  who  when  the 
ark  was  sent  back  by  the  Philistines  gave  it 
accommodation  in  his  house  for  twenty  years, 
his  son  Eleazar  being  set  apart  as  a  priest  to 
act  as  its  custodian  (1  Sam.  vii.  1,  2;  2  Sam. 
vi.  3;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7). 

2.  The  second  sou  of  Jesse  and  an  elder 
brother  of  David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  8;  xvii.  13). 

3.  A  son  of  Saul,  killed  with  his  father  in 
the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

4.  Father  of  a  .son-in-law  of  Solomon  and 
tax-gatherer  for  the  I'egiou  of  Dor  (1  Kin. 
iv.  11,  A.  v.).     See  Ben-abinadab. 

A-bin'o-am  [father  of  sweetness  or  grace]. 
The  father  of  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6  ;  v.  12). 
A-bi'ram    [legitimate  variant  of  Abram. 
For  meaning  see  Abrah.\mJ. 

1.  A  Reubenite,  a  brother  of  Dathan  and 
fellow  conspirator  with  Korah  (Num.  xvi.). 

2.  The  firstborn  son  of  Hiel,  who  rebuilt 
Jericho  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  His  death,  when 
its  foundations  were  laid,  in  part  fulfilled  a 
curse  pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vi.  26). 

A-bish'ag  [perhaps,  father  of  wandering]. 
A  beautiful  girl  from  Shunem,  employed  to 


Abishai 


Abomination 


attend  upon  king  David  when  he  was  old 
and  declining  in  vitality  (1  Kin.  i.  1-4). 
Adonijah  wi^shed  to  marry  her  after  David's 
death,  and  made  application  for  the  needed 
permission  to  Solomon,  who  not  merely  re- 
fused his  request,  hut  interpreted  it  to  mean 
an  insidious  claim  for  the  crown,  and  put  him 
to  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  1.3-25). 

A-toish'a-i  and  Abshai  (1  Chron.  xviii.  12 
margin)  [possessor  of  all  that  is  desirable]. 

A  son  of  David's  sister  Zeruiah.and  brother 
of  Joab  and  Asahel  (2  Sam.  ii.  18;  1  Chron. 
ii.  15,  Ifi).  When  David  found  Saul  and  his 
followers  asleep,  Abishai  asked  permission  to 
kill  the  king;  but  David  would  not  sanction 
his  doing  harm  to  "the  Lord's  anointed" 
(1  Sam.  xxvi.  5-9).  He  served  under  Joab 
in  David's  army  (2  Sam.  ii.  IK;  x.  10).  When 
Abner,  fleeing  from  the  battle  at  Gibeon,  was 
compelled  to  kill  Asahel,  the  two  brothers  of 
the  latter.  Joab  and  Abishai,  pursued  the 
homicide,  but  without  effect  (2  Sam.  ii.  lH-24). 
He  was  loyal  to  David  during  the  revolts  of 
Absalom  and  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xvi.  and  xx  ). 
He  desired  to  slay  Shimei  for  cursing  David, 
even  when  Shimei  asked  forgiveness  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  9;  xix.  21).  He  was  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  who  had  lifted  up  his  spear 
agaiust  three  hundred  and  slain  them  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  18  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  20).  He  defeated 
the  Edomites  also  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  .slay- 
ing eighteen  thou,sand  of  them  and  garrison- 
ing their  country  (1  Chron.  xviii.  12,  13). 
He  succored  David  in  the  light  with  Ishbi- 
benob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  ItJ,  17). 

A-bish'a-lom.     See  Absalom. 

A-bish'u-a  [father  of  salvation]. 

1.  A  I>enjamite  of  the  family  of  Bela  (1 
Chron.  viii.  4). 

2.  The  son  of  Phinehas  the  prie.st  (1  Chron. 
vi.  4,  5,  50;  Ezra  vii.  5). 

A-bi'sbur  [father  of  a  wall]. 
A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.'28,  29). 

A-bi'tal  [apparently,  father  of  dew,  jierhaps 
in  the  sense  of  refreshment]. 

One  of  David's  wives.  Her  son  was  Sheph- 
atiah  (2  Sam.  iii.  4;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 

A-bi'tub  [father  of  goodness]. 

A  Ben.jamite,  .son  of  Shaharaim  liy  his  wife 
Hushim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8-11). 

A-bi'ud  [the  Greek  form,  probably,  of  He- 
lirew  Abihud]. 

A  member  of  the  royal  line  of  Jiulah  (Mat. 
i.  13).    The  name  is  omitted  in  1  Chron.  iii.  19. 

Ab'ner  [father  of  light].  A  legitimate  va- 
riant I'orm,  Abiner,  is  used  in  the  Hebrew 
text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  50,  and  in  the  margin  of 
souK^  editions  of  the  English  versi<in. 

The  son  of  Ner,  king  Saul's  uncle.  During 
tlie  reign  of  that  monarch  Abner  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  (1  Sam.  xiv.  51). 
lie  first  liecame  ac(iuaiiit((l  with  David  when 
that  youth  ollered  to  meet  (ioiiatli  in  combiit 
/I  Sam.  xvii.  55-.",.Si.     On  tlic  death  of  Saul, 


Abner  availed  himself  of  the  tribal  feeling 
adverse  to  Judah,  and  turned  it  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  house  to  which  he  was  related 
by  blood,  and  to  which  he  had  owned  allegi- 
ance.    He  proclaimed  Saul's  .son  Ish-bosheth 
king  at  Mahanaim  (2  Sam.   ii.  8).     During 
the  war  between  the  house  of  Saul  and  David 
which  followed,   in  an  interview  which   he 
held    at    Gibeon    with   Joab,    David's    com- 
mander-in-chief,   Abner    proposed   what    he 
seems   to   have   intended   for  a  tournament 
between  twelve  young  men  picked  from  Ish- 
bosheth's  supporters  and  as  many  taken  from 
the  followers  of  David,  but  mutual  animos- 
ities converted  the  mimic  combat  into  a  real 
battle  ;  and  the  two  armies  being  drawn  into 
the  struggle,  that  which  Abner  led  was  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter  (12-32).     During 
the  retreat  from  this  l)attle  Abner  was  perti- 
naciously  followed    with   hostile    intent   by 
Asahel,  one  of  Joab's  brothers,  and  after  re- 
peatedly warning  him  ofl',  had  at  last  to  strike 
him  dead  in  self-defence  (18-24).   Soon  after- 
wards Abner  had  a  serious  charge  brought 
again.st  him  by  Ish-bosheth.  which  so  irritated 
him  that  he  intimated  his  intention  of  trans- 
ferring his  allegiance  to  David,  and  was  as 
good  as  his  word.     First  he  sent  messengers 
to  David,  and  then  sought  an  interview  with 
him,  and  was  graciously  received.     But  Joab, 
believing  or  pretending  to  believe  that  Ab- 
ner had   come  simply  as  a  spy,  went  after 
him,  invited  him  to  a  friendly  conversation, 
and  stabbed  him  dead.     The  ostensible  rea- 
son for  this  assassination  was  revenge  for  the 
death  of  Asahel,  who,  however,  had  died  in 
fair   fight.     An   unavowed   motive   probably 
was  fear  that  Abner  might  one  day  displace 
him    from   the    command    of  David's  army. 
The   king  was  justly  incensed   against   the 
murderer,  and  conspicuously  showed  the  peo- 
ple that  he  had  no  complicity  in  the  crime. 
He  attended  the  funeral,  lamented  the  un- 
worthy fate  of  the  prince  and  great  man  who 
liad  fallen   in  Israel,   and    finally  left  it   in 
charge  to  his   successor  to  call   Joab  to  ac- 
count for  the  crime  (iii.  6-39;  1  Kin.  ii.  5). 
Abner  had  at  least  one  son,  Jaasiel  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  21),  and  seems  to  have  had  a  regard  for 
the  bouse  of  God,  for  he  dedicated  to  it  some 
of  the  spoils  which  he  had  taken  in  battle 
(xxvi.  28). 
A-bom-i-na'tion  of  Des-o-la'tion. 
Idolatry  with  its  blighting  etl'cct  upon  man, 
its  degradation  of  the  divine  ideal,  and  its 
violent  outward,  as  well  as  its  less  visible  in- 
sidious, opjiositioii   to  the  kingdom  of  God. 
To  Daniel  was  revealed:  "For  the  half  of 
the  week,  he  shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the 
oblation  to  cease  ;  and  upon  the  wing  of  abom- 
inationsshall  come  one  that  maketh  desolate  " 
(ix.  27,  R.  V.)  :  "and  they  shall  profane  the 
sanctuary,  even  the  fortress,  and  shall  take 
away  the  continual  burnt  ottering,  and  they 
shall  set  U])  the  abomination  that  maketh  deso- 
late" (xi.  31.  K.  \.)  ;  and  "  from  tlie  time  that 
the  continual   burnt  offering  shall   be  taken 


Abraham 


Abraham 


away,  and  the  abomination  that  maketh  des- 
olate set  up,  there  shall  be  a  thousand  two  hun- 
dred and  ninety  days"  (xii.  11,E.V.).  These 
prophecies  depict  outstanding  features  of  the 
development  of  the  kingdom  of  (lod.  which 
are  typical  for  all  time,  A  notable  fulfillment 
of  xi.  31,  which  the  Jews  were  quick  to  dis- 
cern, was  the  stoppage  of  the  daily  sacrifice 
by  Antiochus  Epiphaues  in  June,  168  b.  c, 
and  the  erection  on  the  brazen  altar  of  an 
idolatrous  one.  on  which  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  Jupiter  Olympius  (1  Mac.  i.  54 ;  vi. 
7  ;  2  Mac.  vi.  2  :  Antiq.  xii.  5,  4  ;  7,  6).  But 
the  prophecy  of  the  abomination  of  desola- 
tion was  not  exhausted  by  this  fulfillment. 


Son  of  Terah,  progenitor  of  the  Hebrews, 
father  of  the  faithful,  and  the  friend  of  God 
(Gen.  xi.  26;  Gal.  iii.  7-9;  Jas.  ii.  23).  The 
name  was  in  vogue  among  the  Semites  of 
Babylonia  at  least  two  generations  before 
the  reigii  of  Hammurabi,  who  is  commonly 
believed  to  be  Amra])liel  of  Gen.  xiv. 

Is  Abraham  a  tribal  name?  Is  he  the  per- 
sonification of  a  tribe?  The  justification  for 
raising  tliis  (lucstiou  is  the  fact  that  many 
names  in  the  genealogical  registers  of  the  He- 
brews denote  tribes  and  not  individuals  ((tcu. 
X.;  XXV.  1-4).  It  is  not  always  easy,  at 
times  it  is  impossible,  to  decide  whether  a 
people  or  a  person  is  meant.    But  it  is  impor- 


Traditional  Oak  of  Abraham  at  Mamre. 


The  prophecy  belongs  to  Messianic  times  (Dan. 
ix.  27),  and  yet  more  generally  to  the  conflict 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  until  its  final  triumph- 
ant establishment  (xii.  7,  11  with  vii.  25-27; 
cp.  xii.  2).  Christ  reiterated  the  prophecy, 
enjoining  those  to  flee  to  the  mountains  who 
should  see  the  abomination  of  desolation, 
spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet,  standing 
in  the  holy  place  (Mat.  xxiv.  15,  etc.). 

A'bra-ham,  at  first  Abram  [in  Hebrew, 
Abram  denotes  exalted  father:  tlie  change 
t(i  Abraham  appears  to  consist  merely  in 
strengthening  the  root  of  the  second  sylla- 
ble, in  order  to  place  increased  emphasis  on 
the  idea  of  exaltation]. 


tant  to  note,  further,  that  a  tribal  name  and 
history  often  include  persons  whose  deeds 
are  recorded  in  the  name  of  tiie  trilie  and  as 
the  acts  of  the  tribe  (see  Chkonology  I.  3). 
Noah,  for  example,  may  be  the  name  of  a 
tribe  ;  but  if  so,  in  the  narrative  of  the  flood 
it  denotes  likewi.se  an  individual  meml)er  of 
that  tribe,  who  was  saved  with  his  family  in 
the  ark.  In  the  case  of  Abraham.  Gen'  si. 
26,  27,  and  the  first  ten  verses  of  the  twelfth 
chapter  might  readily  be  read  as  the  story  of 
a  tribe's  origin  and  migration,  in  fact,  it  does 
recount  the  movement  of  a  sheik  and  his 
people ;  the  separation  of  Al)ram  and  Lot 
might  also  be  tribal,  and  so  too  the  treaty 
with  Abimelech.     But  though  the  tribal  ele- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ment  may  enter  into  the  narrative,  the  his- 
tory is  not  exclusively  tribal.  The  majority 
of  the  deeds  recorded  in  it  cannot 
plained  as  tribal  movements  without  violence 
and  improbable  interpretations.  They  are 
the  acts  of  an  individual  (Gen.  sv.  1-18; 
xvi.  1-11;  xviii.  1-xix.  28;  xx.  1-17;  xxii. 
1-14:  xxiv.).  Moreover,  the  passages  just 
cited  belong  to  the  earliest  literature  of  Isiael, 
as  all  schools  of  criticism  agree;  and  during 
all  the  centuries  that  followed  the  Hebrews 
themselves  regarded  Abraham  as  an  indi- 
vidual (Is.  xxis.  22;  xli.  8;  li.  2;  Jer.  xxxiii. 
20  ;  Ezek.  xxxiii.  24  ;  Mat.  viii.  11). 

I.  Chronolony. — 1.  His  life  before  his  arrival 
in  Canaan,  75  years.  In  his  early  life  Abra- 
ham dwelt  with  his  father  and  his  brethren 
in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  He  married  Sarai, 
his  half-sister.  After  the  death  of  his  l)n)ther 
Haran.  he,  his  wife,  and  Lot  his  nephew  mi- 
grated, under  the  headship  of  Terah,  from 
Ur  to  go  to  the  land  of  (Janaan  (Gen.  xi.  27- 
31).  The  motive  which  led  the  I'amily  to 
change  its  habitation  is  not  stated  in  (4eii.  xi. 
Josephus  inferred  from  the  narrative  that 
Terah  wasac-luated  by  a  desire  to  escape  from 
associations  wliich  remitided  him  of  the  son 
who  had  die<l  (Aiiti(i.  i.  (i,  .">).  It  has  also  bet'U 
suggested  (liat  the.  migration  of  the  family 
may  have  been  proiiii)ted  by  the  wish  to  belter 
their  condition  in  a  new  and  freer  country, 
or  have  becMi  incited  ))y  ])olitical  distui'baiices 
in  Chaldca,  such  as  an  invasion  of  the  Islam- 
ites.    Stephen  understood  Gen.  xii.  1  to  refer 


f      iSelahorPelra 


>fttt<he 


back  to  tliis  time,  and  to  lie  the  initial  coni- 
niand,  given  while  the  family  was  yet  in  Ur, 
for  lie  says:  "God  apiieaicd  unto  Abraham, 
when  he  was  in  Mesopotamia,  Ix'fore  be  dwelt 
in  Haran  "  (Acts  vii.  2,  R.  V.).  Stejihen's  in- 
terjn'etation  is  cdimtenanced  by  Gen.  xv.  7 
and  Nell,  ix.7  ;  although  these  jias-sages  might 
refer  to  (iod's  providence.  All  the  various 
causes  suggested  may  have  cooperated  ;  and 
the  natural  motives  may  have  been  the 
iiK'ans  piovidentially  <>m})l"yed  by  God  to 
jiersuade  the  jiarty  to  obey  the  heavenly 
vision.     The  family  departed  from  Ur  and. 


Abraham 


9 


Abraham 


taking  the  customary  route,  followed  the 
Euphrates  toward  the  northwest.  On  reach- 
ing Haran,  the  party  temporarily  abandoned 
the  purpose  of  journeying  to  Canaan  and 
took  up  residence  where  they  were.  When 
Abraham  was  75  years  old,  he  departed  from 
Haran  to  go  to  Canaan.  This  move  may  liave 
been  due  to  God's  will  as  revealed  by  him  in  Ur, 
or  to  a  command  now  first  received.  Stephen, 
as  already  said,  adopts  the  former  interpreta- 
tionand  the  wording  of  the  details  in  Gen.  xii.l 
well  suits,  with  our  present  meager  knowledge 
of  the  community  at  Haran,  this  e.\iilanati(ra. 
The  departure  is  related  after  the  recoi-d  of 
Terah's  death.  It  does  not  follow,  however, 
from  this  that  Al)raliam  tarried  at  Haran 
until  his  fiither  died.  The  narrator  as  usual 
(•oncludes  what  he  has  to  say  of  Terah  before 
taking  up  the  detailed  history  of  Abraham. 
Still  it  is  a  plausible  conjecture  that  Abra- 
liam  did  tarry  so  long;  for  the  same  i)arty 
that  left  Ur  now,  with  the  exception  of 
Terah,  leaves  Haran :  and  this  also  is  the 
interpretation  of  Stephen.  But  if  so,  Abra- 
ham was  born  when  Terah  was  at  least  130 
years  old,  and  not  70,  as  is  often  unneces- 
sarily inferred  from  Gen.  xi.  26.  In  this  pas- 
sage Abraham  is  mentioned  first,  either  be- 
cause he  was  the  firstborn  and  born  in  Terah's 
70th  year,  or  else,  if  he  was  a  younger  son 
and  born  after  Terah's  70th  year,  because  he 
was  the  progenitor  of  the  chosen  people  (cp. 
Gen.  V.  32  with  ix.  22,  24).  From  Haran 
Abraham  went  to  Canaan.  What  route  did  he 
take  ?  Probably  the  road  by  way  of  DamasT 
ens,  for  a  great  highway  led  from  Mesopo- 
tamia past  that  city  to  Canaan ;  and  later 
mention  is  made  of  Abraham's  steward,  Eli- 
czer  of  Damascus.  Abraham  did  not  stop 
long  at  any  place  along  the  way,  but  prop- 
erly speaking  jciurneyed  continuously;  for 
he  was  75  years  old  when  he  left  Haran,  and 
he  spent  ten  years  in  Canaan  before  he  took 
Hagar  to  wife  (Gen.  xvi.  3),  and  he  was  86 
years  old  when  Hagarborelshmael  (16) ;  so  that 
not  more  than  a  yearelap.sed  lietweeu  the  de- 
liaiturefrom  Haran  and  tlie  arrival  in  Canaan. 

I.  2.  VmseUJed  life  in  Canaan,  at  most  10 
years.  He  encamped  at  Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6), 
at  Beth-el  (8),  journeyed  to  the  south  country 
(9),  and  was  driven  by  famine  into  Egypt. 
In  Egypt,  through  fear  for  his  life,  he  repre- 
sented .Sarah  merely  as  his  sister  (10-20). 
He  returned  to  the  .south  country  (xiii.  1), 
was  again  at  Bcth-el  (3).  He  and  Lot  now 
separated  on  account  of  their  increasing  pos- 
sessions. Lot  chose  the  plain  of  the  Jordan 
(5-12).  Abraham  afterwards  moved  his  tent 
to  the  oaks  of  Mamre  at  Hebron  (18). 

I.  3.  Residence  at  the  oaks  of  Mamre,  at  least 
15,  perhaps  23  or  24  years.  Abraham  is  in 
treaty  with  the  Amorite  chieftains  of  the 
vicinity  (Gen.  xiv.  13),  pursues  Chedorlaomer 
(1-16),  is  blessed  by  Melchizedek  (17-24).  The 
promise  of  an  heir  is  given  him  and  is  be- 
lieved ;  and  the  promi.se  of  Canaan  as  an  in- 
heritance  is   confirmed    by    covenant    (xv.). 


Birth  of  Ishniijel  (xvi.).  After  an  interval 
of  13  years  (16  ;  xvii.  1),  the  ju-omise  is  un- 
folded. Man's  attempt  to  fulfill  God's  prom- 
ise does  not  alter  God's  intention  ;  not  the 
bondwoman's  child,  hut  the  free  woman's ; 
not  the  child  of  the  flesh,  but  the  child  of 
promise.  On  this  occasion  the  covenant  sign 
of  circumcision  is  appointed,  and  the  name 
Abram  is  changed  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.). 
Sodom  is  destroyed  (xviii.  and  xix). 

I.  4.  Rcsidetice  in  the  soidh  country,  some  15 
years  during  the  childhood  of  Isaac.  Sarah 
taken  to  the  court  of  Abimelech  (Gen.  xx.). 
When  Abraham  is  100  years  old,  Isaac  is  born, 
and  a  little  later  Ishniacl  is  expelled  (xxi.  1- 
21).  At  a  well  owned  b_\  Abraham,  Abimelech 
and  he  conclude  a  treaty,  and  Abraham  names 
the  well  Beer-sheba  (22-31).  When  Isaac 
was  somewhat  grown  (xxii.  6  ;  Josephus  con- 
jectures 25  years,  Antiq.  i.  13,  2),  Abraham's 
faith  was  put  to  an  open  test  by  the  command 
to  sacrifice  his  only  son.  In  obedience  to  this 
command,  he  and  Isaac  repaired  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Moriah,  when  a  ram  was  graciously 
substituted  for  Isaac.  They  returned  to  Beer- 
sheba  (xxii.  1-19). 

I.  5.  Again  at  Hebron,  after  an  uneventful 
interval  of  20  years.  Here  Sarah  died,  aged 
127  years  (Gen.  xxiii). 

I.  6.  Probably  in  the  south  country  with  Isaac. 
about  38  years.  After  the  death  of  Sarah, 
when  Abraham  was  140  years  old  (xxiv.  67; 
XXV.  20),  he  sends  to  Mesopotamia  to  obtain 
a  wife  i^rom  his  own  people  for  Isaac.  Ee- 
bekah  is  brought  back  and  meets  Isaac  at 
Beer-lahai-roi,  perhaps 'Aiu  Muweileh  (xxiv). 
That  Abraham  took  Keturah  to  wife  is  next 
recorded  (see  Ketuk.\h).  Abraham  died, 
aged  175  years,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave 
of  Machjielah  (xxv.  1-9). 

II.  The  sise  of  the  community  under  Abraham. 
Abraham  departed  from  Haran  with  his  wife, 
his  nephew,  and  the  souls  that  they  had  ac- 
quired (Gen.  xii.  5),  and  in  Canaan  he  obtained 
additional  servants  by  purchase,  by  gift  and 
doubtless  by  birth  (xvi.  1 ;  xvii.  23,  27  ;  xviii. 
7  ;  XX.  14).  He  was  rich  in  flocks  and  herds 
and  their  necessary  accompaniment,  men- 
servants  and  maidservants  (xii.  16 :  xiii.  2, 
7;  xxiv.  32,  35,  59;  xxvi.  15).  He  led  318 
trained  men,  born  in  his  house,  to  the  rescue 
of  Lot  (xiv.  14).  He  was  recognized  by  the 
neighboring  chieftains  as  a  mighty  prince 
(xxiii.  6),  with  whom  they  do  well  to  make 
alliances  and  conclude  treaties  (xiv.  13  ;  xxi. 
22  seq.).  Yet  when  deprived  of  the  aid  of 
his  allies,  as  when  he  went  to  sojourn  in 
Egypt,  his  sense  of  insecurity  triumphed 
over  his  better  self,  and  he  repressed  part  of 
the  truth  in  regard  to  Sarah.  He  desired 
peace  and  was  a  man  of  peace  (xiii.  8),  yet 
like  many  other  hardy  .settlers  would  in  time 
of  need  brave  hardship  and  danger  and  do 
battle  for  relatives  and  friends  (xiv). 

III.  The  reUqious  t>e1ief  of  Abraham.  His 
nearer  ancestors  served  other  gods  (Josh, 
xxiv.  2).     Their  worship   was  at  least  cor- 


Abraham 


10 


Absalom 


rupted  by  the  prevalent  animism  of  Baby- 
lonia, which  assigned  a  spirit  to  every  object 
in  nature,  and  which  led  to  the  conception 
of  eleven  great  gods  besides  innumerable 
minor  deities.  The  great  gods  were  the 
deities  of  the  majestic  and  impressive  objects 
in  nature :  of  the  sky,  of  earth's  surface,  of 
the  ocean  and  all  subterranean  waters :  of 
the  moon,  the  sun,  and  the  storm  ;  and  of 
the  five  planets  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  gods  were  powerful,  were  active  in  na- 
ture, bestowed  special  care  on  favorite  indi- 
viduals and  communities,  heard  and  an- 
swered prayer.  Abraham's  faith  was  distin- 
guished from  the  belief  of  the  great  majority 
of  his  contemporaries  of  whom  we  have  any 
knowledge,  in  that  Abraham  believed  in  God 
the  almighty  (Gen.  xvii.  1),  the  everlasting 
(xxi.  33),  the  most  high  (xiv.  22),  the  possessor 
or  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  i.  e.  the  actual 
and  lawful  Lord  of  all  (ibid.,  xxiv.  3),  the 
righteous  Judge,  i.  e.  the  moral  governor  of 
all  the  earth  (xviii.  25)  ;  and  in  accordance 
with  the  faith  of  his  contemporaries,  Abra- 
ham believed  in  this  God  as  the  disposer  of 
events,  who  seeth  and  taketh  knowledge  of 
what  occurs  on  earth,  and  who  giveth  and 
withholdeth  as  he  will.  In  this  faith  Abra- 
ham obeyed,  worshiped,  and  guarded  the 
honor  of  God.  How  came  Abraham  by  this 
faith?  1.  Keason  lent  its  aid,  as  it  still  helps 
the  intelligent  Christian.  Polytheists  have 
often  arrived  at  heuotheism ;  and  there  are 
traces  of  henotheism  among  Abraham's  coun- 
trymen in  Babylonia.  A  clear,  logical  mind, 
such  as  Abraham  exhibits,  would  tend  to  pass 
from  heuotheism  to  monotheism.  Melchize- 
dek  had  come  to  worship  the  most  high  God, 
possessor  of  heaven  and  earth ;  and  his  re- 
ligious conceptions  and  practices  called  forth 
profound  recognition  from  Abraham.  Monu- 
mental evidence  seems  to  show  that  occasion- 
ally an  individual  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  arrived  at  a  speculative  belief 
in  the  unity  of  God,  but  without  influencing 
the  people  at  large.  It  is  no  more  unique  for 
Abraham  to  believe  in  one  God,  Lord  over 
all,  than  for  Hosea  or  Amos  to  do  so.  2.  The 
religious  inheritance,  which  he  received  from 
his  forefathers,  aided  Abraham.  In  support 
of  this  source  of  religious  information  may  be 
urged,  (a)  the  reasons  for  believing  in  a  primi- 
tive revelation  :  (b)  the  existenc^e  of  the  line 
which  began  with  Adam  and  included  such 
true  worshipers  of  God  as  Seth  (see  Gen.  iv. 
26),  Enoch,  and  Noah  ;  and  (<•)  the  historical 
fact  of  the  transmission  to  the  Hebrews  of 
traditions  like  that  of  the  creation  and  the 
flood.  3.  Special  revelation  was  granted  to 
Abraham  by  dreams,  visions,  and  theophanies 
(xii.  7;  XV.  1,  12,  17;  xvii.  1  ;  xviii.  1,  2:  xxii. 
1,  2).  Theoj)hanies  are  as  conceivable  in 
Abraham's  time  as  is  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  at  a  later  age. 

1 V'.  Harmony  between  the  Hebrew  record  and 
contemporary  Imtory.  1.  The  language  of 
{.'anaan.     Before  the  conquest  of  the  country 


by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua  not  a  lew  i)laces 
and  persons  bore  Semitic  names.  Abimelech 
and  Urushalim,  i.  e.  Jerusalem,  were  in  vogue. 

IV.  2.  Thenarrativeof  Abraham  fits  into  Egyp- 
tian history.  Biblical  chronological  data  place 
the  arrival  of  Abi-aham  in  Canaan  about  645 
years  before  the  Exodus.  This  date  explains 
at  once  Abraham's  willingness  to  go  to  Egypt 
when  famine  prevailed  in  Canaan  and  his 
kindly  reception  by  Pharaoh,  for  the  date  of 
his  journey  falls  within  the  period  when 
Asiatics,  the  so-called  shepherd  kings,  held 
the  throne  of  Egypt.  The  biblical  data  place 
not  only  Abraham's  visit  to  the  Nile  country, 
but  also  the  descent  of  Jacob  and  his  sons  to 
Egypt,  within  the  period  of  the  shepherd 
rule :  a  strong  confirmation  both  ui  the 
chronological  data  and  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  narrative. 

IV.  3.  The  narrative  fits  into  Babylonian  his- 
tory. (1.)  About  the  time  assigned  by  the  He- 
brew record  to  Abraliani  Mud  the  invasion  of 
the  west,  the  populous  plain  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tigris  was  ruled  by  an  Elamite  dynasty. 
(2.)  Under  the  Elamite  sovereign  vassal  kings 
exercised  sway,  as  described  in  Genesis.  (3.) 
The  Baliylonian  kings  in  preceding  centuries 
and  during  tiiis  period  made  expeditions  into 
the  far  west  and  often  held  Canaan  in  sub- 
jection (cp.  Lugalzaggisi,  Sargon,  Gudea, 
Kudurmabug  i)robably,  Hammurabi,  and  Am- 
misataua).  (4.)  Chedorlaomer,  the  name  as- 
signed to  the  king  of  Elam,  is  a  genuine 
Elamite  name.  Cbedor,  i.  e.  Kudur,  is  con- 
stantly used  in  the  composition  of  Elamite 
royal  names,  and  Laomer,  i.  e.  Lagamar.  is 
the  name  of  an  Elamite  god.  Thus  the 
Hebrew  record  gives  an  accurate  and  some- 
what detailed  picture  of  the  political  condi- 
tion of  Babylonia  as  well  as  of  Canaan.  On 
the  theory,  generally  accepted,  that  Am- 
rai)hel,  king  of  Shinar,  is  identical  with 
Hammurabi,  who  was  king  of  Babel  from 
about  1975  to  1921  B.  c,  a  valuable  synchro- 
nism is  alforded  with  the  life  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xiv.  1.  13),  and  the  date  of  Abraham  is 
established  within  narrow  limits. 

A'bra-ham's  Bo'som. 

Tiie  .lews  fondly  tiiought  of  being  wel- 
comed by  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  to  Par- 
adise (4  Mac.  xiii.  17) ;  and  of  having  fellow- 
ship with  Abraham,  even  resting  as  it  were 
on  his  breast  (Luke  xvi.  22).  In  the  rabbin- 
ical speecli  of  the  third  century  A.  n.,  to  say 
tliat  a  person  was  sitting  in  Abraham's  bosom 
meant  that  he  had  entered  Paradise. 

A'bram  (Gen.  xi.  2G-xvii.  5).  See  Abra- 
ham. 

A-bro'nah,  in  A.  V.  Ebronah  [a  passage,  or 
opjjosite] . 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, apparently  north  of  Ezion-geber  (Num. 
xxxiii.  34,  35). 

Ab'sa-lom  and  Abishalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2, 
10)  [father  of  peace]. 


Absalom 


11 


Absalom 


1.  The  third  son  of  David,  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  born  in  Hebron,  and  had  for  his 
mother  Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Talmai, 
king  of  Geshur,  in  Aram  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).  He 
was  of  faultless  form,  and  had  long,  fine  hair, 
■of  which  he  was  inordinately  vain.  His 
beauty  was  shared  by  his  sister  Tamar,  who 
so  fascinated  her  half-brother  Amnon  that 
he  criminally  dishonored  her,  for  which  two 
years  afterwards  he  was  treacherously  assas- 
sinated at  the  instance  of  Absalom,  whose 
guest  he  was  at  the  time.  Though  Absalom 
was  his  father's  favorite,  his  crime  was  too 
gross  to  be  overlooked  even  by  his  indulgent 
parent.  He  had  to  go  into  exile,  and  re- 
mained three  years  with  his  maternal  con- 
uectioias  in  Geshui',  and  two  more  at  Jerusa- 
lem, before  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  the 


Absalom's  Tomb. 

■court  or  see  his  royal  father.  He  soon  after- 
wards deliberately  set  himself  to  win  the 
hearts  of  the  people  away  from  the  king  his 
father,  and  when  the  plot  was  ripe,  repaired, 
under  false  pretences,  to  Hebron,  and  raised 
the  standard  of  rebellion.  The  perfection 
■of  his  bodily  frame  marked  him  out  for  rule 
of  the  higlust  kind.  Probably  he  had  heard 
that  St)lom()U  was  to  succeed  David,  and  con- 
sidered the  arrangement  unfair  to  himself, 
as  he  was  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  and, 
unlike  Solomon,  was  by  the  mother's  as  well 
as  the  father's  side  of  royal  blood.  Whether 
or  not  he  was  aware  that  it  was  by  the  divine 
choice,  as  recorded  in  1  Chrou.  xxii.  7-10, 
that  Solomon  was  designated  to  the  sove- 
reignty, is  less  certain  :  if  he  did  know  it, 
then  in  a  theocracy  like  the  .lewish,  the 
enormity  of  his  rebellion  was  further  height- 
■ened.  It  is  noticeable,  in  connection  with 
this  point,  that  the  priests  and  Levites  sided 
-with  David,  and  brought  him  much  moral 
us  well  as  material  support ;  but  the  mass  of 


the  people  seem  to  have  gone  against  him, 
and  he  had  to  escape  with  a  few  taithful  fol- 
lowers from  Jerusalem  to  save  his  life.  Of 
David's  two  chief  couuhelor.s.  the  abler  one, 
4hithophel,  had  gone  over  to  Absalom:  the 
other,  Hushai,  was  faithful  to  David,  and 
went  after  the  fugitive  king.  Davitl  sent 
him  back  to  Jerusalem  to  preiend  adherence 
to  Absalom,  and  thwart  the  counsel  of  Ahith- 
ophel.  When  the  time  arrived  for  oller- 
ing  advice  to  Absalom,  Ahithophel  astutely 
recommended  that  he  should  be  allowed  to 
take  12,000  men  that  very  night  and  follow 
David  before  David  recovered  from  his  depres- 
sion. He  would  kill  only  the  king,  and  the 
people  would  then  come  over  to  Alwalom. 
Before  the  scheme  was  carried  out,  Hushai 
was  asked  if  he  adhered  to  it,  and  of  course 
he  raised  objections,  and  projiosed  a  rival 
scheme  of  his  own,  so  prejiosterous  that  it 
does  not  say  much  for  Absalom's  penetration 
that  he  did  not  see  it  was  meant  to  etl'ect  his 
ruin.  Hushai  counseled  long  delay,  a  course 
which  would  really  tend  to  make  Absalom 
weaker  and  David  stronger.  He  Mattered 
Absalom's  self-conceit  by  proposing  that  he 
should  be  commander,  which  would  give  the 
army  a  poor  leader.  When  victory  was 
achieved,  which  he  assumed  to  be  a  certainty, 
he  provided  that  there  should  be  extensive 
and  unnecessary  bloodshed,  a  serious  politi- 
cal blunder  as  well  as  a  great  crime.  Hushai's 
absurd  scheme,  however,  recommended  itself 
to  Absalom  and  the  people,  and  Ahithophel, 
seeing  that  it  was  all  over  with  the  rebellion, 
went  home  and  committed  suicide.  Hushai, 
understanding  that  the  danger  was  not  yet 
over,  sent  David  counsel  immediately  to  cross 
the  Jordan,  which  he  did.  Absalom  and  the 
rebel  army  were  beginning  to  revert  to  the 
policy  of  Ahithophel  ;  and  ultimately  a  com- 
promise was  made  between  his  plan  and  that 
of  Hushai,  /.  e.  hostilities  should  be  immediate, 
but  Absalom  should  be  the  commander-in- 
chief.  The  battle  took  place  in  the  wood  of 
Ephraim,  apparently  near  Mahanaim,  where 
David  was  then  residing.  The  rebel  host, 
undisciplined  and  badly  led,  went  down  at 
once  before  David's  veterans,  handled  by 
three  skillful  commanders.  When  the  rout 
took  place,  Absalom,  riding  furiously  on  a 
mule,  got  his  head  entangled  among  the 
spreading  branches  of  an  oak,  great  disser- 
vice being  done  him  by  the  long  hair  of 
which  he  was  so  vain.  The  animal  ran 
away,  leaving  him  hanging  helplessly,  but 
alive.  Joab,  one  of  the  three  commanders, 
thrust  three  darts  through  the  heart  of  the 
unhappy  prince,  and  ten  of  Joab's  immediate 
followers  surrounding  him  completed  the 
slaughter.  David  had  given  express  direc- 
tions that  Absalom  should  not'be  injured,  and 
on  hearing  of  his  death  he  gave  himself  up  to 
excessive  grief  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-xix.  8).  Ab- 
salom was  buried  near  the  place  where  he 
died,  in  a  pit  under  a  great  cairn  of  stones. 
He  had  reared  for  himself  a  pillar  at  Jerusa- 


Abshai 


Achan 


leiii  to  keep  his  uaiiie  in  leiueiiibraiu-e  (xviii. 
17,  18..  What  is  now  called  Absalom's  tomb 
is  in  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.,  however, 
it  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  tomb 
of  Hezekiah  (Bordeaux  Pilgrim),  but  scarcely 
in  agreement  with  2  Chron.  xxxii.  33.  The 
decorations  of  the  monument  date  from  the 
Greco-Eoman  period,  but  the  chamber  itself 
may  be  older.  According  to  the  title,  Ps.  iii. 
was  composed  by  David  during  Absalom's 
rebellion  ;  perhaps  also  Ps.  vii. 

2.  Father  of  Mattathias  and  probably  of 
Jonathan,  captains  of  the  Jewish  army  under 
tlie  Maccabees  Jonathan  and  Simon  (1  Mac. 
xi.  70  ;  xiii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  7  ;  6,  4j. 

Ab'sLai.     See  Abishai. 

A-bu'bus. 

Father  of  that  Ptolemy  who  was  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  district  about  Jericho  (1  Mac. 
xvi.  11,  15). 

A-byss'  [bottomless]. 

Hades,  the  place  of  the  dead  (Rom.  x.  7, 
R.  v.);  in  particular  the  dwelling  of  evil 
si)irits,  presided  over  by  ApoUyou,  that  is, 
Satan  (Rev.  ix.  11 ;  xvii.  8;  xx.  1-3,  in  A.  V. 
bottomless  pit ;  cp.  Luke  viii.  31,  in  A.  V.  the 
deep). 

A-ca'ci-a.     See  Shittah. 

Ac'cad. 

An  ancient  city  in  the  land  of  Sbinar  and 
one  of  four  towns  which  constituted  the  orig- 
inal kingdom  of  Ninirod  (Gen.  x.  10).  It  is 
also  mentioned  by  Nebuchadnezzar  called  the 
First,  who  reigned  at  Babylon  about  llTiO  b.  e. 
(VR.5(j.  nO).  The  name  was  extended  to  denote 
a  district  called  the  land  of  Accad.  This  dis- 
trict, at  one  period  at  least,  embraced  northern 
Babylonia,  adjacent  to  Assyria,  and  included 
within  its  bounds  the  cities  of  Babylon  and 
Cutha. 

Ac'co,  in  A.  V.  AccHO  [liot  sand]. 

A  city  on  a  small  promontory  of  the  coast 
of  Palestine,  about  25  miles  south  of  Tyre. 
The  town  looks  across  the  bay  of  its  own 
name  to  mount  Carmel,  about  8  miles  to  the 
south.  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Asher,  but  was  not  occujiied  by  the  Hebrews 
(Judg.  i.  31).  In  the  time  of  Hoshea  it 
submitted  to  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria 
(Antiq.  ix.  14,  2)  ;  and  it  suffered  from  the 
same  nation  in  the  reign  of  Asliurbanipal. 
A  century  or  so  before  Christ  its  name  was 
changed  to  Ptolemais,  in  honor  of  one  of  the 
early  Ptolemies.  It  acquired  imi)ortance  polit- 
ically as  the  key  of  Galilee  and  as  a  seajxirt  at 
the  end  of  commercial  routes  to  Decajiolis  and 
Arabia  (1  Mac.  v.  15,  21,  55  ;  x.  1  :  Antiq.  xiii. 
12,  2  seq.).  Jonathan  Maccabjens  was  treach- 
erously slain  there  (1  Mac.  xii.  48;  Antiq. 
xiii.  H,  2).  A  large  number  of  Jews  found  a 
home  within  its  walls  (War,  ii.  18,  5),  and 
a  Christian  community  early  grew  up  here. 
On  his  last  journey  to  .Jerusalem,  Paul  spent 
a  day  here  with  the    brethren    (Acts  xxi. 


7).  Later  the  town  became  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bishop.  The  Arabs  re.sto£.ed  the 
old  name,  which  the  Franks  corrupted  nito 
Acre.  It  was  taken  in  A.  d.  1191  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France,  and  Richard  I., 
king  of  England.  From  a.  d.  1229  it  was 
held  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  was 
often  called  in  consequence  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 
Prior  to  1799  it  was  strongly  fortified  by 
Jezzar  Pasha,  who  ruled  with  energy,  but 
with  such  cruelty  that  he  was  nicknamed 
"the  Butcher."  In  that  year  it  was  attacked 
by  Napoleon,  who  was  baffled,  and  at  once 
began  his  retreat  from  Syria.  Jezzar's  vic- 
tory was  largely  due  to  English  sailors,  who 
had  been  landed  to  give  him  aid.  In  1832  it 
was  wrested  from  the  Turkish  sultan  by  one 
of  liis  subjects,  Ibrahim  Paslia,  son  of  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  the  ruler  of  Egypt.  On  No- 
vember 3,  1840,  it  was  boml^arded  by  the 
British  and  Austrian  fleets,  until  the  day  was 
decided  by  the  explosion  of  the  ])owder  mag- 
azine, which  caused  the  death  of  from  1700 
to  2000  Egyi)tian  soldiers.  The  jilace  was  given 
back  to  the  sultan,  under  whose  rule  it  still 
remains.  It  is  now  a  walled  town,  with  a 
.single  land  gate  at  the  southeast  angle  and  a 
sea  gate  leading  to  the  shipping  in  the  har- 
bor. Its  ram])arts,  injured  by  the  bombard- 
ment of  1S40,  have  not  been  repaired.  Its 
inhabitants  number  about  8000.  Grain  and 
cotton  are  exported. 

Ac'cos  [Greek  form  of  Hakkoz  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  10)]. 

I'he  i)riestlv  family  Hakkoz,  probably 
(1  Mac.  viii.  17). 

Ac-cursed. 

Anything  on  which  a  curse  has  been  pro- 
nounced, devoting  it  to  destruction  (Josh.  vi. 
18;  vii.  1,11,  13,  ].">;  xxii.20).  See  Anathema. 

A-cel'da-ma.     See  Akeldama. 

A-cha'ia. 

Originally  a  state  of  Greece  situated  in  tlie 
northern  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  (now  the 
Morea),  and  comprehending  Corinth  and  its 
isthmus.  After  Greece  had  been  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  the  emy)eror  Augustus  Ciesar 
divided  that  country  with  the  adjacent  re- 
gions into  two  provinces,  Macedonia  and 
Achaia.  The  latter  comprehended  the  whole 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  with  continental  Greece 
S.  of  Illyricum,  Epirus,  and  Thessaly.  Corinth 
was  the  capital,  and  was  the  residence  of  the 
proconsul  by  whom  the  province  was  ruled. 
It  is  in  the  second  or  comprehensive  sense 
that  the  word  Achaia  is  used  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xviii.  12,  27 ;  xix.  21 ;  Rom. 
XV.  26  ;  2  Cor.  i.  1 ;  ix.  2 ;  1  Thess.  i.  7,  8). 

A-cha'i-cus  [belonging  to  Achaia]. 
A  Christian  who  came  with  two  others  from 
Corinth  to  Paul  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

A'chan  and  Achar  [trouble;  or,  he  has 
troubled]. 

A  son  of  Carmi,  of  the  hou.se  of  Zimri.  fam- 
ily of  Zerah,  tribe  of  Judah.     At  the  capture 


Achar 


13 


Acts  of  the  Apostles 


of  Jericho  he  appropriated  to  his  own  use  and 
hid  in  his  tent  a  Babylonish  garment  and  a 
wedge  of  gold,  part  of  the  spoil  of  Jericho, 
which  had  been  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
He  thereby  troubled  Israel.  His  transgres- 
sion led  to  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  before 
Ai.  Lots  were  then  cast  to  discover  the  cul- 
prit who  had  brought  on  the  catastrophe,  and 
Achan  was  pointed  out  as  the  individual. 
He  made  confession  of  his  guilt,  but  this  did 
not  avert  his  fate.  He  was  stoned  to  death 
in  the  vallev  of  Achor  (Josh.  vii.  1-26 ;  xxii. 
20  ;  1  Chroii.  ii.  7). 

A'char.     See  Achan. 
A'chaz.     See  Ahazt 
Ach'bor  [a  mouse]. 

1.  The  father  of  Baal-hanan,  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  38;  1  Chron.  i.  49). 

2.  The  son  of  Michaiah  and  father  of 
Elnathan.  He  was  a  trusted  officer  at  the 
court  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12, 14  ;  Jer.  xxvi. 
22  ;  xxxvi.  12).  Called  Abdon  in  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20. 

A'chim  [Greek,  from  Hebrew  Jachin  or 
Jakim,  Jehovah  will  establish]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jesus  in  the  line  of  Joseph, 
who  lived  after  the  exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

A'chish  [Philistine  name,  meaning  is  un- 
known]. 

The  son  of  Maoch  and  the  king  of  Gath, 
to  whom  David  twice  fled  during  the  time 
that  he  was  persecuted  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
10-15;  xxvii.  1-12;  xxviii.  1,  2;  xxix.  1-11). 
He  is  probably  the  Achish  who  was  king  of 
Gath  at  the  beginning  of  Solomon's  reign : 
for  the  latter  was  the  son  of  Maachah,  a 
name  which  is  radically  identical  with  Maoch 
the  father  of  the  Achish  already  known.  The 
reign  of  about  fifty  years  required  by  this 
assumption  is  not  extraordinary  (cp.  among 
niany  others  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Ma- 
nasseh).  Achish  survived  his  contemporary, 
David,  at  least  three  years  (1  Kin.  ii.  39).  In 
the  title  of  Ps.  xxxiv.  he  is  called  Abimelech, 
which  appears  to  have  been  an  official  desig- 
nation of  the  Philistine  kings  as  Pharaoh  was 
a  title  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs. 

Ach'me-tha  [Median  HanqmatdiKi]. 

A  city  in  the  province  of  the  Medes.  When 
the  Jews  asserted  that  Cyrus  had  issued  a  de- 
cree permitting  them  to  build  the  temple, 
their  adverssaries  sent  to  Babylon  to  inquire 
if  the  document  were  in  existence.  Darius 
ordered  an  investigation.  The  house  of  the 
archives  where  the  treasures  were  laid  up  in 
Babylon  was  first  searched,  but  in  vain.  The 
quest  was  continued  in  Achmetha  in  the 
province  of  the  Medes,  and  the  decree  was 
found  in  the  palace  (Ezra  v.  6-vi.  2).  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Achmetha  was 
Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Media,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Persian  kings,  and  a  treasure 
city  (Herod,  i.  98;  iii.  64:  Xenophon,  Cy- 
ropted.  viii.  6,  22).  It  is  the  modern  Hama- 
dan. 


A'chor  [trouble]. 

The  valley  near  Jericho  where  the  unhappy 
Achan  was  stoned  to  death  (Josh.  vii.  24-2fi; 
Is.  Ixv.  10;  Hos.  ii.  15).  It  lay  south  of 
Jericho,  for  it  formed  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  7),  whereas 
Jericho  was  a  city  of  Benjamin. 

Ach'sah,  in  A.  V.  once  Achsa  (1  Chron.  ii. 
49),  an  inconsistency  from  which  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  was  free  [a  leg-band,  an 
anklet]. 

A  daughter  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh, 
who  promised  her  in  marriage  to  anyone  who 
should  capture  Kirjath-sepher.  Othniel,  his 
younger  brother  or  half-brother,  took  the 
town,  and  received  the  maiden.  At  her  re- 
quest her  father  gave  her  the  upper  and 
nether  springs  (Josh.  xv.  16-19;  Judg.  i. 
12-15;  1  Chron.  ii.  49).     See  Dekir. 

Ach'shapli  [fascination]. 

A  border  town  of  Asher,  originally  Ca- 
naanite,  with  a  king,  conquered  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xi.  1;  xii.  20).  To  judge  from  Josh. 
xix.  25  it  lay  not  far  from  Accho. 

Ach'zib  or  Che'zib,  as  it  was  with  equal 
correctness  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews  [de- 
ceitful]. 

1.  A  town  of  southern  Palestine  eventually 
included  in  Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  5;  Josh. 
XV.  44  ;  Mic.  i.  14).  Probably  the  same  place 
as  Chozeba  (1  Chron.  iv.  22).  It  is  commonly 
identified  with  ruins  at  the  spring  'Ain  Kez- 
beh,  which  is  apparently  a  corruption  of  the 
old  name. 

2.  A  town  on  the  seacoast  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  29),  but  from  which  the  people  of  that 
tribe  did  not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants (Judg.  i.  31).  It  was  known  as  Ekdip- 
pa  to  the  Greeks  and  Eomans  (War,  i.  13,  4) ; 
and  has  been  identified  as  Zib,  eight  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  Acre. 

Acts  of  the  A-pos'tles,  The. 

The  fifth  book  of  the  N.  T.  The  common 
title,  which  is  as  old  as  the  second  century, 
does  not  mean  that  the  book  relates  all  the 
acts  of  the  apostles.  Its  purpose  was  to  show 
the  establishment  by  the  Spirit  through  the 
apostles  of  gentile  Christianity.  At  first 
Peter  and  afterwards  Paul  are  most  promi- 
nent ;  but  frequently  the  apostles  as  a  body 
are  represented  as  taking  action  (Acts  i.  23- 
26 ;  ii.  42  ;  iv.  33  ;  v.  12,  29 ;  vi.  2  ;  viii.  1,  14; 
XV.  6,  23).  The  book  is  addressed  to  a  cer- 
tain Theophilus,  probably  a  gentile  Chris- 
tian of  distinction.  The  author  refers  (i.  1) 
to  a  previous  treatise  by  him  concerning 
the  life  and  teachings  of  Christ,  which  was 
clearly  our  Third  Gospel,  because  (1)  it  was 
addressed  to  Theophilus ;  (2)  it  consists  of  a 
narrative  of  Christ's  life  and  teaching  until 
his  ascension  (Luke  xxiv.  51)  ;  (3)  it  presents 
the  ministry  of  Christ  with  special  reference 
to  its  universal  mission,  which  would  nat- 
urally be  the  point  of  view  adopted  by  the  au- 
thor of  The  Acts ;  (4)  the  vocabulary  and  style 
of  tlie  two  books  are  notably  alike.    Furtlur. 


Acts  of  the  Apostles 


U 


Adalia 


while  the  author  does  not  name  himself  in 
either  book,  he  uses  the  first  person  plural 
in  certain  portions  of  the  narrative  of  Paul's 
journeys  (Acts  xvi.  10-15 ;  xx.  5-xxi.  18 ; 
xxvii.  i-xxviii.  16),  and  by  this  intimates  that 
he  was  a  companion  of  the  apostle  ;  that  he 
joined  him  on  his  second  journey  at  Troas 
and  accompanied  him  to  Philippi,  again  re- 
joined him  at  Philippi  in  the  third  journey 
and  went  with  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  trav- 
eled with  him  from  C'sesarea  to  Rome.  The 
earliest  tradition  of  the  post-apostolic  age 
assigns  both  the  Third  Gospel  and  The  Acts  to 
Luke,  and  the  allusions  to  Luke  in  Paul's 
epistles  accord  with  the  above  references  to 
his  movements  in  The  Acts,  while  no  other  of 
Paul's  known  companions  will  fit  into  them. 
From  Col.  iv.  14,  Philem.  24,  we  learn  that 
Luke  was  with  Paul  in  Rome,  and  no  men- 
tion of  him  occurs  in  epistles  written  when, 
according  to  The  Acts,  its  author  was  not  with 
the  apostle.  Moreover,  the  use  of  med- 
ical terms  (see  Hobart,  llie  Medical  Language 
of  St.  Luke)  and  the  classical  elements  in  his 
style,  as  well  as  his  evident  acquaintance  with 
the  Roman  world,  indicate  that  the  author 
was  an  educated  man  such  as  a  physician 
would  be  likely  to  be.  There  should  be  no 
doubt,  therefore,  that  Luke  wrote  both  the 
third  Gospel  and  The  Acts.  The  purpose  of 
The  Acts  has  been  already  stated.  Chap.  i.  re- 
counts Christ's  last  interviews  with  the  apos- 
tles through  forty  days,  his  promise  of  the 
Spirit  and  his  command  to  preach  to  all  the 
world  (ver.  8),  followed  by  his  ascension  and 
the  actions  of  the  disciples  until  Pentecost. 
Then  follows  an  account  of  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  after  Pentecost  (ii.  1-viii.  3),  in 
which  certain  representative  facts  are  de- 
scribed (the  first  conversions,  the  first  oppo- 
sition, the  first  discipline,  the  first  persecu- 
tion, the  first  organization,  the  first  martyr- 
dom), and,  after  each,  a  brief  notice  of  its 
effect  upon  the  Church  (see  ii.  41-47;  iv.  23- 
37;  v.  11-16,  41,  42;  vi.  7;  viii.  1-3).  Here 
Peter  is  most  prominent,  though  the  first 
martyr  and  the  man  who  prepared  for  the  fol- 
lowing period  was  Stephen.  Next  we  have  an 
account  of  the  transition  of  the  Church  to  a 
missionary  religion,  ottering  salvation  by 
faith  alone  to  all  men  (viii.  4-xii.  25).  Here 
five  significant  events  are  described :  (1) 
Philip's  work  in  Samaria  and  'h.  Ethiopian 
steward's  conversion  (viii.  4  40) ;  (2)  Saul's 
conversion  and  earliest  preaching  (ix.  1-30) ; 
(3)  Peter's  missionary  woru  ii;  >"yria,  leading 
to  the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  the  con- 
viction of  the  Church  tliat  the  gospel  was  for 
gentiles  (ix.  31-xi.  18) ;  (4)  the  founding  of 
the  gentile  church  of  Antioch,  a  new  center 
for  further  gentile  work  (xi.  19-30)  :  (.5)  the 
Herodian  persecution  whereby  the  Jewish 
state  finally  rcjiudiatcd  Christianity  (xii.). 
Then  follows  thi-  cstalilisliriK'nt  of  Christi- 
anity, chiefly  through  Paul,  in  the  principal 
centers  of  the  empire  (xiii.  to  the  end).  This 
was  done  in  three  great  journeys:  the  first, 


to  Cyprus  and  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor 
(xiii. ;  xiv.),  led  to  the  Council  of  Jeru- 
salem (xv.  1-35),  when  the  standing  in  the 
Church  of  uncircumcised  gentiles  was  for- 
mally recognized  ;  the  second,  to  Macedonia 
and  Greece  (xv.  36-xviii.  22) ;  the  third,  tO' 
Ephesus  as  well  as  Greece  (xviii.  23-xx.  3), 
followed  by  Paul's  last  visit  to  Jerusalem 
(xx.  4-xxi.  26),  where  he  was  arrested,  and, 
after  defending  himself  before  the  Jews, 
Felix,  Festus,  and  Agrippa,  and  after  two- 
years'  imprisonment  in  Csesarea  (xxi.  27-xxvi. 
32)  was  sent,  on  his  appeal  to  the  emperor,  to 
Rome  (xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16),  where  he  preached 
for  two  years  (xxviii.  17-31).  Many  think 
that  The  Acts  was  written  just  at  the  close  of 
these  "  two  years "  (i.  e.  A.  D.  63).  Others 
think  Luke  ended  thei-e  because  his  object 
was  attained  in  bringing  Paul,  as  an  a])os- 
tolic  preacher,  to  Rome,  or  because  he  in- 
tended to  write  a  third  book  descriptive  of 
later  events,  and  that  The  Acts  should  be 
dated  a  few  years  later  than  63.  The  re- 
markable historical  accuracy  of  The  Acts  has- 
been  proved  by  modern  research  (see  e.  g. 
Ramsay's  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire).  Its 
harmony  with  Paul's  epistles  has  been  much 
debated  and  successfully  defended.  It  is 
written  with  much  artistic  power,  and  suj)- 
plies  the  information  necessary  to  explain 
the  rise  of  Christianity  as  a  universal  religion 
during  the  thirty-three  years  from  the  death 
of  Christ  covered  by  its  narrative.    G.  T.  p. 

Ad'a-dah  [holiday,  festival]. 

A  town  on  the  extreme  south  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  22).  It  has  not  been 
identified,  unless  Adada  is  a  misreading  of 
'Ar'ara  (cp.  Septuagint).     See  Aroer  3. 

A'dah  [as  a  Hebrew  word,  means  adorn- 
ment, beauty]. 

1.  One  of  Lamech's  wives,  and  mother  of 
Jabal  and  Jubal  (Gen.  iv.  19-21,  23). 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  daughter  of  Elon. 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2,  4)  ;  in  Gen.  xxvi.  34 
called  Bashemath.  Double  names  are  frequent 
among  men  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  women  in 
the  East  more  frequently  adopt  new  names 
than  do  men,  and  are  apt  to  alter  their  name 
if  they  re-marry  or  change  their  religion. 

A-da'iah  [Jehovah  has  adorned]. 

1.  A  man  of  Bozkath,  father  of  Josiah's 
mother  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  Levite  descended  from  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  41,  42). 

3.  A  priest,  descended  through  Jerohan^ 
from  Malchijah  (1  Chrou.  ix.  12;  Neh.  xi.  12). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  21). 

5  and  6.  Two  men  descended  from  Bani, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  to  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29.  39). 

V.  A  son  of  Joiarib  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

8.  Father  of  Maaseiah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

A-da'li-a. 

One  of  Haman's  ten  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 


Adam 


15 


Adder 


Ad'am  [human  being,  meaning  etymologi- 
cally  either  ruddy  or  formed]. 

1.  The  first  human  being.  Mankind  was 
made,  as  were  all  other  created  things,  by  God 
(Gen.  i.  26) :  and  was  made  male  and  female 
(27;  Mat.  xix.  4-6),  the  man  being  first 
formed,  then  the  woman  (Gen.  ii.  7,  20-23;  1 
Tim.  ii.  13).  Like  other  animals  and  later  men, 
his  body  was  formed  of  the  ordinary  ma- 
terials of  the  universe  and  life  was  granted 
by  God  (Gen.  ii.  7  ;  cp.  19  ;  vi.  17 ;  vii.  22  ;  Job 
X.  8-12 ;  xxvii.  3  ;  xxxiii.  4).  He  was  made  in 
the  image  of  God  (Gen.  i.  26,  27).  Paul  de- 
scribes the  similarity  as  consisting  in  knowl- 
edge, or,  more  completely,  in  knowledge, 
rigliteousness,  and  true  holiness  (Eph.  iv.  22- 
25;  Col.  iii.  9,  10).  Mankind  was  invested 
with  dominion  over  the  inferior  animals  (Gen. 
i.  26-28)  ;  was  exhorted  to  be  fruitful  and  to 
multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth,  and  sub- 
due it  (28) ;  and  shared  iu  the  approval  when 
God  pronounced  that  everything  which  he 
had  made  was  very  good  (31). 

Adam,  the  first  of  mankind,  was  placed 
with  Eve  in  the  garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it 
and  keep  it  in  order.  A  command  was  laid 
upon  him,  in  the  nature  of  a  covenant  of  life 
and  death  (Gen.  ii.  16,  17).  On  his  transgres- 
sion, sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon  him, 
toil  and  undesired  results  were  annexed  to 
labor,  and  he  was  expelled  from  the  garden 
(iii.  1-24 ;  2  Esdr.  iii.  4-7,  21,  22).  Afterwards 
he  had  children,  Cain.  Abel,  and,  when  he  was 
130  years  old,  Seth.  He  lived  800  years  more, 
at  last  dying  at  the  age  of  930.  See  Chronol- 
ogy. Paul  draws  a  double  parallel  between 
Adam  and  Christ,  calling  our  Lord  the  last 
Adam  (Rom.  v.  12-21 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  22,  45). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Jordan  valley  beside  Zare- 
than  (Josh.  iii.  16).  Its  identification  with 
ed-Damieh  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river, 
less  than  a  mile  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Jabbok  and  eighteen  miles  above  Jericho, 
must  be  received  with  caution. 

Ad'a-mali  [soil]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  36). 
The  Palestine  explorers  place  it  at  ed-Damieh, 
five  miles  southwest  of  Tiberias. 

Ad'a-mant  [in  Greek,  unconquerable]. 

An  extremely  hard  metal  or  mineral,  espe- 
cially the  diamond.  It  is  the  traditional  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Shamir,  a  hard  sub- 
stance compared  with  flint  and  the  stony 
heart  (Ezek.  iii.  9  ;  Zech.  vii.  12),  and  used 
to  point  graving  tools  (Jer.  xvii.  1;  where  it 
is  rendered  "diamond"). 

Ad'a-mi  [human],  in  E.  Y.  Adami-nekeb 
[perhaps,  Adami  of  the  pass]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33), 
called  Adam  of  the  pass,  in  distinction  prob- 
ably from  Adam  of  the  ford  (cp.  Josh.  iii.  16) ; 
perhaps  the  ruin  ad-Damieh,  five  miles  S.  \V. 
of  Tiberias,  at  the  mouth  of  a  pass  on  the 
old  caravan  route  from  Gilead  to  Acre. 
Conder,  however,  suggests  the  ruined  village 
of  Admah  on  the  table-land  midway  between 


Tiberias   and    Beth-shean,  and   overlooking 
the  Jordan  from  the  west.     See  Nekeb. 

A'dar,  I.  [perhaps,  amplitude]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  better  written  Addar 
(q.  v.). 

A'dar,  II.  [Assyro-babylonian  adaru  and 
addarn,  probably  dark,  cloudy]. 

The  later  name  of  the  twelfth  month  of 
the  Jewish  year,  borrowed  by  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonian  calendar  during  the  exile 
(Ezra  vi.  15;  Esth.  iii.  7,  13;  ix.  15).  It  ex- 
tended from  the  new  moon  in  February  to 
that  in  March.     See  Year. 

Ad'a-sa. 

A  town  near  Beth-horon  (1  Mac.  vii.  40,  45. 
cp.  .39;  Antiq.  xii.  10,  5),  at  the  junction  of 
the  two  main  lines  of  advance  on  Jerusalem 
from  the  north. 

Ad'be-el  [perhaps,  a  miracle  of  God]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13;  1  Chron.  i.  29).  In  the  eighth  centuiy 
before  Christ  a  tribe  called  Idiba'il  dwelt  in 
northern  Arabia,  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  frontier  of  Egypt. 

Ad'dan  or  Addon ;  the  pronunciation  with 
a,  which  appears  to  be  Aramaic  or  Baby- 
lonian, being  exchanged  for  its  regular  He- 
brew modification  [Babylonian,  native  form 
and  meaning  unknown]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia  from  which  people 
who  could  not  prove  their  Israelitish  descent 
went  to  Palestine  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
59;  Neh.  vii.  61). 

Ad'dar  [perhaps,  largeness]. 

1.  A  town  of  Judah,  on  the  southern  bound- 
ary line  of  Palestine  (Josh.  xv.  3,  in  A.  Y. 
written  Adar;  and  Num.  xxxiv.  4).  In  the 
latter  passage  it  is  called  Hazar-addar,  L  e. 
village  of  Addar.    Sea  Hezkon,  1. 

2.  A  Benjamite.     See  Akd. 
Ad'der. 

The  rendering  of  four  Hebrew  words,  re- 
ferring probably  to  four  distinct  species  of 
venomous  snake. 

1.  Sh^phiphon,  the  creeper.  Probably  the 
Vipera  cerastes,  the  Horned  Sand-snake  of 
Arabia  and  Egypt.  At  Thebes  it  was  re- 
garded as  sacred  (cp.  Herod,  ii.  74).  It  is  a 
venomous  viper,  three  to  six  feet  long,  of  a 
gray  color,  and  with  a  horn  above  each  eye. 
It  hides  in  the  sand,  and  may  well  be  the 
serpent  which  bites  the  horses'  heels  so  that 
the  rider  falls  backward  (Gen.  xlix.  17). 

2.  Pethen,  a  species  of  serpent  incapable  of 
being  affected  by  the  voice  of  the  snake- 
charmer,  and  therefore  called  the  deaf  adder 
(Ps.  Iviii.  4,  5).  It  is  very  venomous  (xci. 
13).  It  is  the  asp  of  Deut.  xxxii.  33;  Job 
XX.  14,  16  ;  and  Isaiah  xi.  8.  Probably  the 
Naja  haje  of  Egypt ;    see  Asp. 

3.  'Akshub  (Ps.  cxl.  3).  In  the  Septuagint 
and  in  the  quotation  in  Rom.  iii.  13  it  is 
translated  "asp."  Bochart  considers  it  the 
Common    Adder    (Pelias  berus),  and   Colonel 


Addi 


IG 


Adonikam 


H.unilton  Smith  the  Puff  Adder  of  the  Cape 
(\)h)iiists,  Vipeni  iirietmis,  hut  there  is  as  yet 
no  certainty  as  to  the  identification. 

4.  Siph'oni  (Prov.  xxiii.  32),  translated  iu 
Is.  xi.  8;  xiv.  29;  lix.  5,  cockatrice  or  basi- 
lisk ;  see  th.ese  words. 

Ad'di  [a  Greek  form  of  Iddo] . 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  several 
generations  before  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  28). 

Ad'don.     See  Addan. 

A'der.     See  Eder. 

Ad'i-da.     See  Adith.\im  and  Hadid. 

A'di-el  [ornament  of  God]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chrou.  iv.  36). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Jahzerah  (1  Chron.  ix. 
12). 

3.  Father  of  the  supervisor  of  David's 
treasuries  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  25). 

A'din  [soft,  delicate] . 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  15)  and  Ezra  (viii.  6).  Its  chief 
signed  the  covenant  made  by  Nehemiah  to 
serve  Jehovah  (Neb.  x.  16). 

Ad'i-na  [delicate]. 

A  Reubenite,  one  of  David's  military  offi- 
cers (1  Chron.  xi.  42). 

Ad'i-no. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  an  Eznite ; 
the  same  as  J(jsheb-basshebeth  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
8  A.  v.,  and  A.  V.  margin  and  R.  V.).  The 
verse  as  it  stands  is  defective.  Luther  and 
most  modern  interpreters  change  the  text, 
altering  the  words  "  Adino  the  Eznite"  to 
accord  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11. 

Ad-i-tha'im  [perhaps,  double  booty-town], 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.Tosh.  xv. 
36).  Sometimes  identified  with  Adida,  but 
Adida  is  rather  Hadid. 

Ad'lai  [justice,  or  possibly  justice  of  Je- 
hovah] . 

Father  of  a  herdsman  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

Ad'mah  [perhaps,  redness]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x.  19; 
xiv.  2, 8)  which  was  destroyed  with  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  (Gen.  xix.  25,  28,  29;  Deut.  xxix. 
23  ;  Hos.  xi.  8). 

Ad'ma-tha  [Persian  name  of  doubtful 
meaning]. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  under  Ahasuerus  ( Esth.  i.  14).  See 
Prince. 

Ad'na  [Aramaic,  pleasure]. 

1.  A  iniest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Harim  in  the  second  generation  after  the 
exile  (Neh.  xii.  15). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Ad'nah  [pleasure]. 

1.  A  Manassite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 


2.  A  man  of  Jiulah,  of  high  military  rank 
under  Jeho.shaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  14). 

A-do'ni-be'zek  [lord  of  Bezek]. 

A  king  of  Bezek,  conquered  by  the  war- 
riors of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  inflicted  on 
him  a  cruel  mutilation.  This  he  regarded  as 
a  divine  requital  for  similar  cruelties  perpe- 
trated by  him  on  seventy  kings  (Judg.  i. 
4-7). 

Ad-0-ni'jah  [Jehovah  is  lord]. 

1.  A  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  one  of  his 
wives.  He  was  the  fourth  son  born  to  the 
king  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii.  2,  4).  He  was  a 
goodly,  probably  meaning  a  handsome,  young 
man,  and  apparently  his  father's  next  favor- 
ite after  Absalom.  Blinded  by  foolish  fond- 
ness. David  never  rebuked  him  for  a  mis- 
deed. When  David  was  stricken  in  years 
Adonijah  attempted  to  seize  the  throne.  He 
was  doubtless  aware  of  his  father's  intention 
that  Solomon  should  be  king  (1  Kin.  i.  13; 
1  Cliron.  xxiii.  1  ;  xxviii.  5)  ;  but  since  the 
first  and  third  born  sons  of  David,  and  prob- 
ably the  second  born  also,  were  dead,  Adon- 
ijah as  the  eldest  remaining  son  doubtless 
felt  that  lie  had  a  claim  to  the  crown,  al- 
thougli  neitiier  law  nor  custom  required  the 
succession  to  go  to  the  eldest.  He  won  Joab 
to  his  cause,  who,  he  hoped,  would  bring 
with  him  tliearmy  ;  and  Al)iathar,  the  priest, 
who,  he  expected,  would  bring  with  him  the 
priests  and  tiie  Levites.  But  Zadok  the  priesf , 
Benaiah,  commander  of  the  royal  bodyguard, 
and  Nathan  the  prophet  he  did  not  gain.  He 
invited  liis  partisans  to  a  great  open-air  feast 
at  the  stone  of  Zoheleth  by  the  fountain  of 
Rogel,  and  had  himself  proclaimed  king. 
But  Solomon  had  lieen  divinely  chosen  to  lie 
the  successor  to  David  ;  and  Batli-siieba,  Sol- 
omon's mother,  sujiported  by  Xathan  tiu^ 
prophet,  waited  on  the  aged  king  to  remind 
him  of  his  promi.se  concerning  Solomon,  re- 
port the  proceedings  of  Adonijah,  and  ask 
instructions.  Promptly,  by  David's  order, 
Solomon  was  proclaimed  king;  the  iipen-air 
feast  came  to  an  abrupt  termination,  tlie 
guests  took  to  flight,  and  Adonijah  sought 
asylum  at  the  altar  (1  Kin.  i..5-.50).  Solomon 
pardoned  him  for  the  time;  but  when  Adon- 
ijah asked  that  the  maid  Abishag  be  given 
him  to  wife  and  thereby  justified  the  belief 
that  he  was  again  aiming  at  the  kingdom, 
Solomon  ordered  that  he  be  put  to  diath 
(vs.  51-.-)3  ;  ii.  1.3  25). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  whom  Jehoshajihat 
sent  to  instruct  the  people  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  For  Neh.  x.  16,  see  Adonikam. 
Ad-o-ni'kam  [the  Lord  arises]. 
Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 

returned  from  Babylon  Ijoth  with  Zerubbabel 
and  with  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  13  ;  viii.  13  ;  Neh.  vii. 
18).  The  head  of  this  family,  apparently, 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh. 
X.  1()),  but  is  called  Ad<inijali. 


Adoniram 


17 


Adummim 


Ad-o-ni'ram  [the  Lord  is  exalted]. 

An  officer  who  was  over  the  tribute  during 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  He  was 
the  son  of  Abda,  and  was  called  also  Adoram 
(2  Sam.  XX.  24)  and  Hadoram  (2  Chron.  x. 
18).  When  the  ten  tribes  revolted,  Eehoboam 
sent  him  to  treat  with  the  rebels,  who,  how- 
ever, instead  of  listening  to  him,  stoned  him 
to  death  (2  Sam.  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  6  ;  xii.  18  ; 
2  Chron.  x.  18). 

A-do'ni-ze'dek,  in  A.  V.  Adonizedec  [lord 
of  righteousness]. 

A  king  of  Jerusalem  who,  on  learning  that 
Ai  had  been  captured  by  the  Israelites,  and 
that  the  Gibeonites  had  made  peace  with 
Joshua,  formed  a  confederacy  with  four  other 
Amorite  kings  to  punish  Gibeon.  He  and 
his  confederates  were  defeated,  taken,  and 
slain  (Josh.  x.  1-27).  In  the  Septuagint  called 
Adonibezek. 

A-dop'tion. 

The  act  of  taking  a  stranger  to  be  one's 
own  child,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses  and  Esther 
(Ex.  11.  10;  Esth.  ii.  7). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  is  used  to  denote : 

1.  The  choice  by  Jehovah  of  the  Jewish 
nation  to  be  his  special  people  (Rom.  ix.  4). 

2.  The  reception  of  all  true  Christians  to 
be  in  a  special  sense  the  sons  of  God  (Gal.  iv. 
5  ;  Eph.  i.  4).  The  spirit  of  adoption  enables  us 
to  feel  to  God  as  children  to  a  loving  father. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  spirit  of  bondage, 
which  compels  one  to  feel  to  him  as  a  slave 
to  a  master  (Rom.  viii.  14-21). 

3.  The  redemption  of  the  body  ;  its  deliv- 
erance from  sin,  pain,  and  death  in  the  glori- 
fied state  (Rom.  viii.  23). 

A-do'ra.     See  Adokaim. 

Ad-o-ra'im  [perhaps,  two  mounds]. 

A  city  of  Judah  fortified  by  Eehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  9).  It  is  probably  identical  with 
Adora,  shortened  into  Dora,  a  town  of  the  in- 
terior, near  Iduma?a,  and  after  the  exile  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  the  latter  country  (An- 
tiq.,  xiii.  9,  1  ;  15,  4  ;  xiv.  5,  3;  War,  i.  2,  5 ; 
1  Mac.  xiii.  20).  Since  Robinson's  researches, 
it  is  identified  with  Dura,  a  village  on  a  hill- 
side five  miles  west  of  Hebron. 

A-do'ram.     See  Adoniram. 

A-dram'me-lech  [god  Adar  is  king]. 

1.  A  deity  to  whom  the  colonists  of  Sa- 
maria, who  had  been  brought  from  Sephar- 
vaim,  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  The  god  Adar  was  the  sun  wor- 
shiped under  a  particular  attribute. 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib.  With  another 
brother  he  murdered  his  father,  and  after- 
wards escaped  to  Armenia  (2  Kin.  xix.  37  ;  Is. 
xxxvii.  38). 

Ad-ra-myt'ti-um. 

A  maritime  city  in  ^Eolia.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans it  belonged  to  the  province  of  Asia. 
The  vessel  in  which  Paul  embarked  at  Csesa- 
rea  for  Rome  was  a  ship  of  Adramyttium, 
about  to  sail  to  the  places  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  (Acts  xxvii.  2). 


A'dri-a. 

A  part  of  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii. 
27).  The  name  was  derived  from  the  com- 
mercial town  of  Adria  on  the  lower  Po,  and 
in  the  narrowest  sense  it  denoted  only  the 
neighboring  part  of  the  sea.  But  the  name 
was  extended  to  include  the  expanse  of  sea 
as  far  as  the  extreme  southern  points  of 
Greece  and  Italy  (Ptolemy  iii. ;  Pausanias, 
Eliac.  V.  ;  Procopius,  Bell.  Vand.  i.  14). 

A'dri-el  [flock  of  God]. 

A  Meholathito,  to  whom  Saul  gave  his 
daughter  Merab  in  marriage,  though  he  had 
previously  promised  her  conditionally  to 
David  (I'Sam.  xviii.  19). 

A-dul'lam  [enclosure]. 

A  town  in  the  Shephelah,  in  the  territory 
of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Jarmuth  and 
Socoh  (Josh.  XV.  3.5).  It  was  in  existence,  in- 
habited by  Canaanites,  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1,  2).  A  petty  king 
ruled  over  it  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
(Josh.  xii.  I.t).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Chron.  xi.  7),  continued  to  flourish  in 
the  time  of  Micah  the  prophet  (Mic.  i.  15), 
and  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
30;  2  Mac.  xii.  38).  In  its  vicinity  was  the 
cave  which  David  at  one  period  of  his  wan- 
derings made  his  headquarters,  and  whither 
his  father  and  his  brethren  and  many  other 
adherents  went  down  to  join  liim  (1  Sam. 
xxii. ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13;  Antiq.  vi.  12,  3).  M. 
Clermont-Ganneau  is  possibly  right  in  hear- 
ing an  echo  of  the  name  still  lingering  in 
'Aid  el-Miyeh.  This  name  belongs  to  a  hill 
which  is  crowned  with  a  fortress  and  has 
caves  in  its  sides.  The  hill  stands  on  the 
south  side  of  a  ravine  at  its  junction  with 
the  southern  extension  of  the  valley  of  Elah 
(es-Sunt),  and  is  about  two  miles  from  the 
place  where  the  fight  took  place  between 
David  and  Goliath. 

A-dul'ter-y. 

1.  In  a  special  sense,  sexual  intercoui-se  ol 
a  married  man  with  a  female  not  his  wife,  or 
that  of  a  married  woman  with  a  man  not  her 
husband.  Polvgamv,  with  inferior  wives  and 
concubines,  is  not  adultery.  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law  adultery  was  punished  with  death 
(Lev.  XX.  10).  ,  . 

2.  In  a  general  sense,  all  sexual  impurity 
in  thought,  word,  or  deed,  or  whatever  tends 
thereto.  This  is  the  sense  in  the  seventh 
commandment,  interpreted  on  the  principles 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Ex.  xx.  14 ; 
Dent.  V.  18 ;  Mat.  v.  27,  28). 

3.  Figuratively,  the  worship  of  false  gods 
or  other  infidelity  to  the  covenant  with  Jeho- 
vah (Jer.  iii.  8,  9;  Ezek.  xxiii.  37,  43;  Hos. 
ii  2-13),  God  claiming  our  undivided  attec- 
tions,  as  a  husband  does  the  undivided  re- 
gard of  the  woman  who  has  sworn  him 
fidelity. 

A-dum'mim  [red  objects]. 
The  ascent  of  Adummim  is  a  pass  leading 
up  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  the  hill  country. 


^neas 


Age 


The  boundary  beteen  Jiulab  and  Benjamin 
passed  near  it  (Josh.  xv.  7;  xviii.  17),  and 
the  shortest  and  most  traveled  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Jericho  ran  through  it.  Ac- 
cording to  Jerome,  the  name  belonged  to  a 
hamlet,  which  in  his  day  was  lying  in  ruins, 
and  which  was  still  called  Maledomim,  ap- 
parently the  full  Hebrew  phrase  Ascent  of 
Adumraim.  Jerome  ascribes  the  origin  of  the 
name  to  the  blood  frequently  spilled  there  by 
robbers  (cp.  Luke  x.  30) ;  but  it  more  prob- 
ably arose  from  the  red  marl  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. An  echo  of  the  name  is  still  heard 
ia  Tala'at  ed-Dumm,  Ascent  of  Blood,  the 
name  given  to  a  hill  and  fortress  half  way 
between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho,  and  to  the 
wady  which  the  road  follows  downward. 

.ffi'ne-as  [Latin  from  N.  T.  Greek  Aineas, 
classic  Greek  Aineias;  the  name  of  a  Trojan 
hero] . 

A  man  at  Lydda  bedridden  eigbt  years  with 
palsy.  His  restoration  by  the  power  of  the 
risen  Jesus  resulted  in  large  increase  of  the 
Church  in  that  region  (Acts  ix.  32-35). 

i£'non  [Greek,  probably  from  Aramaic 
'enavan,  fountains]. 

A  village,  or  merely  a  locality  of  perennial 
springs,  near  Salim,  where  John  at  one  time 
at  least  baptized  because  there  was  there 
much  water  (or,  as  in  Greek,  many  waters) 
(John  iii.  23).  The  site  has  not  been  iden- 
tified. But  according  to  Jerome,  jEnon  and 
Salim  were  situated  in  the  .Jordan  valley, 
eight  Eoman  miles  south  of  Scythopolis.  The 
names  have  ceased  to  be  heard.  Measure- 
ment indicates  either  the  place  now  called 
ed-Deir,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  are 
seven  springs  and  extensive  ruins,  or  Umm 
el-'Amdan,  hard  by  on  the  east,  or  the  ruins 
and  spring  at  the  base  of  Tell  Eidghah, 
which,  however,  is  only  seven  Roman  miles 
from  Scythopolis. 

The  modern  map  can,  indeed,  show  villages 
bearing  the  names  of  'Ainun  and  Salim.  A 
town  called  Salim  is  situated  four  miles  east 
of  Shechem,  on  an  extensive  plateau  south 
of  the  wady  Far'ah.  'Ainun  is  a  ruin  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  wady  Tubas,  about  ten 
miles  northeast  of  Shechem  and  four  miles 
north  of  the  Far'ah  valley.  The  objection  to 
identifying  'Ainun  with  ^non  mentioned  by 
John  is  that  'Ainun  is  not  near  Salim.  The 
villages  are  distant  from  each  other  about 
eight  miles,  and  the  great  wady  Far'ah  lies 
between.  'Ainun  is  but  little  farther  from 
the  important  city  of  Shechem  than  from 
Salim,  and  is  more  closely  connected  with 
Shechem  by  road.  Eejecting  'Ainun,  one 
thinks  of  the  plentiful  waters  of  the  Far'ah 
valley  but  three  miles  distant  from  Salim,  or 
even  the  two  living  springs  which  supply 
Salim  with  water ;  but  a  place  of  fountains 
near  this  Salim  would  be  in  Samaria,  and  it  is 
scarcely  probable  that  John  the  Baptist  was 
laboring  among  the  Samaritans  (cp.  Mat.  iii. 
5;  X.  5;  Luke  iii.  3). 

The  only  other  site  proposed,  which  offers 


any  attractions,  is  Shilhim,  in  the  Septuagint 
Seleeim,  in  the  wilderness  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah,  near  which  was  a  place  called 
Ain  (Josh.  xv.  .32)  ;  but  Ain  is  constantly  con- 
nected with  Rimmon  and  not  with  Shilhim. 

Ag'a-bus  [iiieaniug  is  uncertain]. 

A  Christian  iii(i])het  of  Jerusalem.  He 
went  to  Antioch  and  predicted  a  great  famine 
which  took  place  in  the  days  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  (Acts  xi.  28 ;  see  Antiq.  xx.  2,  6  ;  5, 
2).  When  Paul  passed  through  Ca^sarea  on 
his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Agabus,  who 
was  there,  bound  his  own  hands  and  feet  with 
Paul's  girdle,  and  announced  that  this  would 
be  done  also  to  the  owner  of  the  girdle  when 
he  reached  the  capital  (Acts  xxi.  10,  11). 

A'gag  [perhaps,  flaming]. 

Whether  Agag  was  a  title  of  the  kings  of 
Amalek,  as  Pharaoh  was  for  those  of  Egypt, 
or  was  a  recurring  name  in  the  royal  line,  is 
unknown.     Specially 

1.  A  king  of  Amalek  whose  greatness  was 
alluded  to  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  7). 

2.  The  king  of  Amalek  slain  by  Samuel, 
after  he  had  been  spared  bv  Saul  (1  Sam.  xv. 
9-33). 

A'gag-ite. 

An  appellation  given  to  Haman,  the  great 
enemy  of  the  Jews  (Esth.  iii.  1,  10;  viii.  3-5). 
Its  reference  to  his  Amalekite  descent  (An- 
tiq. xi.  6,  5,  and  see  Agag)  is  extremely 
doubtful. 

A'gar.     See  Hagar. 

Ag'ate  [named  from  a  river  in  Sicily  near 
which  the  agate  abounded]. 

A  precious  stone  composed  of  various  kinds 
of  colored  quartz,  especially  of  amethyst, 
chalcedony,  and  jasper.  Two  Hebrew  words 
are  so  rendered : 

1.  Kadkod,  which  means  sparkling  (Is.  liv. 
12 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  16,  in  A.  V.).  This  charac- 
teristic ill  accords  with  the  agate,  which  in 
its  natural  state  is  wanting  in  lustre  ;  hence 
the  R.  V.  translates  it  Ruby,  and  the  margin 
of  the  A.  V.  Chrysoprase. 

2.  Sh^bo ;  perhaps  from  shabah  to  lead  cap- 
tive, or  less  probably  from  Sheba,  from  which 
it  may  have  been  brought.  It  was  the  middle 
stone  in  the  third  row  of  gems  on  the  high 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  19 ;  xxxix.  12). 

Age. 

1.  The  time  counted  by  years,  or  more  pre- 
cisely by  years,  months,  and  days,  that  one 
has  lived  in  the  world.  Extraordinary  age 
is  ascribed  to  men  in  the  registers  of  Gen.  v. 
and  xi.,  dwindling  as  the  genealogy  becomes 
more  particular  as  it  approaches  Abraham  ; 
see  Chronology.  Abraham  died  at  the  age 
of  175  (Gen.  xxv.  7),  and  his  wife  Sarah  at 
127  (xxiii.  1),  Isaac  at  180  (xxxv.  28),  Jacob 
at  147  (xlvii.  28),  Joseph  at  110  (1.  20),  Moses  at 
120  (Deut.  xxxiv.  7),  and  Joshua  at  110  (Josh. 
xxiv.  29).  The  ordinary  length  of  human 
life  is  reckoned  at  70  years,  or,  by  reason  of 
strength,  80  years,  in  the  prayer  of  Moses  (Ps. 
xc.  10).     David  died  an  old  man  at  70  (2 


Agee 


19 


Ahab 


Sam.  V.  4  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  11).  Yenoration  forold 
age  is  inculcated  in  the  Bible  (Lev.  xix.  32  ; 
Prov.  XX.  29),  and  old  age  itself  is  considered 
a  blessing  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Deut.  v.  16). 

2.  A  frequent  rendering  in  the  N.  T.  of  the 
Greek  Aion,  the  later  Latin  ^Eun  : 

(a)  A  certain  specified  period  of  the  world's 
history,  past  or  to  come  (1  Cor.  x.  11,  in  A.  V. 
world  ;  Eph.  ii.  7 ;  iii.  9  ;  Col.  i.  26  ;  Heb.  vi. 
5 — all  R.  v.).  More  frequently  it  signifies  an 
indefinitely  long  period  of  time,  eternity  past 
or  to  come;  "  unto  the  ages"  being  equivalent 
to  "  forever  "  (cp.  text  and  margin  of  R.  V.  of 
Luke  i.  33;  Rom.  i.  25;  ix.  5;  xi.  36;  Heb. 
xiii.  8),  or  "for  evermore"  (2  Cor.  xi.  31). 
"  The  age  of  the  ages  "  is  "  for  ever  and  ever  " 
(Eph.  iii.  21).  "  Unto  the  ages  of  ages  "  is  also 
"  for  ever  and  ever"  (Gral.  i.  5 ;  Phil.  iv.  20; 
Rev.  i.  18). 

(6)  The  world  literally  (Heb.  i.  2,  R.  V. 
margin)  ;  or  figuratively  (Mat.  xiii.  22;  Luke 
xvi.  8 ;  XX.  34 ;  Rom.  xii.  2 ;  1  Cor.  i.  20 ;  ii. 
6,  7,  8  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  Gal.  i.  4  ;  2  Tim.  iv.  10  ; 
Titus  ii.  12 — all  R.  V.,  margin).  The  con- 
necting link  between  a  and  h  is  when  the 
world  means  the  duration  of  this  world  (Mat. 
xii.  32 ;  xiii.  40 ;  xxiv.  3 ),  and  of  that  to  come 
(Mark  x.  30  ;  Luke  xviii.  30  ;  Heb.  ii.  5). 

(c)  The  course  of  the  world  (Eph.  ii.  2, 
R.  v.,  text  and  margin). 

Ag'e-e  [perhaps,  a  fugitive]. 

A  Hararite,  the  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11). 

Ag'ri-cul-ture. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  word  does 
not  occur  in  Scripture,  but  the  idea  does  ;  and 
the  analogous  term  husbandry  is  found  both 
in  the  O.  T.  and  N.  T.,  while  husbandman  is 
common.  Adam  was  expected  to  dress  the 
garden  of  Eden  (Gen.  ii.  1-5)  ;  Cain  cultivated 
the  soil  (iv.  2) ;  Noah  planted  a  vineyard  (ix. 
20) ;  and  Isaac  sowed  (xxvi.  12).  Agricul- 
ture was  in  an  advanced  stage  among  the 
ruling  race  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile  at  the 
time  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt. 
Cereals  of  various  kinds  were  cultivated  and 
exported  (Gen.  xii.  49,  57;  xliii.  2).  Wheat, 
rye,  or  rather  spelt,  and  barley,  are  men- 
tioned, besides  which  there  were  crops  of  flax 
( Ex.  ix.  31,  .32).  The  crops  cultivated  by  the 
Israelites  were  sometimes  summed  up  as 
corn  and  wine  (Gen.  xxvii.  37 ;  Ps.  iv.  7). 
If  a  third  agricultural  product  was  named  it 
was  generally  olives  (Deut.  vi.  11).  When 
the  enumeration  was  more  ample,  the  list 
was  increased  to  "wheat,  barley,  vines,  fig- 
trees,  pomegranates,  and  olives"  (viii.  8),  not 
to  speak  of  honey,  which  was  from  wild  bees 
(cp.  also  xi.  14  ;  xii.  17).  To  this  list  Isaiah 
adds  fitches  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27).  and  Ezekiel 
beans,  lentils,  and  millet  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  The 
Israelites  had  ploughs  drawn  by  oxen  (1  Kin. 
xix.  19;  Is.  ii.  4),  and  pruuing-hooks,  sickles, 
etc.  (ibid.  ;  Deut.  xvi.  9;  Joel  iii.  13,  etc.). 
The  purpose  now  efi'ected  by  rotation  of  crops 
was  carried  out  by  letting  the  land  lie  fallow 
during  the  seveuth  year  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11). 


As  a  rule,  good  crops  were  reaped,  and  they 
would  have  been  so  to  a  larger  extent  had 
proper  attention  been  ])aid  to  the  storing  of 
water  in  reservoirs,  so  that  absence  of  rain 
should  not  result,  as  it  generally  did,  in  fam- 
ine. Agriculture  and  the  keeping  of  flocks 
and  herds  continued,  through  all  the  i)eriod 
of  scriptural  historj',  the  staple  industries 
of  Palestine,  which  was  not  to  any  consider- 
able extent  a  commercial  land. 
A-grip'pa.    See  Herod. 

A'gur  [garnered,  hired,  or  collector]. 
Son  of  Jakeh,  and  author  of  the  maxims 
contained  in  Proverbs  xxx.  (see  ver.  1). 

A'hab  [a  father's  brother]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel,  and  son  and  successor 
of  Omri.  He  began  to  reign  about  874  B.  c, 
in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  29).  He  married  an  idol- 
atress of  masculine  temperament,  Jezebel,  the 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Sidon.  She 
worshiped  Baal,  and  her  husband  being  weak 
and  irresolute,  she  ruled  over  him,  and  made 
him  also  a  Baal-worshiper  (30-33).  This  was 
a  revolution  in  the  national  religion  of  Israel. 
When  Jeroboam  set  up  the  two  golden  calves, 
he  still  desired  to  worship  Jehovah  nominal- 
ly, using  them  as  helps  for  the  purpose.  But 
Ahab,  under  Jezebel's  influence,  wholly  gave 
up  the  adoration  of  Jehovah,  Baal  being  a 
rival  god.  The  intolerant  Jezebel  did  not 
stop  with  Ahab's  perversion,  but  attempted 
to  force  the  whole  people  to  adopt  her  faith. 
The  prophets  of  Jehovah  were  sought  out 
and  slain.  Only  a  remnant  escaped,  being 
hidden  in  a  cave  by  a  high  functionary, 
Obadiah.  Now,  however,  appeared  the  most 
formidable  prophet  known  in  the  history  of 
Israel,  Elijah  the  Tishbite.  He  was  sent  to 
Ahab  to  predict  years  of  drought  and  famine 
as  the  punishment  of  Ahab's  sin.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  drought,  which  lasted  three 
years  and  six  months  (1  Kin.  xviii.  1 ;  Luke 
iv.  25;  Jas.  v.  17),  Elijah,  by  the  divine  com- 
mand, again  confronted  Ahab,  and  demanded 
that  the  prophets  of  Baal  and  he  should  meet 
on  the  top  of  mount  Carmel  and  submit  the 
question  between  them  to  a  decisive  test. 
The  meeting  took  place  ;  Jehovah  vindicated 
himself  by  sending  fire  from  heaven  to  con- 
sume Elijah's  sacrifice.  By  direction  of  the 
prophet  the  people  who  had  witnessed  the 
event  and  acknowledged  Jehovah  took  the 
450  jirophets  of  Baal  and  400  prophets  of  the 
Asherah  down  to  the  brook  Kishon,  and 
slew  them.  Jezebel,  on  learning  wliat  had 
been  done,  uttered  imprecations  against  her- 
self if  Elijali  were  alive  by  the  morrow. 
The  prophet,  fearing  for  his  life,  fied  to 
mount  Horeb.  God  sent  him  back  with  the 
charge  to  anoint  Hazael  to  be  the  king  of 
Damascus  and  the  scourge  of  idolatrous  Is- 
rael, Jehu  to  be  the  king  of  Israel  to  sup- 
plant the  family  of  Ahab  and  put  down  the 
worship  of  Baal  by  the  power  of  the  state, 
and  Elisha  to  be  prophet  to  destroy  idolatry 


Aharah 


20 


Ahaz 


by  moral  suasion.  The  cup  of  iniquity  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel  was  made  full  to  over- 
flowing by  the  aliair  of  Naboth's  vine- 
yard. About  this  time  Ahab  had  won  a 
victory  over  Benhadad  of  Damascus,  king 
of  Syria,  and  had  permitted  that  poten- 
tate, who  had  been  captured,  to  escape 
with  a  treaty.  The  approach  of  Shalmaneser, 
king  of  Assyria,  led  to  an  alliance  between 
Ben-hadad  of  Damascus,  Ahab  of  Israel,  and 
other  neigliboriiit;  kin^s,  to  resist  the  in- 
vader. Ahab  furnished  'iOUO  chariots  and 
10,000  infantry.  The  allies  were  defeated  at 
Karkar,  in  the  district  of  Hamath.  in  854 
B.  c.  The  war  with  Damascus  was  soon  after- 
wards renewed,  and  Ahab,  taking  advantage 
of  a  visit  from  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah, 
proposed  a  joint  expedition  for  the  recovery 
of  Eamoth-gilead,  beyond  Jordan.  The 
pro])hets  of  Baal  spoke  well  of  the  enterprise. 
Micaiah,  the  only  prophet  of  Jehovah  ob- 
tainable, foreboded  the  death  of  Ahab.  The 
man  of  doom  resolved  to  go  into  the  battle 
disguised,  while  proposing  that  the  king  of 
Judah  should  put  on  his  royal  robes,  thus 
becoming  a  mark  for  every  missile.  But 
a  certain  man  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture 
and  smote  Ahab  between  the  joints  where 
the  plates  of  his  armor  met.  Ahab  died 
that  evening,  and  the  siege  of  Eamoth-gilead 
was  raised.  Ahab's  chariot  and  armor  were 
washed  in  the  pool  of  Samaria,  the  dogs, 
as  Elijah  had  ])redicted,  licking  his  blood. 
Ahab  died  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aha- 
ziah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  29-xxii.  40 ;  2  Chrou.  xviii. 
1-34). 

2.  A  lying  and  immoral  prophet,  a  son  of 
Kolaiah.  Jeremiah  predicted  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Babylon,  would  roast 
him  in  the  tire  (Jer.  xxix.  21-23). 

A-har'ah. 

A  son  of  Benjamin,  probably  the  foundei 
of  a  family  (1  Chron.  viii.  1),  who  is  called 
EM  (Gen.  xlvi.  21)  and  Abiram  (Num.  xxvi. 
38). 

A-har'hel  [po.ssibly, strength  hath  tarried]. 

A  son  of  Harum,  founder  of  a  family  which 
was  enrolled  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chrou. 
iv.  H). 

A'has-ai.     See  Ahzai. 

A-has'bai  [perhaps  a  foreign  name]. 

A  Maacathite,  the  father  of  Eliphelet,  one 
of  David's  lieroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 

A-has-u-e'rus  [from  Persian  Kh»haya, 
king]. 

1.  The  father  of  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan. 
ix.  1).     See  Darius. 

2.  A  Persian  king,  the  husband  of  Esther 
(Esth.  1.  2,  19;  ii.  IG,  17).  Ahasuerus  is 
Khshayarsha,  whom  the  Greeks  called 
Xerxes.  The  l)ook  of  Esther  tells  of  his 
sensuality,  his  fickleness,  his  lack  of  fore- 
thought, his  despotism,  and  his  cruelty. 
Greek  history  presents  essentially  the  same 
picture  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  35,  37  ;  ix.  107). 


He  was  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  Persian  throne,  48()  B.  c. 
His  mother  was  Atossa,  the  daughter  of 
Gyrus.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  be 
subdued  the  Egyptians,  who  bad  revolted 
against  his  father  Darius.  After  about  four 
years'  preparation,  he  led  an  immen.se  host 
to  invade  Greece ;  but  fled  back  to  Persia  on 
seeing  his  great  fleet  defeated  (480  B.  c. )  by  a 
much  smaller  number  of  Greek  ships  at 
Salamis.  The  next  year  (479  B.  c.)  his  gen- 
eral, Mardonius,  whom  he  had  left  behind 
with  an  army,  allowed  his  camp  at  Platsea  to 
be  forced  by  the  Greeks,  when  such  a  slaugh- 
ter ensued  as  rendered  the  Persian  invasion 
hopeless.  In  4fi(j,  after  a  reign  of  twenty 
years,  Xerxes  was  murdered  by  two  of  his 
courtiers,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
by  his  son,  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Xerxes 
is  probably  again  mentioned  as  Ahasuerus  in 
Ezra  iv.  fi.  where  the  author  completes  the 
history  of  Samaritan  machinations  at  the 
Persian  court  against  the  Jews,  resuming  in 
ver.  24  the  narrative  which  he  interrupted  at 
ver.  5.  The  older  interpreters  thought  that 
Ahasuerus  in  this  passage  referred  to  Cam- 
byses,  son  of  Cyrus  ;  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  Cambyses  was  ever  called  Ahasuerus. 

A-ha'va. 

A  locality  in  Babylonia,  doubtless  to  the 
north  of  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  15).  It  serves 
to  indicate  the  river  or  canal  in  its  vicinity 
on  which  Ezra  assembled  the  i)eople  who  pro- 
posed to  go  to  Jerusalem  with  him  (vii.  28 
with  viii.  31).  It  appears  to  have  been  dis- 
tant about  nine  days  from  Babylon  (vii.  9 ; 
viii.  15,  31).  On  mustering  the  Jews  who 
were  present  and  finding  no  Levites,  except 
priests,  among  them,  Ezra  sent  for  and  se- 
cured a  number  of  these  ministers  for  the 
house  of  God.  Here  also  a  fast  was  kept,  and 
the  jirotection  of  God  supplicated  for  the 
journey. 

A'liaz,   in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Acliaz    [he  has 

sustained]. 

1.  A  king  of  Jndah  who  was  probably  pro- 
claimed king  about  741  b.  c,  when  20  years 
old,  and  who  succeeded  liis  father  Jotham 
about  734  B.  c.  He  was  an  idolater,  causing 
bis  son  to  pass  through  the  fire,  and  sacri- 
ficing and  burning  incense  on  high  places 
and  under  green  trees  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3,  4).  He 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  in  JerusakMn  by 
the  army  of  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah, 
king  of  Israel  (5;  Is.  vii.  1).  In  connection 
with  this  crisis,  before  the  invading  force 
arrived.  Isaiali  was  sent  to  exhort  him  to  rely 
upon  Jehovah  and  not  call  in  foreign  aid. 
He  did  not  believe,  and  refused  to  ask  a  sign. 
Thereupon  the  prophet  uttered  the  celebrated 
pi'ophecy  relative  to  the  birth  of  Immanuel 
(Is.  vii.  1-16)  ;  see  Immanuel.  Ahaz  turned 
to  Tiglatb-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  and  pur- 
chased his  aid  with  the  treasures  of  the  tem- 
ple and  the  ]ialace.  Tiglath-pileser  marched 
to  his  assistance.    The  approach  of  the  Assyr- 


Ahaziah 

ians  seems  to  have  led  Reziii  niid  Pekah  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  Tiglath-pileser 
attacked  Philistia,  overran  Samaria,  took 
Damascus  and  slew  Eeziii,  and  connived  at 
the  murder  of  Pekah  and  enthronement  of 
Hoshea  as  king  of  Israel.  With  other  vas- 
sals of  Assyria,  Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  do 
homage  t«  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi.  ;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  ;  Assyrian  inscriptions).  While 
there  he  admired  a  heatlien  altar,  and  had  a 
facsimile  of  it  made  at  Jerusalem.  Ahaz 
died  about  the  year  726  B.  c,  after  reigning 
I'j  years,  and  left  his  son  Hezekiah  to  ascend 
the  throne.  Hosea,  Micah,  and  Isaiah  proph- 
esied during  the  whole  of  Ahaz's  reign,  zeal- 
ously witnes.sing  for  Jehovah  (Is.  i.  1 ;  vii. 
1-16  ;  Hos.  i.  1). 

Ahaz  is  mentioned  on  the  Assyrian  monu- 
ments by  the  name  Yuuhazi,  corresponding 
to  the  Hebrew  Jehoahaz,  the  full  form  of 
Ahaz.  Ahaz  means  "He  has  sustained," 
while  Jehoahaz  signifies  "  Jehovah  has  su.s- 
tained." 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  o5,  o6  ;  ix.  42). 

A-ha-zi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  sustained]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel  who  was  apparently 
jtlaced  on  the  throne  when  his  father  Ahab 
marched  with  the  allies  against  Shalmaneser 
in  854  B.  c.  He  succeeded  his  father  on  the 
hitter's  death.  His  entire  reign  lasted  only 
two  years  (1  Kin.  xxii.  40,  51).  He  joined 
with  Jehoshajihat  in  fitting  out  ships  of  Tar- 
.shish  to  go  to  Ophir  for  gold  ;  but  the  vessels 
were  wrecked  at  Ezion-geber.  Ahaziah  pro- 
posed a  second  attempt;  but  Jehoshaphat, 
warned  by  a  prophet,  declined  (1  Kin.  xxii. 

48,  49  ;  2  Chron.  xx.  35-37).  After  the  death 
of  Ahab,  Moab  rebelled ;  but  Ahaziah  took 
no  steps  to  reduce  it  to  subjection  (2  Kin.  i. 
1 ;  iii.  5).  Ahaziah  fell  through  a  lattice  in 
Jiis  palace,  and  was  seriously  injured.  He 
sent  to  consult  Baal-zebub.  the  god  of  Ekron, 
as  to  the  result.  Elijah  intercepted  the  mes- 
sengers, and  sent  them  back  with  the  mes- 
sage that  the  injury  would  prove  fatal  (2  Kin. 
i.  2-17).  Ahaziah  left  no  son  to  succeed  him, 
so  the  throne  jjassed  over  to  his  brother  Je- 
horam  (17). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  who  began  to  rule  the 
kingdom  in  843  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  ix.  29),  ajtpareutly 
during  his  father's  sickness  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
18,  19),  and  succeeded  his  father  Joram  or 
Jehoram  the  next  year  (2  Kin.  viii.  25). 
He  was  then  twenty-two  years  old,  and 
reigned  only  a  year.  His  mother,  Athaliah, 
was  his  evil  genius  (2  Chron.  xxii.  3).  He 
went  with  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  to  fight  with 
the  Syrians  at  Eamoth-gilead.  Joram  re- 
turned to  Jezreel  v^'ounded,  Ahaziah  paid 
him  a  visit,  was  with  him  during  the  revolt 
of  Jehu,  and  was  killed  with  him  by  that 
ruthless  soldier  (2  Kin.  viii.  25-29  ;  ix.  16-29  ; 
2  Chron.  xxii.  1-10).  By  a  reversal  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  his  name,  he  is  called 
Jehoahaz  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  17.  "  Azariah  "  in 
2  Chron.   xxii.  6  has  probably  arisen    from 


21  Ahijah 


Ahaziah  tliroimh  corruijtioii  of  the  text. 

Ah'ban. 

A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

A'her  [another]. 

A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12).  R.  V.  mar- 
gin identifies  him  with  Aiiiram.  SccAharah. 

A'M  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  Chief  of  the  (iadites  in  Gilead  in  Bashan 
(1  Chron.  V.  15). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Shamer,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

A-M'ah.     See  Ahijah. 

A-M'am. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxlii. 
33). 

A-M'an  [perhaps,  brotherly]. 

A  Manassite  of  the  family  of  Shemida  (1 
Chron.  vii.  19). 

A-hi-e'zer  [brother  of  help]. 

1.  Son  of  Ammishaddai,  and  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  12; 
ii.  25  ;  vii.  66). 

2.  A  man  of  Gibeah  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

A-M'hud  [probably,  brother  of  ])raise- 
worthiness,  or  a  brother  is  the  praiseworthy 
one]. 

1.  The  prince  representing  the  tribe  of 
Asher  on  the  commission  to  divide  the  land 
(Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  7). 

A-hi'jah,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  AMah  (viz. 
1,  3,  6)  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  apparently,  who  assisted 
Gera  in  carrying  off  inhabitants  of  Geba  (1 
Chron.  viii.  7). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  descended  through 
Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  25). 

3.  A  son  of  Ahitub,  and  great-grandson  of 
Eli.  He  at  one  time  in  the  reign  of  Saul  per- 
formed the  functions  of  high  priest  at  Gibeah 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  3,  18;.  He  was  elder  brother  of 
Ahimelech,  or  possibly  that  priest  himself 
under  another  name. 

4.  A  Pelonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  36). 

5.  A  Levite  who  in  Da\nd's  reign  was  over 
the  treasures  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  dedi- 
cated offerings  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  20:  but  see 
R.  V.  margin). 

6.  A  scribe  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

7.  A  prophet  belonging  to  Shiloh,  who,  meet- 
ing Jeroboam,  rent  his  own  garment  in  twelve 
pieces,  and  directed  Jeroboam  to  take  ten,  as 
an  indication  that  he  should  be  king  over  ten 
tribes  (1  Kin.  xi.  29-39).  After  Jeroboam  had 
become  king,  he  sent  his  queen  disguised  to 
the  now  aged  and  half-blind  projihct  to  in- 
quire whether  their  child  who  was  sick  would 
recover.  Ahijah  recognized  her  under  her 
disguise,  and  predicted  that  the  child  would 
die  (xiv.  1-18).  He  committed  his  propliecies 
to  writing  (2  Chron.  ix.  29). 


Ahikam 


22 


Ahitub 


8.  The  father  of  Baasha,  klug  of  Israel  (1 
Kiu.  XV.    27,  33). 

9.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  set  his  seal  to 
the  covenant  to  keep  the  law  of  God  (Neh. 
X.  26,  in  E.  V.  irregularly  Ahiah). 

A-M'kam  [brother  of  him  who  riseth,  or  a 
brother  hath  appeared]. 

Sou  of  Shaphan  and  a  prince  of  Judah  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  12).  He  protected  Jeremiah  when 
priests  and  false  prophets  demanded  Jere- 
miah's death  (Jer.  xxvi.  24).  He  was  the 
father  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 

A-hi'lud  [perhaps,  brother  of  one  born,  or 
brother  of  the  son]. 

Father  of  the  recorder  Jehoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
viii.  1() ;  XX.  24  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  3),  and  ((uite  likely 
one  with  the  father  of  Solomon's  purveyor 
Baana  (1  Kiu.  iv.  12). 

A-him'a-az  [brother  of  irascibility]. 

1.  Father  of  Ahiuoam,  Saul's  wife  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  50). 

2.  A  son  of  Zadok,  high  priest  in  David's 
time.  He  and  Jonathan,  Abiathar's  son, 
maintained  communication  between  David 
and  the  loyal  party  in  Jerusalem  during  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  (2  Sam.  xv.  27,  36  ;  xvii.  20). 
He  was  the  first  to  bring  David  intelligence 
of  tlie  victory  over  Absalom  (xviii.  19-30).  It 
may  have  been  he  who  was  afterwards  Sol- 
omon's purveyor  in  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15). 

A-hi'man  [brother  of  a  gift]. 

1.  A  son  of  Anak,  and  probably  founder  of 
a  family  of  Anakim  (Num.  xiii.  22),  stalwart 
men  (33  ;  see  Giant),  driven  from  Hebron 
by  Caleb  (Josh.  xv.  14  ;  Judg.  i.  10). 

2.  A  Levite  who  acted  as  porter  of  the 
house  of  God  (1  Chron.  ix.  17). 

A-him'e-lech  [brother  of  a  king]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ahitul).  and  chief  priest  at 
Nob.  David,  fleeing  from  Saul,  but  pretend- 
ing to  be  on  the  king's  business,  being  in 
great  want  of  food,  received  from  him  the 
show-bread,  which,  by  the  law,  was  a  per- 
quisite of  the  priests.  He  also  obtained  the 
sword  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Goliath 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  1-9 ;  in  Mark  ii.  26  the  event  is 
dated  in  the  time  of  Abiathar,  Ahinielech's 
son).  Doeg  the  Edomitc  reported  the  occur- 
rence to  Saul,  who,  interpreting  it  as  a  proof 
that  Ahimelech  and  the  other  priests  were 
treacherous,  gave  orders  that  they  should  be 
slain.  One  inhabitant  of  Nob — Abiathar,  a 
son  of  Ahimelech — escaped  from  the  massa- 
cre (1  Sam.  xxi.  7 ;  xxii.  7-23  ;  title  of  Ps.  lii.). 

2.  The  .son  of  the  Abiathar  who  escaped 
from  the  slaughter  at  Nob,  and  the  grandson 
of  Ahimelech,  son  of  Ahitub.  He  was  one 
of  two  high  priests  during  David's  reign  (2 
Sam.  viii.  17  ;  1  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  Ahim- 
elech in  1  Chron.  xviii.  16  is  probably  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  Ahimelech. 

3.  A  Hittite,  and  follower  of  David  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  (i). 

A-hi'moth  [brother  of  death]. 
A  Levite,  a  son  of  Elkanah  (1  Chron.  vi. 
25). 


A-hin'a-dab  [brother  of  liberality]. 
Solomon's  purveyor  in  Mahanaim  (1  Kin. 
iv.  14). 
A-hin'o-am  [brother  of  grace]. 

1.  Saul's  wife,  a  daughter  of  Ahimaaz  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  50). 

2.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  one  of  David's 
wives  (1  Sam.  xxv.  43;  xxvii.  3).  taken  cap- 
tive at  Ziklag  by  the  Amalekites  (xxx.  5). 
She  was  the  mother  of  Amuon  (2  Sam.  iii.  2). 

A-M'o  [fraternal]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab  and  brother  of  Uzzab. 
The  two  drove  the  cart  on  which  David  was 
taking  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  3,  4). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  14). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jehiel  by  his  wife 
Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii.  29,  31 ;  ix."35,  37). 

A-hi'ra  [brother  of  evil] . 

A  son  of  Enan,  and  head  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  during  the  early  journeyings  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  15  ;  ii.  29 ;  vii.  78 ;  x.  27). 

A-hi'ram  [exalted  brother,  or  brother  of 
the  high  one]. 

A  Benjamite,  founder  of  a  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  38).  Aharah  (1  Chrou.  viii.  1)  doubt- 
less represents  the  same  name  ;  and  Ehi  (Gen. 
xlvi.  21)  is  either  an  abbreviaticm  or  more 
probably  a  corruption,  as  the  last  syllable  of 
Ahiram  was  easily  overlooked  by  a  copyist 
by  reason  of  the  recurrence  of  similar  Hebrew 
letters  in  the  two  following  names. 

A-Ms'a-macli  [brother  of  support]. 
A    Danite,   the   father    of    the   craftsman 
Aholiab  (Ex.  xxxi.  6). 

A-hish'a-liar  [brother  of  the  dawn]. 
A  man  descended  from  Benjamin  through 
Jediael  and  Bilhan  (1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

A-hi'shar  [brother  of  a  singer]. 
An  official  who  was  over  Solomon's  house- 
hold (1  Kiu.  iv.  6). 

A-Wth'o-phel  [brother  of  folly]. 

A  resident  of  Giloli  in  southwestern  Judah, 
one  of  David's  counselors  (2  Sam.  xv.  12), 
father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (xxiii. 
34),  and  perhaps  the  grandfather  of  Bath- 
sheba  (xi.  3  with  xxiii.  34).  So  unerring  was 
his  sagacity  that  his  advice  was  "as  if  a  man 
had  inquired  at  the  oracle  of  God  "  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  23),  but  he  was  morally  untrustworthy. 
Absalom  found  him  ready  to  betray  David, 
and  to  ])oiut  out  how  he  might  be  destroyed. 
When  Absalom  preferred  the  absurd  counsel 
of  Hushai,  who  was  secretly  in  David's  in- 
terest, Ahithophel,  foreboding  that  it  was 
therefore  all  over  with  the  rebellion,  com- 
mitted suicide  (2  Sam.  xv.  12,  31-34  ;  xvi.  15 ; 
xvii.  23),  ottering  thus  a  strange  O.  T.  type 
of  Judas,  both  in  his  treachery  and  his  fate. 

A-hi'tub  [I)rother  of  benevolence]. 

1.  A  son  of  Phiuelias,  and  grand.son  of  Eli 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  3),  and  father  of  Ahimelech,  the 
priest  (xxii.  9). 


Ahlab 

2.  A  son  of  Aniariah,  and  fatluT  of  Zadok, 
the  priest  (2  Sam.  viii.  17;  1  t'hrtm.  vi.  7,  8). 

3.  A  later  priest  in  the  same  family,  sou  of 
another  Amariah,  and  grandfather  of  another 
Zadok,  also  a  priest  (1  Cliron.  vi.  11,  12;  Neh. 
xi.  11). 

Ah'lab  [a  fat,  fertile  place] . 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher,  but 
from  which  that  tribe  did  not  drive  out  the 
Canaauite  inliabitaiits  (Judg.  i.  31).  Gush 
Halab  of  the  Talmud,  the  Giscahi  of  Jo.sephus, 
five  miles  northwest  of  Safed  on  the  road  to 
Tyre,  lies  too  far  eastward  to  have  been 
within  the  territory  of  Asher.  Not  unlikely 
Ahlab  is  a  textual  corruption  of  Mahlab,  a 
town  on  the  coast  between  Achzib  and  Tyre. 

Ah'lai  [O  that!]. 

A  descendant,  namely  a  daughter  of  She- 
shan  (1  Chron.  ii.  31,  34),  and  perhaps  an 
ancestress  of  Zabad  (xi.  41). 

A-ho'ali  [heat]. 

A  Benjaniite  of  the  femily  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
viii.  4)  ;  perhaps  Ahijah  (7).     See  Ahohite. 

A-ho'Mte. 

A  descendant  of  Ahoah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9, 
28  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  12,  29). 

A-ho'lah.     See  Oholah. 

A-ho'li-ab.     See  Oholiab. 

A-hol'i-bah.     See  Oholibah. 

A-hol-i-ba'mali.     See  Oholibamah. 

A-hu'mai  [perhaps,  brother  of  water]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  iv,  2  with  ii.  18,  19,  50). 

A-huz'zam,  in  A.  V.  Ahuzam  [possession]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Ashliur,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Hezron  (cp.  1  Chron.  iv.  5,  6  with  ii.  24). 

A-huz'zath  [possession]. 

A  friend  of  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  in 
Isaac's  time  (Gen.  xxvi.  26).  See  Feiend  of 
THE  King. 

Ah'zai,  in  A.  V.  Ahasai  [possession,  or 
perhaps  clear-sighted]. 

A  priest  descended  from  Immer  through 
Meshillemoth  (Neh.  xi.  13) ;  probably  not  the 
person  called  Jahzerah  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12,  but 
a  different  link  in  the  genealogy. 

A'i,  in  A.  V.  in  Genesis  Hai,  with  retention 
of  the  Hebrew  article  [ruins].  Aija  and  Aiath 
(Neh.  xi.  31  ;  Is.  x.  28)  are  feminine  forms  of 
the  word. 

1.  A  town  ea.st  of  Bethel  and  near  Beth- 
aven,  with  a  valley  on  its  north  (Gen.  xii.  8; 
Josh.  vii.  2 ;  viii.  11).  It  lay  north  of  Mich- 
mash,  if  Aiath  is  the  same  as  Ai,  as  is  in 
every  way  probable  (Is.  x.  28)  ;  a  location 
which  excludes  such  sites  as  el-Hai,  half  a 
mile  southeast  of  Michmash,  and  a  name, 
moreover,  radically  different  from  Ai.  Its  site 
was  apparently  near  the  modern  Deir  Diwan, 
on  the  ancient  road  between  Michmash  and 
Bethel,  about  midway  between  the  two  i)laces. 
Three-quarters  of  a  mile  northwest  of  Deir 
Diwan  is  the  ruin  et-Tell,  the  heap  (cp.  Josh. 


23  Aijeleth 

viii.  28i;  and  one-third  of  a  mile  south,  and 
less  definitely  in  the  gardens  extending  one- 
half  mile  southwestwardly  to  el-Kadeirah, 
is  the  ruin  el-Haiyau.  Each  of  these  three 
sites  has  its  advocates.  The  name  Haiyan,  it 
may  be  noted,  is  an  entirely  difierent  word 
from  Ai,  and  Josephus'  name  for  Ai  scarcely 
forms  the  connecting  link,  for  the  Greek 
texts  of  the  historian  do  not  show  the  nomi- 
native case  Aina.  At  first  Ai  was  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vii.  2-5). 
When  it  was  found  that  the  defeat  was  caused 
by  the  sin  of  Achan.  and  when  he  had  suflered 
for  it,  Ai  was  again  attacked,  and  this  time 
was  taken  by  stratagem.  Its  inhabitants,  num- 
bering about  12,000,  were  slaughtered,  its 
king  was  hanged  on  a  tree,  and  the  city  was 
burned  (vii. -viii.).  It  lay  in  ruins  until  some 
time  after  the  account  in  Joshua  was  writ- 
ten (viii.  28),  but  ultimately  was  rebuilt  (Is. 
X.  28;  Ezra  ii.  28). 

2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites,  apparently  not 
far  from  Heshbou  (Jer.  xlix.  3). 

A-i'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Ajah  [bird  of  prey]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Zibeon  and  brother  of 
Anah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  24  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  The  father  of  Eizpah,  Saul's  concubine 
(2  Sam.  iii.  7;  xxi.  8,  10,  11). 

A-i'ath.     See  Ai. 

A-i'ja.     See  Ai. 

Ai'ja-lon,  in  A.  V.  occasionally  Ajalon 
[place  of  harts]. 

1.  A  village  of  the  Shephelah,  near  a  val- 
ley (Josh.  X.  12;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  18),  men- 
tioned as  Aialuna  in  letters  of  the  fifteenth 
century  before  Christ,  found  at  Tell  el-Am- 
arua.  It  corresponds  to  Yalo,  a  village  thir- 
teen miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem,  on  a  low 
spur,  looking  northward  over  a  beautiful 
plain.  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
but  they  did  not  expt'l  the  Amorite  inhabit- 
ants (Judg.  i.  34,  35).  Aijalon  was  desig- 
nated to  be  a  Levitical  city  for  the  Kohath- 
ites  (Josh.  xxi.  20,  24  ;  1  Cliron.  vi.  69).  After 
the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  it  was  included 
in  Benjamin,  and  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(1  Chron.  viii.  13  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  10)  ;  but  in  the 
time  of  Ahaz  it  was  captured  by  the  Philis- 
tines (xxviii.  18). 

2.  A  place  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  where 
the  judge  Elon  was  buried  (Judg.  xii.  12). 
Exact  site  unknown.  The  ruin  Jallun,  nine 
and  a  half  miles  east  of  Acre  and  one  and  a 
half  miles  southwest  of  Mejd  el-Kerum,  seems 
too  far  north  for  Zebulun,  and  like  'Ailut, 
another  proposed  site  two  and  a  half  miles  by 
road  northwest  of  Nazareth,  is  a  radically 
different  word. 

Ai'je-leth  hash-Sha'har,  in  A.  V.,  with 
omission  of  the  Hebrew  article,  Aijeletll 
Shaliar  [hind  of  the  dawn]. 

Probably  a  tune,  to  which  the  chief  musi- 
cian was  directed  to  set  the  twenty-second 
Psalm  (Ps.  xxii.  R.  V.,  title). 


Ain 


24 


Alema 


A'in  [iui  eye,  and  a  natural  sjuino;]. 

1.  The  sixteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet, originally  in  outline  an  eye.  English 
O  cojnes  from  the  same  source,  but  is  used  as 
a  vowel,  whereas  ain  is  a  consonant  of  pecu- 
liar guttural  sound.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew 
iiames  which  contain  ain,  the  letter  is  some- 
times not  represented  at  all,  at  other  times  it 
appears  as  f/,  rarely  through  the  Greek  as  h. 
In  the  original,  ain  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  the  words  Amalek,  Eli,  Gomorrah,  and  per- 
haps Heli.  It  heads  the  sixteenth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

2.  A  place  on  the  northern  boundary-line 
of  Palestine  west  of  Eiblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  11). 

3.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  toward 
Edom  and  near  Rimmon  (Josh.  xv.  32 ;  1 
Chron.  iv.  .32),  and  as  it  were  forming  one 
town  with  it  (Neb.  xi.  29).  It  was  transferred 
with  Rimmon  to  Simeon,  and  assigned  to  the 
priests  who  resided  with  that  tril)e  (Josh.  xix. 
7;  xxi.  Ifi;  but  see  Ashan).  It  is  identified 
with  extensive  ruins  at  Bir  Khuweilfeh,  a 
large  well  of  perennial  water  about  three- 
(juarters  of  a  mile  north  of  the  probable  site 
of  Rimmon. 

A'jah.     See  Aiah. 

Aj'a-lon.     See  Aijalon. 

A'kan.     See  Jaakan. 

A-kel'da-ma,  in  A.  V.  Aceldama  [field  of 

blood]. 

A  jiarcel  of  ground  known  as  the  potter's 
field.  The  priests  purchased  it  with  the 
thirty  pieces  of  silver  which  Judas  cast  down 
in  the  temple.  They  designed  it  to  be  a 
burial  place  for  strangers  (Mat.  xxvii.  7)  ; 
and,  as  it  was  intended  for  a  cemetery,  it  was 
named  the  field  of  sleep  (akeldamach,  Acts  i. 
19,  Greek ;  other  authorities,  however,  such 
as  the  fifth  century  codex  C,  the  Syriac,  and 
the  Ethiopic,  have  akeldania  or  its  equivalent). 
The  argument  has,  indeed,  been  pressed  that 
the  Greek  form  akeldmnnch  is  a  mere  unes- 
sential variation  of  akeldama,  field  of  blood. 
But  the  case  where  a  Greek  chi  represents 
a  final  (deph  is  extremely  rare.  An  iso- 
lated instance  is  tlie  form  of  Seira  for  the 
Aramaic  Sim',  in  the  name  of  Sira,  who  was 
tlie  father  of  the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus 
(  Ecclus.  1.  27).  Probably,  therefore,  the  form 
akeldama.r  stands  for  Aramaic  h"kal  d<'i}ink, 
field  of  sleeii:  but  this  sound  is  very  like 
that  of  lykal  d'liia'.  field  of  blood,  and  was  too 
suggestive  of  the  latter  to  escape  the  popular 
fancy.  Hence  the  plot  of  ground  by  a  jilay 
tiiHiii  this  name,  and  as  bduglitwith  tlie  price 
nf  l>lood,  and  because  Judas  banged  biniself 
in  it,  was  popularly  called  the  field  of  lilood. 
iikeldama  iMat.  xxvii.  8;  Acts  i.  19).  Peter 
alludes  to  Judas  as  acquiring  the  field  (Acts 
i.  IH,  19).  Probably  he  does  n((t  mean  that 
it  was  7)urchased  by  Judas  in  jicrson,  l)ut  by 
the  priests  with  Judas'  ill-gotten  money. 
The  traditional  site,  dating  from  the  time  of 
Jerome    in    the   fourth    century,   is   on    the 


southern  side  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  This 
identification  is  not  improbable,  for  the  local- 
ity is  one  wliich  can  furnish  jiotter's  clay, 
and  has  long  been  surrendei-ed  to  burial  pur- 
poses. Many  crusaders  were  subsequently 
buried  there.  Its  modern  name  is  Hakk 
ed-Dumm. 

Ak'kub  [cunning,  artful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  through 
Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  24). 

2.  A  Levite  who  founded  a  family  of  tem- 
ple porters  known  by  his  name  (1  Chron.  ix. 
17;  Ezra  ii.  42  ;  Neh.  viii.  7  ;  xi.  19;  xii.  25). 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii.  4.5). 

Ak-ra-bat-ti'ne. 

A  place  in  Idumsea  (1  Mac.  v.  3),  probably 
Akraiiliini. 

A-krab'blm,  in  A.  V.  once  Acrabbim  (Josh. 
XV.  3)  [scorpions]. 

An  ascent  on  the  southeast  frontier  of 
Judah  near  the  southern  point  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  not  far  from  the  desert  of  Zin  (Num. 
xxxiv.  4;  Josh.  xv.  3;  Judg.  i.  36).  Ap- 
parently, the  boundary  between  Canaan  and 
Edom  on  leaving  the  Dead  Sea  followed  wady 
el  Fikreh. 

Al'a-bas-ter  [without  a  handle  (labas) ;  or 
else  (luiived  fiom  a  place  called  Alabastrum]. 

The  nniterial  of  which  the  cruse  was  made 
from  which  Jesus  was  anointed  at  Bethany 
(Mat.  xxvi.  7;  Mark  xiv.  3  ;  cp.  Luke  vii. 
37).  Alabaster  commonly  denotes  massive 
gypsum  of  a  fine-grained  variety,  white  in 
color,  and  delicately  shaded.  Being  more 
easily  worked  than  marble,  it  can  be  made 
into  columns  or  turned  on  the  lathe  into 
cups,  boxes,  basins,  or  vases.  Anciently  ala- 
baster denoted  any  stone  suitai)le  for  work- 
ing into  such  utensils.  Most  of  the  extant 
ancient  ointment  flasks  are  made  of  a  light 
gray,  translucent  limestone. 

A-la'meth.     See  Alemeth. 

A-lara'me-lech.     See  Allamelech. 

Al'a-motb  [maidens]. 

A  musical  term  (1  Chron.  xv.  20;  Ps.  xlvi. 
title).  It  probably  refers  to  maiden  or  treble 
voices. 

Arci-mus. 

A  high  priest  appointed  by  Antiochus  Eu- 
pator  (2  Mac.  xiv.  3,  7 ;  Antiq.  xii.  9,  7),  con- 
firmed by  Demetrius  I.  in  162  B.  c.  (1  Mac. 
vii.  5-9),  and  installed  by  Bacchides  at  the 
head  of  an  army  (10  20).  He  was  entirely 
Greek  in  sympathy,  and  was  abhorred  by  tlie 
Jews.  He  was  driven  out  of  Palestine  by 
Judas  M.iccal)ieus  (21-25)  ;  but  was  brought 
back  l)y  Bacrhides  (ix.  1),  and  destroyed  the 
inner  wall  of  the  temple,  160  B.  c.  (54).  His 
sudden  death  soon  afterwards  was  regarded 
by  the  Jews  as  a  i)unishment  for  the  impious 
act  (.5.5,  56). 

Al'e-ina. 

A  town  in  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  26),  conjectured 
to  be  Beer-elim  (Is.  xv.  8). 


Alemeth 


25 


Alexandria 


Al'e-metli,  in  A.  V.  once  Alameth,  the 
Hebrew  pronunciation,  in  tliis  instance,  due 
merely  to  the  position  occupied  by  the  name 
in  the  sentence  (1  Chron.  vii.  8)  [covering]. 

1.  A  Beujamite.  descended  through  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  8).  ' 

2.  A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36;  ix.  42). 

3.  A  town  (1  Chron.  vi.  60).     See  Almon. 

Al'eph. 

The  first  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  A  has  the  same  origin  ; 
but  the  Hebrew  letter  is  a  consonant,  hav- 
ing no  representative  in  the  speech  of  the 
English  people.  In  the  spelling  of  Hebrew 
names  in  the  English  versions  it  does  not 
appear.  It  is  the  initial  letter,  for  example,  in 
the  original  of  the  words  Edom,  Ophir,  and  Ur. 

Aleph  stands  at  the  head  of  the  first  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.  in  many  versions,  since  in 
the  original  each  verse  of  the  section  begins 
with  this  letter. 

Al-ex-an'der  [defending  men] . 

1.  Alexander  the  Great,  king  of  Macedonia, 
who  followed  his  father  Philip  (1  Mac.  i.  1). 
He  began  to  reign  336  b.  c.  After  quelling 
some  disturbances  at  home,  he  crossed  the 
Hellespont  to  attack  the  Persians,  whom  he 
met  and  defeated  at  Grauicus,  and  again  at 
Issus  on  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  After  the  battle  of  Issus,  Alex- 
ander took  Damascus,  which  contained  great 
treasure,  and  Sidon,  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre. 
From  there  he  sent  to  the  Jewish  high  priest 
Jaddua,  demanding  his  allegiance  and  sup- 
plies for  his  army.  Jaddua  refused  on  the 
ground  of  being  subject  to  the  Persian  king. 
Angry  at  this  answer.  Alexander  set  out  in 
person  for  Jerusalem  as  soon  as  he  had  re- 
duced Tyre.  According  to  Josephus,  the 
Jews  were  in  terror  at  his  a])proach,  but  Jad- 
dua threw  open  the  gates  and  went  in  fuU 


Head  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

priestly  robes  to  meet  the  conqueror,  who  fell 
at  his  feet  in  worship  of  the  God  whom  Jad- 


dua represented.  He  explained  that  before  he 
left  Macedonia  he  had  seen  in  a  dream  the 
Deity  in  the  garb  of  this  high  priest,  and  had 
been  promised  victory  over  Persia.  He 
granted  the  Jews  many  special  privileges 
(Antiq.  xi.  8.  5).  From  Palestine  he  went 
on  to  Egypt,  where  he  founded  Alexandria ; 
he  then  returned  through  Palestine  to  Persia, 
where  he  overthrew  the  Persian  king  Darius. 
After  further  conquests  he  died  in  Babylon  in 
323  B.  c,  aged  33.  After  his  death,  his  gen- 
erals made  .some  show  of  holding  the  empire 
for  his  infant  son,  his  widow  and  brother 
being  set  up  as  regents.  But  dissensions  soon 
arose  among  the  generals.  All  the  members 
of  Alexander's  family  were  made  away  with, 
and  the  ruling  generals  were  reduced  from 
seven  to  four  ;  these  four  then  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  founded  four  royal  houses — 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  Seleucusin  Syria,  Antipater 
in  Macedonia,  and  Philetserus  in  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  first  division  of  Alexander's  empire, 
before  the  final  reduction  to  four  kingdoms. 
Syria  and  Palestine  formed  an  independent 
satrapy  under  Laomedon.  but  they  were  si  ion 
annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.  This 
rich  province  was  coveted  also  by  others,  and 
was  twice  taken  by  Antigonus,  another  of 
Alexander's  generals,  who  was  then  master 
of  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor,  but  in  the 
final  partition  into  four  kingdoms  after  the 
battle  of  Ipsus  it  i)assed  into  Egyptian  hands, 
and  remained  so  from  that  time,  320  B.  C, 
until  203  B.  c,  when  it  became  part  of  the 
Syrian  kingdom  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

2.  Alexander  Balas,  a  pretender,  who  claim- 
ed to  be  the  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  By 
the  help  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  whose 
daughter  Cleopatra  he  married,  he  reigned 
over  Syria  150-146  B.  c.  He  proved  incapa- 
ble of  holding  the  kingdom  and,  betrayed  by 
Ptolemy,  was  easily  driven  out  by  Demetrius 
II.  He  made  treaties  with  Jonathan  Mac- 
cahgeus,  and  sued  for  the  help  of  the  Jews 
(1  Mac.  X.  1,  18-20 ;  Antiq.  xiii.  2,  1 ;  4,  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Simon  of  Cyrene  (Mark  xv.  21). 

4.  A  leading  man  at  Jerusalem  when  Peter 
and  John  were  tried  there  (Acts  iv.  6). 

5.  A  defender  brought  forwuid  by  the 
Jews  during  the  tumult  at  Ejihesus  (Acts 
xix.  33). 

6.  One  who  made  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
blasphemed,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
Paul  (1  Tim.  i.  19,  20)  He  perhaps  was  the 
same  as  Alexander  the  cojipersmith,  who  did 
the  apostle  and  his  associates  much  injury 
(2  Tim.  iv.  14,  1.5). 

Al-ex-an'dri-a  [named  after  its  founder]. 

A  city  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
the  year  332  b.  c,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Egypt,  of  which  it  was  designed  to  be  the 
Greek  metropolis.  A  site  was  fortunately 
selected  west  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  and 
the  Mediterranean  current  which  sweeps 
from  the  west  carries  the  mud  of  the  river 
away  from  the  harbor  and  prevents  silting. 


Alexandria 


26 


Almond 


The  city  was  built  ou  a  tougue  of  laud  lying 
between  the  Mediterranean  Sea  aud  lake 
Mareotis,  and  connected  by  a  mole  with  the 
isle  of  Pharos,  on  which  there  was  a  cele- 
brated lighthouse.  The  city  was  admirably 
situated  for  commercial  purposes.  It  became 
the  great  port  for  the  export  of  Egyi)tian 
wheat,  cargoes  destined  for  Rome  being  car- 
ried direct  to  Puteoli,  unless  unfavorable 
winds  compelled  the  vessels  to  coast  along 
Asia  Minor  (Acts  xxvii.  6  ;  xxviii.  11-13  ; 
Philo,  in  Flac.  v.).  It  was  also  the  mart  of 
interchange  between  the  Orient  and  the  Occi- 
dent. The  city  tiourisbcd  greatly  under  the 
Ptolemies,  aud  subsequently  under  the  Ro- 
mans, uiltil  it  extended  along  the  coast  fifteen 
miles  by  a  breadth  of  one.  During  the  time 
that  the  old  Eoman  empire  was  dominant. 
Alexandria  was  considered  the  second  city 
of  the  empire,  having  a  population  of  600,000 
or  700,000.  Its  inhabitants  were  drawn  from 
many  nationalities,  Greeks.  Egyptians,  Jews, 
Romans,  who  used  the  Greek  language  as  the 
medium  of  communication.  The  diflferent 
peojiles  occupied,  as  a  rule,  diflerent  quarters 
of  the  city.  The  Jews  resided  in  the  north- 
eastern part,  enjoyed  equal  rights  with  the 
other  citizens,  and  were  governed  by  their 
own  ethnarch  (Antiq.  xix.  5,  2;  War,  ii.  18, 
7).  The  Ptolemies  founded  a  museum  with 
a  renowned  library  of  several  hundred  thou- 
sand volunjes,  and  the  city  was  looked  upon 
as  one  of  the  greatest  intellectual  centers  in 
the  world.  The  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  Greek  was  begun  in  Egypt, 
probably  in  this  city,  in  the  third  century, 
and  completed  by  the  second  century,  B.  c. 
Here,  too,  the  spirit  of  Greek  philosophy 
permeated  Judaism,  and  exegetes  like  Philo 
arose  who  excessively  allegorized  Scripture. 
The  Jews  of  Alexandria  had  their  own  syna- 
gogue in  Jerusalem,  and  were  among  the 
persecutors  of  Stephen  (Acts  ii.  10;  vi.  9); 
but  the  teaching  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
the  knowledge  of  Jesus  also  gained  entrance 
into  Alexandria,  and  under  God  produced 
such  men  as  Apollos  (Acts  xviii.  24,  2n). 
Tradition  ascribes  the  planting  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  Alexandria  to  the  evangelist 
Mark.  In  the  early  Christian  ages  the  city 
was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  Christian  cate- 
chetical school  with  such  teachers  as  Clement 
and  Origen,  and  the  home  of  bishops  like 
Hesychius  and  Athanasius.  In  a.  d.  616, 
Chosroes  II.,  king  of  Pensia,  took  Alexandria, 
and  in  640  it  was  captured  by  Amrou,  the 
general  of  Omar  I.,  the  Arab  caliph.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  brief  intervals,  it  has 
since  remained  under  Mohammedan  govern- 
ment. The  French,  under  Napoleon  I.,  cap- 
tured it  in  1798,  but  were  driven  out  by  the 
British  in  1801,  after  which  it  reverted  to 
the  Mohammedans.  On  July  11,  1HH2,  the 
Alexandrian  forts  were  bombarded  by  the 
British  fleet,  and  the  British  occui)ation  of 
Egyjit  bciiuii.  In  that  year  Alexandria  con- 
tained 227,064  inhabitants. 


Argum.     See  Almug. 

A-li'ah.     See  Alvah. 

A-li'an.     See  Alvan. 

Al-lam'me-lech,  in  A.  V.  Alammelecli  [per- 
haps, king's  oak]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26).  The 
wady  el-Melek,  which  drains  the  waters  of 
the  plain  of  el-Buttauf  into  the  Kishon  opjio- 
site  mount  Carmel,  may  possibly  echo  the 
name. 

Al-le-lu'ia.     See  Hallelujah. 

Al-le'ineth.     See  Almon. 

Al'lon  [an  oak]. 

A  Siuieonite,  descended  from  Shemaiah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  37). 

Ill  Josh.  xix.  33  Allou  is  not  a  proper  name, 
as  in  A.  V.,  but  a  common  noun,  the  oak  or 
terebinth  of  Bezaanaunira  (Judg.  iv.  11,  R. 
V.  ;  where  in  A.  V.  plain  should  be  oak). 
See  Zaanannim. 

Al'lon-bac'utli,  in  A.  V.  Allon-bachuth 
[oak  of  weeping]. 

An  oak  near  Bethel  under  which  Deborah, 
Rebekali's  nurse,  was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8). 

Al-mo'dad. 

A  peoi)le  descended  from  Shem  through 
Joktan  (Gen.  x.  26;  1  Chron.  i.  20).  They 
doubtless  settled  in  the  south  of  Arabia. 

Al'mon  [something  hidden]. 

A  village  within  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  18).  In  1 
Chron.  vi.  60  it  is  called  Alemeth,  or,  follow- 
ing the  traditional  Hebi'ew  pronunciation 
more  closely,  AUemeth.  Both  names  have 
the  same  origin  and  meaning,  and  differ 
merely  in  outward  form.  Its  site  is  the  ruin 
'Almit,  a  low,  naked  mound  between  Geba 
and  Auathoth. 

Al'mon-dib-la-tha'im  [probably  the  dis- 
trict included  between  Almon  and  Dibla- 
thaim]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  between  the  Ar- 
nou  and  Shittim  (Num.  xxxiii.  46) ;  probably 
identical  with  Beth-diblathaim. 

Alm'ond. 

A  tree  and  its  fruit  (Gen.  xliii.  11  ;  Ecc. 
xii.  5),  called  in  Hebrew  8/iaA:ed,  the  awaker, 
probably  because  it  is  the  first  tree  to  blossom 
in  the  spring.  It  is  the  Amygdalus  communis  of 
botanists,  a  tree  about  20  feet  high,  originally, 
it  is  believed,  from  Barbary,  but  now  intro- 
duced into  many  lands.  In  Palestine  it  is 
found  on  Lebanon,  Hermon,  and  in  most  of 
the  region  beyond  Jordan.  The  town  of  Luz 
in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  derived  its 
name  from  the  almond.  The  tree  grew  also 
in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxx.  37,  R.  V.).  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  bitter  and  the  sweet ;  the 
former  has  white  flowers,  the  latter  roseate. 
Almonds  were  sent  by  Jacob  to  the  Egyptian 
dignitary  ((len.  xliii.  11).  The  cups  on  the 
branches  of  the  golden  candlestick  were 
modeled  after  almond  blossoms  (Ex.  xxv.  33, 
34).     When  the  rod   marked   with   Aaron's 


Almug 


Alphabet 


name  budded  it  brought  forth  almond  blos- 
soms (Nuiii  x»".i  b)  The  lod  i  t'  an  aliiKiiid 
tree,  which  Jeremiah  saw  in  his  eaihest  vis- 


Almond  Tree. 

ion,  signified  Jehovah's  wakefulness  iJer.  i. 
11,  1-2).  The  white  hairs  on  the  head  of  the 
aged  are  probably  compared  to  the  white 
dower  of  the  bitter  almond  tree  (Ecc.  xii.  .5). 

Al'mug,  in  2  Chron.  Algum  [perhaps  fr(mi 
Sanscrit  vahjii,  valgum  (Lassen,  Max  Miiller)]. 

A  timber  brought  in  abundance  by  sea 
from  Ophir  during  the  reign  of  Solomon.  It 
was  used  to  make  pillars  or  balustrades,  as 
also  harps  and  psalteries  (1  Kin.  s.  11.  1'2  ;  2 
Chron.  ix.  10,  11).  According  to  Josephus,  it 
resembles  the  wood  of  the  tig  tree,  but  is 
whiter  and  shines  more  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  1). 
It  is  commonly  believed  to  be  sandal  wood, 
the  Saiitdlniii  album  of  botanists,  and  the  tyjjc 
of  the  order  Santalacese.  The  tree  is  small, 
much-branched,  in  aspect  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  myrtle,  a  native  of  India  and  the 
eastern  islands.  If  found  on  Lebanon  (2 
Chron.  ii.  8)  it  must  have  been  introduced 
there.  The  wood,  which  is  odoriferous,  is 
burnt  to  perfume  temples  and  private  houses 
both  in  India  and  China.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  used  by 
Solomon. 

Al'oes. 

Not  the  botanical  genus  Aloe,  consisting  of 
succulent  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Lilia- 
cex,  and  furnishing  a  bitter  purgative  medi- 
cine. The  chief  value  of  the  scriptural  plant 
is  evidently  its  fragrance  (Ps.  xlv.  8  ;  Prov. 
vii.  17;  Song  iv.  14).  It  seems  to  h&  Agal- 
locha,  called  in  various  Indian  dialects  agar, 
agaru,  and  agni,  of  which  the  Hebrew  words 
'"halim  and  '"haloth  are  probably  a  corrup- 
tion. The  species  ^4(/M(7«)i«  (((/a//oc/m  grows  in 
Sylhet,  in  the  east  of  Beugal,  and  at  Tennas- 
serim.  in  the  Eastern  Peninsula.  It  is  a  large 
tree,  having  alternate  lanceolate  leaves,  a 
leathery  calyx,  no  petals,  ten  stamens,  and 
a  two-celled  seed-vessel.  The  wood  contains 
a  resin,  and  an  essential  oil,  which  constitutes 


Lign-aloes  [Aquilaria  agallvcha). 

the  perfume  for  which  it  is  prized  in  the  East. 
It  is  the  lign-aloes  of  Num.  xxiv.  6,  and  the 
aloes  of  John  xix.  .39,  one  of  the  kinds  of 
spice  with  which  Nicodemus  designed  to 
anoint  the  body  of  our  Lord. 

A'loth  [yielding  milk]. 

A  place  of  which,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  the  name  may  just  as  well  be  Bealoth, 
known  only  as  constituting  with  Asher  one 
of  the  twelve  districts  from  which  Solomon 
drew  provisions  (1  Kin.  iv.  16). 

Al'pha. 

The  first  letter  in  the  Greek  alphabet ;  de- 
rived from  the  Phoenician,  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  letter  Aleph.  Omega  is 
the  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  "  I  am 
Alpha  and  Omega"  means  "I  am  the  first 
and  the  last "  of  beings  (Eev.  i.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6  ; 
xxii.  13;  cp.  Is.  xliv.  6). 

Al'pha-bet  [from  Greek  Alpha,  Beta,  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet]. 

The  letters  used  in  writing  or  printing  a 
language,  these  being  arranged  in  a  c<mven- 
tional  order.  The  English  alphabet  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  Latin,  which  in  turn  came 
from  the  Greek.  The  Greek  was  derived 
from  the  Phoenician  ;  the  tradition  that  Cad- 
mus brought  letters  into  Greece,  if  not  true 
in  its  details,  being  yet  essentially  histori- 
cal. The  Phoenicians,  Hebrews,  Moabites, 
and  Aramaeans  used  a  common  alphabet  at 
least  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  The 
same  alphabet,  in  more  primitive  form,  was 
employed  centuries  earlier  by  the  Minseans 
of  southern  Arabia.  In  their  original  form 
these  letters  were  pictures  of  familiar  objects, 
bore  the  names  of  these  objects,  and  had  the 
initial  sound  of  these  words ;  thus,  Gimel 
had  the  sound  of  g  and  dei)icted  a  camel, 
which  was  called  gamalu.  The  names  of  the 
several  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet  and 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  have 
long  been  familiar  to  the  English  reader, 
from  their  having  been  used  to  mark  the 
divisions  of  the  119th  Psalm.  The  E.  V.  gives 
in   addition   the  later  forms  of  the  letters 


Alphaeus 


28 


Altar 


themselves,  i.  e.  the  square  characters  intro- 
duced after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  twenty- 
two  in  number.  The  Hebrew  Bil)le  has  other 
alphabetical  psalms  than  the  119th,  though 
the  fact  is  hot  ascertainable  from  the  English 
versions ;  see  Psalms  and  Lamkntations. 
To  transliterate  the  Hebrew  letters  is  to  sub- 
stitute for  them  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
equivalent  Soman  characters.  There  are 
different  methods  of  transliterating  some  of 
the  letters.  In  the  i>resent  work  Ale]ili  is 
represented  by  the  smooth  l)reatliing  '  and 
Ain  by  the  rough  breathing  ',  Heth  by  h, 
Teth  by  t,  Jod  when  a  consonant  by  y, 
Tzaddi  by  .s,  Koph  by  k,  Shin  by  sh.  The 
other  letters  require  neither  ex])lanation  nor 
diacritical  point.  In  the  N.  T.  two  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet  are  mentioned.  Alpha, 
the  tirst,  and  Omega,  the  last.  In  translating 
this  alphal)et,  Ej)silon  is  represented  by  e. 
Eta  by  e,  Theta  br  th,  Xi  by  x,  Omikron  by 
o,  Upsilon  by  u.  Phi  by  ph,  Chi  by  ch,  Psi  by 
ps,  and  Omega  by  o. 

Al-phse'us  [jierhaps,  tran.sient]. 

1.  The  husband  of  one  of  the  Marys,  and 
father  of  .James  the  less  and  Joses  (Mat.  x.  3  ; 
Mark  xv.  40).  He  was  scarcely  Clojias,  in 
A.  V.  Cleophas  /John  xix.  25,  with  Mark  xv. 
40),  for  Clopas  cannot  be  shown  to  be,  like 
Ali)hjeus,  a  Greek  modification  of  the  Hebi-ew 
name  Halpay.    See  James  2. 

2.  The  father  of  Levi  or  Matthew  (Mark  ii. 
14;  cp.  Mat.  ix.  9). 

Al'tar. 

An  elevated  structure  on  which  incense  is 
burned  or  sacrifice  ofi'ered  to  the  deity.  It 
might  be  a  mound  of  earth  ;  or  a  huge  stone 
or  a  platform  built  of  several  stones,  dressed 
or  undressed  ;  or  an  object  of  similar  shape 
made  of  metal.  In  patriarchal  times,  wor- 
shipers reared  altars  wherever  they  pitched 
their  tents  or  had  special  occasion  to  sacrifice 
to  God  (Gen.  viii.  20;  xii.  7 ;  xxii.  9 ;  xxxv.  1,  7; 
Ex.  xvii.  l.T  ;  xxiv.  4).  The  fundamental  law 
of  the  Hebrew  altar,  which  was  embodied  in 
the  theocratic  covenant  and  was  given  at 
Sinai  before  the  tabernacle  was  built,  enjoined 
the  erection  of  an  altar  of  earth  or  stone 
wherever  .Jehovah  should  manifi?st  himself. 
This  law  was  the  primary  warrant  for  the 
altars  at  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  where 
Jehovah's  presence  continually  was,  and  for 
the  transient  altars  and  sacrifices  on  occasions 
of  theophanies(Judg.  ii.  5,  etc.). 

The  tabernacle  had  two  altars:  1.  The 
brazen  altar  or  altar  of  burnt  offer'nifi,  \vhich 
stood  in  the  outer  court  and  directly  in  front 
of  the  door  of  the  tabernach!.  It  was  ii  (dibits 
square  and  3  high.  It  consisted  of  a  hollow 
frame  of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  brass,  and 
it  was  furnished  with  rings  and  staves  that  it 
might  be  transported  from  i)lace  to  place.  On 
its  upper  corners  were  projections  called 
horns.  It  was  without  steps,  but  had  a  ledge 
round  about  it,  midway  between  the;  bottom 


and  the  top  for  the  |)riests  to  stand  on.  It 
was  probably  intended  to  he  filled  with  earth. 
All  sacrifices  were  ottci-ed  at  this  altar.  Its 
position  at  tlie  very  threshold  taught  dis- 
tinctly that  mau  has  no  access  to  Jehovah 


Ancient  Assyrian  .Stone  Altar. 


except  as  a  sinner  atoned  for  by  blood  \  Ex. 
xxvii.  1-8;  XXX.  28;  xxxviii.30;  xl.  29;  cp.  1 
Kin.  i.  50  ;  Ps.  cxviii.  27).  2.  The  (lolden  altar, 
or  altar  of  incense,  which  stood  in  the  holy 
place  before  the  veil  that  hung  before  the 
mercy  seat.  It  was  a  cubit  .scjuare  and  two 
cubits  high,  and  was  made  of  acacia  wood 
overlaid  with  gold,  with  a  border  of  gold 
about  its  top,  horns  at  its  corners,  and  two 
golden  rings  at  each  side  for  staves.  Incen.se 
of  prescribed  ingredients,  lighted  by  fire  from 
the  brazen  altar,  was  burned  on  it  morning 
and  evening  when  the  light  of  the  candle- 
stick was  seen  to.  It  symbolized  the  obliga- 
tory and  acceptable  adoration  of  God  by  his 
people  (Ex.  xxx.  1-10,  28,  34-37 ;  xl.  .5 ;  cp. 
Heb.  ix.  4  and  1  Kin.  vi.  22  ;  Lev.  xvi.  18, 19). 
When  Solomon's  temple  was  built,  the  new 
brazen  altar  had  nearly  four  times  the  di- 
mensions of  the  old  (1  Kin.  viii.  64  ;  2  Chron. 
iv.  1).  A  new  golden  altar  was  also  made 
(1  Kin.  vii.  48;  2  Chron.  iv.  19). 

These  were  the  only  permanent  altars  on 
which  sacrifices  or  incense  could  be  accepta- 
bly offered  (Deut.  xii.  2,  5,  (i,  7).  But  the 
rearing  of  altars  and  offering  of  sacrifice  in 
other  places  where  God  manifested  himself 
was  authorized  by  the  fundamental  law  ;  and 
the  privilege  was  embraced,  as  for  example, 
by  the  Israelites  at  Eochim,  by  Gideon,  by 
Manoah  (Judg.  ii.  1-5;  vi.  20-25;  xiii.  15-23). 
And  .J(jshua  erected  an  altar  on  mount  Ebal 
to  serve  for  a  single  occasion.  As  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel  were  assembled  for  a  na- 
tional function,  and  the  ark  of  the  cov- 
enant was  present,  this  altar  was  for  the 
time  being  the  national  altar  i.Josh.  viii. 
30-35),  and  (piite  in  the  spii-jt  of  the  Deut- 
eronomic  legislation  (Deut.  xxvii.  5-8).  The 
law  of  the  altar  was  necessarily  in  abeyance 
twice.  1.  When  God  forsook  the  tabernacle 
and  the  ark  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Philis- 
tines,  or  in   dreaded  seclusion   at    Kirjath- 


Altashheth 


29 


Amana 


jearim,  there  was  no  place  where  Jehovah 
manifested  hituseif  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  60-64  ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  '20-vii.  4).  Samuel,  as  the  prophet  and 
representative  of  Jehovah,  erected  an  altar 
at  Ramah  and  sacrificed  in  several  places 
(1  Sam.  vii.  9,  17).  Out  of  the  confusion  of 
worship  caused  by  the  capture  of  the  ark, 
the  domination  of  the  Philistines,  and  the 
political  complications  connected  with  Saul 
and  David,  there  arose  and  continued  for  a 
time  two  high  priests  and  two  altars,  the 
original  altar  at  the  original  tabernacle  and 
a  new  altar  near  the  ark  in  Jerusalem  (1  Kin. 
ill.  2,4.  1,5;  2  Chron.  i.  3-6).  2.  When  the 
Ten  Tribes  revolted,  the  pious  Israelites  of 
the  north  who  were  debarred  the  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem  were  compelled  either  to  abstain 
from  worshiping  Jehovah  by  sacrifice,  or  else 
to  erect  local  altars.  They  chose  in  some  in- 
stances the  latter  alternative  (1  Kin.  xviii. 
30,  32  ;  xix.  10). 

After  the  exile,  at  a  time  when  the  in- 
.sistance  of  Deuteronomy  upon  one  central, 
national  altar  iiad  long  been  known,  the 
Jews  who  were  living  at  Yeb  in  Upper 
Egypt  in  the  sixth  century  before  (^^'hrist, 
and  in  the  .second  century  before  Christ 
those  Jews  dwelling  near  Leontopolis,  ven- 
tured to  build  in  eacli  of  these  places  a  local 
temple  to  Jehovah  and  to  erect  an  altar  and 
offer  sacrifices  on  it  to  the  God  of  heaven 
(Elephantine  papyri ;  Antiq.  xiii.3,  1;  War, 
vii.  10,  2  and  3). 

Altars  were  not  always  intended  for  sac- 
rifices or  for  the  burning  of  incense;  the 
two  and  a  half  tribes  who  settled  east  of  the 
Jordan  built  an  altar  designed  to  be  a  me- 
morial of  their  aflinity  in  blood  to  the  other 
ti-ibes.  who  crossed  the  I'iver  (Josh,  xxii, 
10-34). 

Al-tash'heth,  in  A.  V.  less  accurately  Al- 
taschitli  [do  not  destroy]. 

A  compound  word  occurring  in  the  titles 
of  Psalms  Ivii.,  Iviii.,  lix.,and  Ixxv.,  all  11.  V. 
It  probably  refers,  like  Aijeleth  Shahar,  to 
the  name  of  some  Hebrew  melody  to  the 
tune  of  which  those  psalms  were  to  be  sung. 

A'lush  [tumult  of  men]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  between 
Egypt  and  mount  Sinai  i  Num.  xxxiii.  13.  14). 

Al'vah  or  A-li'ah  [high,  tall,  thick].  For 
variation  in  spelling  perhaps  cp.  Vau. 

A  duke  of  Edom,  descended  from  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  40;  1  Chron.  i.  51).  He  prob- 
ably bears  the  name  of  his  district  (43). 

Al'van  or  A-li'an  [high,  tall] .  For  variation 
in  form  perhaps  cp.  Vau. 

A  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23;  1  C'hrou.  i.  40). 

A'mad  [people  of  duration  or,  better,  sta- 
tion, domicile]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26). 
Not  identified. 

A'mal  [labor,  sorrow]. 
An  A-sherite,  son   of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35).  I 


Am'a-lek. 

Son  of  Eliphaz,  Esjiu's  son,  by  his  concu- 
bine Timna  (Gen.  xxxvi.  12) ;  or,  collectively 
the  Amalekites  (Ex.  xvii.  8;  Num.  xxiv.  20- 
Dent.  XXV.  17;  Judg.  v.  14,  etc.).  ' 

Am'a-lek-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi  1-^) 
For  a  long  time  they  were  centered  about 
Kadesh-barnea.  In  this  neighi)orhoo(l  thev 
dwelt  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  (Num.  xiii 
29 ;  XIV.  25).  The  territory  occupied  bv  theni 
was  visible  from  the  mountains  of  Abarim 
(Num.  xxiv.  20;  Deut.  xxxiv.  1-3).  Thev 
were  among  the  foremo.st  people  of  their  time 
in  that  part  of  the  world  (Num.  xxiv.  20).  A 
w;riter  after  the  era  of  the  exodus,  refer- 
ring to  ancient  events  which  occurred  in  that 
region,  could  .speak  proleptically  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  Amalekites.  Hence"  in  the  narra- 
tive "of  the  camjiaign  of  Chedoiiaonier  and 
his  allies  in  this  region,  it  is  said  that  these 
eastern  invaders  "came  to  Kadesh  and  smote," 
not  the  Amalekites  (as  one  would  expect  tlie 
writer  to  say,  after  the  manner  of  his  con- 
text, had  that  people  been  in  existence),  ))ut 
in  guarded  phrase  "all  the  countrv  of  the 
Amalekites"  (Gen.  xiv.  7).  From  their  cen- 
ter near  Kadesh,  the  people  roamed  and  their 
camps  radiated.  They  haras.sed  the  rear  of 
the  Israelites  soon  after  the  Hebrews  had  left 
Egypt  and  entered  the  wilderness;  and  at 
Eephidim  on  the  west  of  Sinai  they  engaged 
with  Israel  in  battle  and  were  defeated.  Be- 
cause of  their  hostility  to  Israel,  their  utterde- 
struction  was  authorized  (Ex.  xvii.  8-16;  Deut. 
XXV.  17-19).  A  year  later,  when  Israel  had 
reached  Kadesh,  and  in  defiance  of  God  at- 
tempted to  push  northward  into  Canaan,  the 
Amalekites  opposed  and  repulsed  them  (Num. 
xiv.  43-45).  About  that  date  perhaps  or  later, 
their  name  became  attached  to  a  hill  district 
in  Ephraim  (Judg.  xii.  15;  cp.  v.  14).  Soon 
after  the  time  of  Moses  and  Joshua,  they 
aided  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  to  wrest  Jericho 
from  the  Israelites;  and  a  few  generations 
later  they  were  allied  with  the  Midianites  in 
oppressing  northern  Israel  (Judg.  iii.  13  :  vi. 
3,  ,33).  Evidently  they  had  been  working 
their  way  eastward,  in  friendly  intercourse 
with  other  inhabitants  of  the  desert ;  and 
in  Saul's  time  their  bauds  were  found  roam- 
ing through  a  stretch  of  perhaps  five  or  six 
hundred  miles  of  wilderness  from  the  border 
of  Egypt,  near  their  original  seat,  to  Havilali. 
a  designation  which  includes  northern  cen- 
tral Arabia  (1  Sam.  xv.  7;  xxvii.  8).  They 
sufiered  crushing  defeat  from  Saul,  their  king 
was  captured  and  slain,  and  they  presently 
disappear  from  Hebrew  history. 

A'mam  [perhaps.collection  or  conjunction]. 
A  village  of  Judah  in  the  southland  (Josh. 
XV.  26). 

Am'a-na  [firmness,  a  treaty]. 

The  mountains  of  Anti-Lebanon,  doubtless 
those  in  which  the  Abanah  or,  as  it  is  also 
called,  Amanah  takes  its  rise  (Song  iv.  8). 


Amariah 


30 


Amber 


Am-a-ri  ah'  [Jehovah  hath  said  or  prom- 
i.sfdj. 

1.  Son  of  Meraioth,  a  priest  descended  from 
Phinehas  (1  C'hron.  vi.  7). 

2.  A  priest  in  the  same  high-priestly  line  of 
descent,  a  son  of  Azariah  (1  C'hron.  vi.  11 ; 
Ezra  vii.  3). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  2,  7).  A 
father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the  next  gen- 
eration (ver.  13). 

4.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Neh.  x.  3). 

5.  A  man  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife, 
whom  Ezra  made  him  divorce  (Ezra  x.  42). 

6.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 

7.  A  son  of  Hezekiah,  and  an  ancestor  of 
the  prophet  Zephaniah  (Zeph.  i.  1,  E.  V.). 

8.  A  chief  priest  in  Jehoshaphat's  time  (2 
Chron.  xix.  11). 

9.  A  Levite,  descended  through  Kohath 
and  Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23). 

10.  An  assistant  distributor  of  the  freewill 
offerings  of  God  in  Hezekiah's  time  (2  Chron. 
xsxi.  14,  15). 

Am'a-sa  [a  burden]. 

1.  The  son  of  David's  half-sister  Abigail 
and  Jether  an  Ishmaelite  (1  Chron.  ii.  17). 
He  was  Joab's  cousin  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  Ab- 
salom appointed  Amasa  captain  of  his  army 
(ibid.).  After  Absalom's  defeat  and  death. 
Amasa  was  forgiven  by  David  and  appointed 
commander-in-chief  in  supersession  of  Joab 
(2  Sam.  xix.  13).  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolt  headed  by  Sheba,  Amasa  received 
orders  to  have  an  army  in  readiness  to  start 
in  three  days.  He  was  behind  his  time  ;  and 
Abishai  was  sent  with  troops,  among  whom 
Joab  was,  after  Sheba.  The  two  companies 
united  at  Gibeon  ;  and  Joab,  under  pretext 
of  greeting  Amasa  with  a  kiss,  stabbed  him 
(2  Sam.  XX.  1-13).     Compare  Amas.vi  2. 

2.  A  prince  of  Ephraim  and  son  of  Hadlai. 
When  captives  from  Judah  were  being  car- 
ried off  by  the  Israelite  army  under  Pekah, 
he  aided  in  securing  their  release  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  12). 

Am'a-sai  [burdensome]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  Kohathite  family,  de- 
scended through  Abiasaph  and  an  ancestor 
of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chron.  vi.  35).  Ama- 
sai  in  ver.  25  is  perhaps  a  different  person  of 
the  same  family  and  name,  but  descended 
from  the  brother  of  Abiasaph  ( Ex.  vi.  24). 

2.  A  chief  who  early  joined  David  and  at 
one  time  was  a  prominent  captain  (1  Chron. 
xii.  18).  Perhaps  he  was  David's  nephew 
Amasa. 

3.  A  Levite  who  blew  a  trumpet  before  the 
ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

4.  A  Kohathite  whose  son  aided  in  the  re- 
ligious revival  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  12). 


Am'a-shai,  in  R.  V.  Amashsai  [jierhaps,, 
two  variant  si)ellings  (jf  Auiasai  combined]. 

A  priest,  the  son  of  Azareel.  He  lived  in 
Jerusalem,  at  Nehemiah's  request  (Neh.  xi. 
13). 

Am-a-si'ah  [Jehovah  hath  borne]. 

A  son  of  Zichri,  and  high  military  officer 
under  Jehosliaphat  (2  Chron.  svii.  16j. 

Am-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  A  king  of  Judah  who,  about  804  B.  c,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  undertook  the 
conduct  of  the  government  in  behalf  of  his 
father  Joash,  who  had  become  incapacitated 
by  reason  of  sore  disease.  Onthemurder  of  his 
father  in  802  b.  c,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne 
(2  Kin.  xiv.  1 ;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  25-27).  When 
he  found  himself  firmly  established  in  power, 
he  put  the  murderers  of  his  father  to  death  ; 
but  spared  their  children,  in  conformity  witli 
the  principle  laid  down  on  the  subject  in  the 
Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxiv.  16).  He  hired  100,000 
Israelitish  mercenaries  to  accompany  him  on 
an  expedition  against  the  Edomites,  but  at 
the  command  of  a  man  of  God  he  dismissed 
them  and,  taking  the  forces  of  Judah  alone, 
defeated  the  Edomites  in  the  Valley  of  Salt 
and  captured  their  capital,  Selah.  But  he 
brought  back  idols  of  the  Edomites,  and  set 
them  up  for  his  gods.  The  dismissed  Israel- 
ites on  their  way  home  plundered  the  cities 
of  Judah  north  of  Beth-boron.  Amaziah, 
following  bad  advice,  challenged  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel,  to  fight,  but  he  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  at  Beth  shemesh,  taken  prisoner, 
and  carried  to  Jerusalem.  Part  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem,  his  capital,  was  broken  down 
by  Jehoash,  and  treasure  and  hostages  were 
taken  by  him  to  Samaria.  About  the  year 
787  B.  c.  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
Amaziah  in  Jerusalem.  He  fled  to  Lachish, 
but  twelve  years  later  was  sought  out  there 
and  murdered.  He  reigned  twenty -nine  years 
(2  Kin.  xiv.  1-20 ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  1-27). 

2.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  34). 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari  (1  Chron. 
vi.45). 

4.  Priest  of  Bethel,  who  tried  to  silence  the 
prophet  Amos  (Amos  vii.  10-17). 

Am'ber. 

The  hardened  or  fossilized  resin  of  a  now 
extinct  ]>ine  tree  {Pinus  succimfer)  allied  to 
the  Norway  spruce  or  to  the  Silver  fir.  That 
it  was  originally  fluid  is  plain  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  found  to  enclose  numerous  remains 
of  plants  and  of  insects.  The  pines  jiro- 
ducing  it  grew  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
what  is  now  the  bed  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  it  is 
still  picked  up  on  the  southern  shore  of  tliat 
sea.  It  was  regarded  as  a  gem,  and  early  be- 
came an  oliject  of  commerce  over  regions  very 
remote  from  the  Baltic  Sea.  It  is  generally 
yellow,  and  that  is  the  cfplor  of  amber  referred 
to  in  Ezek.  i.  4,  27;  viii.  2,  A.  V.,  E.  E.  V., 
and  margin  of  A.  E.  V.  It  is  mentioned  on 
the  margin  of  Ex.  xxviii.  19,  R.  V. 


Amen 


Ammonites 


A'men'  [firm,  established]. 

1.  Jesus,  as  the  faithful  aud  true  One  (Rev. 
iii.  14;  cp.  Is.  Ixv.  Iti,  R.  V.  margin). 

2.  Au  interjection,  "  So  be  it,"  "  May  it  be" 
as  has  been  asked,  said,  promised,  or  threat- 
ened (Mat.  vi.  13  ;  Deut.  xxvii.  16-26  ;  2  Cor.  i. 
20).  To  render  it  more  emphatic,  it  is  some- 
times redoubled  (Num.  v.  22).  Jesus  begins 
many  of  his  sayings  with  this  word,  which 
is  then  translated  "verily."  This  idiom  is 
peculiar  to  him. 

Am'e-thyst  [the  Hebrew  name  suggests 
dream-stone]. 

A  precious  stone,  believed  to  be  intended 
by  the  Hebrew  name  for  the  last  gem  in  the 
third  row  on  the  Jewish  high  priest's  breast- 
plate (Ex.  xxviii.  19;  xxxix.  12).  The  ame- 
thyst formed  the  twelfth  foundation  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  is  a  glassy, 
clear,  purple  or  bluish  violet  variety  of 
quartz,  the  color,  it  is  believed,  being  pro- 
duced by  manganese.  The  Hebrews  could 
obtain  it  in  Edora,  Egypt,  Galatia,  or  Cyprus  ; 
but  finer  specimens  came  from  India  and 
Spain. 

A'mi.     See  Amon  I,  3. 

A-min'a-dab.     See  Amminadab. 

A-mit'tai  [truthful]. 

The  father  of  Jonah  the  prophet  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  25  ;  Jonah  i.  1). 

Am'mah  [mother  of  anything  in  a  figura- 
tive sense  ;  beginning,  foundation]. 

A  hill  near  Giah,  on  the  road  from  Gibeon 
through  the  wilderness  to  the  Jordan  (2 
Sam.  ii.  24 ;  cp.  16,  29).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Am'mi  [my  people]  (Hos.  ii.  1). 

Am'mi-el  [one  of  the  family,  or  a  devoted 
ally,  is  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Gemalli,  and  representative  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  on  the  commission  to  spy  out 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  12). 

2.  A  man  of  Lo-debar.  and  father  of  Machir 
(2  Sam.  ix.  4,  .5;  xvii.  27). 

3.  A  .son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
5). 

4.  Father  of  Bath-sheba  (1  Chron.  iii.  5) ; 
see  Eliam. 

Am-mi'liud  [kinsman  of  praiseworthiness, 
or  an  ally  is  the  praiseworthy  one]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  descended  through  Ta- 
han,  and  father  of  Elishama  (Num.  i.  10 ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  26). 

2.  A  man  of  Simeon,  and  father  of  Shemuel 
(Num.  xxxiv.  20). 

3.  A  man  of  Naphtali,  and  father  of  Peda- 
hel  (Num.  xxxiv.  28). 

4.  Father  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  37).  In  the  Hebrew  text  the  name 
is  written  with  h  and  r  instead  of  h  and  d, 
but  is  traditionally  pronounced  Animihud. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
(1  Chron.  ix.  4,  R.  V.). 


Am-mi'hur  [perhaps,  kinsman  of  nobility]. 
See  Ammihi'I)  4. 

Am-min'a-dab,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Amina- 
dab  [the  peojilc  or  kinsman  is  generous]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Ram  (1  Chron.  ii.  10).  He  was  the 
father  of  Nahshon,  the  prince  of  Judah  (Num. 
i.  7),  father-in-law  of  Aaron  the  priest  (Ex. 
vi.  23),  and  an  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  iv. 
19;  Mat.  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  33). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel.  He  was  head  of  his  father's  house 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  10,  11 ;  cp.  Ex. 
vi.  18,  22). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron. 
vi.  22).  The  genealogies  of  Kohath,  how- 
ever, regularly  have  the  name  Izhar  in  this 
place  (vs.  37,  38;  Ex.  vi.  18,  21,  24),  so  that 
Amminadab  is  probably  either  another  name 
of  Izhar  or  a  corruption  of  the  genealogy. 

Am-min'a-dib  [my  princely  willing  people, 
or  the  people  is  generous]. 

If  a  proper  name,  which  is  doubtful,  then 
it  is  some  one  famous  for  his  chariots  (Song 
vi.  12;  cp.  text  and  margin). 

Am'mi-sliad'dai  [an  ally  or  kinsman  is  the 
Almighty]. 

A  Danite,  father  of  Ahiezer  (Num.  i.  12  ;  ii. 

25). 

Am-miz'a-bad  [the  kinsman  hath  en- 
dowed]. 

A  son  of  David's  mighty  man  Benaiah  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  6). 

Am'mon  [pertaining  to  the  nation]. 

An  adjective  which  paraphrases  the  name 
of  Ben-ammi,  Lot's  younger  son,  ancestor  of 
the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Am'mon-ites. 

A  people  descended  from  Ben-ammi,  Lot's 
second  son  (Gen.  xix.  38).  They  dispossessed 
the  Zamzummim  of  the  territory  between  the 
Arnon  and  the  Jabbok  (Deut.  ii.  20,  21 ;  iii. 
11) ;  but  were  in  turn  driven  out  by  the 
Amorites  and  compelled  to  keep  on  the  bor- 
der of  the  eastern  desert,  with  the  upper 
Jabbok  as  their  western  boundary  (Num.  xxi. 
24  ;  Deut.  ii.  37  ;  Judg.  xi.  13,  22).  For  hav- 
ing joined  the  Moabites  in  hiring  Balaam 
to  curse  the  Israelites,  they  were  excluded 
from  the  congregation  of  the  Lord  to  the  tenth 
generation  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6).  They  aided 
Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  in  subjugating  a  por- 
tion of  the  Israelites  (Judg.  iii.  13).  In  the 
time  of  Jephthah  they  again  oppressed  the 
Israelites  east  of  Jordan  (Judg.  x.  6.  9,  18). 
Just  before  Saul  became  actual  king,  Nahash, 
the  Ammonite  king,  besieged  Jabesh-gilead. 
Saul  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  beleaguered 
citizens,  and  totally  defeated  Xaliash  (1  Sam. 
xi.  1-11).  Nahash  l)efrien(led  David  ;  doing 
this,  perhaps,  because  ])oth  were  enemies  of 
Saul.  On  the  death  of  Nahash,  David  sent 
an  embassy  to  his  son,  Hanun  ;  but  the  am- 
bassadors were  insulted,  and  war  supervened. 


Amnon 


32 


Amorites 


lu  the  first  campaign,  the  confederate  Syrians 
and  Ammonites  were  defeated  by  the  Israel- 
ites, led  by  Joab  and  Abishai  (2  Sam.  x.  1-19  ; 
1  Chron.  xix.  1-19).  In  the  second,  the  Israel- 
ites caj)tured  Eabbah,  the  Ammonite  capital 
(2  Sam.  xi.,  xii. ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3).  Solo- 
mon took  several  Ammonite  women  as  wives 
(1  Kin.  xi.  1).  In  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Edoniites  unsuc- 
cessfully invaded  Judah  (2  Chron.  xx.  1-30), 
To  Uzziah  and  Jotham  the  Ammonites  sent 
tribute  (xxvi.  8;  xxvii.5).  Ammonites  joined 
with  others  in  vexing  Jehoiakim  [2  Kin. 
xxiv.  2)  ;  and  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
they  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  Jews  to 
form  a  new  community  (xxv.  25  ;  Jer.  xl.  11- 
14).  As  inveterate  enemies  of  Israel,  they 
were  denounced  by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xlix. 
1-6  ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20;  xxv.  1-7  ;  Amos  i.  13-15 ; 
Zeph.  ii.  8-11).  They  opposed  the  rebuilding 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  the  returned  ex- 
iles (Neh.  iv.  3, 7) ;  yet  intermarriages  Ixtween 
them  and  the  Israelites  took  jilace,  wliich 
were  censured  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Ezra 
ix.  1,  2 ;  Neh.  xiii.  23-31).  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
under  strong  provocation,  made  war  against 
them  (1  Mac.  v.  1-8).  They  are  mentioned 
as  late  as  the  second  Christian  century.  Their 
chief  deity  was  Milcom,  another  designation 
of  Molech  (1  Kin.  xi.  7,  33).  In  the  time  of 
Jei)hthah  they  were  worshiping  Chemosh, 
the  Moabite  god  (Judg.  xi.  24). 

Am'non  [faithful]. 

1.  A  sou  of  David  by  Ahinoam,  the  Jezreel- 
itess ;  l)orn  at  Hebron  while  that  was  his 
father's  capital.  He  behaved  scandalously  to 
Tamar,  his  half-sister,  and  was  in  consequence 
murdered  by  her  full  brother  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  and  1  Cliron.  iii.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Sliimon,  registered  with  the 
tribe  of  Judah  U  Chron.  iv.  20). 

A'mok  [deep]. 

A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  20). 

A'mon,  I.  [security  or  handicraftsman]. 

1.  Governor  of  the  city  of  Samaria  under 
Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10,  26). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two  succeeded  his  father  Manasseh. 
He  fallowed  his  father's  bad  example.  In 
two  years  his  servants  murdered  him  in  his 
l>alace.  The  ]ie(j]ile  of  the  land  put  the  mur- 
derers to  death,  and  placed  his  son  Josiah  on 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  19-26 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
21-25). 

3.  One  of  the  class  known  as  the  children 
of  Solomon's  servants  (Neh.  vii.  59);  called 
Ami  in  Iilzra  ii.  57. 

A'mon,  II.  [Egyptian  Amen,  the  hidden 
one,  the  unseen  l)eing]. 

The  chief  divinity  of  Thebes,  named  after 
him  No-amon,  the  ca])ital  of  Upper  Egvpt 
(Jer.  xlvi.  25,  R.  Y. ;  Nah.  iii.  8,  R.  V.).     the 


Hyksos  were  expelled  from  Egypt  under  his 
ensign,  and  he  consequently  became  head  of 
the  pantheon,  and  was  called  the  successor 
of  Ea.     He  was  represented  as  wearing  two 


The  Egyptian  God  Amon. 

plumes  of  hawk's  feathers,  a  disk,  and  a  red 
cap. 

Am'o-rites  [commonly  explained  as  "moun- 
taineers," but  this  explanation  is  question- 
able]. 

One  of  the  tribes  who  occupied  Canaan  be- 
fore the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  He- 
brews (Gen.  X.  16  ;  xv.  21 ;  Ex.  iii.  8).  At  the 
time  of  Abraham,  they  dwelt  at  least  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  back  on  the 
mountain  (Gen.  xiv.  7,  13).  Even  then  they 
were  the  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  hill  coun- 
try, and  their  name  was  u.sed  as  synonym  for 
the  inhabitants  of  that  region  generally  (xv. 
16),  if  not,  as  later  when  their  power  had 
further  increased,  for  the  inhabitants  of 
Canaan  generally  (xxxiv.  2  with  xlviii.  22 ; 
Josh.  vii.  7:  ix.  7  and  xi.  19  with  2  Sam.  xxi. 
2;  Judg.  vi.  10;  Amos  ii.  10).  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  they  were  still  in  the  hill 
country  (Num.  xiii.  29  :  Deut.  i.  7,  19,  20,  44  ; 
they  could  of  course  be  called  Canaanites, 
Num.  xiv.  45)  ;  but  before  this  date  they  had 
carried  their  conquests  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxi.  26-30),  and  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  land  from  the  Anion  to  mount 
Hermon  and  from  the  wilderness  to  the  Jor- 
dan (Deut.  iii.  8;  iv.  48;  Josh.  ii.  10;  ix.  10; 


Amos 


33 


Amos 


Judg.  xi.  22).  At  this  time  they  occupied  the 
entire  hill  country  west  of  Jordan  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Hebron,  and  westward  to  and  inclu- 
sive of  the  Shephelah  (Josh,  x.o,  (i)  as  far  north 
as  Aijalon  and  even  the  territory  of  Ephraim 
(Judg.  i.  'd't;  Josh.  xi.  3;  xiii.  4).  For  their 
wickedness  they  were  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion ;  hut  a  strong  remnant  remained  in  the 
land  after  the  conquest  (,Tudg.  i.  35;  iii.  5), 
with  whom  in  Samuel's  day  there  was  peace 
(1  Sam.  vii.  14),  and  who  with  other  survivors 
of  the  eai'lier  races  were  mide  bondservants 
by  Solomon  (1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21;  2  Chron. 
viii.  7). 

A'mos  [burden;  burden -bearer]. 

1.  A  prophet,  a  citizen  of  Tekoa,  in  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  about  six 
miles  south  of  Bethlehem  (Amosi.  1).  He 
belonged  to  the  huml)ler  class.  He  was  a 
herdsman ;  one  of  a  number  of  shepherds 
who  had  their  home  at  Tekoa,  but  doubtless 
si>ent  their  lives  out  in  the  wilderness  that 
extends  from  the  village  eastward  to  the 
Dead  Sea,  engaged  in  raising  and  tending 
sheep.  In  some  sheltered  spot  in  this  wild 
region,  down  on  the  lower  level  toward  the 
sea,  he  found  further  humble  employment  as 
a  dresser  of  sycomore  trees  (i.  1  ;  vii.  14,  15). 
From  the  acquaintance  which  he  displays 
with  distant  places  and  events,  it  seems 
probable  that  he  had  driven  sheep  or  carried 
hides  and  wool  as  far  as  Egypt  and  Damas- 
cus. Although  a  man  of  Judah,  he  was  called 
to  prophesy  in  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes. 
He  appeared  at  Bethel,  then  the  king's  sanc- 
tuary and  a  royal  house,  which  still  had 
within  it  one  of  the  two  golden  calves  reared 
by  Jeroboam  I.  as  objects  of  worship  (viii. 
14;  Hos.  viii.  5,  6;  x.  5).  Amos  spoke  with 
such  freedom  and  faithfulness  against  the 
sins  of  the  king  and  the  people  that  Ama- 
ziah,  the  idolatrous  priest  at  Bethel,  sent 
word  to  king  Jeroboam  II.  that  Amos  was 
conspiring  against  him  in  his  own  kingdom 
(Auios  vii.  10).  The  time  and  circumstances 
of  Amos'  death  are  unknown. 

Amos  knew  Clod  as  omnipotent,  the  God 
of  creation  and  providence,  the  sovereign 
ruler  of  individuals  and  nations,  inflexible 
in  justice,  whose  power  reaches  unto  sheol 
and  who  knows  the  thoughts  of  men.  And 
Amos  was  a  shrewd  observer  of  men  and 
manners,  and  able  to  reflect  upon  what  he 
saw,  and  to  generalize  and  look  at  it  iu  its 
relation  to  God. 

The  prophecy  of  Amos  is  a  fine  example  of 
pure  Hebrew  style.  The  diction  is  simple, 
and  yet  the  speech  is  dignified  and  imiiress- 
ive.  The  prophet  uses  imagery  with  mod- 
eration, but  with  effect;  and  he  has  coined 
not  a  few  striking  phrases  that  have  gained 
currency  in  modern  speech  (e.  q.  iii.  3,  6  iv. 
11,  12;  vi.  1).  Amos  is  not  so  tender  in  liis 
entreaty  or  so  full  of  feeling  as  Ho.sea  is  at 
times,  who  belonged  to  the  people  among 
whom  he  labored  ;  but  there  is  a  certain  air 
3 


of  aloofness  about  Amos,  natural  enough  in  a 
projiliet  from  another  tribe  and  kingdom, 
and  he  pronounces  the  impersonal  judgment 
of  one  whose  ties  of  blood  are  not  close  with 
the  i)eople  whom  he  addresses. 

The  book  of  Amos  is  the  third  of  the  minor 
prophets.  Amos  prophesied  after  the  time 
of  Hazael  and  Benhadad  (i.  4),  in  the  days 
of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah.  and  in  the  days  of 
Jeroboam,  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  two 
years  before  the  earthquake  (i.  1 ;  vii.  10;  cp. 
Zech.  xiv.  5),  and  probably  while  the  king- 
dom was  at  its  greatest  extent  (Amos  vi.  14  ; 
cp.  2  Kin.  xiv.  25).  He  uttered  his  message 
before  Hosea  delivered  the  discourses  em- 
bodied iu  Hos.  iv.-xiv. :  for  the  social  and 
religious  condition  of  Israel,  as  reflected  in 
the  pages  of  Amos,  seems  not  to  be  so  desper- 
ate as  Hosea  depicts  during  the  years  of 
assassination,  conflict,  and  misrule  which  en- 
sued upon  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II.  ;  and 
Amos  does  not,  like  Hosea  in  chaps,  iv.-xiv., 
allude  to  the  Assyrian  invasions,  probably 
because  they  had  not  begun. 

The  theme  of  the  prophecy  is  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Lord  (i.  2  ;  cp.  Joel  iii.  16) ;  and 
the  book  consists  of  three  parts:  1.  Intro- 
ductory (i.-ii.).  2.  Three  discourses  (iii.-vi.), 
followed  by  a  series  of  five  visions  (vii.-ix.  7). 
These  first  two  parts  of  the  book  are  de- 
nunciatory, and  each  subdivision  ends  with 
the  announcement  of  judgment  to  come. 
3.  Promissory  (ix.  8-15).  1.  In  the  intro- 
ductory section  (i.  2-ii.  16)  the  prophet  de- 
nounces judgment  upon  six  neighboring 
gentile  nations,  upon  .ludah,  and  finally  upon 
Israel.  The  first  seven  denunciations  are 
embraced  in  seven  stanzas  of  precisely  the 
same  structure,  are  opened  and  closed  in  the 
same  way,  and  are  linked  to  the  introduc- 
tory denunciation  of  Isi-ael,  to  which  they 
lead  up,  by  the  familiar  opening  formula. 
The  argument  .seems  to  be  :  If  these  heathen 
nations  are  to  be  punished,  how  much  more 
should  Judah  be,  which  has  sinned  again.st 
light ;  and  if  Judah  is  punished,  liow  much 
more  should  Israel  be,  which  has  sinned 
more  deejjly.  2.  Denunciation  of  Israel 
occupies  tile  body  of  the  book  (iii.  1-ix.  7). 
There  are  three  discourses,  each  begin- 
ning with  the  formula  "Hear  this  word" 
(iii.  1 ;  iv.  1 ;  v.  1),  followed  by  five  visions. 
In  the  first  vision  devouring  locusts  are  seen  ; 
but  at  the  prayer  of  the  prophet  God  forgives 
Israel  and  ends  the  work  of  devastation.  In 
the  second  vision  fire  is  seen,  which  devours 
the  waters  and  would  have  destroyed  the 
land  ;  but  again  at  the  prophet's  prayer  God 
makes  the  evil  to  cease.  Perhaps  an  actual 
invasion  of  locusts  occurred  during  the  min- 
istry of  the  prophet  Amos,  and  was  followed 
by  a  season  of  intense  heat  and  the  resulting 
drought  (cp.  Joel).  At  any  rate  the  two  visi- 
tati(jns  rejtresent  every  past  judgment  which 
has  hefalkn  Israel;  the  locusts  denoting  de- 
structive invaders,  either  devouring  insects 
or  hostile  armies,  and  the  fire  being  a  svm- 


Amos 


34 


Amram 


bol  of  God's  righteous  indignation  burning 
against  sin.  Most  probably  Amos  sees  in 
these  visions  the  past  calamities,  upon  which 
he  has  already  discoursed,  which  were  sent 
to  warn  Israel  and  were  checked  by  God's 
grace,  but  failed  to  bring  tlie  nation  to  re- 
pentance (iv.  6-11).  Therefore  the  people 
must  prepare  to  meet  their  God  in  judgment 
(iv.  Ir2) ;  and  the  third  vision,  that  of  the 
plumbline,  sliows  that  a  desolating  judgment 
is  certain  to  come  and  is  according  to  recti- 
tude (vii.  7-9).  At  this  point  the  prophet 
was  interrupted  by  the  priest  of  Bethel,  and 
forbidden  to  prophesy  ;  but  he  resumes  his 
recital.-'y[  In  the  fourth  vision  a  basket  of 
summey  n-uit  is  seen,  indicating  that  Israel 
is  ripe  (for  judgment,  yea,  in  God's  sight  is 
already  plucked  (viii.  1-3).  In  the  fifth  vis- 
ion Jehovah  is  seen  standing  beside  the  altar, 
doubtless  that  at  Bethel  (cp.  iii.  14),  and  com- 
manding to  smite  and  slay;  showing  that 
the  order  is  being  issued  for  the  judgment 
to  begin  (ix.  1-4).  3.  The  prophecy  con- 
cludes with  promises  (ix.  8-15) :  the  exile 
only  a  sifting  (8-10) ;  restoration  of  the  royal 
house  of  David  to  its  former  glory  (11) ;  ex- 
tension of  the  kingdom  over  Edoiu  and  other 
heathen  nations  (12):  restoration  of  Israel 
from  captivity  (13-1.5). 

The  text  of  Amos  has  been  transmitted  in 
excellent  condition.  The  genuineness  of  sev- 
eral passages,  however,  especially  of  ii.  4,  5 ; 
iv.  13 ;  V.  8,  9 :  ix.  5,  6  and  8^-15,  has  been 
questioned.  Against  the  genuineness  of  ii. 
4,  5,  it  is  urged,  first,  that  the  thought  and 
diction  are  Deuteronomic ;  and,  .secondly,  that 
the  indictment  against  Judah  is  conventional 
and  general  in  contrast  with  the  specific 
charges  brought  against  the  other  nations. 
But  1.  The  Deuteronomic  features,  seen  in 
the  references  to  the  rejection  of  the  law  of 
.Fehovah.  failure  to  keep  his  statutes,  and 
walking  after  other  god.s,  are  found  in  the 
writings  of  contemporaries  of  Amos  and 
earlier  (Ex.  xv.  26  ;  xviii.  16;  Is.  v.  24  ;  Hos. 
ii.  7,  15  ;  iv.  6).  2.  Regarding  the  indictment, 
it  has  the  formal  structure  of  each  arraign- 
ment in  the  series,  and  it  is  so  far  specific 
as  that  disobedience  to  .Jehovali's  commands 
and  idolatry  are  concept  ions  definite  enough 
in  prophetic  thought  to  be  specific  charges 
(cp.  Is.  i.  2-4  ;  Hos.  viii.  1 ;  Jer.  i.  16  ;  ii.  4-8). 
And  3.  These  two  verses  (Amos  ii.  4,  5)  can- 
not bo  removed,  and  the  accusation  against 
.Tudah  omitted,  without  altering  the  nature 
of  the  argument  and  disturbing  its  progress 
(Driver,  .Joel  and  Amos,  ji.  117;  Vos,  Presb. 
and  Ref.  Rev.,  ix.  226).  The  three  passages, 
iv.  13;  V.  8,  9;  and  ix.  5,  6,  of  which  also 
the  genuineness  has  been  called  in  ques- 
tion, are  descriptive  of  .Jehovah  ;  and  they 
are  rejected  on  the  theory,  first,  that  the  doc- 
trine of  God  which  finds  expression  in  these 
verses  does  not  become  prominent  in  Hebrew 
literature  until  the  period  of  the  exile;  sec- 
ondly, such  ejaculations  in  praise  of  .Jehovah's 
power  are  in  the  manner  of  the  later  style 


of  Is.  xl.-lxvi. ;  and,  thirdly,  two  of  these 
passages,  iv.  13  and  ix.  5,  6,  are  not  closely 
connected  with  the  argument  of  the  context, 
while  V.  8,  9  actually  interrupts  it.  The  re- 
ply is  made  :  1.  It  is  true  that  these  passages 
"  might  be  omitted  without  causing  a  per- 
cei)tible  gap ;  but  the  same  is  true  of  a  great 
number  of  passages  whose  genuineness  is 
doubted  by  none.  In  all  three  places  they 
serve  to  lend  force  to  the  prediction  of  judg- 
ment by  declaring  the  transcendent  great- 
ness of  him  whose  the  judgment  is"  (Vos, 
loc.  cit.,  p.  227).  2.  "The  ejaculatory  form 
of  the  appeal,  especially  at  critical  points  of 
the  prophet's  discourse,  is  'not  surprising 
under  the  general  conditions  of  prophetic 
oratory  '  "  (Driver  quoting  Robertson  Smith), 
and  3.  "The  doctrine  of  .Jehovah's  lordship 
over  nature  is  in  agreement  with  Amos' 
teaching  elsewhere  (iv.  7ff. ;  vii.  1,  4  ;  ix.  3)  " 
(Driver)  ;  and,  it  may  be  added,  with  teach- 
ing that  antedates  the  prophecy  of  Amos 
and  found,  for  example,  in  Gen.  ii.-viii. ; 
xi. ;  xviii. ;  Ex.  vii.-xiv.  Of  the  promises 
of  good,  with  which  the  book  closes,  ix. 
8'>-15,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  pas- 
sage can  scarcely  have  been  the  original 
conclusion  of  Amos' vision  of  judgment,  be- 
cause it  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  prophecy 
in  phraseology,  conception,  and  outlook.  It 
is,  of  course,  a  matter  of  small  moment 
whether  it  was  written  by  Amos  at  tlie  time 
he  penned  the  visions  or  later.  No  ground 
has  been  found  for  rejecting  its  genuineness. 
The  prophets  frequently  annexed  to  the  pre- 
diction of  judgment  a  prophecy  of  hope.  The 
godly  needed  encouragement,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  show  the  caugruity  lietween 
the  overwhelming  judgment  and  God's  long- 
standing promise  of  the  stability  of  David's 
throne  and  the  perpetuity  and  triumph  of 
God's  kingdom  on  earth. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  25). 

A'moz  [powerful,  brave]. 

The  ju'ophet  Isaiah's  father  (Is.  i.  1,  etc.). 

Am-phip'o-lis  [a  city  pressed  on  all  .sides]. 

A  city  of  Thrace,  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Strymon  on  a  bend  of  the  river.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Athenians  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.  c. ,  and  called  Amphipolis  because 
nearly  surrounded  by  the  river.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  the  chief  town  of  JNIacedonia 
prima.  It  was  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  thiily- 
three  miles  southwest  of  Philipjii,  and  Paul 
accordingly  passed  through  it  while  traveling 
by  that  road  from  Philippi  to  Thessalonica 
(Acts  xvii.  1).  It  is  now  called  Enipoli  or 
Yamboli,  is  about  three  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  has  a  village,  Neokhorio  or  Jeni  Keui 
(New  Town),  on  part  of  its  site. 

Am-pli-a'tus,  in  A.  V.  Am'pli-as  [en- 
larged]. 

A  Christian  of  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  8). 

Am'ram,  I.  (1  Chron.  i.  41).  See  Hem- 
dan. 


Amram 


35 


Anak 


Am 'ram,  II.  [perhaps,  inexperience]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kohath,  husband  of 
Joehebed  and  founder  of  the  father's  house 
of  the  Amnimites,  who  in  the  time  of  Moses 
numbered  approximately  two  thousand  males 
(Num.  iii.  17,  19,  27, 28).  He  was  an  ancestor 
of  Aaron  and  Moses,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
137  years  (Ex.  vi.  20 ;  for  form  of  expression 
cp.  Gen.  xlvi.  16-18,  19-22,  23-25 ;  Mat.  i.  5, 
6,  8,  11). 

2.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Am'ram-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Amram.  constituting  a 
subdivision  of  the  Levites  (Num.  iii.  27;  1 
(.'hrou.  xxvi.  23). 

Am'ra-phel. 

King  of  Sliinar,  ally  of  Chedorlaomer  in 
the  invasion  of  the  west  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9). 
Evidence  goes  far  to  identify  him  with  Ham- 
murabi or  Ammurabi,  as  the  name  is  also 
written,  who  became  king  of  Babel  about 
1975  B.  c.  and  reigned  fifty-five  years.  At 
first  he  held  sway  over  a  small  district  only  ; 
but  about  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  reign  lie 
wrested  I^arsa  from  the  Elamites,  and  made 
himself  lord  of  all  Babylonia.  He  sought 
the  welfare  of  his  subjects ;  repaired  old 
canals  and  cut  new  ones  in  order  to  bring 
fertility  to  both  northern  and  southern  Baby- 
lonia, strengthened  fortifications,  embellished 
and  erected  temples,  superintended  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  and  codified  the  laws 
of  the  land.  He  richly  deserved  the  title 
which  he  gave  himself,  father  to  his  people. 
Hammurabi  is  the  earliest  known  codifier  of 
law  ;  the  first  name  in  the  list  wliich  includes 
Moses  and  Justinian  and  Napoleon.  He  was 
doubtless  himself  a  legislator ;  but  beyond 
enacting  legislation,  he  discerned  the  import- 
ance of  collecting  the  laws  of  the  realm 
which  pertained  to  the  social  life  of  the 
people,  grouping  the  related  ones,  and  giving 
them  tile  widest  publicity. 

These  ancient  laws  of  Babylonia  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  enactments  in  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  by  which  justice  was 
administered  in  Israel  (Ex.  xx.  23-xxiii.  33; 
cp.  xxiv.  7).  Not  only  are  they  codified,  like 
tile  later  body  of  Hebrew  legislation  (see 
Theocracy),  but  they  are  like  many  of  those 
Hebrew  statutes  in  beginning  with  the  word 
"if."  Besides  this  outward  likeness,  there 
is  material  resemblance.  In  twenty-four  or 
twenty-five  instances  the  two  bodies  of  leg- 
islation treat  of  the  same  injuiy  to  person  or 
property.  This  coincidence  is,  of  course,  not 
surprising,  since  just  these  mishaps  and  mis- 
deeds occur  in  every  community  of  men  and 
must  receive  notice  in  any  code  of  laws  deal- 
ing with  civil  life.  It  is  more  remarkable 
that  in  so  many  instances  the  same  classes  of 
people,  particularly  the  less  fortunate  mem- 
bers of  society,  were  regarded  by  both  Baby- 
lonians and  Israelites  as  possessing  rights  tliat 
could  be  recognized  by  the  state.     But  what 


is  most  remarkable  is  that  in  fourteen  in- 
stances at  least  the  Babylonian  and  Hebrew 
law  imposes  the  same,  or  practically  the 
same,  penalty  for  the  .same  otfence.  To  a  re- 
markable degree  the  two  peoples  shared  the 
same  conception  of  justice.  It  is  not  prob- 
able that  the  Hebrew  legislator  had  the  laws 
of  Hammurabi  before  him  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  Israel  inherited  from  some  source  the 
conceptions  of  justice  and  tlie  judicial  cus- 
toms which  existed  among  the  Babylonians 
in  the  days  of  Hammurabi.    See  Moses. 

Am'u-let. 

Anything  worn  as  a  protection  against 
sorcery.  It  often  serves  at  the  same  time  as 
an  ornament  (Is.  iii.  20,  E.  V.  ;  cp.  Gen. 
XXXV.  4). 

Am'zi  [robust]. 

1.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1 
Chron.  vi.  46). 

2.  A  priest  of  the  course  of  Malchijah  (Neh. 
xi.  12,  E.  v.). 

A'nab  [probably,  fruitful  in  grapes]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
xi.  21 ;  XV.  50).  Two  ruins  .still  bear  the 
name  ;  one  is  twelve  miles  southwest  of  He- 
bron, and  the  more  extensive  is  one  and  a 
half  miles  farther  southwest. 

A'nah  [perhaps,  hearkening  to,  granting]. 

A  tribe  of  Horites  (Gen.  xsxvi.  20,  E.  V.), 
organized  under  a  chief  (29).  The  tribe  bore 
the  name  of  its  progenitor,  who  was  descended 
from  Zibeon  and  expanded  to  a  branch  tribe 
(20,  24).  Anah  discovered  warm  springs  in 
the  wilderness  (24).  From  this  circumstance 
he  probably  received  the  name  Beeri,  man 
of  the  well  (2  with  xxvi.  34,  where,  if  Hittite 
does  not  include  Hivite,  the  two  names  may 
be  confused  :  for  in  the  Septuagint  of  xxvi.  34 
Elou  is  a  Hivite,  but  in  the  Hebrew  text  a 
Hittite).  A  daughter  of  the  tribe,  traced  back 
also  to  Zibeon,  became  a  wife  of  Esau  (xxxvi. 
2,  14,  25).  Daughter  of  Zibeon  (2,  14)  may 
refer  to  Oholibamali ;  an  emendation  of  the 
Hebrew  text  from  bt.  daughter,  to  bn,  son, 
of  Zibeon  would  not  afi'ect  the  foregoing 
statements.  Many  interpreters,  however, 
discern  three  persons  of  the  name — a  woman 
(2,  14)  and  two  men  (20,  25,  29  and  24). 

An-a-ha'ratb  [possibly,  nostril  or  pass]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Is.sacliar  (Josh.  xix. 
19).  The  position  of  en-Na'urah  (possibly  a 
corruption  of  the  old  name),  five  miles  north- 
east of  Jezreel.  suits  for  the  site. 

A-na'iali  [Jehovah  hath  answered]. 

One  who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  read  the 
book  of  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4), 
and  who  afterwards  sealed  the  covenant  to 
serve  God  (x.  22). 

A'nak  [the  long  neck  (with  definite  article, 
Num.  xiii.  22,  28,  but  not  33)]. 

Collective  name  of  the  Anakim  (Num.  xiii. 
22  with  Deut.  i.  28),  who  possibly,  though  not 
necessarily,  were  descended  from  Arba  (Josh. 
xiv.  15  with  XV.  13). 


Anakim 


36 


Anathothite 


An'a-kim;  A.  V.  has  Anakims,  usinsi  both 
the  Hebrew  and  the  English  plural  ending. 

A  stalwart  race,  connected  with  the  Eeph- 
aim  (Nnm.  xiii.  33;  Dent.  ii.  10,  11.  21). 
Three  families  of  them  settled  at  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22),  and  others  were  found  in 
neighboring  towns  and  elsewhere  throughout 
the  hill  country  (Jo.sh.  xi.  21  ;  xv.  14  ;  cp.  Eejih- 
aim,  xvii.  15,  R.  V.).  They  were  cut  off  by 
the  Israelites  in  the  general  camjiaigii  under 
J(ishua  (Josh.  X.  3(),  39;  xi.  21),  and  jjarticu- 
larly  at  Hebron,  on  the  allotment  of  the  land, 
by  Judah  under  Caleb  (xiv.  12;  xv.  13-19; 
Judg.  i.  10-15).  A  remnant  was  left  in  Gaza, 
Gath,  and  Aslidod,  in  the  Philistine  country 
(Josh.  xi.  22).  The  giant,  Goliath  of  Gath, 
was  probably  one  of  the  Auakim. 

An'a-mim. 

An  Egyptian  tribe,  of  which  nothing  is 
known  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  C'hron.  i.  11). 

A-nam'me-lecli  [god  Ann  is  king,  or  Ann- 
king] . 

One  of  the  deities  worshiped'by  the  people 
of  Sepharvaim,  a  city  of  Babylonia  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  Ann  was  god  of  the  sky.  When 
Sepharvites  were  brought  to  colonize  Samaria, 
they  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  to  him, 
worshiping  Ann  as  Molech  was  worshiped. 

A'nan  [a  cloud,  or  he  hath  covered]. 

One  who  with  Neheniiah  sealed  the  cove- 
nant to  worshij*  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  2(i). 

A-na'ni  [cloudy,  or  covered  hath  (God)]. 

A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chrou.  iii.  24). 

An-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  covered]. 

1.  The  father  of  Maaseiah  (Neh.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  32).  De- 
spite the  difference  in  spelling,  it  is  commonly 
identified  with  Beit  Hanina,  about  three 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem  toward  Gibeon. 

An-a-nl'as  [Greek  form  of  Hananiah,  Je- 
hovah liath  been  gracious]. 

1.  A  disci]ile  of  Jerusalem  who,  with  his 
wife  Sai)i>hira,  sold  a  piece  of  land,  and  taking 
a  portion  of  the  price,  laid  it  at  the  apostles' 
feet  (Acts  v.  1  seq.).  The  CUiristian  com- 
munity held  all  things  common.  There  was 
none  among  them  that  lacked  ;  for  as  many 
as  were  possessors  of  lands  or  houses  sold 
them  and  laid  the  price  at  the  apostles'  feet, 
and  distribution  was  made  unto  each,  accord- 
ing as  any  one  had  need.  No  one  was  under 
obligation  to  do  this  (ver.  4),  and  the  end  pro- 
posed did  not  demand  that  all  property  be 
sold,  but  forbade  it.  Property  was  sold  as 
need  required.  Ananias  brought  part  of  the 
proceeds,  and  laid  it  at  the  apostles'  feet  os- 
tensibly as  the  whole.  Peter  rebuked  him 
for  having  lied  unto  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
he  fell  down  and  expired ;  as  did  his  wife 
Sapi)hira,  when,  coming  in  three  hours  after- 
wards, in  ignorance  of  what  had  taken  jdace, 
she  repeated  her  husband's  falsehood,  and 
had  the  same  doom  foretold  her  by  Peter. 

2.  A  Christian  at  Damascus  who  was  in- 
formed in  a  vision  of  Saul's  cf)nversi()n.  and 


sent  to  restore  his  sight  and  admit  him  to  the 
Christian  Church  by  baptism  (Acts  ix.  10-l!-i). 
3.  A  high  priest  appointed  by  Herod,  king 
of  Chalcis,  about  A.  D.  48  (Anticj.  xx.  5,  2). 
Four  years  later  he  was  sent  to  Eome  by 
the  governor  of  Syria  to  answer  for  vio- 
lence done  by  the  Jews  to  the  Samaritans, 
but  he  was  acquitted  through  the  infiuence 
of  Agrippa,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  (An- 
tiq.  XX.  6,  2  and  3  ;  War  ii.  12,  6  and  7).  Jona- 
than, former  high  priest,  was  politically  asso- 
ciated with  him.  In  the  year  58,  Paul  was 
arraigned  before  Ananias,  and  he  appeared 
against  the  apostle  before  the  procurator  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  1).  Jonathan,  his  col- 
league, was  now  murdered,  and  about  the 
year  59,  toward  the  close  of  Felix's  admin- 
istration, Ananias  himself  was  deposed  by 
Agrippa  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  5  and  8 ;  War  ii.  13, 
3).  He  appears  to  have  resided  on  the  south- 
western hill  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  upper  city, 
near  the  palace  of  the  AsmontBans.  He  was 
murdered  in  the  year  67  (War  ii.  17,  6  and  9). 

A'nath  [a  hearkening,  a  granting]. 

Father  of  the  judge  Shamgar  (Judg.  iii.  31 ; 
V.  6). 

A-nath'e-ma  [anything  devoted]. 

In  the  N.  T.,  a  person  or  thing  devoted  to 
destruction.  It  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew 
Herem  (Rom.  ix.  3,  R.  V. ;  1  Cor.  xii.  3,  R.  V. 
and  margin  of  A.  V.  ;  Gal.  i.  8,  9,  R.  V. ;  see 
Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29 ;  Josh.  vi.  17;  vii.  1,  R.  V.). 

A-nath'e-ma  Mar-an-atli'a  [Greek,  one 
devoted  to  destruction,  and  Aramaic  Maran 
'atha,  the  Lord  cometh]. 

One  accursed  at  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  22,  A.  V.).  R.  V.  regards  Maran 
atha  as  a  distinct  sentence. 

An'a-thoth  [answered  prayers ;  or  perhai>s, 
as  the  name  of  a  town,  the  plural  of  Anath, 
who  was  a  goddess  (cp.  Beth-auath,  and  the 
plural,  Ashtaroth)]. 

1.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  Benjamin, 
family  of  Becher  (1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  Head  and  representative  of  the  men  of 
Anathoth,  who  in  their  name  sealed  the  cove- 
nant to  worship  Jeliovah  (Neh.  x.  19). 

3.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin,  as- 
signed to  the  priests  (Josh.xxi.  18;  1  Chron. 
vi.  60).  It  was  the  home  of  Abiatiiar  the 
high  ])riest  (1  Kin.  ii.  26),  and  the  birth- 
place of  Jeremiah,  and  the  prophet's  life  was 
also  endangered  here  (Jer.  i.  1;  xi.  21).  The 
town  was  rc]>eoi>l((l  after  the  exile  (Ezra  ii. 
23).  It  was  twenty  stades  distant  from  Je- 
rusalem (Antiq.  x.  7,  3).  Its  site  is  repre- 
sented by  the  modern  'Anata,  which  is  about 
3  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  once 
a  fortified  town.  Portions  of  the  wall  still 
remain,  built  of  large  hewn  stone,  api)areutly 
ancient. 

An'a-thoth-ite,  in  A.  V.  AnethotMte,  Ane- 
tothite,  and  AntotMte. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Anathoth  (2Sam. 
xxiii.  27;  1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 


Andrew 


37 


Angel 


An'drew  [manliness]. 

The.  brother  of  Simon  Peter,  of  Bethsaida 
on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  i.  44i.  By  vo- 
cation he  was  a  fisherman  like  his  brother 
(Mat.  iv.  18  ;  Mark  i.  16-18),  and  with  his 
brother  had  a  house  at  Capernaum  {Mark  i. 
29).  He  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
but  being  directed  by  John  to  Jesus  as  the 
Lamb  of  God,  he  obtained  an  interview  with 
Jesiis  and  became  convinced  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah.  Forthwith  he  found  his  brother 
and  induced  him  to  visit  Jesus  (John  i.  35- 
42).  He  was  afterwards  called  to  permanent 
fellowship  with  Jesus  (Mat.  iv.  18,  19;  Mark 
i.  1(),  17 :  cp.  John  vl.  8).  and  ajjpointed  an 
apostle  (Mat.  x.  2 ;  Mark  iii.  18  ;  Luke  vi.  14  ; 
Acts  i.  13).  He  joined  with  his  brother  and 
James  and  John  in  inquiring  regarding  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple,  and  the 
second  advent  of  Christ  (Mark  xiii.  3,  4).  and 
with  Philip  he  presented  the  request  of  the 
Greeks  to  Jesus  (John  xii.  22).  Nothing  trust- 
worthy is  known  of  his  subsequent  life.  Ac- 
cording to  traditicn,  he  suffered  martyrdom 
in  Achaia  by  crucifixion  on  a  cross  shaped 
like  the  letter  X.  This  is  now  called  St.  An- 
drew's Cross.  It  is  also  related  that  a  ship 
bearing  two  relics  of  him  was  wrecked  in  a 
bay  of  Scotland,  afterwards  called  St.  An- 
drew's Bay.  The  mariners  who  reached  the 
shore  introduced  the  gospel  into  the  region. 
St.  Andrew,  therefore,  became  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland,  and  gave  name  to  ,St.  An- 
drew's town.  His  festival  is  kept  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches  on  the  30th  of 
November.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  has 
become  cu.stomary  on  that  day  to  preach  on 
the  subject  of  missions.  The  Acts  of  St.  An- 
drew, an  alleged  gospel  from  his  pen,  is 
si)urious. 

An-dro-ni'cus  [conquering  men]. 

A  Jewish  Christian,  aud  once  fellow-pris- 
oner of  Paul,  to  whom  at  Rome  Paul  sent 
greeting  (Rom.  xvi.  7). 

A'nem  [two  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Issachar,  given 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  sons  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  73).  Probably  a  corruption  of  the 
text  out  of  En-gannim  (Josh.  xxi.  29 ;  cp. 
xix.  21). 

A'ner. 

1.  An  Amorite,  resident  at  Mamre,  and  one 
of  Abraham's  confederates  in  the  battle  with 
with  the  eastern  kings  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24). 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Kohath- 
ites  (1  Chron.  vi.  70).  In  Josh.  xxi.  25,  R.  V., 
Taanach  a^ipears  in  its  stead.  Either  name,  as 
it  stands  in  the  text,  might  easily  be  misread 
as  the  other. 

An'e-thoth-ite  or  Anetothite.     See  Axa- 

THOTHITE. 

An'gel  [messenger,  envoy]. 

1.  A  celestial  being  a  little  higher  in  dig- 
nity than  man  (Ps.  viii.  5;  Heb.  ii.  7).  They 
are  spiritual  beings  (Heb.   i.   14),  and  they 


neitln-r  uiarry  nor  are  given  in  marriage 
(Mat.  xxii.  30).  From  their  worship  of  God 
as  well,  probably,  as  from  their  nature  they 
are  called,  at  least  in  poetry,  sons  of  God 
(Job  i.  6  ;  XXX viii.  7) ;  and  from  their  charac- 
ter, holy  ones  (Job  v.  1,  R.  V. ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  5,  7, 
R.  v.).  Their  office  is  denoted  by  the  term 
angel.  In  the  later  books  difierences  among 
angels  in  rank  and  dignity  are  implied,  for 
there  are  archangels  (chief  angels),  as  well 
as  those  of  a  more  ordinary  kind  (1  Thess. 
iv.  16 ;  Jude  9).  This  twofold  distinction 
does  not  seem  to  be  all.  Both  among  fallen 
angels  and  angels  unfallen  there  are  thrones, 
dominions,  princii)alities,  and  powers  (Rom. 
viii.  38 ;  Eph.  i.  21  ;  iii.  10  ;  Col.  i.  16 ;  ii.  15). 
Cherubim  and  Seraphim  seem  also  to  belong 
to  the  angelic  order.  The  inanimate  powers  of 
nature,  by  which  the  ordinary  economy  of  the 
universe  is  carried  on,  are  God's  messengers 
(Ps.  civ.  4,  R.  V.)  ;  but  pestilence  and  death, 
when  acts  of  the  divine  government,  are  rep- 
resented as  under  angelic  charge  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
16;  2  Kin.  xix.  25;  Zech.  i.  7-17).  Unseen 
they  encamp  round  about  them  that  fear  God 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  7;  Gen.  xxviii.  12  ;  xlviii.  16;  2 
Kin.  vi.  17;  Is.  Ixiii.  9).  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  came  in  human  form  to  Abraham, 
Hagar,  and  Lot,  to  Moses  and  Joshua,  to  the 
Israelites  at  Bochim.  to  Gideon  and  Manoah. 
An  angel  came  to  Elijah  and  to  Daniel.  An- 
gels are  fittingly  prominent  in  the  history  of 
Jesus,  announcing  his  birth  and  that  of  his 
forerunner,  heralding  his  advent  to  the  shep- 
herds, ministering  unto  him  after  his  victory 
over  temptation  and  in  the  garden  (Luke 
xxii.  43,  a  passage  omitted  in  many  old  copies), 
and  bearing  tidings  to  his  disciples  at  the 
resurrection  and  ascension.  An  angel  also 
aided  Peter  and  stood  by  Paul.  The  names 
of  some  angels  or  archangels  are  mentioned, 
namely,  Gabriel  (Dan.  viii.  16  ;  ix.  21 ;  Luke 
i.  19,  26),  and  Michael  (Dan.  x.  13,  21 ;  xii.  1 : 
Jude  9 ;  Rev.  xii.  7).  The  Apocrypha  adds 
Raphael  and  Uriel  ;  see  Mich.\el  11.  The 
old  Persians  and  the  modern  Parsees  have 
recognized  the  existence  of  angels  of  dif- 
ferent rank  and  a.ssigned  names  to  some  of 
them. 

While  any  angel  sent  to  execute  the  com- 
mands of  God  might  be  called  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16;  1  Kin.  xix.  5,  7), 
yet  nienti<ni  is  made  of  an  angel,  and  under 
the  circumstances  one  is  justified  in  always 
tliinking  of  the  same  augel,  who  is  distin- 
guished from  Jehovah,  and  yet  is  identified 
with  him  (Gen.  xvi.  10,  13  ;  xviii.  2-4,  13, 14, 
33;  xxii.  11,  12.  15.  16;  xxxi.  11,  13;  Ex.  iii. 
2,  4;  .Tosh.  v.  13-15;  vi.  2;  Zech.  i.  10-13; 
iii.  1,  2).  who  revealed  the  face  of  God  (Gen. 
xxxii.  30).  in  whom  was  Jehovah's  name  (Ex. 
xxiii.21),  and  whose  presence  was  equivalent 
to  Jehovah's  presence  (Ex.  xxxii.  34;  xxxiii. 
14;  Is.  Ixiii.  9).  The  angel  of  the  Lord  thus 
appears  as  a  manifestation  of  Jehovah  him- 
self, one  with  .Tehovah  and  yet  difierent from 
him.     See  Theophany. 


Aniam 

2.  The  representative,  of  a  church ;  but 
whether  this  is  the  board  of  elders  which 
directed  the  aflairs  of  the  local  church,  or  the 
pastor,  or  a  celestial  being  of  the  angelic  order 
watching  over  the  church,  is  by  no  means 
clear  (Rev.  i.  20;  ii.  1,  8,  12,  18;  'iii.  1.  7,  14). 

A'ni-am  [sighing  of  the  people]. 

A  Manassite,  family  of  Shemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19 ;  cp.  Num.  xxvi.  32). 

A'nim  [a  contraction  of  '"yanim,  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  men- 
tioned immediately  after  Eshtemoh  (Josh.  xv. 
50).  It  is  apparently  identical  with  the  ruin 
Ghuwein.  about  eleven  miles  south  of  Hebron 
and  three  south  of  Semua,  i.  e.  Eshtemoh. 

An'ise. 

An  umbelliferous  plant  (PimpineUn  avisum) 
somewhat  like  caraway  in  appearance,  occa- 
sionally cultivated  in  the  East  for  its  seeds, 
which  are  used  as  a  seasoning  and  as  a  car- 
minative. The  English  versions  render  the 
Greek  word  anethon  (Mat.  xxiii.  23)  in  the 
text  by  anise,  on  the  margin  by  dill.  The 
latter  is  Anethum  graveolens  of  the  same  order 
(umbelliferous)  as  anise,  resembles  anise  in 
appearance  and  properties,  and  is  more  com- 
monly grown  in  gardens. 

An'kle  Chain. 

A  chain  binding  together  the  two  ankles 
of  a  female,  so  as  to  compel  her  to  take  .short 
steps,  and,  especially  when  they  were  com- 
bined with  anklets,  to  make  a  tinkling  sound 
when  she  walked  (Num.  xxxi.  50;  Is.  iii.  20, 
both  E.  V. ;  in  A.  V.  called  simply  chains  and 
ornaments  of  the  legs). 

Ank'let. 

An  ornament  for  the  ankles,  consisting  of 
metallic  or  glass  rings,  and  corrcsiKinding  to 
bracelets  on  the  wrists.  Anklets  are  often 
worn  by  boys  as  well  as  women  in  the  East 
(Is.  iii.  18,  R.  V. ;  in  A.  V.  called  tinkling  orna- 
ments about  the  feet) :  see  Ankle  Chain. 

An'na  [Greek  form  of  Hannah,  grace]. 

A  widow,  daughter  of  Phanuel  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher.  Her  married  life  had  lasted  seven 
years.  At  the  age  of  eighty-four  she  visited 
the  temple  daily,  and  was  there  when  the  in- 
fant Jesus  was  brought  to  be  dedicated.  A 
prophetess,  she  recognized  and  proclaimed 
him  to  be  the  Messiah  (Luke  ii.  36-38). 

An'nas  [a  Greek  form  of  Hananiah,  Jeho- 
vah hath  been  gracious]. 

A  high  priest  at  Jerusalem,  as  was  Caiaphas, 
in  the  year  when  John  the  Bai)tist  began  his 
ministry  (Luke  iii.  2),  it  is  thought  about 
A.  D.  26.  He  is  called  Auanos  by  Josephus, 
which  is  nearer  the  Hebrew  form  of  the 
name  than  is  Annas.  He  was  appointed  high 
priest  about  a.  d.  7  by  Quirinius,  governor 
of  Syria,  and  was  deposed  by  the  procurator 
of  Judaea,  Valerius  Gratus,  about  a.  d.  16. 
Each  of  his  five  sons  became  high  priest,  and 
h(^  was  father-in-law  of  the  high  priest  Caia- 
phas ( Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1  and  2  ;  John  xviii.  13). 
Although    Annas  was   no   longer   officiating 


38  Antelope 

high  priest  when  Jesus  was  arrested,  he  was 
yet  the  most  influential  priest  and  still  bore 
the  title  (Luke  iii.  2;  Acts  iv.  6),  and  to  him 
Jesus  was  first  taken  (John  xviii.  13),  and 
after  being  examined  by  him  was  sent  bound 
to  Caiaphas  (24).  When  Peter  and  John  were 
subsequently  arrested,  Annas  was  prominent 
among  their  examiners  (Acts  iv.  6). 

A-noint'. 

To  pour  oil  upon  the  head,  or  in  any  other 
way  apply  it  to  a  person,  or  to  a  thing.  Among 
the  Jews  there  were  an  ordinary,  a  sacred  or 
official,  and  a  medical  or  surgical  anoint- 
ing. The  ordinary  one  was  .simply  a  matter 
of  the  toilet  (2  Sam.  xii.  20  ;  Dan.  x.  3 ;  Mat. 
vi.  17).  The  anointing  of  the  head  with  oil 
in  the  time  of  Jesus  was  extended,  as  an  act 
of  courtesy,  also  to  guests  (Luke  vii.  46).  The 
ofiicial  anointing  was  conferred  on  prophets, 
priests,  and  kings.  Elijah  the  prophet  was 
directed  to  anoint  Elisha,  his  successor  (1  Kin. 
xix.  16).  Aaron  the  high  priest,  and  those 
who  followed  him  in  the  same  office,  were 
anointed  with  a  holy  consecrating  oil  (Ex. 
xxviii.  41  ;  xxix.  7  ;  xxx.  30  ;  xl.  13, 15).  Saul 
(1  Sam.  ix.  16;  x.  1),  David  (xvi.  1,  12,  13;  2 
Sam.  ii.  7;  iii.  39,  etc.),  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i. 
34),  Hazael  of  Syria  (xix.  15),  Jehu  (16), 
Jehoash  (2  Kin.  xi.  12),  and  others,  were 
anointed  kings.  Messiah  and  Christ  mean 
the  Anointed  One.  Jesus  the  Christ  was 
anointed  by  the  Spirit  to  be  prophet,  priest, 
and  king.  Of  things,  the  altar  (Ex.  xxix. 
36 ;  xl.  10),  and  the  tabernacle  (xxx.  26  ,  xl. 
9),  the  laver,  etc.  (xl.  9-ll),were  also  anointed. 
The  medicinal  or  surgical  anointing,  not 
necessarily  with  oil,  was  a  customary  remedy 
applied  to  the  sick  and  wounded  (Is.  i.  6  ; 
Luke  X.  34;  Rev.  iii.  18).  The  Christian 
places  reliance,  not  in  the  natural  means  in 
themselves,  but  in  God  who  works  through 
the  means  and  renders  them  effectual  (Jas.  v. 
14,  15). 

Ant. 

Any  hymenopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Formicidse.  They  are  social  insects  like^jees 
and  wasps,  to  which  they  are  not  remotely 
akin.  The  species  are  numerous  and  widely- 
diffused,  the  larger  members,  however,  oc- 
curring in  the  tropics.  The  ant  is  held  up  as 
an  example  of  industry  and  forethought,  in- 
dustriously providing  food  in  summer  and 
gathering  grain  in  harvest  (Prov.  vi.  6-8  ;  xxx. 
24,  25).  That  the  ants  of  Palestine  store  food 
on  which  to  live  in  winter  is  not  expressly  as- 
serted in  Proverbs,  but  it  is  clearly  stated  in 
similar  Arabic  maxims.  Dr.  Tlidnison  states 
that  the  ants  of  Palestine  are  great  robbers  of 
grain  in  harvest.  Sykes  in  1829  found  an  ant 
in  India,  at  Poonali,"  storing  grain,  and  called 
it  Attaprovidens.  Moggridgc  witnessed  similar 
forethought  exercised  by  certain  ants  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  McCook  by  ants  in  Texas. 

An'te-lope. 

An  animal,  believed  to  be  mentioned  in 
Deut.  xi V.  5  and  Is.  Ii.  20,  R.  V.  It  was  captured 


Anthothijah 


39 


Antioch 


in  nets,  and  was  ceremonially  fit  for  food. 
Targum,  followed  by  A.  V.,  renders  wild  ox; 
probably  meaning  the  bubale,  Antilope  bubalis, 
of  Egypt  and  Arabia,  classed  by  the  Arabs  with 
wild  oxen.  In  the  Greek  versions  and  the 
Vulgate,  the  word  is  generally  rendered  oryx, 
which  refers  to  the  Antilope  leucoryx.  This 
animal  has  horns  which  are  long,  slender, 
conical,  and  with  ringlike  ridges  round.  The 
animal  is  white,  with  the  exception  of  a  long 
tuft  of  hair  under  the  throat,  which  is  black. 
It  is  a  native  of  Seuuaar,  Upiwr  Egypt,  and 
Arabia,  and  is  said  to  be  found  in  Syria. 

An-tho-tM'jah,  in  A.  V.  AntotMjah  [an- 
swers of  Jehovah]. 

A  Benjamite  descended  through  Shashak 
(1  Chron.  viii.  24J. 

An'ti-christ  [Greek  antichristos,  against  or 
instead  of  Christ]. 

The  word  antichrist  may  mean,  as  the  ety- 
mology shows,  an  enemy  of  Christ  or  a  usur- 
per of  Christ's  name  and  rights.  The  former 
was  probably  its  primary  meaning,  though 
the  other  idea  was  also  attached  to  it.  In  the 
N.  T.  St.  John  alone  uses  the  term  (1  John  ii. 
18,  22;  iv.  3;  2  John  7).  From  1  John  ii.  18, 
E.  V. ,  we  learn  that  the  Christians  had  been 
taught  that  "Antichrist"  would  appear  in 
"  the  last  hour,"  i.  e.  before  the  second  advent 
of  Christ.  While  not  denying  that  Antichrist 
would  be  a  single  person,  John  lays  stress  on 
the  spirit  to  be  embodied  in  him,  and  declares 
that  already  many  antichrists  had  come.  The 
substance  of  the  antichristian  spirit,  he  says, 
is  denial  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  or  the  real 
incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  by  which  is 
meant  not  only  denial  of  the  doctrine,  but 
moral  antagonism  to  its  religious  implica- 
tions. This  opposition  was  already  appear- 
ing in  the  Church  in  the  persons  of  false 
teachers  and  false  disciples,  for  Antichrist 
arises  out  of  nominal  Christianity  itself.  But 
while  John  alone  uses  the  term,  the  doctrine 
it  taught  elsewhere.  Jesus  himself  not  only 
warned  his  apostles  of  "  false  Christs"  (Mat. 
xxiv.  5,  23,  24  ;  Mark  xiii.  21,  22)— by  which, 
however,  he  meant  primarily  Jewish  Mes- 
sianic pretenders — but  plainly  intimated  that 
apostasy  would  arise  within  the  Church  (see 
parables  of  tares,  ten  virgins.  Mat.  vii.  22, 
23;  xxiv.  12,  etc.).  Paul  more  fully  teaches 
(2  Thes.  ii.  3-12)  that  before  the  second  ad- 
vent "the  man  of  lawlessness"  (R.  V.)  must 
be  revealed,  "  who  opposeth  and  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  God,  or  that 
is  worshiped,"  and  "  in  the  temple  of  God  " 
(=  probably  the  Church)  claims  to  be  God  (to 
usurji  the  jihtce  of  God).  Paul,  too,  like  John, 
represents  tliisas  the  culmination  of  a  process 
of  apostasy  (ver.  7 ;  see,  too,  1  Tim.  iv.  1). 
Many  interiireters  also  see  in  the  "  beast "  of 
Eev.  xiii.  a  further  description  of  Antichrist. 
Thus  the  N.  T.  declared  that  Christian  his- 
tory would  not  be  a  pure  develoinnent  of  good- 
ness and  truth,  but  that  within  Christendom 
apostasy  would   arise,   develop,  have   many 


rei)rest'ntatives,  and  finally  culminate  in  An- 
tichrist proper  (=  either  a  person  or  an  insti- 
tution, perhaps  both),  of  which  the  esscTitial 
spirit  would  be  antagonism  to  Christ  and  the 
impious  claim  of  that  allegiance  from  man's 
mind  and  life  which  is  alone  due  to  God  and 
his  Sou.  In  ditterent  periods,  various  apos- 
ta.sies  have  seemed  to  believers  to  be  Anti- 
christ, and  have  more  or  less  embodied  tlie 
antichristian  principle  ;  but  doubtless  the  full 
manifestation  of  Antichrist  is  yet  to  come, 
and  will  precede  and  be  destroyed  at  the 
second  advent  of  the  Lord.  g.  t.  p. 

An'ti-och  [pertaining  to  Antiochus]. 

1.  The  mctniimlis  of  Syria  under  the  Mace- 
doniauGreek  dynasty  (1  Mac.  iii. 37 et passim), 
founded  about  300  b.  c.  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
and  named  by  him  after  Antiochus,  his  father. 
It  was  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Oroutes,  about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth, 
theriverlx'ingnavigableuptothe  city.  Mount 
Casius  approached  it  closely  on  the  south,  and 
the  Amanus  mountains  were  not  far  off  on 
the  west,  whilst  in  front  lay  tlie  valley  of  the 
Orontes,  five  or  six  miles  across.  The  city 
became  large  and  numerously  inliabited.  It 
remained  the  capital  when  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Syria  was  erected  in  64  b.  c.  Its 
population  was  a  mixed  one,  chiefly  gentile, 
but  also  with  not  a  few  Jews  (War  vii.  3,  3). 
Christians  who  fled  from  .Jerusalem  to  avoid 
the  persecution  which  arose  upon  the  martyr- 
dom of  Stephen  preached  the  gospel  here,  ad- 
dressing at  first  only  Jews  who  spoke  tlie 
Aramaic  tongue,  then  those  who  spoke  Greek. 
Barnabas  was  despatched  from  Jerusalem  to 
aid  the  work.  After  laboring  there  for  a  while 
he  fetched  as  a  coadjutor  Paul  from  Tarsus. 
For  a  whole  year  these  two  great  evaugelists 
made  the  city  the  sphere  of  their  labors  and 
taught  much  people.  The  disciples  were  called 
Christians  first  in  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  19-26). 
Further  reinforcements  arrived  in  the  per- 
sons of  prophets  (27).  From  Antioch  Paul 
and  Barnabas  were  sent  on  a  missionary  jour- 
ney (xiii.  2).  On  its  completion  they  returned 
to  the  city  (xiv.  26).  The  disciples  at  An- 
tioch kept  up  active  intercourse  with  the 
brethren  at  Jerusalem.  In  time  of  famine, 
they  sent  relief  to  them  (xi.  28-30),  and  they 
submitted  the  question  regarding  the  cir- 
cumcision of  gentile  converts  to  a  council 
at  Jerusalem  (xv.).  The  second  missionary 
journey  of  Paul,  like  the  first,  commenced 
with  a  departure  from  Antioch  (35,  36),  to 
which  Paul  returned,  this  time  by  the  way 
of  Csesarea  (xviii.  22).  At  Antioch  Paul  with- 
stood Peter  to  the  face  because  of  his  vacil- 
lating conduct  with  regard  to  the'  gentile 
converts  (Gal.  ii.  11).  The  city  remained 
great,  and  the  Church  went  on  to  develop 
while  the  Roman  empire  stood.  In  A.  D.  5.38 
Cliosroes,  the  Persian  king,  took  and  de- 
stroyed it.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Justinian.  In  A.  D.  635  it  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens,  from  whom  it  passed  in  1084 


Antiochus 


40 


Antiochus 


to  the  Turks.  Except  between  1098  and 
1269,  when  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
kingdom  founded  by  the  crusaders,  it  has 
remained    in    Mohammedan   hands.     It  has 


in  190.  By  the  terms  of  peace  he  was  obliged 
to  send  twenty  hostages  to  Rome,  including 
his  son,  and  pay  an  enormous  tribute.  While 
plundering  a  temple  in  Susiana  he  was  mur- 


Antioth  of  ^N  iia 


been  all  along  very  liable  to  earthquakes, 
one  of  which,  occurring  in  1822,  damaged 
Ju.stinian's  walls.  The  place,  still  called 
'Antakia,  is  now  unimportant. 

2.  A  town  in  Asia  Minor,  also  founded  by 
Seleucus  Nicator  .and  named  after  his  fatlier, 
Antiochus.  It  was  situated  in  Plirygia.  near 
the  borders  of  Pisidia,  and  was  accordingly 
designated  Antioch  toward  Pisidia  and  Pi- 
sidian  Antioch  to  distinguish  it  from  AntiDch 
in  Syria.  It  was  included  within  the  Komaii 
province  of  Galatia,  and  was  the  center  of 
the  civil  and  military  administration  of  the 
soutiiern  i)art  of  the  pros'ince.  Jews  dwelt 
there,  an.i  had  a  synagogue  (Acts  xiii.  14; 
cp.  Antiq.  xii.  3,  4).  Barnabas  and  Paul 
visited  it  on  their  first  missionary  journev 
(Acts  xiii.  U-52;  xiv.  19-21;  2  Tim.  iii.  11). 
In  1K.'53  Arundel  identified  the  ruins  of  this 
Antioch  near  the  modern  town  of  Yalabatch. 

An-ti'o-clius  [withstander,  endurer]. 

1.  Antiochts  III.,  surnamed  the  (Treat, 
king  of  Syria  and  sixth  ruler  of  the  Seleuci- 
dan  dynasty,  father  of  Seleucus  IV.  and  An- 
tiochus Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  i.  10 ;  viii.  (i-H).  He 
reigned  from  223  to  187  B.  C.  He  attem])ted 
to  wrest  Ccelesyria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine 
from  Ptolemy  IV.,  but  was  defeated  at  Raphia 
217  B.  C.  After  the  death  of  Ptolemy  he  re- 
newed the  attempt  and  was  successful,  gain- 
ing the  decisive  battle  of  Paneas  in  198.  He 
invadcMl  Europe,  but  his  victorious  career  was 
terminated  at  Therniopyla'.  On  his  retreat 
he  was  decisively  defecated  at  Magnesia  in  Asia 


dered  liy  a  mi)b.     The  Seleucidan  line  was 
continued  as  follows  : 


Antiochus  the  Great. 


Seleucus  IV 


Demetrius  I. 


Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

I 
Antiochus  Eupator. 

I 
Alexander  Balas. 


Demetrius  II. 


Antiochus  VI. 
Antiochus  VII. 

2.  Antiochus  E-piph'a-nes,  the  eighth 
ruler  of  the  house  of  Seleucidte,  175-1()4  B.  c. 
(1  Mac.  i.  10  ;  vi.  16).  He  passed  fifteen  years 
of  his  life  as  a  hostage  at  Rome  (1  Mac.  i.  10). 
He  was  an  energetic  prince  who  extended 
and  strengthened  his  kingdom,  but  enraged 
his  subjects  by  religious  intolerance.  He 
stirred  up  the  Jews  by  robbing  the  temple 
and  setting  up  a  statue  of  Juiiiter  in  the  holy 
of  holies.  He  also  imllcd  down  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  commanded  tiie  sacrifice  of  swine, 
forbade  circumcision,  and  destroyed  all  the 
sacred  books  that  could  be  found.  It  was 
these  onti'ages  which  induced  the  revolt  of 
the  Marealiees  (1  .Alae.  i.  41-5:!).  He  died  be- 
tween Klymais  and  Babylon,  shortly  after  re- 
ceiving news  of  the  Jewish  revolt  (vi.  1-16). 


Antipas 


41 


Antonia 


3.  Antioghus  Eu'pa-tor,  son  of  the  above. 
As  a  iiiiiior  he  reigned  two  years  under  the 
regency  of  Lysias  (1  Mac.  vi.  17-()3).  He  was 
slain  and  succeeded  )iy  Demetrius  Soter. 

4.  Antiochus  VI.,  the  young  cliild  of  the 
pretender  Alexandin'  Bahis.  He  was  set  up  as 
king  by  the  general  Tryphon,  who  used  him 
merely  as  a  cloak  for  his  own  ambition,  and 
slew  him  as  soon  as  he  felt  himself  established, 
142  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xi.  39,  40,  54  ;  xiii.  31,  32). 


Head  of  Antiochtis  Epii>hanes. 

5.  Antiochus  VII.,  brother  of  Demetrius 
II.,  who  reigned  in  the  stead  of  Demetrius 
during  his  imprisonment  by  Arsaces,  138-128 
B.  c.  He  defeated  Tryphon  (1  Mac.  xv.  1, 
10-14),  made  first  a  treaty  with  Simon  Mac- 
cabseus,  but  afterwards  repudiated  liis  help 
and  tried  to  rob  the  temple.  His  attempt 
was  frustrated  by  John  and  Judas  Maccabfpus 
(1  Mac.  xvi.  1-10). 

(j.  A  Jew  known  only  as  being  the  father 
of  the  councilor  Nunienius  (1  Mac.  xii.  16). 

An'ti-pas  [contraction  of  Antipater]. 

1.  A  Christian  who  sutfered  martyrdom  at 
Pergamos,  in  Asia  Minor  (Rev.  ii.  12,  13). 

2.  Son  of  Herod  the  Great ;  see  Herod  2. 
An-tip'a-ter  [in  place  of  or  like  the  father]' 

1.  A  Jew,  son  of  Jason.  He  was  a  coun- 
cilor, and  one  of  two  ambassadors  sent  by 
Jonathan  and  the  elders  to  Rome  to  renew 
the  alliance  (1  Mac.  xii.  16  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  8). 
His  father  was  perhaps  the  Jason  who  had 
formerly  gone  on  a  similar  mission  (viii.17). 

2.  Father  of  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq.  xiv. 
7,3). 

An-tip'a-tris  [belonging  to  Antipater]. 

A  town  I'ounded  by  Herod  the  Great,  in 
the  fertile  plain  of  Caphar  Saba,  on  the  site 
of  that  village,  near  the  mountains,  and  called 
after  Antipater,  his  father.  It  was  surrounded 
by  a  river  (Antiq.  xiii.  15,  1  ;  xvi.  5,  2;  War 
i.  4,  7;  21,  9).    It  lay  on  the  Roman  military 


road  between  Jerusalem  and  Ctesarea,  forty- 
two  Roman  miles  from  the  former  city  and 
twenty-six  from  the  latter.  Th(^  old  name  lin- 
gers under  the  modern  form  Kefr  Saba,  and 
its  site  is  commonly  sought  at  this  village ;  but 
the  conditions  of  the  site  are  in  all  other  re- 
spects fulfil  led  by  Wilson  and  Conder's  location 
of  it  at  lias  el  'Ain,  at  the  junction  of  the  old 
Roman  road  from  Jerusalem  with  that  from 
Ramleh  through  Lydda  to  Ctesarea.  The 
large  mound  is  covered  with  ruins,  from  the 
sidis  of  which  on  the  north  and  west  the 
liver  'Anjali  gushes  forth  a  full-sized  stream. 
It  w  IS  the  limit  of  Paul's  journey  the  first 
ni_ht  while  he  was  being  taken  as  a  prisoner 
(lom  Jerusalem  to  Csesarea  (Actsxxiii.  31). 

An-to'ni-a,  Tow'er  of  [pertaining  to  An- 
t   nnis]. 

V  castle  connected  with  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
il(  til.  It  presumably  occupied  the  site  of  the 
ti  nighold  Birah,  which  apjiertained  to  the 

I  mple  and  was  restored  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 

II  ^).  John  Hyrcanus  built  the  tower,  and  he 
r,tm  rally  dwelt  in  it  and  kept  the  priestly 
\e-^tments  there,  for  he  was  entitled  to  wear 
thi  m  (Anti(i.  xv.  11,  4  ;  xviii.  4,  3).  Until  the 
tinu  of  Herod  the  Great  it  was  known  as  the 
Bills,  but  Herod  repaired  it  at  vast  expense, 
and  fortified  it  more  firmly  than  before  in 
order  that  it  might  guard  the  temple,  and 
named  it  Antonia  in  honor  of  Marc  Antony 
(Antiq.  xviii. ;  War  i.  21,  1  ;  v.  5,  8  ;  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  11).  It  was  situated  at  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  temple  area,  on  a  rock 
fifty  cubils  in  height,  the  highest  point  in  the 
neiglihorhddd  (Warvi.  1,  5).  Its  presence  there 
prevented  the  area  from  being  foursquare 
(War  vi.  5,  4).  The  fortress  had  the  amplitude 
and  form  of  a  palace,  with  chambers,  courts, 
barracks,  and  baths.  Its  walls  rose  forty  cubits 
above  the  rock  on  which  they  rested.  At  the 
corners  were  turrets,  three  of  which  were 
fifty  cubits  high,  while  the  fourth,  which  over- 
looked the  temple,  was  seventy  cubits  (cp.  An- 
tiq. XX.  5,  3;  War  vi.  2,  5).  It  was  sejjarated 
by  a  deep  trench  from  the  hill  Bezetha  ( War  v. 
4, 2),  but  was  connected  with  the  northern  and 
western  cloisters,  at  the  junction  of  which  it 
stood,  with  gates  for  the  guards  and  a  stair- 
case (Acts  xxi.  35  with  37  ;  40  with  xxii.  24), 
and  witli  the  inner  temple  at  its  eastern  gate 
by  a  subterranean  pa.ssage  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  7), 
which  seems  to  have  existed  in  the  Baris  as 
built  by  Hyrcanus  (Antiq.  xiii.  11,  2).  Over 
the  temple  end  of  this  underground  passage 
Herod  erected  a  tower.  The  arrangement 
was  intended  to  aiiord  him  a  way  of  escape 
in  case  of  a  popular  sedition.  In  the  castle  a 
Roman  legion  was  stationed,  which  stood  on 
guard  in  the  cloisters,  especially  during  the 
Jewish  festivals,  to  i>revent  any  excesses  on 
the  part  of  the  populace  (Antiq.  xviii.  4,  3; 
War  V.  5,  8).  The  castle  was  finally  demol- 
ished bv  order  of  Titus  in  a.  p.  70  (War  vii. 
1,  1 ;  cp".  vi.  2,  7 :  5,  4  ;  9,  1  and  4). 

The  most  tragic  event  in  the  history  of  the 


Antothijah 

castle  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Aristobu- 
lus,  son  of  Hyrcanus.  The  king  lay  sick  in 
one  of  its  chambers.  His  beloved  brother 
Antigouus,  returning  from  the  war,  hastened 
clad  in  armor  and  accompanied  by  his  mili- 
tary escort  to  the  temple  to  offer  prayers  for 
the  recovery  of  the  king.  The  act  was  mis- 
represented to  Aristobulus  ;  but  he  summoned 
his  brother  to  his  bedside,  with  the  request 
that  he  come  unarmed,  and  ordered  soldiers 
to  lie  in  the  underground  passage  and  slay 
him  if  he  axipeared  in  armor.  The  queen 
suppressed  the  message  in  part,  and  contrived 
to  have  Antigonus  infoniicd  that  the  king 
desired  to  see  his  splendid  armor.  Suspect- 
ing nothing,  he  entered  the  passage  clad  in 
mail  and  was  murdered.  The  deed  was  re- 
jtorted  to  the  king,  and  the  shock  brought  on 
a  hemorrhage.  A  slave  bore  away  the  vessel 
in  which  the  blood  had  been  caught,  but 
stumbled  on  the  spot  where  Antigonus  had 
been  slain.  The  blood  of  the  two  brothers 
mingled  on  the  floor.  A  cry  of  horror  ran 
through  the  palace,  and  roused  the  king  to 
inquire  the  cause.  When  he  learned  what 
had  occurred  he  was  filled  with  an  agony  of 
remorse  and  instantly  expired  (Antiq.  xiii. 
11). 

Paul,  when  rescued  from  the  infuriated 
mob  who  had  dragged  him  out  of  the  temple, 
was  carried  into  this  castle,  and  on  the  way 
was  allowed  to  address  the  people  from  the 
stairs  (Acts  xxi.  30  seq.). 

An-to-thi'jah.     See  Anthothijah. 

An'toth-ite.     See  Anathothite. 

A'nub  [joined  together]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Hakkoz  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8,  E.  v.). 

Ape. 

A  quadrumanous  animal.  The  Hebrew 
word  Koph,  which  is  rendered  ape,  is  probably 
generic  and  includes  apes,  which  are  without 
tails,  and  monkeys,  which  jwssess  them.  In 
Greek  kepos  denotes  a  monkey  of  Ethiopia. 
In  Malabar  and  Sanscrit  kapi  or  kefi  signifies 
a  monkey.  There  is  no  genuine  ape  either 
in  Malabar  or  in  any  other  part  of  India.  If 
the  animals  which  were  brought  to  Palestine 
by  the  vessels  that  went  to  Ophir  for  gold 
(1  Kin.  X.  22;  2  Chron.  ix.  21)  came  from  In- 
dia, they  were  a  tailed  monkey,  perhaps 
that  called  Hanuman  (Semnopifhecus  enfellus), 
which  is  common  throughout  India,  and  is 
worshiped  as  a  god. 

A-pel'les. 

An  approved  Christian  at  Eome  to  whom 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

A-phser'e-ma. 

A  government  district  which  in  the  time 
of  Jonathan  Maccabeus  was  separated  from 
Samaria,  annexed  to  Judaea,  and  placed  under 
the  authority  of  the  high  priest  (1  Mac.  xi. 
34  ;  cp.  X.  30,  38).  The  name  is  thought  to  be 
a  Greek  corruption  of  Ephraim,  and  to  desig- 
nate the  most  southern  part  of  Samaria  (cp. 
John  xi.  54). 


42  Apocalypse 

A-phar'sach-ites  or  ApharsathcMtes. 

A  tribe  from  beyond  the  Euphrates,  settled 
by  Asnaiijier  in  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9;  v.  6). 

A-phar 'sites. 

An  eastern  tribe,  transplanted  byAsnapper 
to  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

A'phek  [strength]. 

1.  A  city  apparently  north  of  Zidon  (Josh. 
xiii.  4),  and  hence  commonly  identified  with 
the  ancient  Aphaca,  a  place  northeast  of 
Beirut  and  famous  for  its  temjjle  of  Venus. 
It  is  now  known  as  Af  ka.  The  situation  of 
this  town  so  far  north  renders  questionable 
its  identity  with  Aphek,  variant  Aphik,  which 
was  situated  within  the  territory  of  Asher, 
but  not  cleared  of  its  Canaanite  inhabitants 
(Jo.sh.  xix.  30;  Judg.  i.  31). 

2.  A  place  near  Ebenezer,  not  too  far  from 
Shiloh,  and  probably  near  Mizpah  (1  Sam. 
iv.  1,  12 ;  vii.  11 ;  perhaps  Josh.  xii.  17,  18). 
The  Philistines  pitched  here  before  the  battle 
in  which  they  captured  the  ark. 

3.  A  town  apparently  between  Shunem  and 
Jezreel.  The  Philistines  pitched  at  Shunem, 
but  soon  discovered  that  the  Israelites  had 
occupied  the  heights  of  Gilboa.  From  Shu- 
nem they  advanced  to  Aphek,  and  thence  to 
Jezreel,  where  they  attacked  the  Israelites 
who  had  descended  to  the  spring  at  Jezreel, 
forcing  them  back  to  their  former  position 
on  Gilboa  and  completing  the  slaughter  on 
that  mountain  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4;  xxix.  1,  11; 
xxxi.  1).  Probably  it  is  the  town  Apku  men- 
tioned by  Ashurbanipal,  king  of  Assyria,  as 
"  on  the  border  of  Samaria,"  and,  by  implica- 
tion, on  the  military  road  to  Egypt.  It  may 
also  be  the  town  of  Aphek  to  which  Beu- 
hadad  advanced  with  the  intention  of  giving 
battle  to  Ahab,  and  to  which  he  and  his  army 
retreated  after  his  defeat,  and  where  a  wall 
fell  and  killed  27,000  of  his  soldiers  (1  Kin. 
XX.  26-30) ;  and  it  may  also  be  the  town 
where  Joash.  king  of  Israel,  should,  according 
to  prophecy,  smite  the  Syrians  till  they  were 
consumed  (2  Kiii.  xiii.  14-19).  The  situation 
presupposed  in  the  narratives  is  fully  met  by 
a  town  west  of  the  Jordan  in  the  plain  of 
Jezreel.  Still  the  Aphek  referred  to  in  these 
two  passages  may  be  the  town  of  that  name 
beyond  Jordan,  about  three  miles  east  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  highway  between  Da- 
mascus and  Beth-shean,  and  now  represented 
by  the  village  of  Fik. 

A-phe'kali  [strong  place,  fortification]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  53)  ;  probably  not  the  same  as  Aphek  2. 

A-pM'ah.  [perhaps,  refi'eshed,  revivified]. 

An  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix.  1). 

A'pMk.     See  Aphek  1. 

Aph'rah,  in  R.  V.  Beth-le-Aphrah  [dust]. 

A  town  (Mic.  i.  10),  site  unknown. 

Aph'ses.     See  Happizzez. 

A-poc'a-lypse  [disclosure,  revelation]. 

A  name  freiiucntly  giv'en  to  the  last  book 
of  the  Bible.    See  Revelation. 


Apocrypha 


43 


Apocrypha 


A-poc'ry-pha  [Greek  apokrupha,  hidden 
things,  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers  for  (1) 
matters  secret  or  mysterious  ;  (2)  of  unknown 
origin,  forged,  spurious;  (,3)  uure(;ognized, 
uncanouical]. 

The  name  generally  given  to  the  following 
sixteen  books  :  1  and  2  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith, 
The  Eest  of  Esther,  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  with  the  Epistle  of 
Jeremiah,  The  Soug  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren, The  History  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  1,  2,  3,  and 
4  Maccabees.  Sometimes  the  number  is  lim- 
ited to  fourteen,  3  and  4  Maccabees  being 
omitted. 

Unlike  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  which  are 
in  Hebrew,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  ver.ses 
in  Aramaic,  the  apocryphal  productions  are 
in  (xreek,  though  at  least  Judith,  Ecclesi- 
asticus, Baruch  i.-iii.  8,  and  1  Maccabees  were 
originally  written  in  Hebrew.  The  Jewish 
■church  considered  them  uninspired,  and  some 
of  tlieir  wi-iters  disclaim  inspiration  (Prologue 
to  Ecclesiasticus ;  1  Mac.  iv.  46  ;  ix.  27 ;  2  Mac. 
ii.  23;  xv.  38).  They  are  not  found  in  the 
Hebrew  canon  ;  they  are  never  quoted  by 
Jesus;  and  it  cannot  with  certainty  be  af- 
lirmed  that  the  apostles  ever  directly  allude 
to  them.  The  early  churches  permitted  them 
to  be  read  for  edification,  and  recommended 
them  to  the  catechumens  for  study,  but  re- 
jected them  from  the  canon,  their  decision 
carrying  authority  during  the  middle  ages, 
as  it  does  now  with  the  various  Protestant 
churches.  Thus  the  Church  of  England  in 
the  sixth  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  pub- 
lished in  1562  calls  the  apocryphal  treatises 
books  which  "  the  Church  doth  read  for  ex- 
ample of  life  and  instruction  of  manners ;  but 
yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to  establish  any 
doctrine."  The  Westminster  Confession  of 
1643  declares,  as  a  matter  of  creed,  that  "The 
books,  commonly  called  Apocrypha,  not  being 
of  divine  inspiration,  are  no  part  of  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  and  therefore  are  of  no 
authority  in  the  Church  of  God,  or  to  be 
any  otherwise  approved  or  made  use  of  than 
other  human  writings."  The  Council  of 
Trent  at  its  sitting  on  April  15, 1546,  declared 
eleven  of  the  sixteen  apocrj'phal  books  to  be 
canonical,  enumerating  Tobit,  Judith,  Wis- 
dom, Ecch^siasticus,  Baruch,  and  the  two 
books  of  MaccaViees.  and  adding  The  Kest  of 
Esther  to  the  canonical  Esther,  and  incorpo- 
rating the  History  of  Susanna,  the  Story  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children,  and  the  History  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  with  Daniel.  The  ( 'oiincil 
pronounced  an  anathema  against  anyone  who 
ventured  to  difl'er  from  it  in  opinion.  This 
has  since  regulated  the  belief  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  Apocrypha  was  intro- 
duced into  the  English  version  by  Coverdale 
in  1535,  and  was  included  in  king  James'  ver- 
sion, but  began  to  be  omitted  as  early  as  1629. 
When  inserted,  it  was  placed  between  the  O. 
T.  and  N.  T.  A  controver.sy  on  the  subject 
was  carried  on  between  the  years  1821  and 


1826,  which  resulted  in  the  exclusion  of  the 
Apocrypha  from  all  Bibles  issued  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

1.  1  Es'dras.  Esdras  is  simply  the  Greek 
form  of  Ezra,  and  the  book  narrates  the  de- 
cline and  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from 
the  time  of  Josiah,  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, tlie  Babylonian  captivity,  the  return 
of  the  exiles,  and  the  share  taken  by  Ezra  in 
reorganizing  the  Jewish  polity.  In  some  re- 
spects it  amplifies  the  biblical  narrative,  but 
the  additions  are  of  doul)tful  authority.  It 
is  followed  by  Josephus,  A.  D.  93  (cp.  1  Esdras 
iii.  1-iv.  44  witli  Antiq.  xi.  3,  2-8,  etc.).  How 
much  earlier  than  his  time  it  existed,  there 
is  no  evidence  to  show.  Nor  is  its  author 
known. 

2.  2  E.s'dras.  This  is  in  quite  a  different 
style  from  1  Esdras.  It  is  not  a  history,  but 
is  a  religious  treatise,  much  in  the  style  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets.  Its  kernel,  consisting 
of  chapters  iii.-xiv.,  purports  to  record  seven 
revelations  granted  to  Ezra  in  Babylon,  sev- 
eral of  which  took  the  form  of  visions:  the 
woman  that  mourned  ( ix.  38-x.  56),  the  eagle 
and  the  lion  (xi.  l-xii.39),  the  man  that  rose 
from  the  sea  !  xiii.  1-5G).  Tiie  author  of  these 
chapters  is  unknown  ;  but  he  was  evidently 
a  Jew,  full  of  affection  for  his  ])eople  (Jesus 
in  vii.28  is  wanting  in  the  oriental  versions). 
Since  the  vision  of  the  eagle,  which  is  ex- 
pressly based  on  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  (2 
Esdr.  xii.  11),  seems  to  refer  to  the  Roman 
empire,  a  date  from  about  A.  D.  88  to  about 
A.  D.  117,  is  generally  accepted.  A  date  later 
than  A.  D.  200  is  i)recluded  by  the  citation  of 
V.  35  in  Greek  by  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
with  the  prefac.e  "  Esdras  the  prophet  says." 
The  first  two  and  the  last  two  chapters  of  2 
Esdras  (i.,  ii.,  xv.,  xvL)  are  additions.  They 
are  lacking  in  the  oriental  versions  and  in  a 
majority  of  the  best  Latin  manuscripts.  They 
date  from  a  time  after  the  Septuagint  was  in 
circulation,  for  the  Minor  Prophets  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  the  Greek  version  (i. 
39,  40).  Chapters  i.  and  ii.  abound  in  remi- 
niscences of  the  Xew  Testament  and  justify 
the  rejection  of  Israel  and  the  substitution 
of  the  Gentiles  ii.  24,25,  35-40;  ii.  10,  11, 
34) ;  and  accordingly  were  written  by  a 
Christian,  not  unlikely  a  Christian  Jew. 

3.  To'bit.  This  is  a  narrative  of  a  certain 
pious  Naphtalite,  Tobit  by  name,  who  has  a 
son  Tobias.  The  father  loses  his  eyesight. 
The  sou,  dispatched  to  obtain  payment  of  a 
debt  to  Rages  in  Media,  is  led  on  by  an  angel 
to  Ecbatana,  where  he  makes  a  romantic 
marriage  with  a  widow,  who  still  remained 
a  virgin,  though  she  had  been  married  to 
seven  husbands,  all  of  whom  had  been  killed 
by  Asmodeus,  the  evil  spirit,  on  their  mar- 
riage day.  Tobias,  however,  is  encouraged 
bylhe  angel  to  become  the  eighth  husband 
of  the  virgin-widow,  anrt  escapes  death  by 
burning  the  inner  parts  of  a  fish,  the  smoke 
of  which  puts  the  evil  spirit  to  flight.  Then 
he  cures  his  father's  blindness  by  anointing 


Apocrypha 


44 


Apocrypha 


the  darkened  eyes  with  the  gall  of  the  fish 
which  had  already  proved  so  useful.  Tubit 
is  manifestly  a  moral  tale,  and  not  serious 
history.  The  most  probable  date  of  the  jiub- 
licatiou  is  about  350  B.  c,  or  from  250  to  200 

B.  C. 

4.  Ju'mth.  This  is  a  narrative  professing 
to  be  a  history  of  the  way  in  which  Judith, 
a  Jewish  widow  of  masculine  temperament, 
insinuated  herself  into  the  good  graces' of 
Hclofernes,  an  Assyrian  commander-in-chief, 
then  besieging  Bethulia,  and  seizing  his 
sword  when  he  was  asleep,  cut  ofl'  his  head. 
The  narrative  is  full  of  misstatements,  anach- 
ronisms, and  geographical  absurdities.  It 
is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  truth  in  the 
story,  which  may  possibly  have  been  sug- 
gested to  the  author  by  the  narrative  of  Jael 
and  Siscra  (Judg.  iv.  i7-2'2).  The  first  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  book  is  in  an  epistle  of 
Clement  of  Eome,  about  the  end  of  the  first 
century  A.  D.,  but  it  may  have  existed  as 
early  as  175  to  100  B.  c,  say  four  or  six  hun- 
dred years  after  the  event  it  prt)fessed  to 
record.  By  that  time  to  say  that  Nabuchodo- 
nosor,  apparently  Nebuchadnezzar,  reigned 
in  Nineveh,  instead  of  Babylon  (Judith  i.  1), 
W(juld  not  look  so  erroneous  as  it  would  to  a 
contemporary  of  the  great  king. 

5.  The  Kest  of  the  Chapters  of  the 
Book  of  Es'ther,  which  are  found  neither 
in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the  Chaldee.  The 
canonical  Esther  ends  with  a  short  tenth 
chapter  of  three  verses.  The  apocryphal  jiro- 
duction  adds  ten  verses  more,  and  six  chap- 
ters (xi.-xvi.).  In  the  Septuagint  this  sup- 
plementary matter  is  distributed  in  seven 
portions  through  the  text,  and  does  not  in- 
terrupt the  history.  It  amplifies  parts  of  the 
Scripture  narrative,  without  furnishing  a  new 
fact  of  value,  and  it  often  contradicts  the  his- 
tory as  contained  in  the  Hebrew.  The  com- 
mon opinion  is  that  the  book  was  the  work 
of  an  Egyptian  Jew,  and  that  he  wrote  about 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  lHl-145  B.  o. 

6.  The  Wis'dom  of  Sol'o-mon.  This  is 
an  ethical  treatise  in  commendation  of  wis- 
d<mi  and  righteousness,  and  in  denunciation 
of  iniquity  and  idolatry.  The  passages  which 
point  out  the  sin  and  folly  of  image-worship 
recall  those  on  the  same  theme  in  the  Psalms 
and  Isaiah  (cp.  Wisd.  xiii.  11-19  with  Ps. 
cxv.  ;  cxxxv.  15-18;  and  Is.  xl.  19-25;  xliv. 
9-20).  It  is  remarkable  to  what  extent  the 
author,  in  referring  to  historical  incidents  il- 
lustrative of  his  doctrine,  limits  himself  to 
those  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch.  He  writes 
in  the  jierson  of  Solomon  ;  says  that  he  was 
chosen  by  God  as  king  of  his  people,  and  was 
by  him  directed  to  build  a  teni]ile  and  an 
altar,  the  former  on  the  model  (if  the  talier- 
iiacle.  He  was  a  iiian  ol'  genius  and  of  jiiety, 
bis  religious  character  being  sustained  by  his 
belief  in  immortality.  He  lived  ap]iarently 
between  150  and  50  b.  v..  and  jxissibly  be- 
tween 120  and  bO  B.  c.  Though  never  for- 
mally quoted  or  in  any  way  referred   to  in 


the  N.  T.,  yet  occasionally  both  the  language 
and  the  trains  of  thought  in  the  N.  T.  some- 
what resemble  those  in  the  book  of  Wisdom 
(Wisd.  V.  l«-20  with  Epli.  vi.  14-17;  Wisd. 
vii.  2ti  with  Heb.  i.  2-6  ;  and  Wisd.  xiv.  13- 
31  with  Eom.  i.  19-32). 

7.  Ec-cle-si-as'ti-cus,  called  also  the  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Sirach.  This  is  a 
comparatively  long  work,  extending  to  fifty- 
one  chapters.  In  chaj).  1.  1-21  great  com- 
mendation is  bestowed  on  Simon,  the  high 
priest,  the  son  of  Onias,  probably  the  poutifl' 
of  that  name  who  lived  between  370  and  300 
B.  €. ;  and  the  work  may,  therefore,  have  been 
written  as  early  as  290  or  280  B.  c.  It  was 
originally  in  Hebrew.  The  author,  Jesus, 
sou  of  Sirach,  of  Jerusalem  (Ecclus.  1.  27),  was 
the  grandfather  or,  taking  the  word  in  its 
wider  sense,  remoter  ancestor  of  the  trans- 
lator. Tlie  translation  was  made  in  Egypt 
"in  the  eigbt-and-thirtieth  year"  "when 
Euergetes  was  king."  The  reference  is  either 
to  Ptolemy  III.,  surnamed  Euergetes,  who 
was  king  of  Egypt  from  247  to  222  B.  c.,or  to 
Ptolemy  Physcon,  who  was  likewise  sur- 
named Euergetes,  and  who  reigned  from  169 
to  lfi5  and  146  to  117  B,  c.  The  great  theme 
of  the  work  is  wisdom.  It  is  a  valuable  eth- 
ical treatise,  in  places  reminding  one  of  the 
books  of  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  parts  of 
Job,  in  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and  of  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon  in  the  Apocryj)ha.  It  is 
generally  quoted  as  Ecclus.,  to  distinguish  it 
from  Ecc. — that  is,  Ecclesiastes. 

8.  Ba'euch,  with  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah. 
Baruch  was  Jeremiah's  friend.  The  first  five 
chapters  are  made  nominally  to  emanate  from 
Baruch,  while  the  sixth  is  headed  "  The  Epis- 
tle of  Jeremiah."  After  an  introduction  de- 
scribing the  origin  of  the  work  (Baruch  i. 
1-14),  the  book  of  Baruch  falls  naturally  into 
three  divisions  :  1.  Israel's  confession  of  sin 
and  pi-ayer  for  forgiveness  and  restoration  to 
favor  (i.  15-iii.  8).  This  part  bears  evidence 
of  having  been  written  originally  in  Hebrew. 
The  use  to  be  made  of  it,  according  to  the 
introduction  (i.  14),  also  suggests  that  the 
language  was  Hebrew.  It  is  geneially  dated 
fully  three  centuries  before  Christ.  2.  Ex- 
hortation to  return  to  the  fountain  of  wisdom 
(iii.  9-iv.  4),  and  3.  Encouragement,  and 
promi.se  of  deliverance  (iv.  5-v.  9).  These 
two  latter  sections,  from  the  quality  of  the 
Greek,  are  believed  to  have  been  written  in 
that  language.  They  show,  too.  resemblances 
to  the  Septnagint.  It  is  disputed  whether 
the  similarity  between  chap.  v.  and  Psalm 
of  Solomon  ix.  indicates  that  the  chapter  was 
based  upon  the  psalm,  and  hence  written 
after  A.  D.  70  ;  or  that  both  writings  rest 
independently  on  the  Septuagint.  The  Epis- 
tle of  Jeremiah  warns  the  Jews  in  exile 
against  Babylonian  idolatry.  Perhaps  it  was 
written  about  100  B.  C. 

9.  The  S<)N(;  of  the  Three  Ho'lyChil'- 
DREN  was  (It'signed  to  fit  into  the  canonical 
Daniel  between  iii.  23  and  24.    Its  author  and 


Apollonia 


exact  date  arc  unknowu.     (Cp.  verses  35-68 
with  Ps.  cxlviii.) 

10.  The  History  of  Su-san'na.  This  is 
also  an  apocryphal  addition  to  Daniel,  show- 
ing how  the  prophet  sagaciously  discovered  an 
accusation  against  Susanna,  a  godly  woman, 
to  be  a  malignant  slander.  Its  author  and 
date  are  unknown. 

11.  The  Idol  Bel  AND  THE  Drag'on.  Yet 
another  apocryphal  addition  to  the  canonical 
hook  of  Daniel.  The  ]>rophet  proves  that  the 
priests  of  Bel  and  their  families  ate  the  food 
oflered  to  the  idol  ;  and  he  kills  a  dragon,  for 
which,  a  second  time,  he  is  put  into  a  lions' 
den.     Author  and  date  unknown. 

12.  The  Prayer  of  Ma-nas'ses,  king  of 
Judah,  when  he  was  holdeu  captive  in  Baby- 
lon (cp.  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13).  Author 
unknown ;   date  probably  the  first  century 

B.  C. 

13.  The  First  Book  of  the  Mac'ca-bees. 
A  historical  work  of  great  value,  giving  an 
account  of  the  Jewish  war  of  independence, 
under  the  Maccabee  family  of  Levites  in  the 
second  century  b.  c.  ;  see  Antiochus  2  and 
Maccabee.  Its  author,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, was  evidently  a  Jew  belonging  to 
Palestine.  Two  opinions  exist  as  to  its  date  : 
the  one  places  it  between  120  and  106  B.  c, 
the  other,  on  better  grounds,  between  105  and 
64  B.  c.  It  was  doubtless  translated  into 
Greek  from  a  Hebrew  original. 

14.  The  Second  Book  of  the  Mac'ca- 
bees  is  professedly  an  abridgment  of  the 
large  work  of  Jason  of  Cyrene.  It  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  Jewish  history  from  the 
reign  of  Seleucus  IV.,  175  B.  c,  to  the  death 
of  Nicauor  in  161  B.  c.  It  is  much  less  val- 
uable than  the  first  book,  and  the  author  has 
a  love  of  the  marvelous  which  diminishes 
the  credibility  of  his  narrations,  though  they 
contain  a  good  deal  of  truth.  The  book  was 
written  after  125  B.  C,  and  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70. 

15.  The  Third  Book  of  the  Mac'ca-bees 
refers  to  events  before  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. The  leading  incident  is  the  attempt 
of  Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator  in  217  B.  c.  to 
penetrate  into  tbe  holy  of  holies,  and  his 
subsequent  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria. It  was  written  shortly  before  or 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  has  even  been  dated  as  late  as  a.  d. 
39  or  40. 

16.  The  Fourth  Book  of  the  Mac'ca- 
bees  is  a  moral  treatise  advocating  the  mas- 
tery of  the  passions,  and  illustrating  its  teach- 
ing by  examples  of  constancy  under  suffering, 
drawn  from  Maccabsean  times.  It  was  written 
after  2  Maccabees  and  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem. 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-a  [pertaining  to  Apollo,  the 
youthful  god  of  music,  song,  soothsaying, 
archery,  etc.]. 

A  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Egnatian 
Way,  thirty  Roman  miles  west  of  Amphipolis. 


45  Apostle 

Paul  passed  through  it  as  he  journeyed  to 
Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  1). 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-us  [pertaining  to  Ajiollo.] 

1.  An  official  under  Aiiticuhus  Eiiiphaues, 
who  was  sent  to  Judtea  to  collect  tribute,  and 
who  treacherously  ordered  a  massacre  at  Je- 
rusalem (1  Mac.  i.  29-32;  2  Mac.  v.  24-26; 
cp.  iv.  21).  He  became  governor  of  Samaria 
(Antiq.  xii.  5,  5).  He  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  iii.  10 ;  Antiq. 
xii.  7,  1). 

2.  Governor  of  Coelesyria,  whom  Deme- 
trius II.  made  general  of  his  army.  He  was 
defeated  in  battle  by  Jonathan  Maccabteus 
at  Ashdod  (1  Mac.  x.  69-85).  Less  credibly, 
Josephus  speaks  of  him  as  on  the  side  of 
Alexander  Balas  (Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3  and  4). 

A-pol'los  [a  modification  of  Apollonius  or 
Apollodorus]. 

A  Jew  born  at  Alexandria,  eloquent  and 
learned,  and  deeply  versed  in  the  O.  T. 
Scriptures.  He  became  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  zealously  taught  concerning 
the  Messiah,  though  knowing  only  the  bap- 
tism of  repentance.  While  itinerating  in 
Asia  Minor  for  this  purpose,  he  met  at  Ephe- 
sus,  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  instructed  him 
more  fully ;  and  the  brethren  wrote  letters 
of  introduction  for  him  to  the  brethren  in 
Achaia.  On  arriving  in  Greece,  he  helped 
the  Christians,  publicly  confuting  the  Jews, 
and  Showing  from  the  Scriptures  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ  (Acts  xviii.  24-28).  The  dis- 
ciples with  whom  Paul  soon  afterwards  fell  in 
at  Ephesus,  who  knew  only  John's  baptism, 
and  had  never  heard  that  there  was  a  Holy 
Ghost,  were  probably  converts  of  Apollos  (xix. 
1-7).  Apollos'  i)reaching  at  Corinth  raised 
a  party  in  the  church  at  that  place  (1  Cor.  i. 
12;  iii.  4,  5,  6,  22;  iv.  6).  But  Paul  had  all 
confidence  in  him,  and  urged  him  to  revisit 
Corinth  (xvi.  12).  He  also  enjoined  Titus  to 
help  Apollos,  apparently  then  in  or  on  his 
way  to  Crete  (Titus  iii.  13).  It  is  thought  by 
many  scholars  that  Apollos  was  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

A-pol'ly-on  [destroying,  a  destroyer]. 
The  angel  of  the  abyss  (Rev.  ix.  11).     The 
Greek  synonym  of  Abaddon. 

A-pos'tle  [one  sent  forth,  a  messenger,  an 
ambassador  (John  xiii.  16,  E.  V.  margin)]. 

1.  One  of  the  men  selected  by  Jesus  to  be 
eye-witnesses  of  the  events  of  his  life,  to  see 
him  after  his  resurrection,  and  to  testify  to 
mankind  concerning  him  (Mat.  x.  2-42;  Acts 
1.  21,  22;  1  Cor.  ix.  1).  They  were  chosen  in 
succession  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Saviour's  public  life.  First  came  Andrew 
and  his  brother  Simon,  the  well-known  Simon 
Peter  (Mat.  iv.  18-20 ;  x.  2 ;  Mark  i.  16-18 ; 
Luke  vi.  14  ;  John  i.  35-42) ;  then  apjiarently 
James  and  John,  sons  of  Zebedce  (Mat.  iv. 
21,  22;  x.  2;  Mark  1.  19,  20;  Luke  vi.  14); 
then  seeminglj'  I'hilip  and  Nathauael,  named 
also  Bartholomew  (John  1.  43-51);  and  sub- 


Apostle 

sequeiitly  six  more,  viz.,  Matthew,  called 
also  Levi  (Mat.  ix.  9-13;  Mark  ii.  14-17; 
Luke  V.  27-32)  ;  Thomas  ;  James  the  son  of 
Alphseus  ;  Simon  the  Zealot  or  Canaua?an  ; 
Judas,  the  brother  of  James ;  and  Judas 
Iscariot  (Mat.  x.  1-4  ;  Mark  iii.  10-19  ;  Luke 
vi.  13-16  ;  Acts  i.  13,  all  K.  V.).  The  ajmstles 
were  regarded  as  illiterate  men  by  the  higher 
Jewish  dignitaries  who  had  before  them 
Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  13).  All  they  seem 
to  have  meant  was  that  the  apostles  had  re- 
ceived elementary  rather  than  higher  educa- 
tion. Jesus  gave  great  attention  to  their 
spiritual  training :  yet  to  the  last  they  failed 
to  understand  his  mission,  believing  that  he 
was  about  to  set  up  a  temporal  rather  than  a 
spiritual  kingdom  (Mat.  xx.  20-28 ;  Mark  x. 
3.5-45 ;  Acts  i.  6)  ;  they  slept  in  the  hour  of 
his  agony  in  the  garden  (Mat.  xxvi.  40),  and 
held  aloof  all  the  day  of  his  death  on  the 
cross  (Mat.  xxvi.  56  ;  Mark  xiv.  50).  They 
were  often  called  disciples  or  pupils  (Mat.  xi. 
1 ;  xiv.  26  ;  xx.  17  ;  John  xx.  2).  Peter,  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John,  seem  to  have 
possessed  a  clearer  comprehension  of  the 
teacher's  instructions  and  a  higher  apprecia- 
tion of  him  than  the  others.  On  three  difl'er- 
ent  occasions  they  were  singled  out  from  the 
rest  for  special  privilege.  They  were  in  the 
room  at  the  raising  from  the  dead  of  Jairus' 
daughter  (Mark  v.  37 ;  Luke  viii.  51) ;  they 
were  present  at  the  transfiguration  (Mat. 
xvii.  1 ;  Mark  ix.  2 ;  Luke  ix.  28),  and  were 
in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  during  the 
agony  (Mat.  xxvi.  37  ;  Mark  xiv.  33).  Peter, 
though  rash  and  impetuous  in  speech,  was 
constitutionally  the  best  fitted  t<j  lead.  He 
is  generally  mentioned  first,  but  not  always 
(Gal.  ii.  9).  John  was  the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  peculiarly  loved  (John  xix.  26 ;  xx.  2  ; 
xxi.  7,  20).  Thomas  was  scrupulous  as  to 
evidence,  but  yielded  when  the  proof  he 
sought  was  complete.  Judas  proved  a  traitor, 
who,  betraying  his  divine  Lord  to  death  for 
lucre's  sake,  and  then  repenting,  committed 
suicide.  The  step  taken  to  till  his  place 
showed  that  the  number  of  the  apostles, 
fixed  originally  at  twelve,  required,  for  a 
time  at  least,  to  be  kept  at  that  figure  ;  the 
reason  probably  was  that  there  might  be  as 
many  ajiostles  as  there  were  tribes  of  Israel. 
Two  men  possessing  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tions were  put  forward,  the  one  Joseph,  called 
Barsabas  and  Justus,  and  the  other  Matthias. 
The  lot  fell  upon  Matthias,  who  was  conse- 
quently elected  in  Judas'  room  (Acts  i.  15- 
20;  cp.  with  ver.  20,  Ps.  cix.  8).  The  descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
produced  a  spiritual  transformation  of  the 
apostles,  fitting  them  for  the  great  work  to 
which  they  were  called,  the  evangelization 
of  the  world  (Acts  ii.  1-47).  To  this  they  at 
once  addressed  themselves,  Peter  and  John 
taking  the  lead  (iii.  1-v.  42;  ix.  32-xii.  18). 
James  was  also  zealous,  for  he  became  so  ob- 
noxious to  the  Jewish  authorities  tliat  they 
slew  him  with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  2).     Paul 


46  Apple 

was  divinely  chosen  and  called  for  the  ar- 
duous work  of  preaching  the  gospel  to  the 
gentiles  (Acts  ix.  1-31  ;  xxii.  5-16 ;  xxvi. 
1-20).  He  had  not  itinerated  with  Jesus 
whilst  our  Lord  was  on  the  earth ;  but  he 
possessed  the  apostolic  qualification  of  having 
seen  Jesus  after  his  resurrection.  On  the  way 
to  Damascus  Jesus  appeared  to  him  and  spoke 
to  him,  changing  his  hostility  into  passionate 
devotion.  He  was  able  to  say  "  Am  I  not  an 
apostle?  Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord?"  (1  Cor.  ix.  1).  Paul  was  a  highly 
educated  man,  and  able  to  address  cultured 
audiences  of  the  gentiles  at  Athens,  Eome, 
and  elsewhere.  Nor  did  his  intellectual  ac- 
quirements lead  him  away  from  his  proper 
work.  His  labors  were  so  abundant  that 
the  record  of  them  fills  about  half  the  book 
called  The  Acts  of  the  Axiostles.  Where  the 
several  apostles  labored,  how  they  lived,  and 
how  they  died,  is  in  most  cases  known  only 
by  the  doubtful  evidence  of  tradition.  One 
matter,  however,  and  an  all-important  one, 
is  placed  by  tradition  on  a  secure  founda- 
tion, namely,  that  no  second  Judas  appeared 
among  them  ;  all  were  faithful  to  the  end  ; 
and  some  at  least,  if  not  even  the  majority, 
sealed  their  testimony  to  Jesus  with  their 
blood. 

2.  The  word  is  occasionally  applied  in  a 
less  restricted  sense  in  the  N.  T.  to  men  of 
apostolic  gifts,  graces,  labors,  and  successes.  It 
is  so  notal)ly  of  IJarnabas,  who  was  sent  forth 
with  I'aui  I  Acts  xiii.  3:  xiv.  4,  14).  Similarly 
one  still  meets  with  such  expressions,  as  Jud- 
sou  the  Apostle  of  Burmah.  The  name  is 
applied  also  to  Jesus,  in  Heb.  iii.  1. 

Ap'pa-im  [the  nostrils]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  30,  31). 

Ap'phi-a. 

A  Christian  woman,  probably  the  wife  of 
Philemon  (Philemon  2). 

Ap'pi-i  Fo'rum  [market  place  of  Appius]. 

A  town  in  Italy,  about  forty-three  Komau. 
or  thirty-nine  and  a  half  English,  miles  from 
Rome,  on  the  celebrated  Appian  Way  from 
Eome  to  Capua.  Its  ruins  exist  near  Triponti. 
Paul  was  met  at  this  town  by  Christians  from 
Eome,  when  he  was  being  brought  a  iirisoner 
to  the  capital  (Acts  xxviii.  15). 

Ap'ple. 

A  tree  and  its  fruit  (Song  ii.  3 ;  viii.  5 ; 
Prov.  XXV.  11),  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Tappuak.  Tappuah  seems  akin  to  the  Arabic 
tnffdh,  meaning  an  apple,  and  the  one  re- 
ferred to  in  the  O.  T.  is  probably  our  English 
apple  tree  Pijrns  mains,  which  Thom.son  found 
growing  splendidly  at  Askelon  in  the  Philis- 
tine country.  The  name  may  have  included 
the  quince  as  well.  Tristram  believes  that 
the  apricot  is  meant.  The  apple  tree  is  enu- 
merated with  the  vine,  the  fig  tree,  the  pome- 
granate, and  the  palm  tree,  as  one  of  the 
chief  trees  cultivated  (Joel  i.  12).    There  were 


Aquila 


47 


Arabia 


seveml  towns  called  Tappuah — in  the  low" 
land  (Josli.  xv.  34),  near  Hebron  (53),  and 
on  the  border  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh 
(xvii.  8),  where  doubtless  many  apple  trees 
grew. 

The  apple  of  the  eye  is  the  eyeball  or 
\m\n\  (Deut.  xxxii.  10;  Ps.  xvii.  8;  Lam. 
ii.  18;  Zech.  ii.  8).  For  apple  of  Sodom,  see 
Vine. 

Aq'ui-la  [eagle]. 

A  Jew,  born  in  Pontus,  who  with  his  wife, 
Priscilla,  lived  for  a  time  at  Eonie,  but  had 
to  leave  that  city  when  the  emperor  Claudius 
commanded  all  its  Jewish  inhabitants  to  de- 
part. He  removed  to  Corinth,  where  he 
worked  at  his  craft,  tentmaking.  Paul,  who 
was  of  the  same  occupation,  lodged  with  him 
at  Corinth,  and  formed  a  high  opinion  of  him 
and  his  wife  (Acts  xviii.  1-3).  They  were 
his  fellow-passengers  from  Corinth  as  far  as 
Ephesus,  on  his  way  to  Syria  (Acts  xviii.  18, 
19).  In  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
the  two  join  Paul  in  .sending  salutations  from 
Asia,  i.  e.  probably  from  Ephesus  (1  Cor.  xvi. 
19).  At  Ephesus  they  met  ApoUos,  and  in- 
structed him  more  completely  in  Christian 
doctrine  (Acts  xviii.  26).  Afterwards  they 
seem  to  have  returned  to  Rome,  for  Paul  sends 
them  salutations  in  his  letter  to  that  church 
(Eom.  xvi.  3).  But  they  must  again  have 
left  it,  for  in  the  apostle's  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  written  from  Rome,  salutations  are 
sent  them  anew  (2  Tim.  iv.  19). 

Ar  [city]. 

One  of  the  chief  cities  of  Moab,  more  fully 
called  Ar  of  Moab  (Isa.  xv.  1).  It  lay  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi.  15; 
Deut.  ii.  18),  in  the  midst  of  the  Aruon  valley 
(Num.  xxii.  36 ;  Deut.  ii.  36  ;  Josh.  xiii.  9). 

The  Greeks  connected  the  name  with  Ares, 
the  god  of  war,  the  Roman  M;irs,  and  called 
it  after  him  Areopolis,  city  of  Mars.  The 
Jews  and  others  in  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies named  it  Rabbath  Moab,  or  simi)ly 
Eabbah,  i.  e.  capital,  of  Moab.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  earthquake,  probably  in  A.  D.  342, 
and  the  name  Areopolis  was  transferred  to 
another  Rabbah,  about  ten  miles  south  on 
the  plateau. 

A'ra. 

A  man  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii.  38). 

A'rab  [ambuscade]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52).     Cp.  Arbite. 

Ar'a-bah  [arid  region,  desert]. 

1.  The  geographical  name  of  that  great  de- 
pression of  the  land  in  which  are  found  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  the  Jordan,  and  the  Dead  Sea 
(Josh.  xi.  2  ;  xii.  3,  R.  V.).  The  name  ap- 
parently belonged  also  to  the  extension  of  the 
valley  to  the  Red  Sea  (Deut.  ii.  8,  R.  V.).  In 
A.  V.  the  word  is  translated,  being  generally 
rendered  by  plain,  but  also  by  wilderness  or 
desert  (Amos  vi.  14;  Ezek.  xlvii.  8). 

2.  The  same  as  Beth-arabah  (Josh,  xviii.  22). 


A-ra'bi-a  [Greek  form  of  Arabic  '  arab, 
arid  region]. 

In  modern  geography  the  most  westerly  of 
the  three  great  peninsulas  in  Southern  Asia. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Persian  Gulf 


Bedouin  Arab. 

and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Red 
Sea.  Northward  it  projects  triangularly  and 
passes  insensibly  into  the  Syrian  desert.  Its 
length  from  north  to  south  is  about  150f 
miles ;  its  average  breadth  from  east  to  west, 
about  800  ;  its  area  about  1,139,000  square 
miles.  It  consists  mainly  of  an  elevated 
table-land  called  Nejd,  highest  along  the  west 
and  south  near  the  coast,  and  sloping  on  the 
north  toward  the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  sep- 
arated from  the  coast  by  a  low-lying  sandy 
region,  the  western  portion  of  which  is  called 
Hejaz,  the  southwestern  and  southern  Yemen, 
and  the  eastern,  Oman,  Hejr,  and  Bahrein. 
Arabia  lies  athwart  the  enormous  belt  of 
desert,  commencing  near  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
with  the  Sahara,  and  extending  through 
Chinese  Tartary,  almost  to  tlie  Pacific  Ocean. 
Aral)in  isc(ms(M|ucntly  largely  desert.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  name  Arabian  denoted  the 
inhabitants  of  the  desert  portion  (.Jer.  iii.  2), 
whether  near  Babylonia  or  Ethiopia  (Is.  xiii. 
20 ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  16),  often  as  distinguished 
from  the  prominent  .settled  tribes  (Jer.  xxv. 
24  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  21).  Eventually  Arabia 
came  to  denote  the  entire  peninsula  (Acts  ii. 
11;  Gal.  i.  17;  iv.  25;  cp.  2  Chron.  ix.  14). 
Ptolemy,  the  geographer  of  Alexandria  who 
wrote  in  the  second  century  A.  D.,  divided 
the  country  into  three  regions  :  Arabia  Felix, 
the  Happy  or  Fertile ;  Arabia  Petrsea,  the 
Stony  ;  and  Arabia  Deserta,  the  Desert.  Ara- 
bia Felix  was  of  indefinite  extent.  Arabia 
Petrjea,  having  for  its  capital  Petra,  was  the 


Arabia 


48 


Arabia 


district  between  the  Red  and  the  Dead  Seas; 
and  Arabia  Deserta  the  projecting  angle  on 
the  northern  boundarj',  sometimes  called  the 
Syrian  desert.  The  streams  are  few  and 
small,  none  navigable.     The  geology  is  little 


The  Minsean  kingdom  was  ultimately  super- 
seded by  the  Sabtean,  the  scriptural  kingdom 
of  Sheba.  Arab  tribes  often  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  xxxvii.  '28,  36 ; 
Judg.  vi.-viii.).  Solomon  bought  from  the 
Arabs  gold,  silver,  and 
spices  (2  Chron.  ix.  14). 
Jehoshaiihat  received 
tribute  from  them  in 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 
(xvii.  11).  In  the  reign 
of  Jehoram,  Arabs  with 
other  marauders  plun- 
dered Jerusalem  (xxi. 
It!).     They  were  after- 


known,  but  gold  and  precious  stones  were 
obtained.  The  feature  of  the  botany  is  the 
prevalence  of  aromatic  plants,  some  of  them 
furnishing  valuable  spices.  Of  its  birds  the 
most  noted  is  the  ostrich  ;  of  its  ((uadrujieds 
the  camel,  the  Arab  horse,  and  the  vvihl  ass. 
The  country  was  settled  by  Semites  ((tcu.  x. 
26-29;  XXV.  2-4;  13-15),  as  physiognomy, 
traits,  and  language  evidence  ;  in  part  also  by 
Hamites  (Gen.  x.  6,  7).  As  early  as  the  time  of 
the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Eg\pt,  there 
existed  in  southern  Arabia  a  civilized  power, 
tlu^  Miuffian  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at 
Ma'in,  about  thirty  miles  to  the  north  of 
Marial)a.  The  names  of  thirty-three  Minanin 
kings  have  been  recovered.  Even  the  Min- 
seans   used    the    familiar    Semitic   alphal)et. 


wards  defeated  by  Uzziah  (xxvi.  7).  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah  denounced  judgments  against 
their  race  (Is.  xxi.  13-17;  Jer.  xxv.  24).  and 
both  used  the  wandering  Arab  in  their  poetic 
illustrations  (Is.  xiii.  20;  Jer.  iii.  2).  Arabs 
were  liircd  allies  of  the  Syrians  against  Judas 
]\hKcaba-us  (1  Mac.  v.  39),  There  were  Arabs 
present  on  the  day  of  Fenteco.st  (Acts  ii.  11), 
and  Paul  sojourned  for  a  time  in  Arabia,  be- 
fore commencing  his  apostolic  work  (Gal.  i. 
17).  The  scantiness  of  water,  the  courage  of 
the  Arabs,  and  their  wandering  life,  pre- 
vented even  the  greatest  of  the  aiu^ient  em- 
])ires  from  con([uering  Arabia  and  holding  it 
iu  subjection.  Both  .Tndaismaiul  Cliristianity 
had  rooted  tliemseives  in  Arabia  when,  \u  tlie 
seventli  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Moham- 


Arabian 


49 


Aramaic 


med  arose.  Before  his  death  (a.  d.  632)  his 
faith  was  everywliere  dominant  throughout 
the  peninsula,  and  in  a  century  more  the 
Saracens,  issuing  tlience,  had  put  in  danger 
the  civilization  and  faith  of  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world. 

A-ra'bi-an. 

One  of  the  Arab  race  ;  a  native  or  inhabi- 
tant of  Arabia  (2  Chron.  xvii.  11). 

A'rad  [wild  ass]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  of  the  south  coun- 
try and  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Num.  xxi. 
1;  Josh.  xii.  14;  Judg.  i.  16).  The  site  is 
marked  by  Tell  'Arad,  on  a  barren-looking 
eminence  sixteen  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
Its  king  fought  against  the  Israelites  when 
they  were  at  mount  Hor  and  took  some  of 
them  captive  ;  but  the  Israelites  roused  them- 
selves to  new  trust  in  God,  and  devastated 
the  territory  of  the  king,  and  eventually  he 
himself  or  his  successor  was  vanquished  by 
Joshua  (ibid.). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  descended  through  Beriah 
(1  Chron.  viii.  15). 

Ar'a-dus.     See  Arv.\d. 
A'rah  [wayfarer]. 

1.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  5 ;  Neh.  vii.  10). 

2.  An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

A'ram. 

1.  A  person,  or  collectively  a  people,  de- 
scended from  Shem,  who  inhabited  the  region 
known  as  Aram  (Gen.  x.  22,  23 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
17). 

2.  The  plain  occupied  by  the  Aramaeans, 
extending  from  the  Lebanon  mountains  to 
beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  river 
Sagur  on  the  north  to  Damascus  and  beyond 
on  the  south.  The  prophet  Amos  speaks  of 
the  Aramaeans  as  dwelling  from  Damascus  to 
Beth-eden  ;  in  other  words,  from  Lebanon  on 
the  southwest  to  mount  Masius  on  the  north- 
east (i.  5).  Several  districts  were  distin- 
guished : 

(1)  A'r.4m-na-ha-ra'im,  i.  e.  Aram  of  the 
two  rivers,  referring  either  to  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  or,  more  probably,  to  the  Eui)hrates 
and  Chabur.  It  is  commonly  believed  that 
in  this  region  Paddau-aram  was  situated, 
Paddan  being  identified  with  the  place  near 
Haran  called  Tell  Faddan  (Gen.  xxviii.  5  and 
xxiv.  10,  47,  R.  v.).  This  is  the  Aram  where  the 
patriarchs  dwelt  before  they  went  to  Canaan, 
where  the  ancient  cities  of  Haran  and  Nisibis 
stood,  where  later  Edessa  the  noted  seat  of 
Syrian  culture  arose  ;  the  Aram  which  the 
Hebrews  speak  of  as  "  beyond  the  river  "  (2 
Sam.  X.  16). 

(2)  A'ram-da-mas'cus.  The  Hebrews  dur- 
ing almost,  if  not  quite,  the  entire  period  of 
their  kingdom,  found  Aramaeans  in  Damascus 
(2  Sam.  viii.  5,  R.  V.  margin  ;  1  Kin.  xv.  18). 
The  city  became  eventually  the  center  of 
Aramaean  influence  west  of  the  Euphrates, 

4 


and  M'aged  intermittent  warfare  with  the 
northern  Israelites  during  their  entire  ex- 
istence as  a  sei)arate  kingdom. 

(3)  A'ram-zo'bah.  In  the  days  of  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon,  another  powerful  Aram- 
aean kingdom  flourished  west  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, namely  the  kingdom  of  Zobah  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
47  ;  2  Sam.  viii.  3  ;  cp.  2  Chron.  viii.  3),  called 
Aram-zobah  by  Hebrew  writers  (2  Sam.  x.  6). 
At  one  time  its  dominion  extended  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  Hamath  on  the  northwest  (1 
Chron.  xviii.  3 ;  2  Sam.  viii.  10)  ;  had  Damas- 
cus to  the  south  or  southwest,  for  one  of  its 
towns,  Berothai,  was  situated  between  Ha- 
math and  Damascus  (2  Sam.  viii.  5  and  8  with 
Ezek.  xlvii.  16),  and  during  this  prosperous 
period  probably  exercised  sway  well  toward 
the  Euphrates  on  the  east  and  the  Hauran  on 
the  south. 

(4)  A'ram-ma'a-cah  lay  east  of  the  Jordan 
within  the  contemplated  bounds  of  Israel, 
hard  by  mount  Hermon  (Josh.  xii.  5;  xiii. 
11).  From  the  description  of  Abel,  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  as  "Abel 
[in  the  neighborhood]  of  Beth-maacah,'"  it 
may  be  inferred  that  Maacah  extended  as  far 
west  as  the  .Jordan. 

(5)  Ge'shur  in  Aram  was  a  small  kingdom 
not  far  from  Maacah,  and  like  it  east  of  the 
Jordan,  near  mount  Hermon,  and  within  the 
territory  allotted  to  Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  14; 
2  Sam.  XV.  8,  R.  V.  margin,  with  xiii.  37). 

(6)  A'ram-bkth-re'hob  (2Sam.  X.  6).  The 
location  is  uncertain.  If  identical  with  the 
place  mentioned  in  Num.  xiii.  21  and  Judg. 
xviii.  28,  it  was  near  both  Maacah  and  Dan. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

4.  A  Greek  form  of  Ram,  the  father  of  Am- 
minadab  (Mat.  i.  3;  Luke  iii.  33;  and  R.  V. 
margin).    See  Arni. 

Ar-a-ma'ic  or  the  Ar-a-mse'an  or  Ara- 
mean  Language. 

A  Semitic  language  spoken  in  Aram.  It 
was  written  with  the  same  alphabet  as  the 
Hebrew,  and  ditters  from  this  language  chiefly 
in  the  sj-stem  of  vocalization  and  in  the 
structure  of  a  few  grammatical  forms.  Be- 
fore the  inscriptions  revealed  that  the  Baby- 
lonian vernacular  was  Assyrian,  Aramaic  was 
incorrectly  called  ('haldee,  a  term  not  yet 
obsolete.  Aramaic  was  used  by  Laban  (Gen. 
xxxi.  47,  R.  V.  margin) ;  it  is  seen  in  the 
proper  names  Tabrimmon,  Hazael  (1  Kin.  xv. 
18,  R.  v.;  xix.  15),  and  Mari';  it  is  found  in 
inscriptions  as  early  as  the  time  of  Shalman- 
eser  and  Sargon,  showing  that  it  was  used 
by  traders  at  Nineveh  ;  it  became  the  inter- 
national language  of  business  and  diplo- 
macy (2  Kin.  xviii.  26,  R.  V.  margin);  it 
was  used  by  Jeremiah  to  state  an  address 
to  idols  (x.  11,  R.  V.  margin),  and  by  Daniel 
and  Ezra  for  certain  portions  of  their  books  ; 
it  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  who  returned  from 
Babylonia,  and  in  the  time  of  Clirist  was 
spoken  by  large  numbers  of  the  Jews  collo- 
quially (see  Hebrew),  and  also  by  neighbor- 


Aram-beth-rehob 


50 


Arbatta 


ing  nations.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  it;  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  a 
pupil  of  Gamaliel,  comprising  tlie  Law  and 
the  Prophets,  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind 
and  a  fine  version.  Syriac  is  a  dialect  which 
developed  out  of  the  Aramaic. 

A'ram-beth-re'liob.     See  Aeam  2  (6). 

A'ram-i'tess. 

A  woman  of  Aram  (1  Chron.  vii.  14). 

A'ram-ma'a-cah.     See  Aeam  2  (4). 
A'ram-na-ha-ra'im.     See  Abam  2  (1). 
A'ram-zo'bah.     See  Aeam  2  (3). 

A'ran  [wild  goat]. 

A  descendant  of  Dishan  or  offshoot  of  that 
Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  28:  1  Chron.  i.  42). 

Ar'a-rat. 

A  mountainous  country  n<n"th  of  Assyria, 
centering  about  the  elevated  plateau  of  the 
Araxes.  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  kingdom  apparently  adjacent  to 


The  Muuutain  known  as  Ararat. 


those  of  Minni  and  Ashkenaz  (Jer.  li.  27). 
When  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  killed  their 
father  they  escaped  into  the  land  of  Ararat, 
which  the  A.  V.  happily  identifies  with  Ar- 
menia (2  Kin.  xix.  37  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38).  On 
one  of  the  mountains  of  Ararat,  it  is  not 
stated  which,  the  ark  of  Noah  rested  (Gen. 
viii.  4).  The  Assyrian  cuneiform  account  of 
the  flood  implies  a  mountain  near  the  coun- 
try of  Urtu,  northeast  of  P>abylonia.  Per- 
haps the  name  Ararat  (Urartu)  and  Urtu 
have  been  confounded.  Traditions  with  re- 
spect to  the  resting  place  of  the  ai-k  attach 
themselves  to  various  mountains  in  western 
Asia;  but  by  mount  Aiarat  is  now  meant  a 
noble  mountain  almost  midway  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  tlie  (_'as]>ian,  and  not  far  from 


the  boundary  line  between  Eussia  and  Tur- 
key. It  has  two  peaks,  one  higher  than  the 
other.  The  loftier  one  rises  17,260  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  more  than  10,000  feet 
above  the  table-land  on  which  it  stands,  and 
3000  above  the  line  of  i>erpetual  snow.  The 
ascent  is  so  difficult  and  laborious  that  the 
Turks  call  Ararat  Aghri  Dagh,  or  the  Painful 
Mountain.  Its  summit  was  long  deemed  in- 
accessible, but  it  was  at  length  reached  by 
Parrot  in  1829.  and  in  1850  by  Col.  Khoelzko 
and  his  party  of  sixty,  while  they  were  en- 
gaged on  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  Trans- 
Caucasia. 

A-ra'tbes,  in  A.  V.  Ariarathes. 

King  of  Cappadocia  from  162  to  131  B.  c, 
surnamed  Philopator  (1  Mac.  xv.  22). 

A'ra-rite. 

So  R.  v.,  following  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  once  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  33,  where  A.  V. 
has  Hararite  as  in  the  corresponding  passage, 
1  Chron.  xi.  35. 

A-rau'nah. 

— rssj,         A  Jebusite  who  pos- 

"=^11     sessed    a     threshing 
;=J      floor  on    mount   Mo- 
sl     riali.        David     pur- 
"tsI      chased    the    floor    in 
order  to   erect   there 
an   altar   to  Jehovah 
that  the  plague  then 
raging  might  be  stay- 
ed (2  Sam.  xxiv.  18- 
25  ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  15- 
28).     The  place  after- 
wards became  the  site 
of  Solomon's   temple 
(2Chron.iii.  1).  Arau- 
nah  is  called  Oman  in 
Chronicles,  Urnah  or 
<  )riiali  in  the  Hebrew 
text  of  2  Sam.  xxi  v.  16, 
and  yet  ditterently  in 
ver.  18.    It  is  difficult 
to   determine  'which 
was  the  original  form 
of  the  name.     Arau- 
nah  has  the  most  for- 
eign look. 
Ar'ba,  in  A.  V.  once  Arbab  [four,  or,  per- 
haps, the  croucher  (with  article,  Gen.  xxxv. 
27)]. 

Father  or  greatest  man  of  Anak  (Josh.  xiv. 
15 ;  XV.  13).  He  founded,  or  gave  name  to, 
Kirjath-arba,  the  city  later  known  as  Hebron, 
or  else  he  derived  his  title  from  the  town 
(Josh.  xiv.  15  ;  Judg.  i.  10).     See  Hebeon. 

Ar'bath-ite. 

An  inhabitivnt  of  Beth-arabah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  32). 

Ar-bat'ta,  in  A.  V.  Arbattis. 

A  locality  near  Galilee  (1  Mac.  v.  23).  The 
readings  of  the  name  vary  greatly  in  the 
manuscrii)ts,  and  it  is  uncertain  what  place 
is  meant. 


Arbela 


51 


Arcturus 


Ar-be'la. 

A  place  (1  Mac.  ix.  2);  according  to  Jo- 
seplius,  the  well-known  town  of  the  name  in 
Galilee  (Antiq.  xii.  11,  1),  now  Irbid.  See 
Beth-arbel. 

Ar'bite. 

A  native  of  Arab,  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35,  possibly  a  variant 
reading  of  1  Chron.  xi.  37). 

Ar-che-la'us  [leading  the  peojile,  a  chief]. 

The  elder  one  of  two  sons  whom  a  Samari- 
tan wife  bore  to  Herod  the  Great,  the  younger 
one  being  Autipas,  afterwards  Herod  the  Te- 
trarch  (Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3).  With  his  brother 
Antipas  and  his  half-brotliers  Herod  and 
Philip,  he  received  his  education  at  Eome. 
While  there  Antipater,  a  half-brother  of  his, 
folsely  accused  him  and  Philip  of  plotting  to 
murder  their  common  father ;  but  Archelaus 
and  Philip  were  acquitted,  and  the  crime 
which  the  accuser  had  alleged  against  others 
being  brought  home  to  himself,  he  was  put  to 
death  (Antiq.  xvi.  4,  3  ;  xvii.  7,  1 ;  War,  i. 
31,  2  1,0  32,  7).  Herod  died  immediately  after- 
wards, 4  B.  c. ;  and  when  his  will,  which  had 
been  altered  a  few  days  previously,  was 
opened,  it  was  found  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  kingdom  was  left  to  Archelaus,  though 
tetrarchies  had  been  cut  out  of  it  for  Antipas 
and  Philip,  and  some  cities  reserved  to 
Herod's  sister  Salome  (Antiq.  xvii.  8, 1).  But 
at  that  time  the  Jewish  kingdom  stood  to 
imperial  Eome  in  the  relation  of  a  ]irotected 
state.  Archelaus  therefore  prudently  ab- 
stained from  ascending  the  throne  till  he  had 
solicited  permission  from  Augustus,  the  Eo- 
man  emperor,  and  he  resolved  to  start  at 
once  for  the  metropolis  to  urge  his  suit  in 
person  (8,  4).  But  before  he  could  leave,  an 
unhappy  incident  occurred.  A  number  of 
people,  who  conceived  that  they  had  a  griev- 
ance, wished  it  redressed  by  strong  measures 
then  and  there.  Their  demand  was  clearly 
premature,  but  they  would  take  no  denial ; 
and  when  they  could  not  have  their  way, 
they  rioted  at  the  passover,  till,  sorely  against 
his  will,  for  he  wished  to  gain  popularity.  Ar- 
chelaus had  to  put  down  the  sedition  by  mili- 
tary force,  3000  people  losing  their  lives.  In 
consequence  of  this,  a  deputation  of  Jews  was 
dispatched  to  Eome,  to  urge  the  emperor  not 
to  allow  Archelaus  to  obtain  the  kingdom. 
His  younger  brother,  Herod  Antipas,  also  ap- 
peared as  his  rival,  petitioning  that  he,  in 
place  of  Archelaus,  might  be  made  king. 
The  emperor  confirmed  Herod's  will  in  its 
essential  provisions.  Archelaus  obtained  the 
larger  portion  of  the  kingdom,  but  only  with 
the  title  of  ethnarch  or  ruler  of  a  people,  which 
was  inferior  to  that  of  king  (Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1 ; 
9,  7 :  11,  5).  His  rival  Antipas  was  given  only  a 
tetrarchy.  Soon  after  this,  Joseph  and  Mary 
returned  with  the  infant  Jesus  from  Egypt. 
They  might  consider  that  the  queller  of  the 
passover  riot  was  not  a  man  over-tender  of 
human  life,  and  that  it  was  only  common 


prudence  for  tliem  to  turn  aside  to  Galilee  so 
as  to  keep  out  of  his  jurisdiction  (Mat.  ii.22). 
A  parable  of  our  Lord  himself  seems  to  refer 
to  the  circumstances  attending  the  accession 
of  Archelaus.  "A  certain  nobleman,"  we 
read,  "  went  into  a  far  country  to  receive  for 
himself  a  kingdom,  and  to  return  "  (Luke 
xix.  12).  "But  his  citizens  hated  him,  and 
sent  a  message  after  him,  saying.  We  will 
not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us"  (14). 
If  the  reference  is  really  to  Archelaus,  then 
another  verse  may  be  history  rather  than 
liarable.  "  But  those  mine  enemies,  which, 
would  not  that  I  should  reign  over  them, 
bring  hither,  and  slay  them  before  me  "  (27). 
Quite  in  keeping  with  this  view,  Josephus 
says  that  Archelaus  used  not  only  the  Jews 
but  the  Samaritans  barbarously,  out  of  resent- 
ment for  their  old  quarrels  with  him.  Both 
nationalities,  therefore,  .sent  embassies  to 
Eome  to  complain  of  his  cruelty.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  their  object.  In  the  ninth  year  of 
his  government,  about  A.  D.  6,  he  was  de- 
posed, and  l)anished  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul, 
while  his  wealth  was  put  into  the  emperor's 
treasury  (War  ii.  7,  3). 

Ar'che-vites. 

Babylonians,  inhabitants  of  Erech.  A  body 
of  them  were  settled  byAsnapper  in  Samaria 
after  the  ten  tribes  had  been  carried  captive 
(Ezra  iv.  9).^ 

Ar'chi.     See  Archite. 

Ar-cMp'pus  [master  of  the  horse]. 

A  Christian  at  Colosse  who  approved  him- 
self as  a  champion  of  the  gospel,  was  intimate 
with  Philemon,  and  an  office-bearer  in  the 
church  (Col.  iv.  17;  Philem.  2). 

Ar'chite,  in  A.  V.  once  ArcM,  the  Hebrew 
form. 

A  member  of  a  Canaanite  tribe  of  the  same 
name,  or  else  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  vil- 
lage known  as  Erech.  The  border  of  the  Ar- 
chiteswason  the  boundary  between  Ephraim 
and  Benjamin,  west  of  Bethel,  where  the 
fountain  'Arik  and  the  wady  'Arik  are  found 
(Josh.  xvi.  2).  Hushai,  David's  faithful  coun- 
selor, was  an  Archite  (2  Sam.  xv.  32). 

Arc-tu'rus  [the  Bear-ward]. 

A  large  and  bright  star,  which  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  called  by  this  name,  meaning 
the  keeper  of  the  Bear,  because  in  its  course 
through  the  heavens  it  always  kept  behind 
the  tail  of  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear.  In 
the  A.  V.  of  Job.  ix.  9  and  xxxviii.  32  it  is  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  'Ash  or  'Ayish.  But 
'Afih  is  not  Arcturus,  which  looks  very  soli- 
tary in  the  sky,  while  the  'Ayish  of  Job 
(xxxviii.  32)  has  sons  or  bright  stars  near  it 
in  the  heavens.  It  is  not  the  Bear-keeper 
but  probably  the  Bear  itself,  and  is  so  ren- 
dered in  the  E.  V.  The  Arabs  call  it  Xa'sh, 
a  bier.  There  are  in  it  seven  bright  stars. 
The  four  constituting  the  irregular  diamond 
seem  to  the  Arabs  to  resemble  a  bier  carry- 
ing a  corpse,  while  the  three  stars  constitute 


Ard 


52 


Arimathaea 


ing  the  Bear's  tail  appear  to  them  to  be  the 
children  of  the  deceased  person,  walking  be- 
hind the  bier  to  the  place  of  interment. 

Ard. 

A  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benjamin 
(Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;  Num.  xxvi.  38  and  41  with  40). 
He  gave  name  to  a  family  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (ibid.).  The  person  called  Addar  in 
1  C'hron.  viii.  3  is  probably  he.  The  varia- 
tion in  form  is  probably  due  to  a  copyist's 
transposition  of  two  letters  very  similar  in 
Hebrew,  or  to  his  confusion  of  Hebrew  d  and 
r.  The  latter  error  is  especially  frequent, 
and  is  quite  intelligible  ;  see  under  Daleth. 

Ar'don. 

A  man  of  .Tudah.  family  of  Hczron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18j. 

A-re'li. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  16;  Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Ar-e-op'a-gite. 

A  judge  of  the  court  of  Areopagus  (Acts 
xvii.  34). 

Ar-e-op'a-gus  [hill  of  Ares]. 

1.  One  of  the  lower  hills  on  tlie  west  of  the 
acropolis  of  Athens.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Ares,  the  god  of  war.  It  is  a  narrow,  naked 
ridge  of  limestone  rock,  running  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  terminating  abruptly 
over  against  the  acropolis,  or  citadel  of 
Athens.  This  southeastern  end  was  crowned 
by  several  altars;  and  rises  50  or  60  feet 
above  the  valley  separating  it  from  the  acrop- 
olis, which  is  much  the  higher  of  the  two 
hills.  Ares  corresponding  to  the  Eoman 
Mars,  Areopagus  is  the  same  as  Mars'  hill. 

2.  The  supreme  court  of  Athens,  which 
met  on  the  hill  called  Areopagus  to  pass  sen- 
tence. It  was  constituted  of  venerable  and 
eminent  citizens.  The  seats  of  the  judges 
and  others  connected  with  the  court  are  still 
seen  hewn  in  the  rock  ;  and  toward  the  soutli- 
west  there  is  a  flight  of  steps  descending  to 
the  market  place.  It  was  before  the  Areop- 
agus that  Paul  pleaded  his  own  cause  and 
that  of  Christianity,  and  the  philosophic 
character  of  his  discourse  arose  from  his  vivid 
consciousness  that  he  was  addressing  some 
of  the  most  intellectual  men  in  the  most 
intellectual  city  in  the  world. 

During  judicial  trial  the  court  sat  in  its 
official  chamlier  on  the  market  ]ila(e,  and  ad- 
journed to  the  hill  to  pass  formal  st'nteiu'e. 
It  has  been  argued  that  Paul  made  liis  de- 
fence in  the  chamber  of  justice  and  not  on 
the  hill,  before  the  Areopagus  and  not  on  the 
Areoi)agus  (Curtius).  Recent  studies  of  Aris- 
totle, however,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
cases  of  heresy  Avere  not  subject  to  the  ju- 
risdiction of  this  court  (Manatt).  and  the  nar- 
rative in  The  Acts  militates  against  the  su])- 
position  that  Paul's  discourse  was  a  formal 
defence  in  a  trial  before  the  court  (Conybeare 
and  Howson).  It  ai)pears,  therefore,  that 
Paul    addressed    an    informal   gatliering   uf 


philosophers   on    the    Areopagus  (Acts  xvii. 
10  seq.). 

Ar'e-tas  [Greek  form  of  Har'fhnfh]. 

More  than  one  king  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  dur- 
ing the  time  that  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Nabathseau  Arabs,  bore  this  name.  Among 
others, 

1.  A  contem])orary  of  the  high  priest  Ja.son, 
a1)out  170  B.  c.  (2  Mac.  v.  8). 

2.  Father-in-law  of  Herod  the  Tetrarch. 
When  Herod  prepared  to  divorce  his  daugh- 
ter in  order  to  marry  Herodias,  Aretas  de- 
clared war  against  Herod  and  totally  de- 
feated his  army  in  A.  D.  .36.  The  Eomans 
took  Herod's  part,  and  Vitellius  was  des- 
patched to  chastise  Aretas,  but  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Tiberius  put  an  end  to  the  ex- 
pedition (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  1-3).  It  was  about 
A.  D.  39  or  40,  during  the  reign  of  Caligula, 
or  perhaps  in  36,  that  Aretas  for  a  brief  period 
held  Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32). 

A-re'us.     See  Arius. 

Ar'gob  [a  heap  of  stones  or  clods]. 

1.  A  region  of  Bashan,  included  within  the 
dominions  of  Og,  and  marching  on  Geshur 
and  Maacah.  It  contained  sixty  fenced  cities, 
besides  the  nomad  encampments  taken  by 
Jair  (Dent.  iii.  4.  13,  14  ;  Josh.  xiii.  30  ;  1  Kiii. 
iv.  13);  see  Havvoth-.jair.  The  Targum 
indicates  the  district  of  Trachonitis.  but  tiiis 
region  lies  too  far  to  the  east.  Josephus 
identifies  a  portion  of  it  witli  Gaulonitis 
(Antiq.  viii.  2,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  It  prob- 
ably corresponded  in  part  to  the  region  be- 
tween the  eastern  .slope  of  northern  mount 
Gilead  and  the  Lejjah. 

2.  A  man  assassinated  along  with  Peka- 
hiah,  king  of  Israel,  by  Pekah,  who  aspired 
to  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

A'ri-a-ra'thes.     See  Arathes. 

A-ri'dai. 

A  .son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

A-rid'a-tha. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  8). 

A-ri'eh  [lion]. 

A  man  assassinated  along  with  king  Peka- 
hiah,  Argob,  and  others,  by  Pekah,  the  sou 
of  Eemaliah  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

A'ri-el  [lion  of  God]. 

1.  A  Moabite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20,  E.  V.). 

2.  A  name  of  Jerusalem,  symbolical  of  the 
strength  it  possesses  througii  God  (Is.  xxix. 
1,  2,  7).  A  slightly  ditferent  form  would 
signify  the  hearth  of  an  altar. 

3.  A  chief  of  the  Jews  who  were  with  Ezra 
at  the  river  Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

Ar-i-ma-thse'a  [Latin  and  Greek  modifi- 
cation of  Kamali,  height]. 

The  town  from  which  the  councilor  Joseph 
came,  who  obtained  permission  of  Pilate  to 
take  away  the  body  of  Jesus  and  give  it  hon- 
orable interment  in  his  own  new  sepulcher 
(Mat.  xxvii.  57-60;  Mark  xv.  43  ;  Luke  xxiii. 
51-53  ;  John  xix.  38).  Arimathsea  is  the  Greek 
form  of  Eamah,  but  which  town  of  that  name 


Arioch 


53 


Ark 


is  intended  is  uncertain.  Ranileli  near  Lydda 
is  out  of  the  question  ;  for  it  was  not  built 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eightli  century 
A.  D.  The  name  occurs  in  1  Mac.  xi.  34  (cp. 
Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9)  as  belonging  at  that  period 
to  Samaria. 

A'ri-och  [servant  of  the  moon-god] . 

1.  King  of  Ellasar,  who  was  confederate 
with  Chedorlaomer  on  his  invasion  of  the 
Jordan  valley  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9).  A  king  of 
Larsa  called  Eriaku,  son  of  Kudurniabug,  is 
mentioned  in  Babylonian  inscriptions.  Larsa, 
probably  Ellasar,  his  capital,  is  now  repre- 
sented by  the  mounds  of  Senkerah,  a  little 
to  the  east  of  Erech. 

2.  Captain  of  the  king's  guard  at  Babylon 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  ii.  14,  15).  It 
pertained  to  the  office  to  execute  sentences  of 
death  (24). 

A-ri'sai. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Ar-is-tar'cbus  [best  ruling]. 

A  Macedonian  of  The.ssalonica  who  was 
with  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  in  the  riot  was 
seized  by  the  mob  and  probably  dragged  into 
the  theater;  but  he  seems  not  to  have  been 
seriously  injured  (Acts  xix.  29).  On  the 
apostle's  return  from  Greece,  whither  he  had 
gone  from  Ephesus,  Aristarch us  accompanied 
him  from  Troas  to  Asia  (Acts  xx.  4,  6).  He 
was  subsequently  his  fellow-voyager  to  Rome 
(xxvii.  2;  cp.  Philem.  24),  as  also  at  one  time 
his  fellow-prisoner  (Col.  iv.  10). 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus  [best  advising]. 

1.  A  celebrated  Jewish  philosopher  at  Alex- 
andria (2  Mac.  i.  10). 

2.  A  Christian,  to  whose  household  at  Rome 
Paul  sent  salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

A-ri'us,  in  A.  V.  Areus. 

King  of  Sparta  (1  Mac.  xii.  20;  Antiq.  xiii. 
5,  S),  probably  the  first  of  the  name,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  265  B.  c. 

Ark. 

A  chest,  box,  or  vessel  of  similar  shape. 

1.  Noah's  ark  was  the  rude  vessel  which 
Noah  was  divinely  ordered  to  construct,  and 
in  which  he  floated  about  when  the  deluge 
was  on  the  earth.  If  the  cubit,  in  terms  of 
which  the  dimensions  of  the  ark  are  stated, 
was  the  ordinary  cubit  of  18  inches,  then 
the  length  of  the  ark  was  450  feet,  the 
breadth  75  feet,  and  the  height  43  feet.  The 
(rreat  Eastern  steamship  was  674  feet  long,  77 
feet  broad,  58  feet  deep,  and  had  a  gross  ton- 
nage of  22,500  tons.  The  ark  was  made  of 
gopher,  probably  cypress,  wood,  and  rendered 
watertight  by  being  daubed  inside  and  out- 
side with  bitumen.  It  had  lower,  second, 
and  third  stories.  A  door  in  the  side  atiCorded 
ingress  and  egress.  A  window,  probably  a 
cubit  in  height,  extended,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, all  around  the  vessel.  A  rooflike 
covering  protected  the  inmates  from  rain 
and  sun  (Gen.  vi.  14-viii.  19 ;  Mat.  xxiv.  38 ; 
Luke  xvii.  27;  Heb.  xi.  7 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).    The 


ark  was  designed  for  the  accommodation  of 
Noah,  his  family,  and  the  animals  which  were 
selected  to  be  preserved. 

Ur.  Howard  O.sgood,  in  The  Sunday  School 
Times  for  Feb.  6,  1892,  discusses  the  question 
whether  every  species  of  animals,  as  they  are 
now  classified  by  naturalists,  could  have  found 
accoumiodation  in  the  ark.  The  highest  es- 
timate of  the  number  of  species  of  land  mam- 
malia is  290  above  the  size  of  the  sheep,  757 
from  the  sheep  to  the  rats,  and  1359  of  the 
rats,  bats,  and  shrews.  The  average  size  is 
about  that  of  the  common  cat.  Allowing  Ave 
square  feet  of  deck  room  as  amply  sufficient 
for  a  cat,  two  of  each  species  of  mammalia 
could  find  room  on  two-thirds  of  one  deck  of 
the  ark,  with  its  33,750  square  feet  of  surface. 
The  representatives  of  10,000  species  of  birds, 
979  of  reptiles,  1252  of  lizards,  and  100,000 
of  insects  could  easily  be  placed  on  the  re- 
maining third  of  the  deck,  leaving  the  other 
two  decks  for  storing  food. 

2.  The  infant  Moses'  ark,  made  for  his 
reception  when  he  was  exposed  upon  the 
Nile,  was  a  basket  <!omposed  of  papyrus 
leaves  or  stems,  or  both,  i)laited  together,  and 
rendered  watertight  bv  a  coat  of  bitumen 
(Ex.  ii.  3-6). 

3.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  or  Testimony 
was  the  central  object  of  the  tat)ernacle.  It 
was  a  chest  2V  cubits  long,  14  cubits  broad, 
and  the  same  in  depth  ;  made  of  acacia  wood, 
and  overlaid  within  and  without  with  pure 
gold.  A  rim  or  moulding  of  gold  encircled 
it  at  the  top.  At  the  bottom  were  two  golden 
rings  on  each  side,  through  which  poles  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  gold  were  put  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  the  ark  about.  It 
was  covered  by  a  lid  of  solid  gold  which  was 
called  the  mercy  seat.  Two  cherubim  of  gold 
stood  ou  this  cover,  of  one  piece  with  it,  one 
at  each  end,  spreading  their  wings  on  high  so 
as  to  overshadow  it,  and  facing  each  other, 
but  looking  down  toward  the  mercy  seat. 
They  were  symbols  of  the  presence  aud  un- 
approachableuess  of  Jehovah  who,  as  King 
of  Israel  in  the  midst  of  his  people,  dwelt  be- 
tween the  cherubim,  uttered  his  voice  from 
between  them,  and  met  the  representative  of 
his  people  there  (Ex.  xxv.  10  seq. ;  xxx.  6; 
Num.  vii.  89;  1  Sam.  iv.  4).  It  was  made 
specially  as  a  receptacle  for  the  Testimony, 
on  the  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxv.  21  ;  xxxi.  18; 
Dcut.  X.  3,  5),  and  it  was  placed  in  the  holy 
of  holies  (Ex.  xxvi.  34).  Afterwards  a  pot 
of  manna,  Aaron's  rod  that  blossomed,  and 
the  book  of  the  law  were  put  beside  the  ark 
(Ex.  xvi.  34;  Num.  xvii.  10;  Dent.  xxxi.  26; 
Heb.  ix.  4),  but  were  removed  during  the 
times  of  confusion  (1  Kin.  viii.  9'.  The  ark 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Kohathite  Le- 
vites  (Num.  iii.  29-31 ;  iv.  4-15).  The  priests, 
who  were  Levites  and  of  the  family  of 
Kohath,  bore  it  themselves  on  occasions  of 
special  solemnity  (Josh.  iii.  3;  vi.  6  ;  viii.  33; 
2  Sam.  XV.  24,  29 ;  1  Kin.  viii.  3).  It  went 
before  the  Israelites  when   they  left  mouut 


Ark 


54 


Armor 


Sinai  (Num.  x.  33) ;  either  in  the  van  or,  as 
the  expression  may  denote,  like  a  king  in 
the  midst  of  his  troops,  leading  and  direct- 
ing the  march,  while  the  priests  who  accom- 
panied it  signaled  the  orders  of  Jehovah 
(x.  5,  6,  8  ;  and  for  the  phraseology  Ex.  xxxii. 
1;  Deut.  iii.  28;  x.  11;  xxxi.  3''").  It  went 
in  advance  of  the  people  into  the  Jordan  and 
halted,  where  the  stream  ceased  to  flow,  until 
the  tribes  had  done  crossing  to  the  other  side 
(Josh.  iv.  9-11).  It  was  carried  in  the  midst 
of  the  host  for  seven  days  round  Jericho  be- 
fore the  walls  of  the  city  fell  down  (vi.  l-20j. 
From  Gilgal  by  Jericho  it  was  removed  to 
Shiloh  (1  Sam.  iii.  3).  Having  been  taken  in 
Eli's  time  to  the  field  of  battle,  as  a  talisman 
which  was  expected  to  work  wonders  in  the 
contest  with  the  Philistines,  it  was  captured 
by  the  enemy  (1  Sam.  iv.  1-22),  but  was  soon 
afterwards  sent  back  into  the  Hebrew  terri- 
tory (v.  1-vi.  11).  It  was  successively  at 
Beth-shemesh,  where  the  inhabitants  looked 


Egyptian  Ark  or  Sacred  Chest. 

into  it  and  were  punished  (vi.  12-20;  see 
Beth-shemesh)  ;  at  Kirjath-jearim  (vii.  1, 
2);  and  at  Perez-uzzah,  where  Uzzah  was 
struck  dead  for  touching  it  (2  Sam.  vi.  1-11 ; 
1  Chrou.  xiii.  1-14;  cp.  Num.  iv.  15,  19,  20). 
Thence  it  was  taken  by  David  to  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  vi.  12-23),  being  now  borne  by  men 
(13)  who,  if  the  custom  in  Israel  before  and 
during  the  reign  of  David  was  followed,  were 
priests  or  priests  assisted  by  other  Levites 
(Josh.  iii.  3,  13;  iv.  9;  vi.  4,  6;  2  Sam.  xv. 
24,  25,  29),  as  the  Chronicler  states  (1  Chrou. 
XV.  1-15).  At  Jerusalem  it  was  put  in  a  tem- 
porary tabernacle  erected  for  it  by  David 
(2  Sam.  vi.  17;  vii.  1,  2;  1  Chrou.  xvi.  1,  4-6, 
37-43).  Later  it  was  placed  in  the  holy  of 
holies  in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin.  viii.  1-9). 
Josiah  refers  to  it  (2  Chrou.  xxxv.  3),  but  the 
meaning  is  obscure.  It  disappeared  when 
Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, and  has  not  been  reported  since. 

Sacred  chests  were    in    use   among    other 


peoples  of  antiquity.  They  were  employed 
by  the  Greeks  and  Egyptians,  and  served  as 
receptacles  for  the  idol,  or  for  symbols  of  the 
deities,  or  for  other  sacred  objects. 

Ark'ite. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Canaan  (Gen.  x. 
17;  1  Chron.  i.  15).  According  to  Josei)hus 
they  founded  the  Phoenician  city  Arke,  the 
modern  '  Arka,  about  twelve  miles  north  of 
Tripoli,  in  Syria  (Antiq.  i.  6,  2).  This  town 
is  mentioned  as  Arkatu  by  Thothmes  III. 
about  IfiOO  years  before  Christ. 

Ar-ma-ged'don,  in  R.  V.  Har-Magedon 
[mountain  of  Megiddo]. 

A  prophetic  battlefield  where  the  kings  of 
the  whole  world  gather  together  unto  the 
war  of  the  great  day  of  God  (Rev.  xvi.  16). 
The  name  is  framed  with  evident  reference 
to  the  sanguinary  contests  which  took  place 
near  the  town  of  Megiddo  ;  the  first,  that  in 
which  Sisera  and  the  Canaanites  were  de- 
feated at  the  waters  of  Megiddo  (Judg.  v.  19), 
the  second,  that  which  resulted  in  the  death 
of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  at  Megiddo  (2 
Kin.  ix.  27),  and  the  third,  that  in  which  king 
Josiah  was  killed  when  in  confiict  with  the 
army  of  Pharaoh-necho  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  29 ; 
Zech.  xii.  11).  The  historical  associations 
with  Megiddo  in  the  past  were  seized  upon 
by  the  prophet  to  supply  a  speaking  name 
appropriate  in  a  description  of  the  future 
sorrows  and  triumphs  of  God's  peojile. 

Ar-me'ni-a.     See  Aeaeat. 

Arm'let. 

An  ornament  like  a  bracelet,  but  surround- 
ing the  arm  higher  up  than  the  wrist  (Ex. 
xxxv.  22,  R.  v.).  There  were  armlets  among 
the  spoil  of  the  Midianites  (Num.  xxxi.  50, 
R.  v.).  In  parts  of  the  East  an  armlet,  gen- 
erally studded  with  jewels,  is  worn  by  kings 
as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royal  authority  (cp. 
2  Sam.  i.  10). 

Ar-mo'ni  [pertaining  to  the  palace] . 

One  of  Saul's  sons  by  his  concubine  Rizpah. 
He  was  slain  by  the  Gibeonites  to  satisfy  jus- 
tice (2  Sam.  xxi.  8-11). 

Ar'mor. 

Covering  worn  to  protect  the  person  against 
offensive  weapons  (Eph.  vi.  11).  It  consisted 
of — 1.  The  shield.  Shields  were  used  by  all 
nations  of  antiquity.  The  Israelites  em- 
ployed a  larger  and  a  smaller  kind  (1  Kin. 
X.  16,  17).  The  larger  kind,  translated  shield, 
buckler,  target,  belonged  to  the  heavy  armed 
spearmen  and  lancers  (1  Chron.  xii.  8,  24,  34  ; 
2  Chron.  xiv.  8).  The  smaller  shield,  ren- 
dered shield  or  buckler,  was  carried  bv  archers 
(1  Chron.  v.  18;  2  Chron.  xiv.  8).'  Shields 
were  of  various  shapes — round,  oval,  and  ob- 
long. They  were  commonly  made  of  several 
thicknesses  of  leather  or  of  wood  covered 
with  leather  (cp.  Ezek.  xxxix.  9),  which  was 
oiled  to  keep  it  glossy  and  pliable,  and  to  pro- 
tect it  against  the  wet  (Is.  xxi.  5).  They  were 
sometimes  covered  with    brass  (Antiq.   xiii. 


Army 

12,  5),  or  made  entirely  of  brass  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
27,  probably),  or  even  of  beaten  gold  (1  Kin. 
X.  17 ;  2  Chron.  ix.  16 ;  1  Mac.  vi.  2,  39). 
Bronze  shields  were  often  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Sometimes  a  shieldbearer  accom- 
panied a  warrior  into  battle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7). 
2.  Helmets  were  made  of  leather  and  event- 
ually of  iron  and  brass  (1  Mac.  vi.  35).  They 
were  known  to  Egyptians,  Philistines,  As- 
syrians, Babylonians,  Persians  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
5 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxiii.  23,  24  ;  xxvii. 
10).  Helmets  of  brass  were  in  occasional  use 
among  the  Israelites  and  Philistines  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  38).  Uz- 
ziah  armed  his  troops  with  helmets  and  coats 
of  mail  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  14).  3.  The  breast- 
plate or  properly  coat  of  mail,  as  it  is  some- 
times rendered,  covered  the  breast,  back,  and 
shoulders.  It  was  made  of  leather,  quilted 
cloth,  linen  (Herod,  iii.  47),  brass,  or  iron 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  5;  Rev.  ix.  9),  and  even  gold 
(1  Mac.  vi.  2).  There  were  joints  in  it  or  be- 
tween it  and  the  adjacent  armor  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  34).  Scale-armor  coats  were  worn  by 
Goliath,  and  chain  coats  by  the  soldiers  of 
Antiochus  Eupator  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  Hebrew  ; 

1  Mac.  vi.  35,  Greek).  4.  Greaves,  consisting 
of  thin  plates  of  metal,  were  occasionally 
worn  to  protect  the  front  of  the  leg  below 
the  knee  (1  Sam.  xvii.  6)  ;  and  sometimes,  5. 
Laced  boots  set  with  nails  (Is.  ix.  5,  R.  V. 
margin).  For  offensive  weapons,  see  the 
several  articles. 

Ar'my. 

The  army  of  Israel  consisted  originally  of 
infantry  only  (Num.  xi.  21  ;  1  Sam.  iv.  10 ; 
XV.  4),  composed  of  spearmen,  slingers,  and 
archers.  It  included  all  the  able-bodied 
men  of  the  nation — all  the  males  from  20 
years  old  and  upward,  able  to  go  forth  to 
war,   being   enrolled    for    service    (Num.  i. ; 

2  Sam.  xxiv.  9).  The  Levites  were  not  num- 
bered in  the  wilderness  for  military  service  ; 
but  they  might  bear  arms,  if  the  occasion  arose 
( Num.  i.  48-50;  1  Chron.  xii.  26-28  with  23). 
The  number  of  men  reported  as  participating 
in  various  battles  is  sufficiently  large  to  in- 
clude the  greater  part  of  the  adult  male 
population  of  the  region.  For  military  oper- 
ations of  no  great  magnitude,  each  tribe  fur- 
nished its  quota  of  warriors  (Num.  xxxi.  4; 
Josh.  vii.  3;  Judg.  xx.  10);  but  inroads  of 
the  enemy  were  naturally  met  by  all  the 
manly  spirits  seizing  their  weapons  to  defend 
their  firesides.  In  time  of  national  peril 
messengers  were  sent  throughout  all  the 
coasts  of  Israel  to  summon  the  men  of  war 
by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  by  proclama- 
tion, or  by  symbolic  act,  to  come  to  the 
rescue  (Judg.  vi.  34,  35;  xix.  29;  1  Sam. 
xi.  7). 

The  militia  of  Israel  was  organized  on  the 
basis  of  the  political  divisions.  Tlie  military 
and  political  units  alike  were  the  thousand, 
a  term  apparently  interchangeable  with  fath- 
er's house  (Ex.  xii.  37;  Num.  i.  2,  3,  16,  46; 


55  Arnon 


Judg.  vi.  15 ;  1  Sam.  x.  19,  21 ;  xvii.  18).  A 
chieftain  of  Judah  was  accordingly  often  an 
\tlliq)li  or  chiliarch  (Zech.  ix.  7;  xii.  5),  as 
were  the  cliiefs  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. ;  Ex. 
XV.  15).  For  both  political  and  military  pur- 
poses the  thousands  were  divided  into  hun- 
dreds (Ex.  xviii.  25;  Num.  xxxi.  14,  48;  2 
Sam.  xviii.  1  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  5),  and  fifties 
(•Ex.  xviii.  25;  1  Sam.  viii.  12;  2  Kin.  i.  9; 
cp.  Num.  i.  25),  and  tens  (Ex.  xviii.  25;  cp. 
Num.  xxvi.  7).  The  actual  number  compos- 
ing a  father's  house  or  thousand  necessarily 
varied  constantly,  according  to  luitural  law; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  "thousand"  was 
usually  very  nuich  .smaller  than  the  technical 
name  indicates  (cp.  the  varying  numbers  in 
legion  and  regiment).  Each  of  these  divis- 
ions was  under  its  own  officer  (Num.  xxxi. 
14  ;  Judg.  XX.  10  ;  1  Sam.  viii.  12  ;  2  Kin.  i.  9  ; 
xi.  4;  2  Chron.  xxv.  5l.  The  commander-in- 
chief  and  the  officers  formed  a  council  of  war 
(1  Chron.  xiii.  1  ;  cp.  2  Kin.  ix.  5,  13). 

The  first  traces  of  a  standing  army  in  Israel 
are  found  in  the  reign  of  Saul.  He  retained 
three  thousand  men  of  all  Israel  to  hold  the 
Philistines  in  check  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2),  and  im- 
pressed any  men  of  marked  valor  whom  he 
saw  (xiv.  52).  David  increased  the  army,  and 
organized  it  into  twelve  divisions  of  twenty- 
four  thousand  footmen  each  (1  Chron.  xxvii.), 
and  Solomon  added  a  large  force  of  chariots 
and  horsemen,  which  he  distributed  in  the 
cities  throughout  his  kingdom  (1  Kin.  ix.  19; 
X.  26;  cp.  iv.  26;  2  Chron.  ix.  25).  The  suc- 
cessors of  these  three  kings  of  all  Israel  con- 
tinued to  bestow  attention  on  the  organiza- 
tion and  equipment  of  the  host,  as  Jehosha- 
phat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  13-19),  Amaziah  (xxv. 
5,  6),  Uzziah  (xxvi.  11-15),  Judas  Maccabseus 
(1  Mac.  iii.  55).     See  War. 

Ar'nan  [agile]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Ar'ni. 

Ram,  the  father  of  Amminadab  (Luke  iii. 
33,  E.  V. ;  cp.  Ruth  iv.  19).  The  Hebrew  name 
Ram  geuerallv  appears  in  the  (jreek  trans- 
lation of  the"  Old  Testament  as  Appan  or 
Apam  ;  and  Apnei,  which  is  found  in  impor- 
tant texts  of  Luke,  may  be  a  mere  corrup- 
tion. 

Ar'non  [murmuring,  noisy ;  or,  perhaps, 
quickly  moving]. 

A  river  which  anciently  formed  the  boun- 
dary between  tlie  Amorite  country  on  the 
north  and  that  of  the  Moabites  on  the  south 
(Num.  xxi.  13,  26),  and  at  a  later  period  be- 
tween tlie  tribe  of  Reuben  on  the  north  and 
again  Moab  on  the  south  (Deut.  iii.  8,  16; 
Josh.  xiii.  16).  It  had  fords  (Is.  xvi.  2).  Its 
valley  is  the  deep  chasm  of  the  Wady  Mqjib. 
The  stream  is  perennial,  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  three  smaller  tributaries,  and  falls 
into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  fringed  by  oleanders, 
the  vegetation  of  its  banks  is  exuberant,  and 
its  waters  are  full  of  fish. 


Arod 


56 


Aruiuah 


A'rod  or  Ar'o-di. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen. 
xlvi.  Ifi ;  Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Ar'o-er  [naked,  nakedness;  c»r  juniper 
thicket]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  right  or  northern  bank 
of  the  river  Arnon.  It  was  the  soutliern 
point  of  the  Amorite  kinsdom  ruled  by 
Sihon,  and  afterwards  of  the  trilte  of  Reuben 
(Dent.  ii.  3(j ;  iii.  12:  Josh.  xii.  2  ;  xiii.  16; 
Judg.  xi.  2f),  33).  It  was  taken  by  Mesha.  king 
of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone,  26).  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Hazael,  king  of  Syria  (2  Kin.  x.  33  ; 
1  Chron.  V.  8).  In  the  time  of  .Jeremiah  it 
belonged  to  Moab  (.Ter.  xlviii.  19).  It  is  now 
called  'Ara'ir,  and  is  a  desolate  heap  just 
south  of  Dibon,  and  a  little  east  of  the  Ro- 
man road  running  north  and  south  through 
Moab. 

2.  A  city  built  by  the  Gadites  (Num.  xxxii. 
34).  It  was  before,  that  is  ea.st  of,  Rabbath 
Ammon,  in  the  middle  of  the  valley  of  Gad. 
on  the  southei-n  boundary  tif  that  tribe  (Josh. 
xiii.  25  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5).  P^xact  site  unknown. 

3.  A  village  of  .Judah,  to  which  David  sent 
spoil  after  his  victory  over  the  Amalekites 
who  had  pillaged  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28). 
Its  ruins  consist  of  a  few  walls,  in  the  wadj' 
' Ar'ara,  twelve  miles  southeast  of  Beer-sheba. 

If  Aroer  in  Is.  xvii.  2  is  a  proper  name,  and 
not  a  common  noun  meaning  nakedness,  ruin, 
the  phrase  in  which  it  stands  may  be  ren- 
dered "the  cities  of  Aroer,"  and  interpreted 
as  the  suburbs  of  the  Gadite  Ai'oer  ;  or  "  the 
cities  Aroer,"  the  two  Aroers  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan being  used  representatively  for  all  the 
cities  of  the  region. 

Ar'o-er-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Aroer  (1  Chron. 
xi.  44,  where  the  reference  is  probably  to 
Aroer  3). 

Ar-pach'shad,  in  A.  V.  Arphaxad  [ety- 
mology unknown  ;  the  latter  ])art(>f  the  name, 
if  separable,  is  contained  in  Clialdea]. 

A  sou  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22,  24 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
17, 18,  both  R.  v.).  He  was  a  remote  ancestor 
of  Abraham,  was  born  two  years  after  the 
tlood,  at  the  age  of  35  begat  Shelah,  and 
died  403  years  afterwards,  at  the  age  of 
438  (xi.  10-13,  R.  V.).  Arpachshad  is  not 
necessarily  a  person.  The  structure  of  these 
genealogical  registers,  apparent  at  a  glance, 
is  such  that  the  name  may  be  that  of  a  tribe 
or  land,  of  which  the  people  were  descended 
from  that  son  of  Shem  born  two  years  after 
the  flood.  Arpachshad  was  long  identified 
with  the  mountainous  country  on  the  upper 
Zab  north  and  northeast  of  Nineveh,  called 
by  the  Greek  geographers  Arrapachitis,  and 
by  the  Assyrians  Arabcha.  But  this  identi- 
fication fails  to  account  for  the  flnal  syllable, 
shad. 

Ar'pad,  in  A.  V.  twice  Arphad. 

A  city,  generally  coupled  in  the  O.  T.  with 
Hamatli.  from  which,  consequently,  it  was 
not  far  distant  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34;  xix.  13;  Is. 


X.  9;  Jer.  xlix.  23).  It  has  been  placed  at 
Tell  Erfad,  13  miles  north  of  Aleppo.  It 
was  a  place  of  importance,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  repeated  visitations  from  the  As- 
syrians. It  saw  the  army  of  Rammannirari 
in  806  B.  c,  and  of  Ashurnirari  in  754  ;  it  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  742- 
740  ;  and  an  uprising  of  cities  which  included 
Arpad  was  sujjpressed  by  Sargon  in  720. 

Ar-phax'ad.     See  Arpachshad. 

Ar'sa-ces. 

King  of  Persia  and  Media  (1  Mac.  xiv.  2,  3 ; 
XV.  22),  from  174  to  136  B.  c.  He  was  the 
sixth  of  the  name,  but  is  better  known  as 
Mithridates  I.  of  Parthia.  His  rule  extended 
far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Media  and  Persia. 
He  conquered  Asia  from  the  Hindu  Kush  to 
the  Eujjhrates  and  raised  the  Parthian  king- 
dom to  an  emj)ire. 

Ar-tax-erx'es  [possessor  of  an  exalted 
kingdom]. 

The  third  son  of  Xerxes  and  his  successor 
on  the  Persian  throne,  465  B.  c.  He  i.s  called 
Longimanus.  tlie  Longhanded.  This  ejjithet 
is  generally  interpreted  literally,  but  Dr. 
John  Wilson  considers  that  it  is  figurative, 
and  means  only  that  Artaxerxes  had  a  widely- 
extended  dominion.  He  was  led  to  forbid 
building  at  Jerusalem  (Ezra  iv.  7),  but  after- 
wards permitted  it  (vi.  14).  The  older  in- 
terpreters understood  the  king  referred  to 
to  be  the  Pseudo-Smerdis,  i.  e.  a  Magian  im- 
postor called  Gomates,  who  pretended  to  be 
Smerdis,  brother  of  the  deceased  Cambyses, 
and  reigned  as  such  for  seven  months  in  the 
year  521  b.  c,  until  the  fraud  was  discovered 
and  he  was  put  to  death.  But  see  remarks 
under  Ahasueeus.  In  the  seventh  year  of 
his  reign  (458  B.  c.)  Artaxerxes  allowed  Ezra 
to  lead  a  great  multitude  of  exiles  back  to 
Jerusalem  (Ezra  vii.  1,  11,  12,  21:  viii.  1).  In 
the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (445  B.  C.)  he 
permitted  Xelieniiah  to  make  his  lirst  journey 
to  the  Jewish  capital,  and  rebuild  the  walls  of 
the  city  (Neh.  ii.  1,  etc.).  In  the  thirty-second 
year  of  his  reign  (433-432  B.  c.)  he  allowed 
Nehemiah,  who  had  returned  for  a  little  to 
Persia,  to  revisit  Jerusalem,  and  become  gov- 
ernor of  the  restored  city  and  the  adjacent 
country  (xiii.  6).  Artaxerxes  died  in  the  year 
425  B.  c. 

Ar'te-mas  [gift  of  Artemis]. 

A  com])anion  whom  Paul  thought  of  send- 
ing on  an  errand  to  Titus  (Tit.  iii.  12). 

Ar'te-mis. 

The  Greek  goddess  of  hunting,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Roman  Diana  (Acts  xix.  24.  R.  V., 
margin)  ;  see  Di.\NA. 

A-rub'botli,  in  A.  V.  Ar'u-both  [the  lat- 
tices] . 

A  place  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Socoh  and  Hepher;  hence  probably  in  the 
southwest  of  Judah  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 

A-ru'mah  [perhaps,  a  height]. 

A  village  near  Shechem,  once  the  residence 


Arvad 

of  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  41).  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  witli  Einnah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  3fi),  and  has  been  placed  doubtfully  at 
el-'Ormeh,  6  miles  southeast  of  Shechem, 
which,  however,  is  spelled  with  a  different 
initial  letter. 

Ar'vad  [wandering]. 

A  place  which,  in  Ezekiel's  time,  furnished 
mariners  and  valiant  defenders  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  8,  11).  It  is  the 
island  of  Aradus  near  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 
now  called  er-Euad  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Ar'vad-ite. 

One  of  the  inhabitants  of  Arvad.  They 
were  reckoned  to  Canaan  (.Gen.  x.  18 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  16). 

Ar'za  [delight]. 

The  steward  of  king  Elah's  house  in  Tir- 
zah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9). 

A'sa  [physician]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Elkanah  who  lived  in 
a  village  of  the  Netophathites  (1  Chron.  ix. 
Ifi). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Jeroboam, 
king  of  Israel.  He  was  son  of  Abijam  and 
grandson  of  Rehoboam.  His  mother  (really 
his  grandmother)  was  Maacah,  daughter  of 
Absalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  9-10,  cp.  2).  His  reign 
began  with  ten  j'ears  of  peace  (2  Chron.  xiv. 
1).  He  took  away  the  male  prostitutes  out 
of  the  land,  abolished  the  idols  of  his  predeces- 
sors, and  removed  his  grandmother  from  her 
position  of  queen-mother,  because  she  had 
made  an  image  for  an  Asherah  (1  Kin.  xv. 
9-13  ;  cp.  xiv.  22-24  ;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1-5  ;  xv. 
16).  He  also  destroyed  the  strange  altars, 
the  high  places,  and  the  sun  images  through- 
out Judah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  3-5)  as  fully  as  he 
was  able  (cp.  1  Kin.  xxii.  46 ;  2  Chron.  xix. 
4) ;  but,  though  his  own  heart  was  perfect 
with  the  Lord,  the  people  still  occasionally 
sacrificed  to  Jehovah  on  high  places  (1  Kin. 
XV.  14  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  17).  His  kingdom  was 
invaded  by  the  Ethiopian  Zei'ah,  at  the  head 
of  an  enormous  host  of  Africans,  but  by  the 
help  of  Jehovah  he  defeated  them,  and  drove 
them  from  the  land  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15).  In 
the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  encouraged  by 
the  prophet  Azariah,  he  completed  the  re- 
ligious reformation,  restored  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering  at  the  temple,  and  induced 
the  people  to  renew  the  covenant  with  Je- 
hovah (xv.  1-15).  In  the  thirty-sixth  [six- 
teenth] year  of  his  reign  (see  Chronology), 
Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  invaded  Benjamin 
and  fortified  Rauiah  on  the  main  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  the  north.  Asa,  finding  him- 
self too  weak  to  capture  Ramali  and  reopen 
the  road,  took  the  temple  treasures,  and  hired 
Ben-hadad,  king  of  Damascus,  to  attack 
Baasha.  Ben-hadad  invaded  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Israelite  kingdom,  compelling 
Baasha  to  withdraw  from  Ramah.  Asa  took 
the  building  materials  which  Baasha  had 
gathered  at  Ramah  and  fortified  Geba  and 


57  Asaph 


Mizpah.  The  prophet  Hanani  reproved  the 
king  for  his  worldly  policy,  after  his  experi- 
ence of  God's  lielp  at  the  time  of  the  Ethio- 
pian invasion.  Asa  resented  the  interference 
of  the  prophet,  putting  him  in  prison  (1  Kin. 
XV.  16-22;  2  Chron.  xvi.  1-10).  In  the 
thirty-ninth  year  of  his  reign  he  became 
diseased  in  his  feet.  In  his  distress  he  sought 
help  from  the  physicians,  but  not  from  the 
Lord  (1  Kin.  xv.  23;  2  Chron.  xvi.  12i.  In 
his  latter  days  he  was  not  so  true  to  Jehovah 
as  in  his  earlier  life.  He  died  in  the  forty- 
first  year  of  his  reign,  and  was  buried  with 
royal  honors  in  a  sepulcher  which  he  had 
made  for  himself  in  the  city  of  David. 
As'a-hel  [God  hath  made]. 

1.  Sou  of  David's  sister  Zeruiah,  and 
brother  of  Joab  and  Abishai  (1  Chron.  ii.  16j  ; 
noted  for  valor  and  fleetness  (2  Sam.  ii.  18; 
xxiii.  24).  He  was  in  the  army  of  David; 
and  in  the  rout  of  Ishbosheth's  troops  at  Gib- 
eon,  he  pursued  Abuer,  their  commander,  in 
the  desire  to  kill  him.  Abner,  after  vainly 
warning  him  to  desist,  in  self-defence  gave 
him  a  mortal  thrust  (ii.  12-23).  His  death 
occurred  before  David  became  king  of  all 
Israel ;  yet  when  David  organized  the  army 
in  twelve  divisions,  the  fourth  was  assigned 
to  Asahel  and  Zebadiah  his  son  after  him 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  7).  The  form  of  the  state- 
ment is  peculiar.  It  may  denote  that  tlie 
command  of  the  division  for  the  fourth 
month  was  vested  in  the  house  of  Asahel, 
being  exercised  by  his  son  who  was  now  the 
head  of  the  house.  Perhaps  the  new  organ- 
ization perpetuated  an  earlier  arrangement, 
only  on  a  larger  scale. 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  employed  by  Jehosh- 
aphat  to  teach  the  people  the  law  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  An  overseer  of  the  temple  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Jonathan  (Ezra  x.  15). 
A-salah,  in  A.  V.  twice  As-a-M'ah  (2  Kin. 

xxii.  12,  14)  [Jehovah  hath  made]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

2.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  family  of  Merari 
in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  vi.  30;  xv.  6,  11). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Baruch,  and 
head  of  the  family  of  Shelah  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  captivity  (1  Chron.  ix.  5). 
He  was  known  also  by  the  synonymous  name 
Maaseiah  (Neb.  xi.  5). 

4.  An  ofiicer  whom  Josiah  sent  with  others 
to  the  prophetess  Huldah  to  inquire  of  the 
Lord  about  the  things  which  he  had  heard 
from  the  Law  found  by  Hilkiah  (2  Kin.  xxii. 
12,  14;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20). 

A'saph  [collector  ;  or  He  hath  gathei-ed  or 
removed  reproach] . 

1.  A  LeVite,  the  son  of  Berachiah,  of  the 
Gershomite  family  (1  Chnm.  vi.  39,  43).  With 
Heman  and  Ethan,  he  sounded  cymbals  be- 
fore the  ark  during  its  removal  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  to  the  city  of  David 
(xv.  16-19).     He  was  then  assigned  the  per- 


Asaramel 


58 


Ashdod 


maueiit  office  of  sounding  cymbals  at  the 
service  (xvi.  4,  5,  7) ;  and  when  the  service 
was  hually  and  fully  arranged,  of  the  three 
families  permanently  charged  with  the  music 
and  song  and  instructed  in  the  art,  his  family, 
with  him  at  the  head,  was  one  (xxv.  1-9). 
Their  position  was  on  the  right  (vi.  39).  The 
family  often  receives  mention  (2  Chron.  xx. 
14  ;  xxix.  13).  A  hundred  and  twenty-eight, 
all  of  them  singers,  came  back  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  41  ;  Neh.  vii.  44),  and  conducted  the 
psalmody  when  the  foundations  of  Zerub- 
babel's  temple  were  laid  (Ezra  iii.  10).  Twelve 
psalms,  viz.  the  50th  and  the  73d  to  the  83d, 
both  inclusive,  are  attributed  in  the  titles  to 
the  family  of  Asai)h  (cp.  2  Chron.  xxix.  30). 
The  50th  belongs  to  the  second  book  of 
psalms ;  the  others  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  third  book.  In  them  the  usual  name 
of  the  deity  is  God,  rather  than  Jehovah. 
Asaph,  like  the  other  chief  singers,  is  called 
a  seer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  30;  cp.  xxxv.  15  and 
1  Chron.  xxv.  5). 

2.  Father  of  Hezekiah's  recorder  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18). 

3.  Keeper  of  the  king's  jwirk  in  Palestine 
under  Artaxerxes  Longimauus,  king  of  Per- 
sia (Neh.  ii.  8). 

4.  In  1  Chron.  xxvi.  1  read  Ebiasaph  (cp. 
ix.  19). 

A-sar'a-mel,  in  A.  V.  Saramel. 

Perhaps  a  title  of  Simon  Maccabseus,  Sar 
'am  'el,  prince  of  the  people  of  God  ;  or  more 
probably,  since  the  word  is  preceded  by  a 
preposition,  it  stands  for  Msar  'am  'el,  the 
court  of  the  people  of  God,  the  forecourt  of 
the  temple  (1  Mac.  xiv.  28). 

The  suggestion  has  also  been  made  that 
"in  Asaramel"  represents  the  Hebrew  sen- 
tence :  There  was  no  prince  of  the  people  of 
Cxod.  The  historian  states  that  there  was  no 
civil  governor  at  the  side  of  the  high  priest. 

As'a-rel,  in  A.  V.  A-sar'e-el  [God  hath 
bound]. 

A  son  of  Jehaleleel  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

As-a-re'lah.     See  Asharelah. 

As'ca-lon  (1  Mac.  x.  86).    See  Ashkelon. 

As'e-nath  [Egyptian  Snat,  belonging  to  the 
goddess  Neith]. 

Daughter  of  Poti-phera,  priest  of  On,  wife 
of  Joseph  and  mother  of  Manas.seh  and  Eph- 
raim  (Gen.  xli.  45,  50-52;  xlvi.  20). 

A'ser.     See  Asher. 

Ash. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Oren  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
was  suitable  for  use  in  making  idols.  A  tree 
which  the  Arabs  call  'ardn  is  .said  by  one  of 
their  writers  to  grow  in  Arabia  Petrtea,  and 
is  described  as  having  thorns  and  producing 
bunches  of  bitter  berries.  This  imperfect 
description  recalls  the  mountain  ash,  and  the 
name  'urdn  maybe  connected  with  'oren.  But 
by  'oren  the  Seventy  understood  the  tir  tree. 
Jerome  renders  it  pine.     Ii.  V.   accordingly 


translates  the  word  by  fir  tree,  and  places  ash 
on  the  margin.  The  Syrian  fir  (Punis  hule- 
pensin)  is  perhaps  intended,  which  flourishes 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine,  and  is  occasion- 
ally found  as  far  south  as  Hebron.     See  Fir. 

A'shan  [smoke]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  allotted  to  Judah, 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  and  assigned 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xv.  42 ; 
xix.  7  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  32 ;  vi.  59).  In  the  pres- 
ent text  of  Josh.  xxi.  16  or  1  Chron.  vi.  59 
Ashan  and  Ain  have  become  confounded 
through  the  misreading  of  one  letter.  Ashan 
is  apparently  identical  with  Cor-ashan,  in  A. 
V.  Chor-ashan,  smoking  furnace  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
30),  where  many  manuscripts  and  versions 
have  Bor-ashan,  smoking  pit. 

Ash-a-relah,  in  A.  V.  Asarelah  [upright 
toward  God]. 

A  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2).  Called 
in  ver.  14  Jesharelah,  a  word  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ash'be-a  [let  me  call  as  witness]. 

A  descendant  of  Shelah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  The  members  of  the  family  wrought 
fine  linen  (1  Chron.  iv.  21). 

Ash'bel  [perhaps,  a  secondary  form  of  Esh- 
baal,  man  of  the  Lord]. 

A  sou  of  Benjamin  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  38 ;  1  Chron. 
viii.  1). 

Ash'che-naz.     See  Ashkenaz. 

Ash'dod,  in  N.  T.  Azotus  [a  fortified  place, 
a  castle] . 

One  of  the  five  chief  Philistine  cities,  ruled 
over  by  a  lord,  and  seat  of  the  worship  of 
Dagon  (.Tosh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sam.  v.  1  seq. ;  vi. 
17  ;  1  Mac.  x.  83;  xi.  4).  Anakim  remained 
in  it  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  He- 
brews (Josh.  xi.  22).  It  was  assigned  to 
Judah  (xv.  46,  47),  but  was  not  possessed  by 
that  tribe.  The  ark  of  God  was  carried  to 
Ashdod  by  the  Philistines  after  they  captured 
it  at  Ebenezer,  and  was  placed  in  the  teniple 
of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  1-8).  A  judgment  fall- 
ing on  the  inhabitants,  the  ark  was  trans- 
ferred to  Gath  (6-8).  Uzziah  broke  down  the 
walls  of  Ashdod  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6).  The 
Tartan  or  Assyrian  commander-in-chief 
under  Sargon  besieged  it  with  success  (Is. 
XX.  1).  In  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
from  Sargon  to  Esarhaddon,  Ashdod  was 
ruled  by  an  official  called  king  by  the  Assyr- 
ians. Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt,  utterly 
destroyed  it  about  630  B.  c,  after  a  .siege 
which,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  157),  lasted 
twenty-nine  years.  Only  a  remnant  sur- 
vived ( Jer.  XXV.  20 ;  cp.  Zeph.  ii.  4  ;  Zech.  ix. 
6).  Its  inhabitants  were  among  tliose  who 
opposed  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  they  spoke  a  diflferent  language 
from  the  Israelites  of  that  day  ;  nevertheless 
some  of  the  returned  Jews  married  women 
of  Ashdod  (Neh.  iv.  7  ;  xiii.  23,  24).  The  city 
was  twice  besieged  and  partially  destroyed 


Ashdodite 


59 


Ashkelonite 


by  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac.  v.  68 ;  x.  84),  but 
was  rebuilt  by  the  liomaus  about  55  b.  c.  In 
^.T.  times  it  was  called  Azotus(Acts  viii.  40). 

Philij)  preaclied  the  gospel  from  this  place 
as  far  as  tYesarea  (Acts  viii.  40;.  Tlie  city 
became  eventually  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Its 
approximate  site  is  the  mud  village  of  Esdijd 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  low,  round  knoll, 
among  sycomore  trees  and  prickly  pears, 
9  miles  northeast  from  Ascalon,  3  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  about  midway  between 
Jaffa  and  Gaza. 

The  text  of  1  Mac.  ix.  15,  which  mentions 
mount  Azotus,  is  uncertain. 

Ash'dod-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  AshdotMte. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ashdod  (Josh. 
xiii.  3;  Neh.  iv.  7). 

Ash'doth-ite.     See  preceding  article. 

Ash-doth-pis'gah,  in  E.  V.  slopes  of  Pis- 
gah,  in  A.  V.  once  springs  of  Pisgah. 

The  slopes  of  Pisgah  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  face  the  west  (Deut.  iii.  17 ;  iv.  49 ; 
Josh.  xii.  3;  xiii.  20). 

Ash'er,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Aser,  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  form  [happy]. 

1.  The  eighth  son  of  Jacob,  and  the  second 
by  Zilpah,  Leah's  maidservant  (Gen.  xxx. 
12,  13;  xxxv.  26).  His  bles.sing  given  by 
Jacob  on  his  deathbed  is  thus  worded,  "Out 
of  Asher  his  bread  shall  be  fat,  and  he  shall 
yield  royal  dainties"  (Gen.  xlix.  20).  That 
of  Moses,  "  Let  Asher  be  blessed  with  chil- 
dren ;  let  him  be  acceptable  to  his  brethren, 
and  let  him  dip  his  foot  in  oil.  Thy  shoes 
shall  be  iron  and  brass  ;  and  as  thy  days,  so 
shall  thy  strength  be  "  (Dent,  xxxiii.  24).  He 
had  four  sons,  Jimnah,  Ishuah,  Isui,  and 
Beriah  ;  and  a  daughter  named  Serah  (Gen. 
slvi.  17  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Asher,  the  son  of 
Jacob,  was  the  progenitor.  As  assigned,  its 
territory  extended  on  the  north  to  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Palestine,  and  on  the  south 
reached  to  the  south  of  Carmel,  a  length  of 
about  60  miles.  On  the  east  it  was  bounded 
by  the  territories  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  (Josh, 
xix.  24-31).  But  from  Tyre,  Sidou,  Accho, 
and  other  strong  places  the  Asherites  did  not 
expel  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  31, 
32).  The  failure  of  the  Asherites  to  capture 
and  occupy  the  Phoenician  plain  along  the 
sea  left  them  only  the  inland  liill-country, 
except  near  Carmel.  This  was  well  adapted 
for  the  culture  of  the  olive,  so  that  the  in- 
habitants might  dip  their  feet  in  oil  (cp.  Deut. 
xxxiii.  24). 

3.  Asher  may  possibly  denote  a  town  also, 
east  of  Shechem  (Josh.  xvii.  7) ;  perhaps  Teia- 
sir,  about  11  miles  northeast  of  Shechem  on 
the  road  to  Bethshean. 

A-she'rah,  plural  A-she'rim,  masculine, 
and  Asheroth,  feminine  [upright  or  uniting, 
or  less  probal)lj',  bringing  fortune]. 

A  woT'd  uniformly  translated  grove  in  the 
A.   v.,   but  a  grove  of  trees  would  not   be 


brought  out  of  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6). 
It  was  something  upright  made  of  wood  (  Ex. 
xxxiv.  13),  originally,  perhaps,  the  trunk  of 
a  tree  with  the  branches  cliopi)ed  off,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  wooden  symbol  of  a  goddess 
Asherah,  who  like  Ashtoreth,  was  the  tyi)e 
of  abounding  fertility  (Ex.  xxxiv.  13,  K.  V. 
margin).  It  was  erected  beside  the  altar  of 
Baal  (Judg.  vi.  25,  28,  R.  V.).  The  propliets 
of  the  Asherah  in  Ahab's  time  were,  with 
those  of  Baal,  slain  by  Elijah  at  the  river 
Kishon  (1  Kin.  xvi.  33;  xviii.  19-40,  both 
R.  v.).  Women  wove  hangings  for  an  Ashe- 
rah in  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  7,  R.  V. ),  and 
Josiah,  as  part  of  his  religious  reformation, 
brought  out  the  idolatrous  symbol  and  burnt 
it  at  the  brook  Kidron  (6). 

A-she'rim.     See  preceding  article. 

Ash'er-ite. 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Judg.  i.  32). 

A-she'roth.     See  Asherah. 

Ash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Ashur  [blackness]. 

Son  of  Hezron  by  his  wife  Abiah.  He  was 
enrolled  with  the  house  of  Caleb,  was  head 
or  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tekoa,  and 
had  two  wives  and  seven  children  (1  Chron. 
ii.  24  ;  iv.  5-7). 

Ash'i-ma. 

A  divinity  worshiped  by  the  people  of 
Hamath  (2  Kin.  xvii.  30). 

Ash'ke-lon,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Askelon 
[starting  point,  migration]. 

One  of  the  five  leading  Philistine  cities 
each  ruled  by  a  lord  (Jo.sh.  xiii.  3).  It  was 
situated  in  a  valley  on  the  Mediterranean 
seashore  (Jer.  xlvii.  5,  7),  12  miles  north  of 
Gaza,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Der- 
ceto,  a  goddess  with  the  body  of  a  fish,  whose 
temple  and  lake  lay  to  the  east  of  the  city.  It 
was  captured  by  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  time 
of  the  judges  (Judg.  i.  18),  but  soon  reverted 
to  its  old  rulers  (xiv.  19;  1  Sam.  vi.  17).  It 
was  to  have  its  inhabitants,  all  but  a  rem- 
nant, cut  off  and  made  desolate,  apparently 
by  a  Pharaoh  in  Jeremiah's  time  (Jer.  xlvii. 
1,  5,  7;  Zeph.  ii.  4,  7;  cp.  also  Zech.  ix.  5). 
Ashkelon  was  twice  taken  by  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabiEUS  (1  Mac.  x.  86  ;  xi.  60).  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  his  sister  Salome.  It  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  during  the  Crusades, 
till  at  length,  in  A.  D.  1270,  the  sultan  Bibars 
destroyed  it  and  filled  the  harbor  with  stones. 
Its  site  has  been  found  within  a  natural  am- 
phitheater constructed  by  a  ridge  of  rocks, 
forming  a  kind  of  semicircle  with  the  open 
side  to  the  sea.  The  wall,  now  in  ruins,  ran 
along  the  top  of  the  ridge.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, producing  large  apples,  sycomore  figs, 
etc.  The  kind  of  onion  called  shallot,  or 
eschalot,  came  at  first  from  Ashkelon,  after 
which  it  is  named.  Ashkelon  is  now  called 
'Askalan. 

Ash'ke-lon-ite ;  in  A.  V.  Eshkalonite,  fol- 
lowing  partly  the  traditional   Hebrew  pro- 


Ashkenaz 


60 


Asiarch 


nunciation  and  partly  the  obsolete  spelling, 
Eshkalon. 

An  inhabitant  of  Ashkelon  (Josh.  xiii.  3). 

Ash'ke-naz,  in  A.  V.  twice  Asclienaz. 

The  eldest  son  of  (lomer  ((ieu.  x.  3 ;  1 
Cliron.  i.  6).  The  name,  whelher  originally 
that  of  a  person  or  country  or  tril)e,  denoted 
a  people  of  the  race  of  Gomer.  In  the  time 
of  Jeremiah  they  dwelt  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ararat  and  Miuni,  that  is,  near  eastern  Ar- 
menia (Jer.  li.  27). 

Ash'nah  [strong]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  near 
Zorah  (Josh.  xv.  33,  K.  V.). 

2.  Another  village  of  Judah,  but  farther 
south  (Josh.  XV.  43).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ash'pe-naz. 

The  master  of  the  eunuchs  at  Babylon  dur- 
ing Nebuchadnezzar's  reign  (Dan.  i.  3). 
Ash'ri-el.     See  Asriel. 
Ash'ta-roth  [plural  of  Ashtoreth  (q.  v.)]. 

1.  In  connection  with  the  plural  of  Baal,  a 
general  designation  for  all  the  false  gods  of 
the  neighboring  nations  and  their  idols  ;  or 
better,  to  judge  from  Gen.  xiv.  5  and  1  Sam 
xxxi.  10,  the  old  Canaanitish  plural  of  emi- 
nence whereby  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  was 
honorably  spoken  of  in  the  i)lural  number. 

2.  A  town  at  Edrei,  named  after  the  god- 
dess Astarte,  and  the  ca])ital  of  <  )g,  king  of 
Bashan  (Deut.  i.  4,  where  it  is  spelled  Asta- 
roth  in  A.  V.;  Josh.  ix.  10).  Some  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  were  giants,  Og  himself 
being  of  the  number  (Josh.  xii.  4  ;  xiii.  12). 
The  place  fell  to  the  lot  of  Machir,  the  son 
of  Manasseh  (31),  but  became  a  Levitical  city, 
inhabited  by  the  children  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  71).  Uzzia,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men,  was  connected  with  the  town  (xi.  44). 
Its  site  is  commonly  identified  with  Tell 
'Ashterah,  which  agrees  with  the  statement 
of  Eusebius  that  the  town  was  distant  6 
Koman  miles  from  Edrei.  This  tell  stands 
on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  well-watered, 
grassy  jilain.     See  Ashtkroth-karnaim. 

Ash'te-rath-ite. 

A  native  of  Ashtaroth  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 

Ash'te-roth-kar-na'im  [two-horned  Ash- 
tarothl.     In  A.  V.  written  as  two  words. 

A  place  smitten  by  Chedorlaomer  on  his 
expedition  against  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen. 
xiv.  5,  R.  v.).  Its  name  suggests  that  the 
inhabitants  specially  worshiped  the  horned 
moon.  Probably  Ashteroth-karnaim  is  the 
full  name  of  Ashtaroth.  and  it  may  be  the 
place  known  centuries  later  as  Karnaim, 
which  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  cities 
of  Gilead  and  in  which  Atargatis  was  wor- 
shiped (1  Mac.  v.  26,  3«,  43;  2  Mac.  xii.  26). 
This  goddess,  whose  true  name  according  to 
Strabo  was  Athara,  was  the  Syrian  nature 
deity  corresponding  to  Ashtoreth.  It  is  to 
be  remembered  that  the  physical  features 
ascribed  to  Carnion  in  2  Mac.  xii.  21  do  not 


agree  with  Tell  'Ashterah,  the  commonly  ac- 
cepted site  of  Ashtaroth. 

Ash'to-retll  [a  binding  together,  union]. 

Astarte,  a  Phoenician  goddess,  partly 
evolved,  perhaps,  from  admiration  for  the 
planet  Venus,  but  symbolizing  also  the  soft 
radiance  of  the  moon ;  cp.  Ashteroth-kar- 
naim. Her  worsliip  was  early  established  at 
Sidon,  hence  she  is  called  the  goddess  or  the 
abomination  of  the  Zidonians  (1  Kin.  xi.  5, 
33;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  It  was  in  vogue  east 
of  the  Jordan  in  the  days  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  As  early  as  the  times  of  the  judges 
it  had  spread  to  the  Hebrews  (Judg.  ii.  13 ; 
x.  6).  It  was  also  practiced  in  Philistia  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  10).  Solomon  in  his  old  age  gave 
it  the  support  of  his  great  name  (1  Kin.  xi. 
5;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  The  pronunciation  of 
the  name  as  Ashtoreth  instead  of  Ashtareth 
is  believed  to  express  the  loathing  felt  for 
idolatry,  by  conforming  the  sound  to  that  of 
bosheth,  shame  (cp.  Ishbosheth). 

Ash'ur.    See  Ashhur. 

Ash'ur-ite. 

A  people  belongingto  the  kingdom  of  Ish- 
bosheth (2  Sam.  ii.  9).  They  are  enumerated 
between  Gilead  and  Jezreel.  Vulgate  and 
Syriac  have  Geshurites. 

Ash'vath. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Heber,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chron.  vii.  33). 

A'si-a. 

The  continent  east  of  Europe  and  Africa 
(Herod,  iv.  36-40).  The  name  was  employed 
in  a  narrower  sense  for  the  kingdom  of  the 
Seleucidse  (1  Mac.  viii.  6 ;  xi.  13),  which  em- 
braced Syria  and  extensive  regions  west  of 
the  river  Halys.  When  the  Romans  trans- 
ferred most  of  these  western  districts,  Mysia, 
Lydia,  and  Phrygia,  to  Eiimenes  II.,  king 
of  Pergamos,  the  name  was  used  by  them  for 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  and  when  this 
kingdom  was  appropriated  by  them  in  133 
B.  c,  they  added  Caria  and  a  strij)  of  coast 
to  it  and  formed  the  province  of  Asia  (Acts 
vi.  9;  xxvii.  2;  1  Pet.  i.  1;  Rev.  i.  4,  11). 
Pliny,  however,  distinguishes  between  Phry- 
gia and  Asia  (v.  28).  So  do  Paul  and  others 
(Acts  ii.  9,  10;  xvi.  6).  The  names  of  the  in- 
corporated districts  were  not  abandoned  ;  and 
Paul,  who  was  traveling  along  but  outside  of 
the  borders  of  Asia,  mentions  being  at  a  point 
over  against  Mysia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  R.  V.),  in  which 
Pergamos  was  situated,  one  of  the  cities  of 
Asia  (Rev.  i.  4,  11).  The  province  was  at  first 
governed  by  proprietors,  but  in  27  B.  c.  it 
was  made  senatorial  and  so  continued  for  300 
years,  being  governed  by  jiroconsuls  (cp.  Acts 
xix.  38,  R.  v.).  Its  capital  was  Ei>hesus.  In 
the  N.  T.  Asia  always  denotes  the  Roman 
province  (Acts  xix.  10,  22,  26,  27 ;  xx.  4,  16, 
18;  xxi.  27;  xxiv.  IS;  xxvii.  2;  1  Cor.  xvi. 
19;  2  Cor.  i.  8;  2  Tim.  i.  15). 

A'si-arch  [chief  of  A.sia]. 

Member  of  a  college  of  deputies  who  were 


Asideans 


61 


Ass 


anuually  appointed  by  various  towns  of  the 
province  of  Asia  to  conduct  a  festival  and 
games  in  honor  of  the  Eoman  emperor.  The 
festivities  took  place  yearly  at  one  of  the 
several  cities  which  had  the  honor  in  succes- 
sion. The  asiarchs  were  chosen  each  year, 
but  in  time  formed  an  influential  body  in 
the  towns,  and  often  secured  the  reelection 
of  their  members.  The  asiarchs  of  Ephesus 
were  friends  to  Paul  (Acts  xix.  31,  K.  V.  marg.). 

A-si-de'ans.     See  Hasid^ans. 

A'si-el  [God  hath  made]. 

A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  35). 

As'ke-lon.     See  Ashkelon. 

As-mo-nse'an  [Greek  'Asamonaios,  from 
Het>rew  HushinnH,  opulent]. 

A  descendant  of  Hashman,  a  priest  of  the 
family  of  Joarib  and  ancestor  of  the  Mac- 
cabees (Antiq.  xii.  6.  1 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1 ;  1 
Chron.  xxiv.  7).  The  title  Asmona»an  is  com- 
monly employed  in  Jewish  literature  to  des- 
ignate the  family  from  Mattathias  to  Herod 
the  Great  and  Aristobulus  (Antiq.  xiv.  16,  4  ; 
XX.  8,  11). 

As-mo-nse'ans,  Pal'ace  of  the. 

A  jmlace  in  Jerusalem  erected  by  the  As- 
monaeau  princes,  opposite  the  western  court 
of  the  temple,  on  an  elevation  which  com- 
manded a  view  of  the  city  and  the  sanctuary 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  11).  It  stood  near  the  Xystns 
and  overlooked  it  (ibid. :  War  ii.  1(5,  3).  It  is 
probably  the  royal  palace  which  was  reck- 
oned one  of  the  two  fortresses  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Baris  being  the  other,  and  in  which  Herod 
the  Great  resided  before  the  erection  of  his 
palace  in  the  upper  city  (Antiq.  xiv.  13,  9; 
XV.  3,  7 ;  8,  4  and  5).  This  latter  building  ex- 
celled it  in  magnificence  and  as  a  fortress. 
So  late  as  A.  T>.  60  the  last  prince  of  the  He- 
rodian  houise  used  it  as  a  residence,  Agrippa 
II.,  the  king  Agrippa  of  Acts  xxv.  13  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  11 ;  War  ii.  16,  3).  It  was  prol)ably  the 
palace  burnt  by  the  seditious  .Tews  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  with  the  Komans  (War  ii. 
17,  6). 

As'nah  [a  bramble]. 

One  of  the  Nethiuim,  some  of  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  the  captivity  at 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  50). 

As-nap'per,  in  E.  V.  Osnappar. 

A  high  Assyrian  dignitary  called  great  and 
noble  who  settled  various  foreign  tribes  in 
Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  10).  He  seems  to  have 
been  either  Esiir-haddon  or  one  of  his  officials 
(cp.  2  and  10).  The  name  issupposed  by  some  to 
be  a  rude  Aramaic  form  of  Ashurbanipal,  the 
son  of  Esar-haddon,  who  from  about  671  b.  c. 
or  later  was  his  associate,  and  from  668  B.  C. 
his  successor  on  the  Assyrian  throne,  and 
reigned  until  about  626  B.  c.  Ashurbanipal 
rectdds  that  he  penetrated  Elam,  took  Susa 
the  (a]iital,  and  carried  otl'  many  of  the  in- 
habitants to  Assyria  (cp.  Ezra  iv.  0,  10).  His 
father,  Esar-haddon,  had  conquered  Egypt. 
Kebellion  occurred  among  the  petty  rulers, 


and  assistance  was  renderedtheraby  the  able 
Tirhakah.  To  suppress  this  revolt,  Ashur- 
banipal conducted  two  campaigns,  in  which 
on  the  whole  he  was  succe.s.sful,  though  Egypt 
was  lost  at  last.  In  the  later  campaign,  about 
664  B.  c,  Thebes,  then  known  as  No,  was  cap- 
tured and  plundered  (cp.  Nah.  iii.  8-10).  He 
had  relations  first  friendly,  but  afterwards 
the  reverse,  with  Gyges,  the  usurping  king 
of  Lydia ;  see  Gog.  He  had  to  crush  a  rel)el- 
lion  of  his  own  brother,  the  ruler  of  Babylou. 
He  had  a  war  with  the  Miuni.  BytheGreeks, 
who  called  hiui  Sardanapalus,  he  was  consid- 
ered effeminate.  Modern  scholars  regard  his 
memory  with  gratitude  on  account  of  the 
splendid  library  which  he  brought  together. 
He  had  copyists  incessantly  at  work  not 
merely  transcribing  Assyrian  books,  but 
translating  works  of  value  from  the  so-called 
Accadian  and  other  tongues.  Part  of  thii 
library  has  been  recovered,  and  it  is  from  ic 
that  we  derive  most  of  our  acquaintance  with 
the  Assyrian  empire  and  its  kings. 

Asp  [a  round  shield,  which  the  serj)ent 
when  coiled  up  resembles]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Pethen 
in  Deut.  xxxii.  33  ;  Job  xx.  14,  16 ;  and  Is. 
xi.  8,  and  of  the  Greek  Aspis  in  Rom.  iii.  13. 
With  some  inconsistency  Pethen  is  rendered 
not  asp  but  adder  in  Ps.  Iviii.  4  and  xci.  13. 
Pethen  is  a  species  of  snake  (Ps.  Iviii.  4;,  ven- 
omous (Deut.  xxxii.  33),  dwelling  in  holes  (Is. 
xi.  8);  probably  Naja  haje,  which  is  found  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  is  the  asp  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
deadly  cobra  of  India,  and  is  generally  used 
by  the  snake-charmers  in  their  performances. 
It  has  a  hood  which  it  dilates  when  about  to 
strike  its  prey. 

As'pa-tha. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

As'phar. 

A  reservoir  in  the  wilderness  of  Tekoah  (1 
Mac.  ix.  33). 

As'ri-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Ashriel  [probably, 
vow  of  God]. 

A  descendant  of  Manasseh  and  founder  of 
a  family  (Num.  xxvi.  31 ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Ass. 

The  genus  called  by  zoologists  Asinus,  con- 
taining the  several  species  and  varieties  of 
asses,  wild  or  domesticated.  The  ass  genus 
belongs  to  the  family  Eqaidie  or  Horses.  Three 
asses  are  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

1.  The  wild  ass,  called  in  Hebrew  'Arod, 
the  fugitive.  It  is  poetically  described  in  Job 
xxxix.  5-8,  where,  however,  there  is  mention 
also  of  the  common  wild  ass  of  Syria,  and  is 
named  also  in  Dan.  v.  21.  If  distinct  in 
species  from  the  common  wild  ass,  it  is  prob- 
ably Asinus  onager,  which  is  found  in  the 
Sahara  and  in  Arabia,  where  it  was  once 
common,  but  is  now  more  rare.  It  occa- 
sionally visits  the  Hauran.  It  is  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  domestic  ass. 


Assassins 


62 


Assyria 


2.  The  wild  ass  of  Syria  (Asinus  hemippus); 
Hebrew  Pere',  the  leaper,  occurring  in  Job 
xxiv.  5;  xxxix.  5;  Ps.  civ.  11  ;  Is.  xxxii.  14, 
and  Jer,  xiv.  6.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
onager.  Tristram  mentions  that  enormous 
herds  of  them  often  enter  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains in  summer.  They  are  found  at  all  times 
in  Northern  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria, 
occasionally  entering  Northern  Palestine. 
They  are  the  species  represented  on  the  Nine- 
vite  sculptures. 

3.  The  domestic  ass  {Asinus  asinus),  the 
Hebrew  H^mor.  It  is  a  sub-species  descended 
from  the  onager.  It  is  obstinate  and  typical 
of  stupidity.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  ass 
is  strong,  easily  fed,  patient,  and  forgiving. 
Its  faults  are  mainly  produced  by  the  cruel 
bondage  imposed  upon  it  by  its  human  task- 
master. The  ass  was  early  domesticated. 
Abraham  had  asses  (Gen.  xii.  16)  on  which 
he  rode  (xxii.  3),  so  had  Jacob  (xxx.  43). 
They  were  used  also  for  burden-bearing  (xlix. 
14  ;  Is.  xxx.  6),  for  ploughing,  etc.  (Deut.  xxii. 
10).  White  asses  were  deemed  lit  for  persons 
of  rank  (Judg.  v.  10),  as  they  still  are  in 
Palestine.  Jesus  showed  his  lowliness,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  spirit  of  the  eai-lier 
kings,  by  rejecting  horses  and  riding  on  an 
ass  in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem 
(Zech.  ix.  9  ;  Mat.  xxi.  5). 

As-sas'sins  [Greek  silcarioi.  daggermen]. 

Ruffians  who  terrorized  Judjea,  A.  D.  50-70. 
Their  organization  was  formed  in  order  to 
a.ssert  liberty  from  the  Romans  and  recog- 
nize no  master  save  God.  They  carried  a 
small  sword  hidden  beneath  the  cloak  ;  and, 
mingling  with  the  multitude  at  the  festivals, 
stabbed  those  who  were  marked  for  destruc- 
tion. They  even  formed  bands  and  pillaged 
villages  (Acts  xxi.  38,  R.  V. ;  Antiq.  xx.  8, 
10;  War  vii.  10,  1).     Cp.  Zealot. 

As'shur,  in  A.  V.  twice  Assur  [probably 
originally  A-ushar,  watered  plain  (Delitzsch), 
or  from  the  local  deity  A.shur,  the  good 
(Schrader)].     Pronounced  Ash'ur. 

A  people  descended  from  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22), 
and  the  country  which  they  inhabited  (Ezra 
iv.  2,  A.  V. ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  23).     See  Assyria. 

As-shu'rim. 

A  people,  doubtless  of  Arabia,  descended 
from  Dedan,  and  more  remotely  from  Abra- 
ham by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  3).  The  like 
name  borne  by  an  individual  mentioned  in 
the  Minsean  inscription  throws  little  or  no 
light  on  this  tribe.  The  Ashurites.  named 
after  Gilead  in  2  Sam.  ii.  9,  are  almost  cer- 
tainly diflerent,  as  is  also  Asshur,  that  is  As- 
syria, in  Ezek.  xxvii.  23. 

As-si-de'ans.     See  Hasid^ans. 

As 'sir  [ca])tive]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah, 
born  in  Egypt  (Ex.  vi.  24  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  preceding  (1  Chron. 
vi.  23,  37). 

3.  A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17). 
The  name  does  not  appear  in  R.   V.     The 


revisers  regard  it  as  an  adjective  descriptive 
of  Jeconiah,  and  translate  it  "  the  captive;" 
but  there  is  no  definite  article  in  the  present 
Hebrew  text,  and  there  was  none  in  the  text 
used  by  the  Seventy.  His  name  suggests  that 
Assir  was  born  in  captivity.  This ac>cords with 
other  indications.  Jeconiah  was  18  years  old 
when  carried  off  to  Babylon,  and  in  the  enu- 
meration of  the  members  of  his  family  de- 
ported with  him,  no  children  are  mentioned 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  8-15).  Assir  did  not  succeed  to 
the  royal  title  ;  the  right  to  the  throne  passed 
to  Shealtiel  (q.  v.). 

As'sos. 

A  seaport  town  of  ]\Iysia,  now  called  Beiram^ 
not  far  from  Troas  (Acts  xx.  13,  14). 

As'sur.    See  Asshur. 

As-syr'i-a  [Greek  modification  of  Asshur 
(q.  V.)]. 

A  country  on  the  river  Tigris  (Gen.  ii.  14, 
R.  V.  margin).  It  was  originally  the  district 
dominated  by  the  town  of  Asshur,  the  ruins  of 
which  have  been  found  at  Kalah  Shergat,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  60  miles 
below  Nineveh.  With  the  growth  of  the  city's 
power  and  dominion,  the  name  came  to  de- 
note the  region  compassed  by  the  Gordyseau 
mountains  of  Armenia  on  the  north,  the 
ranges  of  Media  on  the  east,  and  the  little 
Zab  river  on  the  south.  Westward  it  ex- 
tended a  short  distance  from  the  Tigris  into 
Mesopotamia.  This  district  is  the  Assyria 
proper  of  history,  but  the  name  was  often 
given  to  the  extensive  empire  conquered  and 
ruled  by  the  Assyrians.  The  inhabitants  were 
Semites  (Gen.  x.  22),  who  derived  their  cul- 
ture from  Babylonia,  and  probably  originally 
emigrated  thence.  They  became  powerful 
enough  under  king  Tukulti-adar,  about  1300' 
B.C., to  subjugate  Babylonia,  and  thenceforth 
during  700  years  they  were,  with  brief  inter- 
ruptions, the  leading  jiower  in  the  east.  Tig- 
lath-pileser  I.,  alxjut  1120  to  1100  B.  c,  raised 
the  kingdom  into  the  most  extensive  empire 
of  the  age.  Under  his  successors  it  greatly 
declined,  its  decadence  leaving  a  void  which 
permitted  the  kingdoms  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon to  reach  their  "widest  limits.  Ashur- 
nasiri)al  (885  to  860)  by  his  conquests  restored 
the  prestige  of  the  em])ire.  He  erected  a 
palace  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Calah.and 
made  that  ancient  town  (Gen.  x.  11)  tlie  cap- 
ital. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalman- 
eser,  called  II.,  who  reigned  from  about  860 
to  825,  the  first  Assyrian  king  who  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Israelites  ;  see  Ahab  and 
Jehu.  Among  the  other  kings  were  Pul, 
also  known  as  Tiglath-pileser  III.,  745-727  ; 
Shalmaneser  IV.,  727-722:  Sargon,  722-705; 
Sennacherib,  705-681  ;  Esar-haddon,  680-668  ; 
and  Ashurbanipal,  668-626.  Ashurbanipal  is 
possibly  Asnapper.  Several  minor  kings  fol- 
lowed. About  607  B.  c.  the  Medes,  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  their  allies  captured  Nineveh, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  empire.  When 
at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  seventh  cen- 


Astaroth 


63 


Ataroth-addar 


tury  B.  c,  Assyria  held  sway  over  Babylonia, 
parts  of  Media,  Armenia,  Syria,  Cyprus,  Ara- 
bia, and  Egypt.  The  kings  of  Israel  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  are  Hmnri  (Omri), 
Ahabbu  (Ahab),  Yaua  (Jehu),  Minihimniu 
(Meuahem),  Pakaha  (Pekah),  and  Ausi'  (Ho- 
shea).  The  kings  of  Judah  so  mentioned  are 
Yauhazi  (Aliaz),  Hazakiyau  (Hezekiah),  and 
Minasi  (Manasseh).  The  identification  of 
A  zriyau  with  Azariah,  i.  e.,  Uzziah,  is  no 
longer  generally  accepted. 

The  Assyrian  religion  was  borrowed  from 
that  of  Babylon,  except  that  Ashur,  the  pre- 
siding god  of  the  city  of  Asshiir,  became  the 
chief  deity  of  Assyria.  It  was  animistic  na- 
ture-worship. Every  object  and  phenomenon 
in  nature  was  believed  to  be  animated  by  a 
spirit.  The  great  gods,  after  Ashur,  were  the 
prominent  objects  of  nature.  They  were 
eleven  in  number,  in  two  triads  and  a  pentad. 
Chief  were  Anu,  heaven,  Bel,  the  region  in- 
habited by  man,  beast,  and  bird,  and  Ea,  ter- 
restrial and  subterranean  waters.  Next  in 
order  were  Sin,  the  moon,  Shamash,  the  sun, 
and  Eamman,  god  of  the  storm.  Then  came 
the  five  i)lauets.  There  were  innumerable 
other  deities,  some  of  whom  were  merely 
different  asi)ects  of  the  foregoing.  Sul)ordi- 
nate  gods  dftcn  attained  eminence  as  patrons 
of  important  towns. 

Excavations  in  the  Assyrian  palaces,  begun 
by  the  Frenchman  Botta  in  1843,  followed 
immediately  by  the  Englishman  Layard,  and 
then,  after  a  time,  by  George  Smith  of  the 
British  Museum,  Eassam,  and  others,  have 
made  the  Assyrian  empire,  which  was  little 
more  than  a  myth  to  the  classic  nations  of 
antiquity,  to  us  a  great  reality. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Assyrians  and 
the  kindred  people  in  Babylonia  was  of  the 
Semitic  family  and  closely  allied  to  the  He- 
brew. An  alphabet  was  not  used.  The  lan- 
guage was  written  in  characters  which  ex- 
pressed syllables,  not  singU'  letters  or  sounds. 
These  signs  were  impressed  on  clay  by  a 
stylus,  each  impression  having  the  shape  of 
a  wedge  or  arrow,  whence  the  writing  is  called 
cuneiform.  The  characters  were  originally 
pictures  of  objects,  but  in  time  assumed  con- 
ventional forms  which  often  bore  no  resem- 
blance to  the  original  object. 

As'ta-roth.     See  Ashtakoth  2. 

As-trol'o-gers. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
HoVre  shamayim,  dividers  of  the  heavens. 
They  are  mentioned  with  stargazers  (Is. 
xlvii.  13).  There  is  no  question  that  these 
were  astrologers  who  divided  the  heavens 
into  certain  mansions,  with  the  view  of 
tracing  the  course  of  the  planets  through 
each  of  them,  in  the  vain  hope  of  being  able 
to  tell  fortunes  and  predict  future  events. 
Though  their  failure  was  com])lete,  yet  the 
careful  study  of  the  heavens  which  astrolo- 
gers found  needful  led  to  the  gradual  growth 
of  the  sublime  science  of  astronomy. 


2.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic  words  ' Ashshaphiin  (Dan.  i.  20), 
'Ash'ph'iH  (ii.  27),  and  ' Ash'phayya  (iv.  7  ;  v. 
7),  all  translated  in  the  R.  V.  "enchanters." 
See  Enchantment  and  Enchantkk. 

A-sup'pim  [collections,  stores]. 

A  l)uilding  for  storing  temple  goods,  which 
stood  near  the  southern  gate  of  the  outer 
court  (1  Chron.  xsvi.  15,  17)  ;  hence  R.  V. 
renders  the  word  by  storehouse. 

A-syn'cri-tus  [incomparable  or  unlike]. 
A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

A'tad  [a  plant,  Rhamnus paliurus,  or  Christ's 
thorn]. 

The  great  company,  which  was  bearing  the 
body  of  Jacob  from  Egypt  to  the  sepulcher 
at  Hebron,  after  making  a  detour,  perhaps  to 
avoid  the  Philistines  and  Edomites,  halted 
at  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad,  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  made  a  mourning  for  seven  days. 
The  Cauaanites  saw  and  called  the  place  Abel- 
mizraim,  Meadow,  or  with  slightly  altered 
pronunciation.  Mourning  of  Egypt.  The  pro- 
cession afterwards  entered  Canaan  (Gen.  1. 
9-13). 

At'a-rah  [a  crown,  a  diadem]. 

A  wife  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  26). 

At'a-rotli  [crowns,  diadems]. 

1.  A  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  rebuilt  by 
the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  34).  It  was 
taken  from  the  men  of  Gad  by  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone,  10,  11).  Its  name  is 
generally  supiiosed  to  be  preserved  in  the 
ruins  'Attariis,  on  the  western  slope  of  Jebel 
'Attiirus,  three  or  four  miles  east  of  Machserus. 
The  mountain  is  some  miles  south  of  Hesh- 
bon,  which  is  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben  ;  but  the 
territories  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  like  those  of 
Judah  and  Simeon,  were  much  commingled. 
The  ruins  consist  of  uuwrought  stones,  lying 
in  heaps ;  ranges  of  broken  walls ;  remains 
of  foundations,  large  caverns,  and  circular 
cisterns.  The  old  citadel  was  an  hour's  walk 
from  the  town,  than  which  it  is  lower,  but 
more  isolated. 

2.  The  same  as  Ataroth-addar  (Josh.  xvi.  2). 

3.  A  town  on  the  border  of  Ei)hraim,  not 
far  from  Jericho.  Apparently  different  from 
Ataroth-addar  (Josh.  xvi.  7). 

4.  A  village,  apparently  in  Judah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  54).  The  name  should  include  the  four 
words  that  follow  in  A.  V.  and  be  written  as 
in  R.  v.,  Atroth-beth-joab. 

At'a-roth-ad'dar,  in  A.  V.  once  Ataroth- 
adar  [crowns  of  Addar]. 

A  village  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Eph- 
raini  (Josh.  xvi.  5),  on  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween that  tribe  and  Benjamin,  west  of  Luz 
and  near  the  hill  that  lieth  on  the  south  side 
of  the  nether  Beth-boron  (xviii.  13).  Not 
identified.  'Atara,  3i  miles  south  of  Bethel, 
on  the  road  leading  to  Jerusalem,  is  much 
too  far  east. 


Ater 


64 


Atonement 


A'ter  [sliut]. 

1.  A  uiau  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
Ater  of  Hezekiab,  ninety-eight  of  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  Babylon  after  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  16;  Neh.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  porter  (Ezra  ii.  42  ;  Neh.  vii.  4.5). 

A'thach  [a  lodging-place]. 

A  village  in  the  south  of  Judah,  to  which 
David  .sent  some  of  the  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  30).  Perhaps  it  is  Ether  (Josh.  xv. 
■12  ;  xix.  7),  kaph  and  resh  being  confused  by 
a  scribe. 

A-tha'iali. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Uzziah,  of  the 
family  of  Perez  (Neh.  xi.  4) ;  scarcely  the 
same  as  Uthai  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

Ath-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  has  afflicted  or  is 
nxalted]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  a 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  granddaughter  of 
Omri  (2  Kin.  viii.  18,  26;  2  Chron.  xxi.  6; 
xxii.  2).  She  possessed  the  masculine  courage 
of  her  mother  Jezebel,  and  was  equally  un- 
scrupulous in  shedding  blood.  When  her  son, 
king  Ahaziah,  was  slain  by  Jehu,  she  killed 
all  the  sons  of  the  murdered  monarch  except- 
ing one  infiint,  Joash,  who  was  stolen  away 
by  his  aunt,  Jehosheba.  Then  seizing  the 
throne,  she  reigned  six  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  a  priestly  insurrection  took  place  in 
favor  of  Joash.  Attempting  to  quell  it,  she 
was  dragged  from  the  temple  courts  and 
killed  at  the  carriage  entrance  of  the  palace 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-16;  2  Chron.  xxii.  1-xxiii.  21). 

2.  A  Benjaraite  of  the  house  of  Jeroham 
(1  Chron.  viii.  26). 

3.  A  man  of  the  father's  house  of  Elam 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

Ath'a-rim. 

The  way  of  the  Atharim  was  not  far  from 
tlie  town  of  Arad,  and  was  the  route  followed 
by  the  Israelites  as  they  journeyed  from  Ka- 
desh  by  way  of  mount  Hor  in  order  to  enter 
Canaan  (Num.  xxi.  1,  R.  V.).  The  meaning 
of  the  name  has  not  been  established. 

Ath-e-no'bi-us. 

A  commissioner  sent  by  Antiochus  Sidetes 
to  Simon  Maccabajus.  He  belonged  to  the 
privileged  class  known  as  friends  of  the  king 
(1  Mac.  XV.  28). 

Ath'ens. 

The  capital  of  Attica,  one  of  the  Greek 
states.  The  city  became  the  center  of  en- 
lightenment in  science,  literature,  and  art 
for  the  ancient  world.  It  grew  up  around 
the  rocky  hill  called  Acro]iolis  (top  or  high- 
est point  of  the  city),  and  covered  the  smaller 
hills  and  intervening  valleys  on  the  north- 
east side  of  tiie  (iulf  of  J>ginu.  between  the 
small  river  Ilissus  on  the  east  and  soutii,  and 
the  Cejjhisus  a  little  to  the  west.  Athens  was 
about  5  miles  from  the  sea.  Its  commercial 
port  was  Pirfpus,  with  which  the  city  when 
in  its  glory  was  connected  l)y  long  walls. 
The  navy  anchored'  close   l)y  at  Phalerou. 


Tradition  says  that  Athens  was  founded  by 
«,'e(r()])s  about  l.")56  B.  c,  that  it  sent  fifty 
ships  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  that  it  was  ruled 
liy  kings  till  about  1068  I?,  v.  The  supreme 
authority  was  afterwards  vested  in  archons. 
Two  celebrated  legislators  are  spoken  of; 
Draco,  about  621  b.  c,  whose  name  has  be- 
come proverbial  for  pitiless  severity,  and 
Solon,  about  594  B.  c,  a  wiser  man,  whose 
laws  were  more  humane.  In  490  b.  c.  the 
Athenians,  supported  by  the  Platseans,  gained 
the  great  victory  at  Marathon  against  the 
generals  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  king  of  Persia. 
In  480  Athens  had  to  be  abandoned  to  his  son 
and  successor,  Xerxes,  but  the  great  naval 
battle  at  Salamis  gained  by  the  Greeks  com- 
pelled the  invader  to  withdraw.  The  city 
was,  however,  burnt  in  479  b.  c.  by  his  gen- 
eral, Mardonius.  The  glory  gained  by  the 
Athenians  in  the  Persian  war  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  small  empire,  with  Athens 
for  its  capital  and  a  powerful  fleet  rather 
than  a  large  army  for  its  support.  About 
444  b.  c.  the  power  of  Pericles,  an  able  demo- 
cratic leader,  became  very  great.  The  good 
feature  of  his  enlightened  government  was 
the  erection  of  many  beautiful  public  build- 
ings in  Athens.  Literature  also  greatly  flour- 
ished under  his  administration.  In  431,  while 
he  yet  lived  and  ruled,  the  Peloponnesian 
war  began,  which  ended  by  the  surrender  of 
Athens  to  the  Spartans  in  404.  The  city  after- 
wards went  through  various  political  vicis- 
situdes, though  the  intellect  and  knowledge 
of  its  inhabitants  rendered  them  influential, 
whatever  changes  took  place.  I'our  great 
schools  of  philosophy — Platonic,  Peripatetic, 
Epicurean,  and  Stoic — flourished  here  and 
attracted  numerous  students,  not  only  from 
Greece,  but  also  later  from  Rome.  The  city 
was  taken  by  the  Roman  general  Snlla  in  86 
B.  c,  and  was  still  subject  to  the  Romans 
when  Paul  was  there.  Altars  "to  an  un- 
known god"  were  found  in  the  city  and  at 
the  harbor  Phaleron  (Acts  xvii.  23  ;  Pausanias 
1.  1,  4  ;  Philostratus,  vit.  Apol.  6,  2).  Mars' 
Hill,  on  which  Paul  delivered  his  celebrated 
discourse,  was  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
Acropolis  (Acts  xvii.  15-xviii.  1 ;  cp.  also  1 
Thes.  iii.  1).  Athens  subsequently  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Goths,  the  Byzantines,  and 
other  temporarily  dominant  races,  ending 
with  the  Turks.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  modern  Greek  kingdom,  in  A.  D.  1828, 
Athens  has  become  the  capital  not  merely  of 
Greece,  since  A.  D.  1835,  but  of  the  Hellenic 
race  throughout  the  world. 

Ath'lal  [afl^icted  or  exalted]. 

A  man  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  divorce 
Ms  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

A-tone'ment  [nt-one-menf,  the  making  of 
those  one  in  feeling  who  before  were  at 
variance]. 

1 .  Reconeiliatidn  betw(Hni  persons  or  beings 
at  variance  (Iidui.  v.  11,  A.  \'.). 

2.  That  winch  produces  this  reconciliation, 


Atonement 


65 


Avenger  of  Blood 


spt'ciallj'  an  expiatory  sacrifice  designed  to 
l\ave  that  effect  (Ex.  xxx.  10  ;  Lev.  iv.  20,  26, 
.'!1,  35).  Tliis  is  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
atonement  is  now  commonly  used. 

A-tone'ment,  Day  of. 

TJie  annual  (la>'  of  humiliation  and  expia- 
tion for  the  sins  of  the  nation,  when  the  high 
l)riest  offered  sacrifices  as  an  atonement  for 
the  sanctuary,  the  priests,  and  the  people 
(Lev.  xvi. ;  xxiii.  26-32  ;  Num.  xxix.  7-11). 
it  was  observed  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month  by  abstinence  from  daily 
labor,  by  a  holy  convocation,  and  by  fasting. 
It  was  the  only  fast  enjoined  by  the  law.  It 
was  "the  fast"  (Acts  xxvii.  9;  Antiq.  xiv. 
4,  3).  On  that  day  the  high  priest  laid  aside 
his  official  ornaments,  and  clad  in  simple 
white  linen  sacrificed  a  bullock  as  a  sin 
offering  for  himself  and  the  ]>riests.  Taking 
a  censer  of  live  coals  from  off  the  altar,  he 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  and  burned  in- 
cense that  the  smoke  might  cover  the  mercy 
seat  above  the  law.  He  then  fetched  the 
blood  of  the  slain  bullock  and  sprinkled  it 
on  the  mercy  seat  and  on  the  lloor.  This 
comjileted  the  atonement  for  the  priesthood. 
He  took  the  two  goats  j)rovided  by  the  nation 
and  cast  lots  upon  them.  One  he  slew  as  a 
sin  offering  for  the  people,  brought  its  blood 
within  the  veil,  and  sprinkled  it  as  before  to 
make  atonement  for  the  holy  of  holies.  By 
similar  rites  he  made  atonement  for  the  holy 
place  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  He 
now  took  the  remaining  goat,  placed  his 
hands  on  its  head,  and  confessed  over  it  the 
.sins  of  the  people.  Tyi>ically  the  sins  of  the 
people  Avere  "laid  on  its  head,"  it  was  made 
the  sin  bearer  of  the  nation,  and  laden  with 
guilt  not  its  own  was  sent  away  into  the  wil- 
derness ;  see  Azazkl.  The  high  priest  re- 
sumed his  official  raiment,  offered  his  burnt 
oflering  and  that  of  the  people,  and  likewise 
the  fat  of  the  sin  offering.  The  fiesh  of  the 
bullock  and  the  goat  were  carried  without 
the  camp  and  burned.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  points  out  that  this  entry  of  the 
high  priest  into  the  most  holy  place,  once  a 
year,  and  not  without  blood,  foreshadowed 
the  entrance  of  Jesus,  the  great  high  priest, 
once  for  all  into  heaven,  having  purchased 
for  us  eternal  salvation  (Heb.  ix.  1-12.  24-28). 

At'roth.     See  Atroth-shophan. 

At'roth-beth-jo'ato  [crowns  of  the  house 
of  Joab]. 

A  village,  apparently  in  .Judah  (1  Chron.  ii. 
54,  R.  v.).    In  A.  ^'.  the  name  is  cut  asunder. 

At'roth-sho'phan  [crowns  of  Shophan]. 

A  town  rebuilt  by  the  Gadites  (Num.  xxxii. 
35,  R.  v.).  Site  unknown.  In  A.  V.  incor- 
rectly represented  as  two  towns. 

At'tai  [perhaps,  opportune]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah  whose  descent  through 
his  mother  was  from  Jerahmeel  and  Hczron, 
but  whose  father  was  an  Egyptian  slave  (1 
t'hron.  ii.  34-36). 


2.  A  Gadite  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  11). 

3.  A  son  of  Rehoboam  bv  his  queen  Maacah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  20). 

At-ta-li'a  [pertaining  to  Attains]. 

A  city  on  the  seacoast  of  Pamphylia,  built 
by  Attains  Philadelphus,  king  of  I'erganios, 
159-138  B.  c,  and  now  called  Autali  or  Adal. 
Paul  sailed  thence  to  Antioch  on  his  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiv.  25). 

At'ta-lus. 

King  of  Pergamos,  either  Attains  II.,  Phila- 
delphus, or  his  nephew  Attalus  III.,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  in  138  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xv.  22). 

Au-gus'tan  Band,  in  A.  V.  Augustus'  Band. 

A  cohort  of  Roman  soldiers,  aj)parently 
named  after  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus 
(Acts  xxvii.  1). 

Au-gus'tus  [venerable,  august]. 

The  personal  name  of  the  first  Roman  em- 
peror, called  in  the  N.  T.  Csesar  Augustus. 
See  C^SAK. 

A'va.     See  AvvA. 

A'ven  [emptiness,  nothingness,  an  idol]. 

1.  The  Egyptian  city  On,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Heliopolis  (Ezek.  xxx.  17).  The  He- 
brew consonants  of  On  and  Aven  are  the 
same,  though  the  vowels  differ.  The  pro- 
nunciation has  been  intentionally  modified 
by  the  prophet  to  express  his  contempt  for 
the  idolatries  of  the  city. 

2.  A  name  applied  by  Hosea  to  Bethel  as 
no  longer  the  house  of  God,  but  now  a  house 
of  idolatry  (Hos.  x.  8) ;  see  Bkth-AVEn. 

3.  A  town,  apparently,  which  served  to 
designate  a  valley  in  the  kingdom  of  Da- 
mascus (Amos  i.  5)  ;  probably  Heliopolis,  now 
Baalbec,  which  like  the  Egyptian  On  was  a 
seat  of  the  sun-worship  (cp.  1  above). 

A-ven'ger  of  Blood. 

One  who  inllicts  punishment  on  a  mur- 
derer, thus  vindicating  the  majesty  of  the 
law,  "  Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man 
shall  his  blood  be  .shed  "  (Gen.  ix.  5,  6  ;  Num. 
XXXV.  31).  When  civil  life  is  regulated,  this 
duty  is  undertaken  by  courts  of  justice.  Of 
old,  however,  the  Semitic  nations,  like  the 
ancient  Greeks,  Germans,  and  Slav.s,  acted  to 
a  large  extent  on  the  s.ystem  of  each  injured 
man  being  his  own  avenger.  When  murder 
or  accidental  lioniiciilc  took  place,  the  nearest 
relative  of  the  victim  was  expected  to  avenge 
his  death,  and  was  called  the  avenger  of 
blood.  He  slew  the  murderer  or  the  unin- 
tentional homicide,  without  any  preliminary 
trial  to  settle  the  actual  facts  of  the  case. 
Then,  very  probably,  the  nearest  relative  of 
the  second  man  slain  murdered  the  avenger 
of  blood,  and  a  blood  feud  was  established. 
The  Mosaic  legislation  introduced  modifica- 
tions into  the  system  which  destroyed  its 
worst  features.  Cities  of  refuge  were  estab- 
lished, and  any  one  killing  a  man  and  fleeing 
to  one  of  those  cities  was  granted  a  fair  trial, 
and  was  not  put  to  death  unless  he  had  com- 


Avim 


66 


Azariah 


niitted  actual  murder  (Num.  xxxv.  19,  21, 
24,  27;  2  Sam.  xiv.  11).  The  A.  V.  reads,  Ee- 
venger  of  blood.     See  Cities  of  Refuge. 

A'vim  and  Avims.     See  AvviM. 

A'vites.     See  Avvites. 

A'vith  [ruius]. 

An  Edomite  city,  the  native  place  of  king 
Hadad  I  Gen.  xxxvi.  3.") ;  1  Chrou.  i.  46).  Exact 
site  unknown. 

Av'va,  in  A.  V.  A'va. 

A  city  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  in  or  north- 
west of  Babylonia,  from  which  people  were 
brought  to  help  to  colonize  Samaria.  Their 
gods  were  Nibhaz  and  Tartak  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
24,  31).  It  is  doubtless  the  place  called  I  wall 
in  2  Kin.  xviii.  34;  xix.  13,  R.  V. 

Av'vim,  in  A.  V.  A'vims  and  A'vites  and, 
as  name  of  the  town,  A'vim. 

1.  The  aborigines  of  the  Philistine  country 
about  Gaza.  All  save  a  small  remnant  were 
destroyed  by  the  Caphtorini,  afterwards  called 
Philistines  (Deut.  ii.  23;  Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin,  perhaps  the  same 
as  Ai  (Josh,  xviii.  23). 

Av'vites,  in  A.  V.  A'vites. 

1.  The  same  as  Avvim  (Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  People  of  Avva  (2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 
A'zal.     See  Azel. 

Az-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  spared]. 

Son  of  MeshuUam  and  father  of  Shaphan 
the  scribe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3). 

Az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  ear]. 

A  Levite,  father  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  x.  9). 

Az'a-rel,  in  A.  V.  A-zar'e-el,  once  A-zar'- 
a-el  (Xeh.  xii.  3(5)  [God  has  helped]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  6). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
18).  In  ver.  4  he  is  called  Uzziel  (as  king 
Azariah  was  also  known  as  Ilzziah),  and  is 
recorded  as  of  the  lineage  of  Heman. 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham,  the  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

4.  A  man  whom  Ezra  persuaded  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  41). 

5.  A  priest  of  the  father's  house  of  Immer 
(Neh.  xi.  13). 

6.  A  musician  of  priestly  descent  (Neh.  xii. 
30). 

Az-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  helped]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  house 
of  Ethan  (1  Chron.  ii.  8). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  line  of 
Izhar,  and  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet 
and  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chron.  vi.  30 ;  per- 
haps, 2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

.3.  One  of  Solomon's  officials,  son  (,f  the  high 
priest  Zadok  (1  Kin.  iv.  2)  and  l)rother  of 
Ahimaaz. 

4.  Grandson  of  Zadok  and  son  of  Ahimaaz. 
He  was  in  the  line  of  high-prie.stly  succession 
vl  Chron.  vi.  9). 

5.  Son  of  Nathan,  and  hence  probably 
!>iolomoii's   nephew  (2  Saui.   v.   14),  who  was 


over  Solomon's  twelve  tax-collectors  (1  Kin. 
iv.  5). 

6.  A  prophet,  son  of  Oded,  who  encouraged 
king  Asa  to  persevere  in  national  religious 
reformation  (2  Chron.  xv.  1-8). 

7.  Two  sons  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2).  The  recurrence  of  the  same  name  in 
the  family  is  surprising.  It  may  be  due  to 
an  early  corruption  of  the  text  ;  or,  if  the 
text  is  correct,  to  a  ditference  of  mother,  the 
two  boys  being  half-brothers  (cp.  the  Herods). 
It  cannot  be  explained  by  the  theory  that 
the  younger  was  named  after  a  deceased 
elder  brother,  for  the  two  seem  to  have  been 
alive  together  and  to  have  been  put  to  death 
at  the  same  time. 

8.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  38,  39).  His 
grandfather  was  Obed  (38)  ;  hence  he  was 
perhaps  the  captain  Azariah.  son  of  Obed, 
who  assisted  in  overthrowing  Athaliah  and 
placing  Joash  on  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

9.  Another  captain,  son  of  Jeroham,  who 
aided  in  overthrowing  Athaliah  (2  Chron. 
xxiii.  1). 

10.  A  prince  of  Ephrairn,  son  of  Johanan, 
who  aided  in  persuading  the  soldiers  of 
Pekah'sarmy  to  release  the  captives  of  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

11.  A  king  of  Judah,  known  also  as  Uzziah 
(cp.  2  Kin.  XV.  1  with  2  Chron.  xxvi.  1)  ;  see 
Uzziah.  The  belief  is  no  longer  generally 
held  that  he  is  the  Azriyau  mentioned  in  the 
inscriptions  of  Tiglath-pileser. 

12.  A  high  priest  (1  Chrou.  vi.  10),  probably 
he  who  rebuked  Uzziah  for  encroaching  on 
the  priest's  office  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  17-20).  Per- 
haps he  was  still  officiating  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (xxxi.  10,  13),  but  probably  the  pontiff 
of  the  latter  reign  was  another  priest  of  the 
name  Azariah  ;  see  High  Priest. 

13.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  who  as- 
sisted in  purifying  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

14.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Hilkiah  and  father 
of  Seraiah,  not  long  before  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
vi.  13,  14  ;  perhaps  ix.  11).     See  Ser.\.iah  12. 

15.  A  son  of  Hoshaiah  and  an  opponent  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xliii.  2). 

16.  The  Hebrew  and  original  name  of 
Abednego  (Dan.  i.  7;  1  Mac.  ii.  59). 

17.  A  prominent  person,  probably  prince 
of  Judah,  who  marched  in  the  procession  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  32,  33). 

18.  A  son  of  Maaseiah,  who  had  a  hou.se 
at  Jerusalem  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  re- 
paired the  wall  in  its  immediate  vicinitv 
(Neh.  iii.  23,  24). 

19.  One  of  those,  apparently  Levites,  who 
explained  to  the  people  the  law  which  Ezra 
read  (Neh.  viii.  7). 

20.  A  i)riest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  to  keep  sejiarate  from  foreigners 
and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Neh.  x.  2). 

21.  A  descendant  of  Hilkiah  who  was  ruler 


Azarias 


67 


Azor 


of  the  house  of  God  after  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
ix.  11);  see,  however,  Seraiah  12. 

Besides  tliese,  a  king  of  Israel  (not  Uzziah) 
is  called  Azariah  iu  2  Clu-ou.  xxii.  (i,  but  tliis 
seems  a  copyist's  error  for  Ahaziali,  whicli  is 
given  in  the  next  verse  (2  Chron.  xxii.  (i,  7  ; 
cp.  2  Kiu.  viii.  29). 

Az-a-ri'as  [Greek  form  of  Azariah]. 

One  of  two  men  api)ointed  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabtens  to  chief  authority  in  .Tudsea  during 
his  ab.sence  (1  Mac.  v.  18),  but  who  were  de- 
feated l)y  (rorgias  (56-60). 

A'zaz  [strong]. 

A  Keul)enite,  line  of  Joel  (1  Chron.  v.  8). 

A-za'zel  [probably  for  'asalsel,  in  the  sen.se 
of  dismissal  or  dismissed,  separated  one]. 

The  word  occnrs  originally  in  one  passage 
only  (Lev.  xvi.  8,  10,  2(j,  K.  V.) ;  see  Atone- 
ment, D.\Y  OF.  The  data  for  determining  its 
meaning  are  meager  and  insutlicicnt,  iH'ing 
confined  as  yet  to  etymology,  exegesis  of  the 
passage,  and  general  biblical  teaching.  Nu- 
merous interpretations  have  been  proposed, 
l)ut  they  are  conjectures  more  or  less  satis- 
factory. The  word  has  been  interpreted  both 
impersonally  and  personally,  as  meaning — 1. 
A  place  :  a  solitary  desert  {Jonathan,  Jerome) ; 
2.  A  goat :  the  departing  goat  (Jewish  revisers 
of  the  Septuagint ;  Vulgate) ;  scape-goat,  the 
goat  that  is  allowed  to  escape  (A.  V.) ;  3.  An 
abstract  noun :  utter  removal  or  dismissal 
(Biihr,  Winer,  E.  V.)  ;  4.  A  personal  being: 

(a)  some  demon   of  the  wilderness  (Stade) ; 

(b)  a  fallen  angel  who  seduces  men  to  evil 
(Book  of  Enoch  vi.  7  ;  viii.  1  et  passim),  later 
identified  with  Sammael  ;  (c)  an  epithet  ap- 
l)lied  to  the  devil  (Origen,  Hengstenberg, 
Oehler,  Kurtz,  Keil  ;  see  Milton,  Paradise 
Lost  i.). 

Either  of  two  interpretations  is  satisfac- 
tory :  1.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  abstraction. 
Aaron  shall  cast  lots  upon  the  goats,  "  one 
lot  for  the  Lord  and  the  other  lot  for  dis- 
missal," and  shall  send  the  goat,  upon  which 
the  latter  lot  falls,  away  "as  a  dismissal  to 
the  wildeniess."  The  idea  of  the  escaped 
goat  is  virtually  preserved  by  this  interpre- 
tation. 2.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  epithet 
of  the  devil,  the  apostate  one.  Those  who 
are  laden  with  sin  belong  to  the  devil.  The 
objection  to  this  interpretation  is  tliat  Satan 
is  nowhere  mentioned  in  any  jmrt  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  serpent  indeed  is,  but  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  devil  was  as  yet  recog- 
nized as  the  possessor  and  actuator  of  the 
serpent  of  the  temptation. 

Az-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  A  harper  for  religious  service  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  21). 

2.  Father  of  a  prince  of  Ephraim  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  An  overseer  of  the  temple  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Az'buk. 

Father  of  a  certain  Nehemiah,  contempo- 


rary, but  not  identical  with  the  celebrated 
governor  of  that  name  (Neh.  iii.  16). 

A-ze'kah  [a  field  dug  by  a  hoe  and  set  out 
with  new  vines]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  near  Socoh,  to 
Avhichthe  kings  besieging  Gibionweredrivcn 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  10,  11).  It  was  assigned 
to  Judah  (XV.  35).  The  Philistines  pitched 
their  camp  near  it  when  they  brought  with 
them  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1).  It  was  fortified 
by  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  9).  Nebuchad- 
nezzar fought  against  it  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7),  and 
])robabiy  took  it,  but  it  continued  to  exist 
after  tiie  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  30).  Its  site  has 
not  been  identified. 

A'zel ;  in  A.  V.  once  A'zal  (Zech.  xiv.  5),  a 
Hebrew  i)ronunciation  sometimes  employed 
when  the  word  stands  at  a  pause  in  the  sen- 
tence (as  in  text  of  1  Chron.  viii.  38,  but  not 
of  ix.  44,  E.  V.)  [perhaps,  noble]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Jonatlian,  Saul's  sou 
(1  Chron.  viii.  37,  38  ;  ix.  43,  44). 

2.  Probably  a  hamlet;  and  if  so,  it  lay  to 
the  east  of  Jerusalem  (Zech.  xiv.  5).  Per- 
haps identical  with  Beth-ezel. 

A'zem.     See  Ezem. 

Az'gad  [strong  of  fortune,  or  the  god  Gad 
is  strong]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  Babylonia  witli  both  Zerubbabel 
and  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  12;  viii.  12).  Its  repre- 
sentative sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  15). 

A'zi-el.     See  Jaaziel. 

A-zi'za  [robust]. 

A  man  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce  his 
f(M-eign  wife  (Ezra  x.  27). 

Az'ma-veth  [death  is  strong]. 

1.  A  Barhumite.  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  31). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  sons  came  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

3.  The  son  of  Adiel.  He  was  over  David's 
treasures  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  25). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoadah  and  descendant  of 
Jonathan.  Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36). 

5.  A  village  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem, 
near  Geba.  Forty-two  of  its  inhabitants  re- 
turned from  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  24).  Some  singers  resided  on  its  fields 
(Neh.  xii.  29).  Called  also  Beth-azmaveth 
(Neh.  vii.  28).  Its  site  is  perhaps  Hizmeh, 
midway  between  Geba  and  Anathoth. 

Az'mon  [robust]. 

A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Canaan,  to  the  west  of  Kadesh-barnea  an.i 
near  the  brook  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv.  4,  '> ; 
Josh.  XV.  4,  E.  v.).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Az'noth-ta'bor  [the  ears,  i.  e.  slopes  or 
tops,  of  Tal)or]. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  of  Naphtali,  evi- 
dently uear  mount  Tabor  (Josh.  xix.  34). 

A'zor. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
exile  (Mat.  i.  13,  14). 


Azotus 


Baale 


A-zo'tus.     See  Ashdod. 

Az'ri-el  [help  of  God]. 

1.  A  c-liief  man  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  cast  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

2.  A  Naphtalite  of  David's  time,  father  of 
Jerimoth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

:i.  Father  of  Seraiah  of  Jeremiah's  time 
(Jer.  x.\xvi.  2()). 

Az'ri-kam  [help  against  an  enemy,  or  help 
hath  arisen]. 

1.  A  son  of  Neariah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  son  of  Azel,  and  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  {1  Chron.  viii.  38  ;  ix.  44). 

:i.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Merari  (1 
Chron.  ix.  14). 

4.  The  governor  of  the  palace  under  king 
Ahaz.  He  was  killed  by  an  Ephraimite, 
Zichri  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

A-zu'bah  [forsaken  or  desolation] . 

1.  A  wife  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18,  19). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Shilhi  and  mother  of 
Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin.  xxii.  42). 

A'zur.  See  AzzuR. 
Az'zab.  See  Gaza. 
Az'zan  [strong]. 

Father  of  Paltiel,  prince  of  Issachar  in  the 
days  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  26). 
Az'zur,  in  A.  V.  twice  A'zur  [heli>ful]. 

1.  Father  of  Hanauiah  the  false  prophet 
(Jer.  xxviii.  1). 

2.  Father  of  Jaazaniah  (Ezek.  xi.  1). 

3.  One  of  those  who,  with  Nehemiah,  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  17). 


B. 


Ba'al  [master,  lord,  possessor]. 

1.  A  suu-god,  exhibiting  ditferent  aspects  of 
the  solar  energy,  the  center  of  whose  worship 
was  Phoenicia,  whence  it  spread  to  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  Baal  was  adored  on  high 
])laces  in  Moab  as  early  as  the  days  of  Balaam 
and  Balak  (Num.  xxii.  41).  In  the  time  of 
tlic  judges  lie  had  altars  within  the  country 
of  tiie  Israi'litc's  (Judg.  ii.  13;  vi.  28-32),  and 
when  king  Ahab  married  Jezebel,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Etlibaal,  king  of  the  Sidoniaus,  the 
worship  of  Baal  almost  supplanted  that  of 
Jehovah.  The  life  and  death  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  religions  culminated  on 
mount  (!armel  when  the  pro])het  Elijah  met 
the  priests  of  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31,  32;  xviii. 
17-40).  Though  it  ended  in  the  .slaughter  of 
the  priests  of  Baal,  yet  they  soon  swarmed 
anew  until  crushed  by  Jehu  (2  Ki!i.  x.  18- 
2.-i).  About  this  time,  the  wor.ship  of  Baal 
received  new  impulse  in  Judah  through  the 
influence  of  Jezebel's  daughter,  Atlialiah, 
wife  of  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xvii.  3;  xxi.  ti ; 
xxii.  2).  On  her  overthrow,  the  temi)le  of 
Baal  at  .Terusalem  was  pulled  down,  the  al- 
tars and  images  were  destroyed,  and  Mattan, 
the  chief  priest,  slain  before  the  altar  (2  Kin. 


xi.  18).  After  a  time  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  revived  in  both  Israel  (Hos.  ii.  8 ;  iv.  13) 
and  Judah.  Ahaz  made  molten  images  for 
the  Baalim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  2).  Hezekiah, 
indeed,  wrought  a  reformation,  but  Manas- 
seh  erected  altars  to  Baal  (2  Kin.  xxi.  3). 
Josiah  destroyed  the  vessels  of  Baal  at  Jeru- 
.salem,  and  made  the  public  worship  of  Baal 
for  the  time  to  cease  (xxiii.  4,  5).  Jeremiah 
frequently  denounced  it,  as  did  other  proj)hets 
(Jer.  xix.  4,  5).  The  worship  of  Baal  wasiic- 
companied  with  lascivious  rites  (cp.  1  Kin. 
xiv.  24),  the  sacrifice  of  children  in  tlie  tire 
by  parents  (Jer.  xix.  5),  and  kissing  the 
image  (1  Kin.  xix.  18  ;  Hos.  xiii.  2).  Baal  was 
often  associated  with  the  goddess  Ashtoreth 
(Judg.  ii.  13),  and  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
altar  there  was  often  an  Asherah  (Judg.  vi. 
30 ;  1  Kin.  xvi.  32,  33,  both  R.  V. ).  Baal  nuisfc 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Babylonian  Bel, 
though  both  were  sun-gods. 

2.  A  Reubenite,  house  of  Joel,  who  lived 
before  the  captivitv  of  the  ten  tribes  (1  Chron. 
V.  5,  6). 

3.  A  Beiijamite,  son  of  king  Saul's  ancestor 
Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii.  30;  ix.  3.i,  .36,  39,  E.  V.). 

4.  A  village  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  33); 
the  same  as  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ba'al-ah  [mistress]. 

1.  A  town  better  known  as  Kirjath-jearini 
(Josh.  XV.  9). 

2.  A  hili  in  .Tudah,  between  Ekron  and 
Jabneel  (.Tosh.  xv.  II). 

3.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
29) ;  apparently  the  same  as  the  Simeonite 
town  Balah  (Josh.  xix.  3)  or  Bilhah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  29).     Site  unknown. 

Ba'al-ath  [mistress]. 

A  village  of  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  44),  near  Gezer  (Antiq.  viii.  6,  1). 
Solomon  fortified  it  (1  Kin.  ix.  18;  2  Chron. 
viii.  6). 

Ba'al-ath-be'er  [possessor  of  a  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  tribe 
of  Simeon.  Called  simply  Baal  (1  Chron.  iv. 
33),  and  apparently  known  also  as  Ramah 
and  Raraoth  of  the  South  (Josh.  xix.  8;  1 
Sara.  XXX.  27,  R.  V.).     Site  unknown. 

Ba'al-toe'rith  [lord  of  a  covenant ;  i.  e.  the 
god  who  enters  into  a  covenant  with  his  wor- 
shipers]. 

A  designation  under  which  in  the  time  of 
the  judges  Baal  was  worshiped  at  Shechem, 
where  he  had  a  temple  (Judg.  viii.  33  ;  ix.  4). 
Sometimes  he  was  spoken  of  as  El-berith,  the 
covenant-keeping  god  (Judg.  ix.  46,  R.  V.  ; 
where  A.  V.  partly  translates  the  name). 

Ba'al-e,  or  rather,  as  in  R.  V.,  Baale  Judah 
[a  construct  form,  probably  singular,  Baal  of 
Judah]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  the  same  as  Baalah  and 
Kirjath-))aal  and  Kirjath-jearim  (2  Sam.  vi. 
2;  cp.  1  Chron.  xiii.  6;  Josh,  .xviii.  14).  See 
K1K.IATH-.JKARIM. 


Baal-gad 


69 


Baana 


Ba'al-gad  [lord  of  fortune]. 

A  place  at  the  foot  of  luouut  Hermon,  in 
the  valley  of  Lebanon,  where  apparently  Gad, 
the  god  of  fortune,  was  wor.shiped.  It  consti- 
tuted the  extreme  northern  limit  of  Joshua's 
conquests  (Josh.  xi.  17;  xii.  7;  xiii.  5).  It 
can  scarcely  be  identified  with  either  Banias 
or  Baalbek. 

Ba'al-ha'raon  [place  of  a  multitude]. 

A  place  where  Solomon  had  a  vineyard 
(Song  viii.  11).  Its  identity  with  Balanion,  a 
town  near  Dothan  (Judith  viii.  '.i),  which  Gese- 
nius  suggested,  is  extremely  doubtful  in  view 
of  the  variant  spelling  Belbaim,  Belmaim, 
Abelmaein  (iv.  4;  vii.  3). 
Ba'al-ha'nan  [the  Lord  is  gracious]. 

1.  Sou  of  Acliboi'  and  king  of  Edoui  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  38  ;  1  Chroii.  i.  49). 

2.  Custodian  of  the  olive  and  sycomore 
trees  under  king  David  (1  Chrou.  xxvii.  28)_ 

Ba'al-ha'zor  [lord  of  a  village]. 

A  place  beside  Ephraim  (2  Sam.  xiii.  23). 
Gesenius  suggested  Hazor  in  Benjamin  (Neh. 
xi.  33).  Another  view  is  that  it  was  at  Tell 
'Asur,  44  miles  north-northeast  of  Bethel ; 
but  the  two  names  are  quite  diiFerent  etymo- 
logically. 

Ba'al-her'mon  [Baal  or  lord  of  Hermon]. 

A  mountain  marking  the  northwestern 
limit  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of 
Jordan,  and  situated  south  or  southwest 
of  mount  Hernum  proper  (Judg.  iii.  3 ;  1 
Chron.  v.  23).  The  comparison  of  Josh.  xiii. 
5  with  Judg.  iii.  3  is  not  sutficient  to  estab- 
lish its  identity  with  Baal-gad. 

Ba'al-i  [my  master]  (Hos.  ii.  16). 

Ba'al-im  [Hebrew  plural  of  Baal]. 

The  sun-god  Baal  as  worshiped  under  difier- 
ent  aspects  by  the  nations  neighbor  to  Israel, 
or  the  old  Canaanite  plural  of  eminence  in- 
stead of  the  singular  number  (Judg.  ii.  11  ; 
iii.  7:  viii.  33;  x.  10;  1  Sam.  vii.  4;  xii.  10). 
Often  coupled  with  Ashtaroth  (q.  v.). 

Ba'a-lis. 

A  king  of  the  Ammonites  who  reigned 
shortly  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  capture  of 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  xl.  14). 

Ba'al-me'on  [Icn-d  of  Meon  or  habitation]. 

An  old  AuKtrite  city  on  the  frontiers  of 
Moab,  known  fully  as  Beth-baal-meon  (Num. 
xxxii.  38;  Ezek.  xxv.  »;  both  forms  on 
Moabite  Stone  9,  30).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
Eeubenites  and  rebuilt  by  them  (Num.  xxxii. 
38  ;  in  ver.  3  called  Beon  ;  Josh.  xiii.  17  ;  1 
Ohron.  v.  8).  It  was  held  by  Mcsha,  king 
of  Moab  (Stone  9,  30),  and  was  in  possession 
of  the  same  people  in  the  sixth  century  B.  c. 
(Ezek.  xxv.  9  ;  and  Jer.  xlviii.  23,  where  it 
is  abbreviated  to  Beth-meon).  It  was  still 
a  considerable  town  in  the  time  of  Jerome, 
who  gives  its  distance  from  Heshbon  as  9 
Roman  miles.  The  ruins,  now  called  Ma'in, 
lie  in  the  northern  Moabite  territory,  4  miles 
southwest  of  Medeba.  Tristram  "describes 
them  as  occupying  the  crests  and  sides  of 


four  adjacent  hills,  one  being  evidently  the 
site  of  the  central  city,  connected  with  the 
rest  by  a  causeway.  There  are  remains  of 
foundations,  walls,  streets,  anlies,  carved 
stones,  caverns  and  cavernous  dwellings, 
wells,  and  cisterns. 

Ba'al-pe'or  [lord  of  Peor]. 

A  Moabite  deity  worshijied  with  impure 
rites  on  the  top  of  mount  Peor.  The  Israel- 
ites, when  encamped  at  Shittim,  felt  attracted 
by  it,  and  so  sinned  that  a  plague  broke  out 
among  them,  and  was  not  stayed  till  a  slaugh- 
ter had  been  ordered  of  the  chief  transgres- 
sors (Num.  xxv.  1-9;  Ps.  cvi.  28;  Hos.  ix. 
10). 

Ba'al-per'a-zim  [place  of  breaking  forth]. 

A  place  near  the  valley  of  Kephaim  where 
David  gained  a  victory  over  the  Philistines 
(2  Sam.  v.  18-20 ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  9-11  ;  cp.  Is. 
xxviii.  21). 

Ba'al-shari-shah,  in  A.  V.  Baal-shalisha 
[lord  of  Shalishah,  a  third  part]. 

A  village  from  which  bread  and  corn  of  the 
firstfruits  were  brought  to  Elisha  when  he 
was  at  Gilgal,  on  the  mountains,  seven  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  Bethel  (2  Kin.  iv.  42-44). 
The  gift  was  brought  to  Gilgal  because  a 
school  of  the  prophets  was  there.  Jerome 
and  Eusebius  call  Baal-shalishah  Beth-shal- 
ishah,  and  describe  it  as  situated  15  Eoman 
miles  to  the  north  of  Lydda.  Conder  locates 
it  at  the  present  village  of  Kefr  Thilth  on 
the  lower  hills  of  Ephraim,  16  English  miles 
northeast  of  Lydda  and  13}  miles  northwest 
of  Gilgal.  The  distance  and  etymology  favor 
the  identification.     Cp.  1  Sam.  ix.  4. 

Ba'al-ta'mar  [lord  or  possessor  of  a  palm]. 

A  place  in  Benjamin  where  the  Israelite 
army  took  their  stand  when  about  to  assail 
Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  33).    Exact  site  unknown. 

Ba'al-ze'bub  [lord  of  the  fly]. 

The  name  under  which  the  sun-god  Baal 
was  worshiped  at  Ekrou  as  the  producer  of 
flies,  and  consecjuently  able  to  defend  against 
this  pest.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  applied 
to  him  for  a  revelation  (2  Kin.  i.  (J,  16).  See 
Beelzebxtb. 

Ba'al-ze'phon  [lord  of  watchfulness,  scarce- 
ly Baal  of  the  north  or  place  of  Ty])hon]. 

A  place  which  was  over  against  the  Israel- 
ites while  they  were  encamjted  beside  Pi- 
hahiroth,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  just 
before  they  crossed  through  the  sea  (Ex. 
xiv.  2,  9).  So  also  in  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  Pi- 
hahiroth  is  said  to  be  before  Baal-zephou. 
Site  disputed. 

Ba'a-na,  in  A.  V.  once  Baanah  (1  Kin.  iv. 
16)  [Aramaic  form  of  Baanah]. 

1.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  the  plain  of  Jezreel  from  Megiddo  to 
the  Jordan.  He  was  a  son  of  Ahilud  and 
probably  brother  of  Jehoshaphat  the  recorder 
(1  Kin.  iv.  12;  cp.  ver.  3). 

2.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  Asher  and  vicin- 
ity.    He  was  a  son  of  Hushai,  not  unlikely 


Baanah 


70 


Babylon 


of  that  Hushai  who  was  the  friend  and  ad- 
viser of  David  (1  Kiu.  iv.  16). 

3.  A  certain  Zadok's  fatlier  (Neli.  iii.  4). 

Ba'a-nah. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  brother  of  Rechab,  aud 
leader  of  a  predatory  baud.  Althoujjh  the 
brothers  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Saul,  they 
nevertheless  murdered  his  son  Ish-bosheth, 
aud  thus  were  partly  instrumental  in  turn- 
ins;  the  kingdom  to  David.  They  carried  the 
head  of  the  murdered  man  to  David  at  He- 
bron in  expectation  of  a  reward  ;  but  David 
had  them  put  to  death  as  criminals  (2  Sam. 
iv.  1-12). 

2.  A  Netophathite,  father  of  Heled,  one  of 
David's  warthies  (1  Chron.  xi.  30). 

3.  One  of  Solomon's  purveyors.  See  Baana. 

4.  A  Jew  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7).  It  was 
probably  the  representative  of  his  ftimily  who 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time  (x. 
27). 

Ba'a-ra  [perhaps  stupidity]. 

A  wife  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8). 

Ba-a-se'iah. 

A  Levite,  descendant  of  Gershom  and  an- 
cestor of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  (Jhrou.  vi.  40). 

Ba'a-sha. 

Son  of  Ahijah,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who 
conspired  against  Nadab,  the  sou  and  succes- 
sor of  Jeroboam  I.,  king  of  Israel.  When 
Nadab  was  directing  the  siege  of  Gibbethon, 
then  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  Baasha 
murdered  him  and  all  Jeroboam's  descend- 
ants, thus  fulfilliug  the  judgment  denounced 
against  his  house  (1  Kin.  xvi.  7;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
23).  Then  the  assassin  ascended  tlie  throne 
of  Israel  in  the  third  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Tirzah  ( 1  Kin. 
XV.  25-xvi.  4).  He  carried  on  a  long  war 
with  Asa.  He  began  to  fortify  Ramah  to 
blockade  the  northern  frontier  of  Judah,  but 
was  diverted  from  iiis  purpose  by  the  in- 
vasion of  his  kingdom  by  Benhadad,  king 
of  Damascus,  whom  Asa  hired  (1  Kin.  xv. 
16-21 ;  2  Chron.  xvi.  1-6).  Baasha  C(mtinued 
the  calf-worship  begun  by  Jeroboam,  and 
the  prophet  Jehu  threatened  him  and  his 
house  with  Jeroboam's  fate.  He  died  after 
a  reign  of  24  years,  aud  was  buried  in  Tirzah. 
His  son  Elah  succeeded  him  (1  Kin.  xv.  34- 
xvi.  6). 

Ba'bel  [gate  of  God]. 

A  city  in  the  plain  of  Shinar.  It  is  first 
mentioned  after  the  flood.  It  was  the  begin- 
ning of  Nimrod's  kingdom,  i.  e.  probably  the 
earliest  and  chief  seat  of  his  power  (Gen.  x. 
10).  In  the  English  versions  the  word  Babel 
occurs  in  this  passage  and  xi.  9  only,  being 
i-endered  Babylon  in  all  later  notices. 

The  tower  of  Babel  was  begun  shortly 
after  the  flood.  Those  who  planned  its  erec- 
tion hoped  to  establish  a  renowned  center 
and  prevent  the  danger  of  their  being  scat- 
tered over  the  earth.  There  is  neither  build- 


ing-stone nor  lime  on  the  alluvial  plain  of 
Shinar,  so  bricks  were  used  in  place  of  stone 
in  building  this  tower,  and  for  mortar  bitu- 
meu  was  employed,  abundant  supplies  of 
which  were  found  at  Hit,  about  140  miles 
higher  up  the  river.  The  plan  of  the  build- 
ers, however,  was  not  carried  out,  for  those 
erecting  the  tower  were  visited  with  a  pun- 
ishment which  instantly  or  soon  produced 
difference  of  dialect  and  the  withdrawal  of 
men  to  new  regions.  Hence  the  city  was 
called  Babel,  place  of  God's  judgment  (see 
Gate).  To  describe  the  event  the  Hebrew 
writer  selected  the  word  halal,  which  bears 
some  resemblance  in  sound  to  Babel  (Gen. 
xi.  1-9).  This  confusion  of  tongues  is  re- 
corded in  the  midst  of  a  section  of  the  book 
of  Genesis  devoted  to  the  Semites  (x.  21-xi. 
26),  and  may,  therefore,  have  been  an  inci- 
dent of  Semitic,  and  not  of  universal,  his- 
tory. It  may  have  originated  dialects  among 
the  Semites  only  (xi.  1  is  equally  true  on 
this  interpretation)  ;  have  occurred  after  the 
rise  of  the  family  of  Eber,  and  be  echoed  in 
the  name  Peleg  (x.  25);  see  Peleg.  A 
groundless  tradition  identifies  the  tower  of 
Babel  with  the  Birs  Nimrud,  at  Borsippa, 
about  7  miles  from  the  center  of  Babylon. 
But  if  the  unfinished  tower  was  ever  put  to 
use  afterwards,  it  was  more  likely  perpetua- 
ted by  the  temple-tower  Etemenanki,  north 
of  the  great  tenii)le  of  Marduk,  in  the  city 
of  Babylon  itself. 

Although  work  on  the  tower  ceased,  yet 
the  place  was  not  wholly  deserted.  In  after 
years  it  was  the  home  of  a  great  community. 
See  next  article. 

Bab'y-lon  [Babel,  Assyrian  Bab-ilu,  with 
the  Greek  ending  on]. 

1.  The  caiiital  of  the  Babylonian  empire. 
Its  first  mention  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
in  Gen.  x.  10,  with  three  other  places,  as  the 
beginning  of  Nimrod's  kingdom  (cp.  Is.  xxiii. 
13).  There  the  tower  of  Babel  iq.  v.)  was 
undertaken  and  the  consequent  confusion  of 
tongues  took  ])]ace  (Gen.  xi.  1-9).  Thfe  city 
became  the  mistress  of  Babylonia  under  king 
Hammurabi,  about  the  middle  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  B.  c.  (see  Amraphel),  and 
henceforth  was  the  political  and  religions 
center  of  the  country.  It  reached  the  height 
of  its  glory  in  tlie  sixth  century  B.  c,  under 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  did  much  for  it,  ren- 
dering it  the  largest  and  most  splendid  capi- 
tal of  his  time.  The  old  palace  stood  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Eujdirates.  This  royal 
residence  was  enlarged  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  twice  its  original  size,  by  an  addition  on 
the  north,  and  then  had  the  river  on  the 
west  and  a  canal  on  the  north  and  the  south, 
while  the  eastern  side  and  a  magnificent 
gateway  stood  upon  the  great  Procession 
Street,  wliicli  came  from  the  temple  of 
Marduk,  about  half  a  mile  to  the  south. 
Nebuchadnezzar  built  another  palace  a  mile 
and  a  half  to  the  n(n-th  of  the  older  one,  on 
an   artificial  hill  whose  terraced  sides  were 


Babylon 


71 


Babylonia 


probably  covered  by  the  famous  hanging 
gardens.  Herodotus,  who  flourished  about 
443  B.  C,  states  that  Babylon,  which  he  pre- 
sumably visited,  was  a  square,  each  side 
being  120  stades,  or  about  fourteen  miles,  in 
length.  This  measurement  yields  an  area 
of  nearly  200  square  miles,  and  includes 
Borsippa  in  the  city  limits.  Ctesias,  also  an 
eyewitness,  who  flourished  about  the  year 
400  B.  C,  makes  each  side  of  the  square  about 
90  stades,  or  the  length  of  the  four  sides 
together  360  stades  or  42  miles,  in  which 
case  the  area  would  slightly  exceed  100 
square  miles.  The  city  was  surrounded  by 
a  wall  (Jer.  li.  53),  or  rather  double  walls 
(Herod,  i.  181).  Without  was  a  deep  and 
broad  moat.  Between  the  two  walls,  all 
around  the  square,  was  a  space  in  which  no 
houses  were  allowed  to  be  built.  Within  the 
circuit  of  the  inner  wall  were  many  gardens, 
orchards,  and  fields.  These  counted  much  for 
area,  but  added  little  tothe  population  of  the 
city.  Herodotus  says  that  the  walls  wei'e  50 
royal  cubits  broad,  or  about  85  English  feet; 
and  the  height  200  royal  cubits,  about  335 
English  feet.  Quintus  Curtius,  about  A.  D. 
40,  gives  the  breadth  at  about  32  English 
feet;  and  Clitarchuslas  reported  by  Diodorus 
Siculus)  and  Strabo  make  the  height  75  feet. 
These  writers  state  the  circuits  variouslj% 
from  365  to  335  stades.  The  city  had  a 
hundred  gates  of  bronze,  twenty-five  on  each 
side.  From  these  there  ran  broad  streets  at 
right  angles  to  the  walls,  thus  dividing  the 
whole  area  into  squares.  The  Euphrates 
flowed  througli  the  midst  of  the  city,  divid- 
ing it  into  two  portions.  Along  each  bank 
of  the  river  there  was  a  continuous  quay. 
A  wall  separated  the  quay  from  the  city ; 
but  it  was  pierced  by  twenty-five  gateways, 
from  each  of  which  a  sloping  descent  led  to 
the  water's  edge.  There  were  ferryboats, 
a  bridge,  and  even  a  tunnel.  The  walls, 
quays,  palaces,  temples,  and  private  edifices 
were  built  of  brick;  the  cement  or  mortar 
was  bitumen  (cp.  Gen.  xi.  3).  The  timber  of 
the  houses,  which  were  two,  three,  and  four 
stories  high,  was  of  palm  wood  (Herod,  i. 
178-186). 

In  520-19  B.  c,  and  again  iu  514,  Babylon 
revolted  against  Darius  Hystaspis,  but  on 
both  occasions  it  was  subdued,  and  the  last 
time  was  dismantled.  Its  decay  was  hastened 
by  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  conquered  the  city 
in  312  B.  c,  and  made  large  use  of  its  ma- 
terials in  building  the  new  capital,  Seleucia, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris. 

The  Scrii>ture  prophecies  regarding  Baby- 
lon have  been  fulfilled  (Is.  xiii.;  xiv.  1-23: 
xxi.  1-10;  xlvi.  1,  2;  xlvii.  1-3;  Jer.  1.  and 
li.).  Jeremiah  (li.  37,  cp.  1.  26)  said  that  it 
should  become  heaps,  and  mounds  are  all 
that  remain  of  it  now.  They  commence 
about  3V  miles  above  the  village  of  Hillah, 
and  extend  northward  slightly  above  3  miles, 
by  2  from  east  to  west,  lying  chiefly  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  river.     The  three  most 


notable  mounds  are  now  called  by  the  Arabs 
the  Babil,  the  Kasr,  and  the  Amran  mounds. 
They  lie  east  of  the  river,  and  in  a  section 
of  the  old  city  which,  at  some  period  of  his- 
tory, was  a  triangular  area  bounded  by  the 
river  and  two  walls.  These  walls  were  prac- 
tically straight,  met  iu  almost  a  right  angle 
toward  the  east,  and  measured  two  and  three 
miles  in  length.  The  southern  mound,  Am- 
ran, marks  the  site  of  Marduk's  temple.  The 
central  one,  Kasr,  covers  the  remains  of  the 
old  palace  and  a  temple  of  the  goddess  Belit, 
which  stood  farther  to  the  east  and  was  sep- 
arated from  the  palace  by  the  Procession 
Street.  The  mound  Babil,  in  the  north,  is 
the  site  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  northern  palace. 

2.  The  mystic  Babylon  of  Revelation  xiv. 
8;  xvi.  19;  xvii.,  xviii.,  is  the  city  of  Rome, 
which  stood  on  seven  hills  (cp.  xvii.  3,  5,  6,  9, 
18). 

Bab-y-lo'ni-a. 

A  region  of  western  Asia  which  had  Baby- 
lon for  its  capital.  It  is  sometimes  called,  iu 
whole  or  in  ])art,  Shinar  (Gen.  x.  10;  xi.  2; 
Is.  xi.  11),  and  sometimes  land  of  the  Chal- 
deans (Jer.  xxiv.  5;  xxv.  12;  Ezek.  xii.  13). 
It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mesopo- 
tamia, the  dividing  line  between  the  two 
running  from  near  Hit  on  the  Euphrates  to  a 
little  below  Samarah  on  the  Tigris.  The 
boundary  is  a  natural  one,  sejiarating  the 
slightly  elevated  plain  of  secondary  forma- 
tion on  the  north  from  the  low-lying  alluvium 
brought  down  by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ti- 
gris on  the  south.  Babylonia  is  bounded  on 
tlie  east  by  the  mountains  of  Elam,  east  of  the 
river  Tigris,  on  the  south  by  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian  desert. 
In  ancient  historic  times  the  area  was  about 
25,000  square  miles,  but  the  northern  part  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  beiug  gradually  filled 
with  alluvium,  so  that  now  the  district  is 
430  miles  long  by  185  broad  at  the  widest 
part,  and  contains  30,000  square  miles.  The 
deep,  rich,  alluvial  soil,  artificially  irrigated, 
was  of  almost  matchless  fertility.  Cushites 
were  early  in  the  country  (Gen.  x.  8-10),  and 
likewise  the  Semites.  Cities  were  built,  not- 
ablv  Ur  (xi.  28),  Larsa  (cp.  xiv.  1),  Erech, 
Babel,  Accad  (x.  10),  Cuthah  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24), 
and  Nippur.  These  towns  were  sometimes 
indejiendent  kingdoms,  at  other  times  under 
one  monarch.  The  Cushite  Nimrod  early 
united  four  under  his  sway.  Sargon  of  Agade, 
who  was  a  Semite  by  race  or  had  adopted  the 
Semitic  language,  held  the  entire  region 
under  his  rule  about  3750  B.  c.  But  his 
dominion  and  that  of  his  son  Naram-sin  ex- 
ttMuled  far  beyond  Babylonia,  and  reached 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Two  millenia 
before  Christ  Kudurnanhundi  descended 
from  Elam  and  conquered  Babylonia.  To 
this  Elamite  dynasty  Chedorlaomer  probably 
belonged  (Gen.  xiv.  1).  But  the  Elamites 
were  at  length  defeated,  and  an  end  was  put 
to  their  rule  in  Babylonia  by  Hammurabi. 
Several  generations  later  the  Cosseans  estab- 


Babylonia 


72 


Bagpipe 


lished  themselves  iu  the  country.  About  the 
sixteenth  century  b.  c,  the  officials  of  Pales- 
tine used  the  Babylon iaa  scrijit  and  language 
in  their  correspondence  with  the  Egyptian 
court.  About  1270  B.  c.  the  Assyrians  under 
Tukulti-adar  subjugated  Babylonia,  which 
for  the  next  700  years  remained  a  second-rate 
power,  though  occasionally  casting  off  the 
Assyrian  yoke.  Nabonassar  achieved  inde- 
pendence in  747  B.  c.  The  country  was  re- 
conquered by  Tiglath-pileser  about  731  B.  c. ; 
then,  after  successive  revolts,  by  Sargou  in 
709  B.  C,  by  Sennacherib  iu  703  B.  C,  by 
Esarhaddon  in  680  B.  c,  and  by  Ashurbanijial 
in  648  B.  c.  During  this  period  Merodach- 
baladan  twice  occupied  the  throne,  once  fi-om 
721  to  709,  and  again  in  704  or  703.  In  625 
B.  c,  Babylonian  independence  was  finally 
secured  by  Nabupalusur,  known  to  the  Greeks 
as  Nabopolassar,  who  was  probably  an  official 
under  the  Assyrians.  The  Assyrian  empire 
was  threatened  by  iMcdes  and  restless  Baby- 
louians.  Aided  by  the  Chaldeans,  Nabo- 
polassar took  possession  of  Babylon,  pro- 
claimed independence  from  Assyria,  and  al- 
lied himself  with  the  Modes,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  what  soon  developed  into  the 
great  Babylonian  empire.  He  reigned  from 
the  year  625  to  605  B.  c.  Nineveh  had  been 
taken  and  destroyed  about  60(i  B.  c,  and  in 
the  partition  of  its  empire  the  share  of 
Nabopolassar  was  Susiana,  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  which  were 
annexed  to  tlie  Babylonian  empire.  But  the 
claim  of  Babylonia  to  the  country  west  of 
the  Euphrates  was  disputed  by  Pharaoh 
Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  and  Nabopolassar  sent 
his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to  protect  the  Baby- 
lonian interests.  Nebuchadnezzar  totally 
defeated  Necho  at  the  battle  of  Carchemish, 
fought  605  B.  c,  and  pushed  westward  iu 
order  to  follow  up  his  victory,  but  he  was 
recalled  to  Babylon  by  the  news  of  his 
father's  death.  He  ascended  the  throne  in 
605  B.  C,  and  reigned  nearly  forty-four  years. 
Under  him  the  Babylonian  empire  reached 
the  farthest  limits  to  which  it  ever  attained; 
and  almost  all  its  engineering  and  architectu- 
ral achievements  were  carried  out  under  his 
direction.  Jerusalem  was  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  him,  and  the  people  of  Judah 
carried  iuto  captivity;  see  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. On  his  death  in  562  B.  C,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  who  be- 
friended ithe  captive  Jehoiachiu  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
27;  Jer.  lii.  31).  After  a  reigu  of  two  years 
(562-560  B.  C.)  Evil-merodach  was  put  to 
death  by  conspirators,  headed  by  Neriglissar, 
husband  of  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Neriglissar,  who  was  probably  the  military 
officer  Nergal-sharezer  who  took  part  in  the 
siege  against  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13), 
then  ascended  the  throne  and  reigned  four 
years  and  a  half,  dying  early  in  .5.56  b.  c. 
His  son  and  successor,  Lahashi-marduk,  a 
mere  boy,  was  clubbed  to  death  a  few  months 
later.     The  conspirators  against  the  boy-king 


then  invested  one  of  their  number,  Naboua'id, 
with  the  sovereignty.  In  the  seventeenth 
year  of  his  reign,  .5.39  B.  c,  Cyrus  the 
Persian  entered  Babylon,  terminating  the 
Babylonian  empire ;  see  Cyrus.  From  the 
Persians  the  domination  of  the  country  was 
wrested  by  Alexander  the  Great,  by  his  vic- 
tories in  333  and  331  B.  c.  Since  then  the 
territory  on  the  Lower  Euphrates  has  passed 
from  the  Greeks  successively  to  the  Romans, 
the  Parthians,  the  Persians  again,  and  finally 
to  the  Mohammedans.  After  the  fall  of  Je- 
rusalem in  A.  D.  70  Babylonia  became,  and 
for  centuries  remained,  a  seat  of  Jewish 
schools  devoted  to  the  study  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  law.  The  country  at  present  is 
comparatively  unproductive,  but  under  firm 
and  enlightened  rule  would  be  one  of  the 
most  fertile  regions  in  the  world, 

Ba'ca  [a  balsam  tree,  so  named  from  its 
shedding,  as  it  were,  tears  of  gum  ;  possibJy 
also  a  noun  meaning  weeping]. 

A  valley  in  Palestine  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6),  so 
called  from  the  balsam  trees  which  grew  in 
it;  possibly  the  valley  of  Eephaim,  where 
such  trees  were  found  (2  Sam.  v.  22,  23,  R.  V. 
margin).  Perhaps,  however,  the  expression  is 
figurative,  as  the  Greek  and  Syrian  transla- 
tors believed,  like  "valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,"  and  denotes  any  vale  of  tears. 

Bac'chi-des. 

A  Syrian  general  sent  by  Demetrius  I.  at 
the  close  of  l(i2  B.  c.  to  place  Alcimus  in  the 
high  priesthood,  and  to  subjugate  rebellious 
Judah  (1  Mac.  vii.  8-20).  The  next  year  he 
defeated  Judas  and  Jonathan  Maccabseus ; 
but  his  third  campaign,  which  he  undertook 
in  157  B.  c,  was  not  successful,  and  he  re- 
turned discouraged  (ix.  1-57,  59-72). 

Badg'er. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Tahauli 
in  the  A.  V.  (Ex.  xxvi.  14;  xxxv.  7;  Num. 
iv.  25;  Ezek.  xvi.  10).  It  was  an  animal.  Its 
skin  was  u.sed  for  the  outer  covering  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  for  sandals.  Tristram  says 
that  the  common  badger,  Meles  vulgaris,  is  not 
rare  in  the  hilly  and  wooded  parts  of  Pah^s- 
tine,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  alluded  to  in 
the  Bible.     See  Seal,  I. 

Bse'an. 

Probably  a  Bedouin  tribe  which  made  i)red- 
atory  incursions  (1  Mac.  v.  4).  Blau  has,  how- 
ever, suggested  that  it  may  be  the  name  of 
the  place  which  is  called  Bajaa  in  the  in- 
scrii)tion  at  Karnak.  ami  which  was  situated 
in  the  region  indicated  by  the  narrative. 

Bag'pipe. 

Tlie  rendering  on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
of  tlie  Aramaic  Sintiphoiieyd  in  Dan.  iii.  5,  7, 
10,  15.  The  texts  of  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V. 
translate  it  dulcimer.  l^nnrphonei/a  is  ajt- 
parently  from  the  Greek  sKniphania,  sym- 
phony, unison  of  sounds.  The  bagpipe  is 
known  in  Italy  by  the  name  .sambogna.  and 
in  Asia  Minor  :is  sambonya.  names  wliich  ic- 
call  suiiiplioiifi/ii.    Tlie  instrument  is  used  also 


Baharumite 


Balak 


ill  Egypt  and  Arabia,  where  it  consists  of  a 
leathern  bag  in  which  two  pipes  are  inserted, 
one  for  inflating  the  bag,  the  other  for  play- 
ing upon  with  the  fingers. 

Ba-ha'rum-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Bahurim  (1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-hu'rim  [young  men]. 

A  village  near  the  mount  of  Olives,  on  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  5).  It  is  mentioned  repeatedly  in  the 
history  of  David.  Thence  came  Shiiuei,  who 
cursed  him,  and  in  a  well  there  Jonathan  and 
Ahimaaz  hid  when  pursued  by  the  partisans 
of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  iii.  16;  xvi.  5;  xvii.  18; 
xis.  16;  1  Kin.  ii.  8).  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  on  or  near  the  old  road 
that  ran  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan 
through  the  wady  Riiabeh,  and  stood  either 
at  the  ruins  a  mile  and  a  half  northeast  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  same  distance  south  of 
Anathoth  or  else  half  a  mile  to  the  southeast 
on  the  ridge. 

Ba'jith.     See  Bayith. 

Bak-bak'kar. 

A  Levite  (i  Chron.  ix.  15). 

Bak'buk  [a  flagon]. 

One  of  the  Nethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family,  members  of  which  returned  from  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  51;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Bak-bu-ki'ah  [effusion  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  resident  of  Jerusalem,  and  in 
high  office  immediately  after  the  exile  (Neh. 
xi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  perhaps  representative  of  the 
family  of  the  earlier  Levite  of  this  name, 
who  served  as  gatekeeper  of  the  temple  in 
Xehemiah's  time  i  Neh.  xii.  25). 

Ba'laam  [perhaps,  devouring]. 

A  diviner  (Josh.  xiii.  22;  cp.  Num.  xxiv. 
1),  sou  of  Beor,  and  resident  at  the  town  of 
Pethor,  on  the  Euphrates  (Num.  xxii.  5),  in 
Aram,  in  the  hill  country  of  the  east  (xxiii. 
7;  cp.  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  The  Hebrew  text  of 
Num.  xxii.  5  describes  Balak  as  sending  to 
Balaam  "to  the  laud  of  the  children  of  his 
people,"  meaning  Balak's  native  land  or, 
better,  Balaam's.  The  Samaritan  and  Syriac, 
reading  '  amnion  for  '  ammo,  have  "  land  of  the 
children  of  Ammon " ;  but  Balaam  is  no- 
where else  connected  with  the  Ammonites, 
not  even  in  Num.  xxxi.  8.  This  diviner  rec- 
ognized Jehovah  as  the  god  of  Israel  (xxiii. 
21),  and  as  one  at  least  of  his  own  gods 
(xxii.  18 ;  but  the  Greek  version  reaJls  mei-ely 
"Jehovah  God").  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  sent 
an  embassy  to  him,  consisting  of  elders  of 
Moab  and  Midian,  offering  him  reward  to 
place  the  Israelites  under  a  ban  (Num.  xxii. 
5-7).  He  answered  that  he  could  not  do  so 
without  the  consent  of  Jehovah,  the  God  of 
Israel.  Consent  was,  of  course,  refused. 
Balak  dispatched  more  honorable  negotiators, 
not  elders,  but  princes.  Balaam  replied  that 
not  for  a  house  full  of  gold  and  silver  would 
he  go  beyond  the  word  of  Jehovah.     Impor- 


tuning God  for  permission,  be  was  allowed 
to  go  with  the  men,  on  condition  of  uttering 
only  the  words  that  God  put  into  his  mouth. 
On  the  way  an  angel  of  the  Lord  with  drawn 
sword,  visible  to  the  ass  on  which  Balaam 
rode,  but  not  to  its  rider,  thrice  disputed  his 
progress.  The  ass  refused  to  go  forward. 
When  beaten,  voice  was  given  to  it,  and  it 
spoke  out.  Finally,  Balaam  himself  was  per- 
mitted to  see  the  angel,  and  learn  the  peril 
he  was  in.  He  oflered  to  turn  back,  but  was 
allowed  to  go  forward,  on  the  same  stringent 
condition  as  before.  Balak  met  him  on  the 
banks  of  the  Anion,  and  conducted  him  to 
Kiriath-huzoth,  probably  the  same  as  Kiriath- 
arim,  on  the  first  conspicuous  eminence 
north  of  the  Anion.  The  next  morning  the 
two,  accompanied  by  the  princes  of  Moab, 
went  northward  to  the  high  places  of  Baal, 
from  which  lofty  spot  part  of  the  camp  of 
Israel  at  Sbittim  was  visible  (Num.  xxii.  8- 
41,  R.  v.).  After  sacrifices  on  seven  altars, 
Balaam  went  alone  to  a  bare  height.  There 
the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  him.  He  re- 
turned to  Balak,  and  under  the  irresistible 
power  of  God  blessed  the  people  he  had  been 
invited  to  curse  (xxiii.  l-]2i.  Balak  was 
disappointed,  but  held  to  the  idea  that,  as 
long  as  Balaam  saw  but  a  part  of  the  camj), 
perhaps  he  might  be  able  to  curse  the  Israel- 
ites. He  took  Balaam  to  the  top  of  Pisgah 
and  sacrificed  as  before  ;  but  the  only  result 
was  fresh  blessing  instead  of  cursing  (13-26). 
A  third  attempt  was  made  from  the  top  of 
Peor,  on  the  ridge  north  of  Nebo.  Not 
merely  was  there  blessing,  but  the  utterance 
ended  with  the  prophecy  of  a  star  out  of 
Jacob,  and  a  scepter  out  of  Israel  that  should 
sway  over  Moab  and  Edom.  Balak  in  anger 
dismissed  Balaam  without  conferring  on  him 
the  intended  honor  ixxiii.  27-xxiv.  25).  Ba- 
laam, however,  before  quitting  the  country, 
suggested  that  if  the  Israelites  could  be  se- 
duce(J  into  the  idolatry  and  the  impurity 
of  the  worship  practiced  in  Baal-peor,  they 
would  come  under  Jehovah's  curse.  The  evil 
counsel  was  followed.  In  the  war  waged  by 
the  Israelites  to  execute  vengeance  on  the 
Midianites  for  this  deed,  Balaam  was  slain 
(xxxi.  8,  16).  Various  other  O.  T.  books  and 
some  of  the  N.  T.  writers  refer  to  Balaam's 
character  and  fate  (Deut.  xxiii.  4,  5;  Josh, 
xxiv.  9,  10;  Neh.  xiii.  2;  Mic.  vi.  5;  2  Pet. 
ii.  15;  Jude  11;  Rev.  ii.  14). 

Ba'lac.     See  Balak. 

Bal'a-dan  [a  son  he  hath  given].  The  name 
is  abbreviated  by  omission  of  the  name  of 
some  god  who  bestowed  the  son. 

Father  of  Merodach-baladan  (Is.  xxxis.  1). 

Ba'lah.     See  Baalah  3. 

Ba'lak,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Balac  [emptying]. 

A  Moabite  king,  son  of  Zippor,  who  lured 
Balaam  from  Pethor  to  curse  Israel  (Num. 
xxii.-xxiv. ;  Josh.  xxiv.  9  ;  Judg.  xi.  25  ;  Mic. 
vi.  4.  5;  Rev.  ii.  14). 


Bald  Locust 


74 


Baptism 


Bald  Lo'cust. 

The  renderiug  of  the  Hebrew  SaVam,  con- 
sumer. An  unknown  species  of  locust  or 
grasshopper  (Lev.  xi.  22).  There  is  nothing 
in  the  Hebrew  etj^mology  to  suggest  that  the 
auiuial  had  a  bald  appearance. 

Balm,  Balm  of  GU'e-ad. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  St!, 
ooze,  a  vegetable  product  obtained  especially 
in  (xilead  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  Jer.  viii.  22  :  xlvi. 
11),  and  exported  from  Palestine  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
2r> ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  It  was  used  as  an  oint- 
ment for  the  healing  of  wounds  (Jer.  li.  8). 
It  w'as  once  strongly  believed,  and  still  is  by 
many,  that  the  balm  of  Gilead  was  opobal- 
samiim,  a  greenish-yellow  oily  resiu  of  the 
consistency  of  honey,  to  which  wonderful 
Iiealing  virtues  were  attributed.  It  corner 
from  a  tree,  Balsamodendron  opobalsanmm  or 
gileadense,  belonging  to  the  order  Amyridacex 
(Amyrids).  It  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  high. 
But  the  identification  of  the  opobalsamum 
with  the  balm  of  Gilead  is  rendered  doubtful 
by  the  fact  that  the  tree  producing  it  is  not 
now  found  in  Gilead,  even  in  gardens,  and 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  ever  existed  in  that 
locality.  It  is  a  native  of  Arabia  and  Nubia, 
and  hence  is  often  called  the  balm  of  Mecca. 
On  the  margin  of  R.  V.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25)  tlie 
W'ord  is  rendered  by  mastic.  Pistac'm  leidiscus, 
a  bushy  evergreen  tree,  al)out  twelve  feet 
high.  It  grew  in  Palestine  (Pliny  14,  25). 
The  transparent,  pale  yellow,  fragrant  gum 
was  used  for  incense  and,  when  dissolved  in 
Avater,  as  an  ointment;  while  oil  obtained 
from  the  bark,  leaves,  and  berries  was  used 
as  a  medicine.  Josephus  mentions  a  plant 
bearing  very  precious  balsam  as  cultivated  at 
Jericho,  but  he  does  not  give  details  sufiicient 
for  its  identification  (Antiq.  xiv.  4,  1 ;  xv.  4, 
2  :  War  i.  6,  G).  Nor  can  it  be  examined  now, 
for  it  has  been  extinct,  it  is  believed,  since 
the  time  of  the  crusades. 

Bal'sam  Tree. 

The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Balca'  on  the 
margin  of  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  G;  2  Sara.  v.  23,  24;  1 
Chron.  xiv.  14,  15  in  R.  V.  The  plant  grew 
near  Jerusalem.  The  Arabs  apply  the  name 
to  a  bush  which  grows  near  Mecca,  resembles 
the  balsam  (see  Baltm),  and  has  a  white,  acrid 
sap. 

Ba'mah  [high  place]  (Ezek.  xx.  29).  See 
High  Places. 

Ba'moth  [high  places]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  north  of 
the  Aruon,  probably  an  abbreviation  of 
liamoth-baal  (Num.  xxi.  19). 

Ba'motli-ba'al  [high  places  of  Baal]. 

A  place  north  of  the  Arnon,  i)robably  that 
at  which  the  Israelites  temporarily  encamped, 
to  which  Balak  took  Balaam,  and  whence 
the  plains  of  Moab  were  visil)le  (Num.  xxi. 
19;  xxii.  41  R.  V,  margin).  It  was  within 
the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  'Josh.  xiii. 
17 ;  where  it  is  named  between  Dibon  and 


Beth-baal-meon).    It  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  peaks  of  the  long  ridge  of  'Attarus  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Zerka  Ma 'in. 
Ba'ni  [built]. 

1.  A  Gadite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  36).  Textual  criticism  is  still  un 
able  to  determine  the  text  of  this  verse  and 
of  1  Chron.  xi.  38.  One  or  both  may  need 
revision. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
(1  Chron.  ix.  4,  R.  V.). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babyhtnia  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  10).  Some  of  them  took  foreign 
wives  (X.  29).  The  family's  representative 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14).  Called  also 
Binnui  (Neh.  vii.  15). 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari  (1 
Chron.  vi.  46). 

5.  A  Levite  who  lived  before  the  return 
from  exile,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  and  hence 
of  the  family  of  Gershom  (Neh.  xi.  22). 

6.  A  Levite,  father  of  Rehum  (Neh.  iii.  17) ; 
perhaps  he  who  took  a  prominent  part  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  viii. 
7;  ix.  4,  5),  and  in  behalf  of  his  house  sealed 
the  covenant  (x.  13). 

7.  A  Levite  (Neh.  ix.  4).  As  the  name  is 
mentioned  twice  in  ver.  4  and  only  once  in 
ver.  5,  it  is  perhaps  oncj  corrupt  in  ver.  4. 

8.  Founder  of  house  or  family  (Ezra  x.  34), 
among  whose  descendants  was  a  person  also 
named  Bani  (38). 

Bank  and  Bank'er. 

Not  only  was  money  loaned  by  a  man  to 
his  neighbor  as  a  private  transaction,  but 
money-lending  was  a  regular  business.  The 
banker  sat  at  his  table  (Luke  xix.  23),  re- 
ceived money  on  deposit,  allowed  interest  on 
it  (ibid. ;  Mat.  xxv.  27),  and  loaned  it  to 
others  on  pledge  or  mortgage  (cp.  Neh.  v. 
3,  4).  A  branch  of  the  banking  l)usiness  was 
money-changing.  For  a  small  commission 
the  broker  exchanged  money  of  one  denom- 
ination for  that  of  another,  as  shekels  for  the 
half-shekels  needed  to  pay  the  templetax; 
or  gave  coins  current  in  the  country  for  for- 
eign money,  as  a  Hebrew  shekel  for  Roman 
denarii  and  Greek  drachmas  (Mark  xi.  15 ; 
John  ii.  15).     See  Loan. 

Bap'tism. 

The  rite  of  washing  with  water  as  a  sign 
ff  religious  purification  and  consecration. 
Amony  the  Jews,  as  elsewhere,  such  wash- 
ings were  frequent ;  some  prescribed  in  the 
O.  T.  (e.  (J.  Ex.  xxix.  4;  xxx.  20;  xl.  12;  Lev. 
XV.;  xvi.  26,  23;  xvii.  15;  xxii.  4,  G;  Num. 
xix.  8)  and  others  the  product  of  later  cus- 
tom (see  Mark  vii.  3,  4;  Heb.  vi.  2).  Many 
believe  also  that  in  Christ's  time,  as  certainly 
was  the  case  later,  proselytes  to  Judaism  were 
baptized.  Hence  John,  the  Forerunner,  when 
sent  to  call  Israel  to  repentance,  was  directed 
by  God  (John  i.  C3)  to  administer  baptism  to 
those  who  accepted  his  message.  His  rite  is 
called  "  th^  baptism  of  repentance  unto  remis- 


Baptism  75 

sion  of  sins"  (Mark  i.  4,  II.  V.).  Recipieutsof 
it  thereby  acknowledged  their  sins  and  pro- 
fessed their  faith  that  through  the  eonjing 
Messiah  they  would  be  forgiven.  Jesus  sought 
baptism  partly  to  express  his  sympathy  with 
John's  work,  partly  to  dedicate  himself  to  liis 
own  work,  and  partly  to  exjiress  his  assump- 
tion of  the  sins  of  men.  The  mode  of  John's 
baptism  is  not  described,  but,  as  Jesus  entered 
into  the  Joi-dau  (Mark  i.  9, 10),  it  was  probably 
by  a  {fusion  or  by  immersion.  At  first  Christ's 
disciples  continued  to  bajitize  the  i)eople  as 
John  had  done  (John  iv.  1,  2).  thus  carrying  on 
John's  work,  but  after  Christ's  tialiltean  min- 
istry began,  we  read  of  this  no  more.  But 
in  his  parting  iustructions  (Mat.  xxviii.  19), 
Christ  made  baptism  the  initiatory  rite  of  his 
Church,  one  of  the  two  sacraments  to  be  ob- 
served by  his  followers.  Hence  we  find  it 
from  the  first  required  and  administered  by 
the  apostles  and  their  co-laborers  (Acts  ii.  38. 
41 ;  viii.  12,  38 ;  ix.  18 ;  x.  48 ;  1  Cor.  i.  14,  16, 
etc.).    It  signifies  and  seals  a  believer's  union 


Barbarian 


Ancient  representation  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ, 
from  a  Church  in  Ravenna.  .John  stands  on 
the  river  bank,  our  Lord  in  the  water.  The 
river  Jordan  is  symbolized  by  the  sitting  figure. 

with  Christ  through  repentance  and  faith  ; 
the  removal  of  his  sins  by  Christ's  death  and 
the  Spirit's  operation  in  him  ;  and  his  en- 
gagement to  be  the  Lord's  (Itom.  vi.  4;  Gal. 
iii.  27;  Col.  ii.  11,  12;  1  Pet.  iii.  21).  Chris- 
tians have  difi'ered,  even  from  early  times,  as 
to  the  mode  of  baptism.  While  the  word  is 
derived  from  a  verb,  biiptizo,  which  means 
etymologically  to  immerse,  this  does  not 
prove  that  immersion  was  the  mode  always 
l)racticed  nor  that  it  is  necessary.  In  fact, 
instances  occur  where  the  word  plainly  does 
not  mean  immerse  (e.  (i.  Luke  xi.  38,  in  Eng- 
lish version  "wash,"  and  probably  Mark  vii. 
4).  The  Scriptures  nowhere  describe,  nmcli 
less  prescribe,  the  mode.  In  the  post-apos- 
toli  times  both  immersion  :.nd  affusion  were 
used.    The  Eastern  church-  s  and  the  Protes- 


tant Baptists  still  practice  immersion,  the 
Latin  Church  generally  uses  affusion,  while 
most  Protestants  use  affusion  or  asjiersion 
(sprinkling).  Pro'oably  the  mode  varied  even 
in  apostolic  times.  According  to  Christ's  com- 
mand, it  is  to  be  administered  in  tlie  name 
of  the  Trinity.  Modern  I>ai)tists  contend 
that  baptism  should  only  be  administered  to 
adult  believers.  The  Church,  however,  from 
the  earliest  time  has  administered  it  also  to 
children  who  have  si)onsors  to  care  for  their 
Christian  nurture.  It  is  certainly  scri])tural 
to  do  this  to  children  of  believers,  since  St. 
Paul  expressly  teaches  (Gal.  iii.  l.o-29)  that 
believers  in  Christ  are  under  the  gracious 
provisions  of  the  covenant  which  God  made 
with  Abraham.  Under  that  covenant  cir- 
cumcision was  administered  to  children  as  a 
sign  of  their  participation  in  the  relation  in 
which  their  jiarents  stood  to  God.  The  chil- 
dren of  Christian  believers  have  therefore  a 
similar  right  to  the  ordinance  which  has  re- 
placed circumcision. 

The  phra.se  "baptized  for  the  dead"  (1 
Cor.  XV.  29)  is  difficult  to  ex])lain.  It  prob- 
ably either  means  "baptized  with  a  view  to 
the  world  of  the  dead  into  which  we  are 
going,"  or  refers  to  a  custom  of  baptizing  one 
person  in  place  of  another  who  has  died,  a 
custom  which  Paul  might  cite  for  his  argu- 
ment without  approving.  G.  t.  p. 

Bar-ab'bas  [son  of  a  father]. 

A  robber  who  had  made  an  insurrection  in 
which  he  had  committed  murder.  He  was  a 
notable  prisoner  when  Jesus  was  arrested. 
Pilate,  anxious  that  Jesus  should  be  released, 
offered  the  Jews  the  option  of  releasing  Jesu.s 
or  Barabbas,  and  thev  chose  Barabbas  (Mat. 
xxvii.  16,  17,  20,  21,  26). 

Bar'a-cbel  [God  has  blessed]. 
A    Buzite,    father   of    Elihu,    Job's   friend 
(Job  xxxii.  2,  6). 

Bar-a-chi'ab,   in   A.   V.    Barachias,    the 

Greek  modification  of  the  Hebrew  name  [Je- 
hovah hath  blessed]. 

Father  of  that  prophet,  Zachariah,  who  was 
slain  between  the  temi)le  and  the  altar  (Mat. 
xxiii.  35).     See  Zachakiah. 

Ba'rak  [lightning]. 

An  Israelite,  belonging  to  the  city  of  Kedesh- 
naphtali,  who  at  the  command  of  Deborah 
the  prophetess,  called  together  10,000  men  of 
Naphtali  and  Zebulun,  with  whom  he  routed 
Sisera,  Jabin's  conmiander-in-chief,  and  de- 
stroved  his  army  (Judg.  iv.  1-24 :  v.  1,  12 ; 
Heb.  xi.  :;2). 

Bar-ba'ri-an. 

1.  Originally  one  who  did  not  speak  the 
Greek  language.  The  phrase  Hellenes  and 
barbarians  end^raced  all  nations  (cp.  Rom.  i. 
14).  There  being  nothing  offen.sive  in  the 
word,  the  Romans  and  the  Jews  w'ere  content 
to  be  called  barbarians. 

2.  Later,  one  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
cultivated  Hellenic  race  (cp.  Col.  iii.  11). 


Barhumite 


76 


Baruch 


3.  Oue  who  spoke  an  uuintelligible  foreign 
tongue  (1  Cor.  xiv.  11). 

Bar-hu'mite. 

Probably  a  misreading  of  Baharumite  {2 
Sam.  xxiii.  31  with  1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-ri'ah  [fngitivel. 

A  descendant  of  Sliecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
2-2). 

Bar-je'sus.    See  Elymas. 

Bar-Jo'nah,  in  A.  Y.  Bar-jona. 

A  surname  of  the  apostle  Peter  (Mat.  xvi. 
17) ;  probably  meaning  "'  son  of  John  "  (John 
i.  42 ;  xxi.  15-17,  R.  V.),  for  the  Hebrew 
word  from  which  John  is  derived  is  occa- 
sionally written  in  Gi'eek  in  a  form  not  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Greek  of  Jonah  (cp. 
various  Greek  texts  of  2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  1 
Chron.  vi.  9,  10;  xii.  12;  xxvi.  3;  Ezra  viii. 
12;  1  Esdrasix.  1,  2.3). 

Bar'kos  [painter]. 

One  of  the  Nethinim,  who  founded  a  fam- 
ily, members  of  which  returned  from  the  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  ii.  53;  Neh.  vii.  55). 

Barley. 

A  cereal  grain,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
S'^orah,  the  hairy,  bristling  thing,  and  by  the 
Greeks  Krithal,  and  largely  cultivated  in 
Palestine  (Ruth  i.  22),  Egypt  "(Ex.  ix.  31),  and 
the  adjacent  regions,  and  made  into  cakes  or 
loaves  (Judg.  vii.  13;  John  vi.  9).  The  sev- 
eral barleys  belong  to  the  genus  Hordewm. 
They  are  cereal  grasses,  with  the  spikelets, 
which  are  in  threes,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rachis  or  flower  axis,  so  as  to  form  a  two- 
sided  spike.  Ten  species  are  known,  of  which 
Tristram  found  six  in  Palestine,  one  of  them, 
Hordeiiin  athaburen.se,  from  mount  Tabor,  being 
peculiar  to  the  Holy  Land.  That  now  culti- 
vated in  Palestine  is  chiefly  Honleum  dis- 
tichum,  which  has  only  the  central  floret  fer- 
tile, the  two  side  ones  being  abortive. 

Bar'na-bas  [son  of  prophecy,  especially  of 
prophesying  which  takes  the  form  of  ex- 
hortation or  consolation]. 

The  surname  of  Joses,  a  Levite  of  Cyprus, 
who.  early  converted  to  Christianity,  sold  his 
land  and  laid  the  price  at  the  feet  of  the 
apostles  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  iv.  36,  37).  When 
the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  were  afraid  to  re- 
ceive the  new  convert  Paul,  Barnabas  spoke 
in  his  behalf,  and  removed  their  apprehen- 
sions (ix.  27).  On  the  report  reaching  Jeru- 
salem that  Christians  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene 
had  been  proclaiming  the  gospel  with  great 
success  to  Greeks  as  well  as  to  Jews  at  Antioch 
of  Syria,  the  Church  sent  Barnabas  thither, 
and  he  aided  in  the  work  (xi.  19-24).  From 
Antioch  he  went  to  Tarsus  and  l)rought  back 
Saul  (xi.  22-26).  Later  the  two  were  dis- 
patched to  carry  alms  to  their  brethren  at 
Jerusalem,  then  suffering  from  famine  (27- 
30).  Returning  with  John  Mark  to  Antioch 
(xii.  25),  they  were  sent  forth  by  the  church 
on  a  mission  to  the  gentiles  (xiii.  2).  They 
visited  Cyprus,  and  went  thence  to  Perga, 


Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe.  At  Lystra  at  Paul's  command  a  crij)- 
ple  walked  ;  and  the  inhabitants  concluded 
that  Barnabas  was  their  sii|ireuic  god  Jupiter, 
and  that  Paul,  since  he  was  the  thiel  speaker, 
was  Mercury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods 
(xiii.  3-xiv.  28).  Having  returned  to  Syria, 
they  were  sent  by  the  church  of  Antioch  to 
the  council  of  Jerusalem.  Barnabas  spoke, 
as  did  Paul  (xv.  1,  2,  12).  At  the  close  the 
two  were  commissioned  to  carry  the  decrees 
of  the  council  to  the  churches  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  (22-31).  After  further  labors  at 
Antioch  (35),  Paul  proposed  a  second  mis- 
sionary journey.  Barnabas  desired  to  have 
with  him  his  relative,  John  Mark  (Col.  iv. 
10).  Paul  objected,  as  John  Mark  had  with- 
drawn from  the  work  on  the  former  tour. 
After  sharp  contention,  tlie  two  evangelists 
separated  and  went  difierent  ways.  Barnabas 
with  Mark  sailed  again  to  Cyprus,  while 
Paul  went  on  to  Asia  Minor  (.36-41).  But 
their  mutual  afiFection  did  not  cease.  Paul, 
in  his  epistles,  speaks  in  a  friendly  way  of 
Barnabas  (1  Cor.  ix.  6;  Gal.  ii.  1,  9,  13;  Col. 
iv.  10),  and  yet  more  so  of  John  Mark,  about 
whom  the  quarrel  arose  (2  Tim.  iv.  11). 

Bar-sab'bas,  in  A.  V.  Bar'sa-bas  [son  of 
Sabba  (V)]. 

1.  The  surname  of  the  Joseph  who  stood 
candidate  for  the  apostleship  against  Matthias 
(Acts  i.  23). 

2.  The  surname  of  the  Judas  who  was  sent 
to  Antioch  as  a  delegate  of  the  metropolitan 
church  with  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  Silas  (Acts 
XV.  22). 

Bar-thol'o-mew  [son  of  Tolmai]. 

One  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3 ;  Mark 
iii.  IS  ;  Luke  vi.  14  ;  Acts  i.  13).  As  in  the 
first  three  of  these  passages  the  name  of 
Bartholomew  immediately  follows  that  of 
Philij),  and  nearly  does  so  in  the  fourth, 
Bartlnjlomew  was  probably  the  surname  of 
Nathanael,  who  was  led  to  Christ  by  Philip 
(John  i.  45,  46). 

Bar-ti-mse'us  [son  of  Tiuuieus]. 

A  blind  man  healed  by  Jesus  at  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  46). 

Ba'ruch  [blessed]. 

1.  A  scribe,  member  of  the  family  of 
Neriah,  and  a  friend  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  26,  32;  cp.  Antiq.  x.  9,  1).  In  the 
fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  he  wrote  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  at  the  prophet's  dic- 
tation (xxxvi.  1-8).  In  the  following  year 
he  publicly  read  them  on  the  fast  day  (10). 
and  afterwards  before  the  princes,  who  took 
possession  of  the  roll  (14-20).  The  king,  on 
hearing  the  opening  sentences,  burnt  the 
roll  and  ordered  the  seizure  of  the  prophet 
and  the  scribe,  but  they  escaped  (21-26). 
Baruch  made  a  new  copy  with  additions 
(xxxvi.  27-32).  In  the  tenth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah,  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  Jere- 
miah bought  a  field  at  Analboth  from  his 
uncle   and,   being   at    tlie    time   a   prisoner, 


Barzillai 


77 


Basket 


jihiced  the  deed  in  the  charge  of  Baruch  and 
testified  that  the  land  should  again  be  pos- 
sessed by  Israel  (xxxii.  (j-KJ,  43,  44).  Baruch 
was  taken  with  Jeremiah  to  Egypt  ( Jer.  xliii. 
1-7).  For  the  book  bearing  the  name  of 
Baruch,  see  Apocrypha. 

2.  Son  of  Zabbai.  He  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  20).  He  is  per- 
haps tiie  person  of  that  name  who  sealed  the 
covenant  (x.  6). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  of  the  Shilonite  fam- 
ily (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Bar-zil'la-i  [made  of  iron]. 

1.  A  wealthy  Gileadite  of  Rogelim,  east  of 
the  Jordan.  He  showed  David  ])rincely  hos- 
pitality, sending  him  and  his  army  food  and 
other  necessaries  while  the  fugitive  king  was 
at  Mahanaim  during  Absalom's  rebellion  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  27-29).  After  the  victory,  Barzil- 
lai escorted  David  over  the  Jordan,  and  was 
invited  to  become  a  member  of  the  king's 
household  and  court  at  Jerusalem,  but  he 
excused  himself  on  account  of  his  great  age 
— eighty  years.  It  was  therefore  arranged 
that  his  son  Chimham  should  go  in  his  stead 
(xix.  31-40). 

2.  A  Meholathite,  whose  son  Adriel  mar- 
ried Saul's  daughter  Michal  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8). 

3.  A  priest  who  married  a  daughter  of  Bar- 
zillai the  Gileadite,  and  assumed  his  father- 
in-law's  name  (Ezra  ii.  61 ;  Neh.  vii.  63). 

Bas'ca-ma. 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan  near  which 
Jonathan  Maccabfeus  was  put  to  death,  and 
where  for  a  time  he  was  buried  (1  Mac.  xiii. 
23 ;  and  Antiq.  xiii.  6,  6,  where  it  is  called 
Basca). 

Bas'e-math,  in  A.  V.  Bashemath,  once 
Basmath  (1  Kin.  iv.  15)  [fragrance]. 

1.  <^ne  of  Esau's  wives,  daughter  of  Elon 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxvi.  34) ;  in  xxxvi.  2  called 
Adah.     See  Adah. 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  a  daughter  of  Ish- 
mael  and  sister  of  Nebaioth  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3, 
4,  13,  17)  ;  in  xxviii.  9  called  Mahalath. 

3.  A  daughter  of  Solomon  and  wife  of  his 
tax  collector  for  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15). 

Ba'shan  [bi-oad,  open  land]. 

A  region  east  of  the  Jordan.  Its  location 
and  extent  in  O.  T.  times  is  best  learned  from 
its  cities.  Within  its  bounds  were  Golan, 
north  of  the  Yarmuk  (Deut.  iv.  43),  Edrei  and 
Ashtaroth  (Deut.  i.  4),  Salecah  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  Jebel  Hauran  (Deut.  iii.  10; 
Josh.  xiii.  11,  both  E.  V.).  That  is  to  say,  it 
extended  southeastwardly  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  upper  Jordan  to  the  border  of 
the  Arabian  desert  south  of  the  Hauran 
mountain.  It  marched  on  the  north  with 
Geshur  and  Maacah  (Josh.  xii.  5  ;  see  Aram), 
and  contained  '"the  region  of  the  Argob," 
famous  for  sixty  cities  high-walled  (Deut.  iii. 
4,  5 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  So  large  a  number  is 
not  incredible.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  country  there  are  still  at  least  one  hun- 
dred  deserted  cities  and   villages,   many  of 


them  built  of  basalt  and  with  basaltic  doors 
(Porter,  Cities  of  Bashan).  Josephus  identifies 
Bashan  with  Gaulonitis  and  Batanea  (Antiq. 
iv.  5,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13 ;  and  ix.  8,  1  with 
2  Kin.  X.  33).  In  the  days  of  Abraham  it 
was  occupied  by  a  people  of  especially  large 
and  powerful  build,  known  as  Rephairii  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  The  last  king  of  this  race  was  Og,  who 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Edrei  by  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxi.  33-35; 
Deut.  iii.  1-7).  Bashan  was  assigned  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  13).  It  is  a 
broad,  fertile  plateau,  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  well  adapted  for  pasture.  It  was  celebrated 
for  its  cattle  (Ps.  xxii.  12;  Ezek.  xxxix.  18; 
Amos  iv.  1),  and  for  its  breed  of  sheep  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14).  It  was  celebrated  also  for  its  oak 
trees  (Is.  ii.  13  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  6  ;  Zech.  xi.  2). 
Forests  of  evergreen  oak  still  survive. 

Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir ;  rightly  separated 
by  R.  v.,  which  renders  "  he  called  them, 
even  Bashan,  after  his  own  name,  Havvoth- 
jair"  (Deut.  iii.  14).     See  Havvoth-jair. 

Bash'e-math.     See  Basemath. 

Bas'i-lisk. 

The  rendering  of  the  R.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Sepha'  and  Siph'oni,  a  venomous  serpent  living 
in  a  hole  (Is.  xi.  8).  It  deposits  eggs,  from 
which  its  young  are  hatched  (lix.  5).  It  is 
insensible  to  the  charmer's  arts  (Jer.  viii.  17). 
The  marginal  rendering  is  adder,  except  in 
Prov.  xxiii.  32.  where  adder  is  used  in  the 
text.  Except  in  the  last  case,  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lates the  word  by  cockatrice. 

Ba'sin,  formerly  spelled  Bason. 

A  portable  vessel  for  holding  water  for 
washing  and  other  purposes  (John  xiii.  5). 

In  the  English  version  the  word  is  used 
for  bowls  and  dishes  of  various  kinds,  espe- 
cially for — 

1.  A  small  vessel,  in  Hebrew  'Aggan  (Is. 
xxii.  24,  rendered  cup),  used  for  wine  (Song 
vii.  2,  rendered  goblet)  and  other  liquids  (Ex. 
xxiv.  6). 

2.  A  shallow  vessel,  in  Hebrew  Saph,  used 
for  domestic  jiurposes  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28)  and  to 
receive  the  blood  of  sacrifices  (Ex.  xii.  22). 
They  were  employed  in  the  temple  (Jer.  Iii. 
19.  R.  V.  cups;  2  Kin.  xii.  13,  A.  V.  bowl,  R. 
V.  cup). 

3.  A  large  bowl,  in  Hebrew  Mizrak,  used  in 
the  tabernacle  and  temple,  especially  in  min- 
istrations at  the  great  altar  (Num.  iv.  14),  to 
hold  the  meal  ofl'ering  (Num.  vii.  13.  rendered 
bowl),  and  to  receive  the  blood  of  sacrifices 
(Zech.  ix.  15  with  xiv.  20,  rendered  bowl). 
It  was  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  and 
burnished  (Ex.  xxvii.  3 ;  Num.  vii.  84,  ren- 
dered bowl  :  1  Kin.  vii.  45,  50).  Revelers 
sometimes  drank  wine  from  such  vessels 
(Amos  vi.  6,  rendered  bowl). 

Bas'ket. 

Baskets  of  different  sizes,  shapes,  and  con- 
struction were  in  use,  and  various  names 
were  employed  for  them.  As  ancient  sculp- 
tures and  relics  show,  and  as  the  etymology 


Basmath 


78 


Bay  Tree 


denotes,  tliey  were  woven  open  or  close,  were 
made  of  the  fiber  or  leaves  of  the  palm  tree 
or  of  rushes,  reeds,  twigs,  or  ropes,  tapered  at 
the  top  or  at  the  bottom,  were  shallow  or  deep, 
ornamented  with  colors  or  ])hiin,  small  enough 
to  be  carried  in  the  hand,  or  so  large  that 
they  were  carried  on  the  shoulder  or  head  or 
borne  on  a  pole  between  two  men.  They  were 
employed  for  carrying  fruit  (Deut.  xxvi.  2; 
Jer.  VI.  tt ;  xxiv.  2  ;  Amos  viii.  2,  where  in 
each  passage  a  different  Hebrew  word  is 
used)  ;  for  carrying  bread,  cakes,  and  liesh 
(Gen.  xl.  17;  Ex.  xxix.  2,  3;  Lev.  viii.  2; 
Judg.  vi.  19  ;  Mark  viii.  19,  20,  where  still 
another  Hebrew  and  two  Greek  names  occur) ; 
for  carrying  clay  to  the  brickyard  and  earth 
for  the  building  of  embankments  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
6,  R.  V. ;  see  illustration  under  Egypt). 

Bas'math.     See  Basemath. 

Bat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  '"tal- 
leph.  It  was  classed  with  fowls,  and  was 
ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13,  19;  Deut. 
xiv.  11,  12,  18).  It  hides  itself  from  observa- 
tion in  dark  places  (Is.  ii.  20).  The  reference 
is  pretty  clearly  to  the  bat  order,  of  which 
Tristram  enumerates  seventeen  species  as  oc- 
curring in  Palestine.  The  bat  is  not  a  bird, 
but  is  a  quadruped,  covered  with  hair  instead 
of  feathers,  having  teeth  instead  of  a  bill,  and 
suckling  its  young  instead  of  laying  eggs. 
Nor  is  its  "wing"  a  flying  ai)paratus  of  the 
bird  type;  it  is  an  unlVatlu-icd  membrane 
connecting  the  fore  and  hind  legs. 

Bath. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity  used  for 
measuring  liquids  (1  Kin.  vii.  26, 38  ;  2  Chron. 
ii.  10;  iv.  5;  Ezra  vii.  22).  It  was  the  tenth 
part  of  an  homer,  and  corresponds  to  the  dry 
measure  ephah  in  capacity  (Ezek.  xlv.  10, 
11,  14). 

Batli'ing. 

In  the  warm  climate  of  the  East  frequent 
bathing  is  a  necessity.  The  daughter  of 
Pharaoh  bathed  in  the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  5).  The 
Egyptians  wore  linen  garments,  constantly 
fresh-washed,  and  their  priests  washed  them- 
selves in  cold  water  twice  every  day  and  twice 
every  night  (Herod,  ii.  37).  Egyptians.  He- 
brews, and  Syrians  washed  the  dust  of  the 
road  from  their  feet  when  they  tarried  at  a 
house  (Gen.  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  2  ;  xxiv.  32  ;  xliii. 
24;  John  xiii.  10).  If  the  Israelites  con- 
tracted ceremonial  defilement,  they  bathed 
the  body  and  washed  the  raiment  (Lev.  xiv. 
8 ;  XV.  5  ;  xvii.  15 ;  Num.  xix.  7,  8),  either  in 
running  water  (Lev.  xv.  13),  at  a  fountain 
(Judith  xii.  7,  9 ;  cp.  John  ix.  7),  in  a  river  (2 
Kin.  v.  10),  or  at  home  in  court  or  garden 
(2  Sam.  xi.  2,  4  ;  cp.  Susanna  1  o).  They  washed 
and  anointed  themselves  and  put  on  their  best 
garments  for  gala  and  court  attire  and  on 
putting  away  mourning  (Ex.  xl.  12,  13  ;  Ruth 
iii.  3 ;  2  Sam.  xii.  20 ;  Judith  x.  3 ;  Mat.  vi. 
17).  The  priests  washed  their  hands  and 
feet  before  entering  the  sanctuary  or  burning 


an  oflering  on  the  altar  (Ex.  xxx.  19-21).  The 
high  priest  bathed  at  his  inauguration  and 
on  the  day  of  atonement  before  each  act  of 
propitiation  (Lev.  viii.  6;  xvi.  4,  24).  In  the 
time  of  Christ,  the  Jews  washed  their  hands 
before  eating,  and  washed  or  sprinkled  them- 
selves on  coming  from  the  market  (Mark  vii. 
3, 4) .  At  this  time  also,  when  Greek  and  Roman 
customs  had  gained  entrance  among  the  Jews, 
there  were  public  baths.  The  warm  springs 
at  Tiberias,  Gadara,  and  Callirrhoe,  near  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  were  resorted 
to  for  health  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  .5;  xviii.  2,  3). 
The  fish  ponds  connected  with  the  palace  at 
Jericho  were  used  f(»r  bathing  and  swimming 
(Antiq.  XV.  3,  3). 

Bath-rab'bim  [daughter  of  many  people]. 

One  of  the  gates  of  Heshbon  (Song  vii.  4). 

Bath-she'ba  [daughter  of  an  oathl. 

Daughter  of  Eliam,  and  wife  of  Uriah  the 
Hittite  ;  thus  perhaps  the  daughter  of  one, 
as  she  was  the  wife  of  another,  of  David's 
mighty  men.  She  is  the  woman  with  whom 
David  so  shamefully  sinned,  and  who,  after 
the  removal  of  her  husband,  became  the  wife 
of  David  and  mother  of  Solomon  (2  Sam.  xi. 
3,  4;  xii.  24  ;  1  Kin.  i.  11).  When  Adonijah 
was  preparing  to  usurp  the  kingdom,  Bath- 
sheba,  supported  by  the  prophet  Nathan,  ap- 
pealed to  David  in  favor  of  her  own  son  Solo- 
mon, the  result  being  that  Adonijah's  enter- 
prise was  thwarted  (1  Kin.  i.  11-53),  and  him- 
self ultimately  put  to  death  lii.  13-25). 

Bath'-shu-a  [daughter  of  riches  or  salva- 
tion]. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Shua  (as  the  name  is 
rendered  in  A.  V.)  and  wife  of  Judah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  3 ;  see  Gen.  xxxviii.  2, 12,  both  R.V.j. 

2.  The  text  of  1  Chron.  iii.  5  refers  to  the 
mother  of  Solomon  as  Bath-shua,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Animiel.  Bath-shua  is  probably  merely 
a  misreading  of  Bath-sheba,  due  to  a  par- 
tial effacement  of  the  Hebrew  letter  beth.  The 
Septuagint  has  here  the  usual  form  for  Bath- 
sheba. 

Bav'vai,  in  A.  Y.  Ba'vai. 

A  son  of  Henadad.  who  superintended  the 
repair  of  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  lf<). 

Ba'yith,  in  A.  V.  Bajith  [the  house].  The 
Hebrew  text  has  the  definite  article. 

A  Moabite  town  or  temple  (Is.  xv.  2). 

Bay  Tree. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ezrah  in  Ps.  xxxvii.  35.  The  plant  referred 
to  by  the  translators  is  Ldiirns  nobllis,  a  tree 
thirty,  forty,  or  more  feet  high,  with  lance- 
shaped  evergreen  aromatic  leaves,  inconspic- 
uous flowers,  and  cherry-like  fruits.  Tristram 
met  with  it  on  Carmel,  Tabor,  and  in  Gilead. 
The  R.  V.  renders  ' Eznih  "a  green  tree  in  its 
native  soil,"  which,  of  course,  tends  to  flourish 
better  than  a  transplanted  and,  perhai)S,  a 
sickly  exotic.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is 
used  in  I.,ev.  xvi.  29;  xviii.  2(i,  for  a  native 


Bazlith 


79 


Becher 


as  distinguished  from  a  man  from  another 
country. 

Baz'lith  or  Baz'luth  [nakedness].  Either 
form  is  in  itself  li'gitimate. 

One  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
family,  members  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  52;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Bdell'ium. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  B'dolah,  a 
substance  of  the  same  color  as  manna  (Num. 
xi.  7),  and  found  like  gold  and  the  onyx  stone 
or  the  beryl  in  the  land  of  Havilah  (Gen.  ii. 
12).  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  bdellion  to  a 
transparent,  waxy,  fragrant  gum  obtained 
from  a  tree  in  Arabia,  Babylonia,  India,  and 
Media.  The  best  came  from  Bactria.  As 
gold,  the  onyx,  and  the  beryl,  belong  to  the 
mineral  kingdom,  hHlohih  may  perhaps  also. 
The  Septuagint  translates  it  in  Gen.  ii.  12 
anthrax,  the  carbuncle,  ruby,  and  garnet ; 
and  in  Num.  xi.  7,  IcrnslaUos,  rock  crystal. 

Be-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  is  Lord]. 
A  Benjamite  warrior  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 
Be'a-loth  [literally  mistresses,  possessors]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  locality  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher,  perhaps  known  by  this  name  (1  Kin. 
iv.  16,  K.  v.).     See  Aloth. 

Bean. 

Beans  were  used  for  food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28), 
and  occasionally,  especially  during  famine, 
were  mixed  with  grain  and  made  into  a 
coarse  bread  (,Ezek.  iv.  9).  The  common 
bean,  Vicia  faba,  is  still  known  in  Palestine 
by  the  O.  T.  name  for  bean. 

Bear. 

The  Syrian  bear  [Ursiis  syriacus)  is  of  a 
yellowish-brown  color,  and,  unless  pressed  by 
necessity,  lives  chiefly  on  vegetable  food.  But 
all  bears  are  dangerous  when  meddled  with 
(Is.  xi.  7 ;  Amos  v.  19),  especially  when  robbed 
of  their  whelps  (2  Sam.  xvii.  8  ;  Prov.  xvii. 
12;  Hosea  xiii.  8).  Though  now  almost  con- 
fined to  Lebanon,  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan, 
and  Hermon,  Gilead,  and  Bashau,  on  the  east 
of  the  river,  it  anciently  roamed  over  the 
land  (cp.  Prov.  xxviii.  15).  David  killed  one 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
34),  and  near  Bethel  two  she  bears,  which 
came  out  of  the  woods,  tore  in  i)ieces  forty- 
two  young  persons  who  mocked  Elisha  (2 
Kin.  "ii.  24). 

The  bear  of  Dan.  vii.  5,  commissioned  to 
devour  much  flesh,  was  the  Medo-Persian 
empire,  one  of  four  successive  empires  of  the 
world.  The  four  beasts  of  Daniel  are  com- 
bined in  one  beast  in  Rev.  xiii.  2,  to  symbol- 
ize all  the  power  of  the  world.  The  feet  are 
bear's  feet. 

For  the  constellation  Bear,  see  under 
Arcturus. 

Beard. 

The  beard  was  cherished  as  the  badge  of 


manly  dignity.  Its  neglect  was  an  outward 
sign  of  mental  aberration  (1  Sam.  xxi.  13)  or 
of  aiHiction  (2  Sam.  xix.  24).  As  a  mark  of 
mourning  it  was  customary  to  pluck  it  out 
or  cut  it  otr  (Ezra  ix.  3 ;  Is.  xv.  2  ;  Jer.  xH. 
5;  Herod,  ii.  30).  The  king  of  the  Ammon- 
ites grievously  insulted  David's  ambassadors 
when,  among  other  acts,  he  shaved  off'  one 
half  of  their  beards  (2  Sam.  x.  4,  5 ;  cp. 
Herod,  ii.  121,  4).  The  ancient  Egyptians 
shaved  the  head  and  the  face,  but  often  wore 
a  false  beard.  They  let  the  hair  and  beard 
grow  as  a  sign  of  mourning  (Herod,  ii.  oii). 
Hence  Joseph,  when  released  from  prison, 
shaved  the  beard  in  order  to  appear  before 
Pharaoh  (Gen.  xli.  14).  The  practice  of  shav- 
ing oft'  the  corners  of  the  beard  (Lev.  xix.  27 ; 
Jer.  ix.  26:  xxv.  23,  both  R.  V.)  was  probably 
a  heathenish  sign,  as  the  Arabs  shaved  the 
side  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and  the  eye 
in  honor  of  their  god  Orotal  (Herod,  iii.  8). 

Beast. 

1.  A  mammal,  not  man,  as  distinguished 
from  a  fowl  of  the  air  and  a  creeping  thing 
(Gen.  i.  29,  30).  The  wild  beasts  are  distin- 
guished from  domesticated  animals  (Lev. 
xxvi.  22 ;  Is.  xiii.  21,  22 ;  xxxiv.  14 ;  Jer.  1. 
39;  Mark  i.  13). 

2.  Any  of  the  inferior  animals,  including 
reptiles  and  birds,  as  distinguished  from  man 
(Ps.  cxlvii.  9;  Ecc.  iii.  19  ;  Acts,  xxviii.  5).  In 
this  sense  there  was  a  distinction  drawn  un- 
der the  Mosaic  law  between  ceremonially 
clean  and  unclean  beasts. 

3.  Figuratively,  a  fierce  destructive  power. 
Four  successive  empires,  beginning  with  the 
Babylonian,  are  thus  symbolized  in  Dan.  vii. 
The  four  beasts,  combined  into  a  composite 
monster,  represent  the  power  of  the  world  in 
Rev.  xiii.  1-10,  witli  its  seat  transferred  from 
Babylon  to  Rome,  xvii.  3-18.  A  beast  with 
lamb's  horns  represents  false  prophecy  (xiii. 
11-18),  which  is  a  ravening  wolf  in  sheep's 
clothing.  The  beasts  of  Rev.  iv.  6-9  of  the 
A.  V.  are  very  properly  altered  to  "living 
creatures"  in  the  R.  V. 

Be'bai. 

The  founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whose 
members  returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  11 ;  viii.  11 ;  Neh.  vii.  16). 

Be'clier  [young  camel]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi.  21;  1 
Chron.  vii.  6).  His  descendants  were  ap- 
parently too  few  at  the  beginning  to  form  a 
tribal  family,  at  least  they  found  no  place  in 
the  registry  of  families  (Num.  xxvi.  38;  1 
Chron.  viii.  1-6),  but  they  ultimately  in- 
creased to  nine  fathers'  houses,  inhabiting 
Anathoth  and  other  towns  in  the  territory 
of  Benjamin  and  mustering  20,200  men  (1 
Chron.  vii.  8,  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  35  ;  reference  to  Becher 
lacking  in  the  Septuagint).  He  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  scms  of  Ephraim  in  1  Chron. 
vii.  20-27.     Perhaps  the  children  of  Becher 


Becorath 


80 


Beer-elim 


the  Benjamite  werj  not  so  few  in  numbers 
during  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  as  has  been  sup- 
posed, but  were  principally  identified  with 
Ki>liraim,  j)erchance  through  a  marriage  of 
Beeher  with  Sheerah,  and  hence  their  family 
as  a  whole,  but  not  all  the  fathers'  Louses, 
were  enrolled  with  Ephraim. 

Be-co'ratli,  in  A.  V.  Be-clio'ratll  [primo- 
geniture]. 

A  Benjamite.  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1 
Sam.  ix.  1). 

The  identification  of  Becorath  with  Beeher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  6)  is  groundless.  Becorath  was 
son  of  Aphiah,  the  son  of  a  Benjamite,  where- 
as Beeher  was  the  sou  of  Benjamin  himself. 

Bed. 

An  article  of  domestic  furniture  to  sleep 
upon.  The  poor  and  travelers  often  slept  on 
the  ground,  using  their  upper  garment  as  a 
covering  (Gen.  xxviii.  11 ;  Ex.  xxii.  2(3).  A 
bed  might  be  no  more  than  a  rug  or  mat, 
easily  bundled  up  and  carried  away  (Mat.  ix. 
(>)•  But  beds  raised  from  the  ground  were 
early  in  existence  (2  Kin.  i.  4,  6  ;  iv.  10),  with 
bedsteads  of  wood,  or  of  iron  (Deut.  iii.  11), 
or  among  the  wealthy  of  ivory  (Amos  vi.  4), 
with  silken  cushions  (Amos  iii.  12,  R.  V.) 
and  rich  coverings  (Prov.  vii.  Hi ;  Judith 
X.  21). 

Be'dad  [separation]. 

The  father  of  Hadad,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  35;  1  C'hron.  i.  46). 

Be'dan. 

Apparently  a  Hebrew  judge,  ruling  be- 
tween Gideon  and  Jephthah,  and  distin- 
guished enough  to  rank  with  them  and  with 
Samuel  (1  Sara.  xii.  11).  No  such  personage 
is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Judges.  Four 
theories  have  been  proposed  in  explanation. 
1.  Bedan  ruled  Israel,  though  no  record  of 
his  administration  is  found  in  the  Book  of 
Judges.  2.  Bedan  means  in  Dan,  or  is  a  con- 
traction of  Ben-Dan.  son  of  Dan,  and  is  equiv- 
alent to  Samson.  Better  is  '3.  Bedan  is  the 
judge  Jair  ;  for  a  person  called  Bedan  is  reg- 
istered in  1  Chron.  vii.  14-17  as  a  descend- 
ant of  Gilead,  the  son  of  Machir,  the  son  of 
Manasseh  ;  and  Jair  the  judge  was  a  (xileadite, 
and  belonged  to  the  villages  named  from  Jair, 
a  (lesccudaut  of  .Machir  (1  t'hrou.  ii.  21,  22). 
Hedaii's  desci^nt  from  Manasseh  difl'ered  from 
that  of  Jair  who  captured  and  named  tlie 
villages;  but  this  fact  does  not  in-event  Be- 
dan from  representing  the  descendants  and 
the  district  of  .lair  the  conqueror,  and  being 
officially  called  Jair.  Best  is  4.  Bedan  is  an 
early  misreading  for  either  Abdon  (Judg.  xii. 
11})  or  for  Barak,  which  is  found  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions  ((;p.  Ueb. 
xi.  32). 

Be-de'iah. 

A  son  of  Bani,  who  was  induced  by  E/ra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  .35). 
Bee. 
An  insect  which  makes  houev  (Judg.  xiv. 


8,  18).  It  is  compared  to  an  army  (Is.  vii. 
18)  cliasing  man  (Deut.  i.  44),  or  surrounding 
him  (Ps.  cxviii.  12).  As  Canaan  was  a  land 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  8  ;  cp. 
Gen.  xliii.  11  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17),  bees  must 
have  been  there  in  large  numbers.  'I'heir 
nests  were  in  rocks  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  l(i)  and  in 
woods  (1  Sam.  xiv.  25),  especially  in  Judaii 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  17;  cp.  Mat.  iii.  4). 

Be-e-li'a-da  [the  Lord  hath  known,  i.  e. 
kindly  reganled]. 

A  son  of  king  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xiv.  7).  During  his  lifetime  he  may 
have  been  called  by  the  alternate  name 
Eliada.  (lod  hath  known  ;  at  any  rate,  when 
the  word  Baal  became  distasteful  on  account 
of  idolatrous  associations,  the  Hebrew  his- 
torians were  apt  to  write  Ehada  instead  of 
Bceliada  (2  Sam.  v.  KJ ;  1  Chron.  iii.  8). 

Be-el'ze-lDub. 

The  prince  of  the  demons  (Mat.  x.  25  :  xii. 
24 ;  Mark  iii.  22 ;  Luke  xi.  15,  18,  19),  whom 
Jesus  identifies  with  Satan  (Mat.  xii.  2(5 ; 
Mark  iii.  23:  Luke  xi.  18).  The  spelling 
Beelzebub  diflers  but  slightly  from  Baalzc- 
bub,  god  of  Ekron.  The  Greek  text,  how- 
ever, has  Beelzebul.  The  common  explana- 
tion is  that,  with  the  view  of  insulting  the 
Ekronite  god  and  his  worshiiiers,  the  Jews 
wished  to  make  z'lmh.  fiy.  into  xihhiil  or  :jrhr}. 
dung.  But  as  in  Hebrew  z'hnl  means  habita- 
tion, Baalzebul  may  signify  lord  of  the  habi- 
tation, and  the  notion  of  insult  falls  to  the 
ground.  Jesus  i)layed  upon  this  meaning  of 
the  name  in  Mat.  x.  25.  The  notion  of  insult 
also  falls  on  the  plausible  supposition  iliat 
Beelzebul  was  merely  a  Greek  modificaiuin 
of  Beelzebub,  adopted  because  the  pronunciu- 
tion  was  for  the  Greeks  easier  to  the  tongue 
and  more  pleasant  to  the  ear. 

Be'er  [a  wellj. 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  con- 
fines of  Moab,  at  which  li  well  was  dug  by 
the  leaders  of  Israel  with  their  staves^or  un- 
der their  othcial  supervision  (Num.  xxi.  10- 
18)  ;  ])ossibly  the  same  as  Beer-elim. 

2.  A  place  to  which  Jotluim  tied  from  his 
brother  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  21).  Situa- 
tion unknown.  Eusebius  discriminates  it  trom 
Beeroth  in  Benjamin,  and  locates  it  eight 
Eomau  miles  to  the  north  of  Eleutluroiiolis, 
i.  e.  Beit  Jibrin,  in  the  maritime  plain.  IJut 
Josepluis  says  that  Jotliaui  lied  to  the  moun- 
tains (Antiq.  V.  7,  2). 

Be-e'ra  [a  well]. 

An  Asherite,  familv  of  Heber  (1  Cliron 
vii.  37). 

Be-e'rah  [a  well]. 

A  iirince  of  the  Keubenites,  who  was  car- 
ried captive  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  As- 
syriii  1 1  Chron.  v.  G). 

Be'er-e'lim  [well  of  heroes  or  of  trees]. 
A  villaire  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  S)  ;   jtossibly  the 
same  as  r>r;F,ii  1. 


Beeri 


81 


Beer-sheba 


Be-e'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  father  of  Judith,  one  of  Esau's 
wives  (Oen.  xxvi.  S4).     S(><>  Anah. 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i.  1). 
Be'er-la-hai'-roi   [the  well  of  the  Living 

One  who  seetli  me'. 

The  name  iriven  by  Ha<rar  to  a  well  in  the 
desert  between   Kadesh  and   Rered,  pointed 


ence  of  the  word  seven  iu  the  name  was  a 
constant  reminder  that  a  covenant  had  been 
sworn  to. 

A  well  dng  by  Abraham  in  the  wilderness 
adjacent  to  the  Philistine  country,  and  where 
he  and  the  king  of  Ocrar  mnde  a  covenant 
not  to  molest  each  other.  This  well  I'pd 
already  been  an  object  of  strife  between  their 


'Ain  Muweileh,  the  traditional  Beer-lahai-roi. 


out  to  her  by  an  angel  when  she  and  her  son 
Ishmael  were  in  danger  of  perishing  from 
thirst  (Gen.  xvi.  10-15;  xxiv.  62;  xxv.  11). 
The  Bedouin  connect  'Ain  Muweileh,  at  the 
eastern  foot  of  Jebel  Muweileh,  a  lew  miles 
west  of  Kadesh,  on  the  caravan  route  to 
Egypt,  with  Hagar.  (See  illustration,  p.  75.) 
Be-e'roth  [wells]. 

1.  A  Gibeunite  town  (Josh.  ix.  17),  after- 
wards assigned  to  the  Benjamites  (xviii.  25 ; 
2  Sam.  iv.  2).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  25;  Neh.  vii.  29). 
It  still  exists  in  the  village  el-Bireh,  a  little 
more  than  8  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  way  to  Bethel.  It  is  built  on  a  ridge 
running  west  to  east,  and  is  seen  from  a  dis- 
tance toward  both  the  north  and  south. 
Many  large  stones  and  various  substructions 
testify  to  the  antiquity  of  the  site. 

2.  Beeroth  of  the  children  of  Jaakan  ;  wells 
on  the  borders  of  Edom,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Jaakan,  by  which  the  Israelites  encamped 
on  their  way  to  Canaan  (Deut.  x.  (J).  See 
Jaakan. 

Be-e'roth-ite,  once  BerotMte. 
A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Beeroth  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2  :  xxiii.  ?,7  :  1  C'hron.  xi.  SO). 

Be'er-she'ba   [well  of  seven].     The  pres- 
6 


respective  herdsmen.  Accordingly  Abraham 
gave  Abimelech  seven  ewe  lambs  as  a  witness 
of  the  Hebrew  title,  and  to  further  preserve 
the  memory  of  the  transaction,  called  the 
well  Beer-sheba  (Gen.  xxi.  22-32).  He  also 
planted  there  a  tamarisk  tree,  and  called  on 
the  name  of  Jehovah,  tlie  everlasting  God  (33, 
R.  v.).  Abraham  resided  for  many  years  at 
this  place.  Then  he  went  to  Hebron,  and  after- 
wards sojourned  at  Beer-lahai-roi.  During 
the  absence  of  the  Hebrews  from  this  part 
of  the  wilderness,  the  Philistines  filled  up 
the  wells ;  but  when  Isaac  came  into  au- 
thority he  returned  to  this  district  and  be- 
gan to  reopen  them.  While  at  Beer-sheba, 
engaged  in  clearing  out  that  well  also,  the 
king  of  Gerar  came  and  made  a  covenant 
witli  him.  as  he  or  his  predecessor  had  done 
with  Abraham.  The  Philistine  and  Ids  com- 
panions had  scarcely  departed,  when  Isaac's 
servants  announced  that  they  had  reached 
water.  As  in  former  like  cases,  Isaac  piously 
revived  the  old  name,  calling  the  well  Shibah, 
the  feminine  form  of  the  numeral  sheba', 
thus  confirming  and  preserving  the  name 
Beer-sheba  (xxvi.  32,  33,  R.  V.).  It  was  from 
this  well  that  Jacob  started  on  his  journey  to 
Harau  (xxviii.  10),  and  there  he  sacrificed  ou 
his  way  to  Egypt  (xlvi.  1-5).     A  town  ulti- 


Be-eshterah 


82 


Bel 


niately  rose  in  the  vicMiiitv  of  the  well  i  Josh. 
XV.  28).  It  was  situated  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (.Josh.  xv.  28  :  2  Sam.  xsiv. 
7;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  8),  though  allotted  to  the 
Simeoaites  (Josh.  xix.  1.2;  lChron.iv.2s  ,  and 
was  also  the  southern  limit  of  Palestine,  so 
that  the  expression  became  proverbial.  "  from 
Dan  to  Beer-sheba,"  i.  e.  from  the  extreme 
north  to  the  extreme  south  of  the  Holy  l^and 
(Judg.  XX.  1  et  pas.).  Samuel's  sons  were 
judges  in  Beer-sheba  (1  Sam.  viii.  2).  Elijah 
pa.ssed  through  it  on  his  way  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  :5).     It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 


which  it  moves  like  a  cedar.  It  is  am- 
phibious, sometimes  feeding  with  other  quad- 
rupeds upon  the  mountains,  and  sometimes 
lying  in  fens,  among  reeds,  or  under  willows 
or  apparently  in  flooded  rivers  (Job.  xl.  15-24  ; 
K.  V.  margin  "  hippopotanuis  ").  It  is  prob- 
ably the  hipi)opotamus  of  the  Nile  (Hippo- 
puianm.i  aiiiph'tbhis).  This  has  an  unwieldy 
body  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  a  large 
clumsy  head,  short  stout  legs,  with  four  feet 
bearing  toes.  The  gape  of  its  mouth  is  enor- 
mous and  the  tusks  of  formidable  size.  It 
feeds  on  greeu  corn,  grass,  and  young  shrubs. 


(Neh.  xi.  27,  30).  Edward  Robinson  found 
two  deep  wells,  still  called  Bir  es-Seba'.  on 
the  northern  side  of  a  wide  watercourse  or 
bed  of  a  torrent,  wady  es-Seba'.  And  several 
otliers  have  since  been  discovered.  The  larger 
of  the  wells  described  by  Robinson  was  found 
to  be  12^^  feet  in  diameter  and  44i  deep,  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  16  feet  at  the  lower 
part  being  cut  through  solid  rock. 

Be-esh'te-rah  [house  or  temple  of  Astarte]. 

The  same  ])lace  as  Ashtaroth  (cp.  Josh.  xxi. 
27  with  1  Chron.  vi.  71).  This  contraction 
of  Beth-ashterah  is  like  that  of  Beth-shan  to 
Beisan. 

Bee'tle.     See  Cricket. 

Be'he-motll  [probably  derived  from  Egyp- 
tian p-ehe-inaii,  water  ox,  and  modified  by  the 
Hebrews  into  ¥heniofh,  a  plural  of  excellence 
denoting  an  animal  which  i)ossesses  in  a  high 
degree  the  attributes  of  h'hemah.  a  beast]. 

A  large  animal  described  by  Job.  It  eats 
grass  like  an  ox.  Its  liody  is  thick  and  mas- 
sive, with  bones  like  bars  of  iron,  and  a  tail 


In  ancient  times  it  descended  the  Nile  ;  but  it 
was  hunted  for  its  valuable  skin,  teeth,  and 
flesh,  and  it  was  also  taken  in  considerable 
numbers  to  Rome  for  exhibition  in  the  circus. 
Now,  therefore,  these  animals  are  extinct  in 
Egypt,  though  found  on  the  Upper  Nile. 

Be'ka,  in  A.  V.  Be'kah  [division,  half]. 

Haifa  shekel  (Ex.  xxxviii.  2(J).  The  value 
was  about  l(i.8  pence  or  33  cents.  It  was  used 
for  weighing  the  precious  metals  ((ien.  xxiv. 
22).     See  Weights. 

Bel  [lord]. 

Title  of  the  patron  gt)d  of  Baljylon  (Is. 
xlvi.  1;  Jer.  1.  2;  li.  44  ;  Bel  and  Dragon  3- 
22;  Herod,  i.  LSI),  whose  iir<ii)er  name  was 
Marduk  or,  as  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews, 
Merodach.  He  was  a  sun-god.  the  sun  of 
early  day  and  of  spring  ;  and  he  was  re- 
gurded  as  the  son  of  Ea,  god  of  the  ocean 
and  other  terrestrial  waters.  His  festival  was 
celebrated  in  the  sjiring.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year.  Because  the  sun  in  this  asi)ect  ex- 
erts such  potent  influence  in  nature,  and  be- 


Bela 


83 


Belshazzar 


cause  he  was  their  tiitehiiy  divinity,  the  men 
of  Babylon  paid  him  suinenie  worship  and  as- 
cribed "to  liim  the  loftiest  attributes.  He  was 
not  originally  numbered  among  the  chief 
gods  by  the  jieople  on  the  lower  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  but  grew  in  importance  with  the 
increasing  power  and  renown  of  the  city  of 
Babylon. 

Aiiother  Bel,  god  of  the  region  between 
earth  and  sky.  and  grouped  in  a  triad  with 
Anu,  heaven,  and  Ea,  was  one  of  the  eleven 
great  gods. 

Be'la,  in  A.  Y.  once  Be'lah  (Gen.  slvi.  21) 
[devouring,  destruction]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  whose  father's  name 
was  Beor  (Gen.  xxxvi.  32). 

2.  A  Reubenite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;   Num.  xxvi.  38). 

4.  One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  the  same 
as  Zoar  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  H). 

Be'li-al  [worthlessness,  wickedness]. 

Ungodliness  (Ps.  xviii.  4,  R.  V.).  The 
phrase  "men  of  belial  "  is  a  Senutic  circum- 
locution, in  default  of  the  ap])ropriate  ad- 
jective, for  ungodly  men  (Dent.  xiii.  13). 
Belial  is  personifled  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15. 

Bell. 

Small  golden  bells,  alternating  with  orna- 
ments in  the  form  of  pomegranates,  were  at- 
tached to  the  lower  i)art  of  the  official  blue 
robe  of  the  high  priest  in  order  to  send  forth 
a  sound  that  might  be  heard  in  the  temple 
for  a  memorial  of  the  children  of  Israel,  that 
he  die  not  (Ex.  xxviii.  33.  34  ;  Ecclus.  xlv. 
9).  A  string  of  flat  pieces  of  brass  was  hung 
around  the  neck  of  horses,  or  a  single  bell 
was  suspended  from  their  throat  (Zech.  xiv. 
20  :  cp.  Judg.  viii.  21).  In  either  case  the  tink- 
ling kept  the  horses  together  at  night,  and 
made  it  easy  to  find  a  strayed  beast. 

Bellows. 

An  instrument  for  blowing  the  fire  of  a 
smelting  furnace  (Jer.  vi.  29  ;  Iliad  xviii.  470). 
As  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  bellows 
consisted  of  a  pair  of  leather  bags,  fitted  into 
a  frame,  from  each  of  which  a  pijie  extended 
to  the  fire.  They  were  worked  by  the  feet, 
the  operator  stiinding  upon  them  with  one 
under  each  foot,  and  pressing  them  alter- 
nately while  he  pulled  up  the  exhausted  skin 
with  a  string  which  he  held  in  his  hand.  A 
double  pair  was  used  for  each  furnace.' 

Bel-shaz'zar  [Babylonian  Bel-shar-usur, 
Bel   protect  the  king]. 

A  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  who  reigned  a 
part  at  least  of  three  yeai's  (Dan.  viii.  1),  ap- 
parently as  co-regent  of  his  father  (v.  16,  29, 
by  implication),  and  was  slain  on  a  memorable 
night  (30).  According  to  contemporary  Baby- 
lonian records,  he  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Nabuna'id  and  grandson  of  Nabubalatsuiklii, 
the  wise  prince  and  mighty  potentate  (1  R. 
6«  No.  4  ;  69,  ii.  26 ;  V  R.  63,  i.  16 ;  6."i,  i.  9). 
The  Babylonian  queen,  probably  Nabuna'id's 
wife,   and   Belshazzar   himself,   and   Daniel 


his  contemporary  speak  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
as  Belshazzar's  father  (v.  11,  13)  ;  and  his 
father  Xabuna'id,  speaking  of  himself,  nieu- 
tious  "  the  kings,  his  fathers."  It  is  quite 
l)OS.sible  that  Belshazzar  was  descended, 
through  his  mother  at  least,  from  Nebuchad- 
nezzar; but  the  words  spoken  of  Belshazzar 
that  night  at  court  may  also  be  explained  by 
the  broad  usage  of  the  word  father  for  a 
predecessor  in  the  same  office.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar speaks  of  Naramsin,  who  reigned 
three  thousand  years  before  him,  as  "the 
king,  the  ancient  father,"  although  doubt- 
less no  blood  relationship  existed  between 
them.  Sargou,  king  of  Assj'ria,  like  Nabu- 
na'id a  usurper,  speaks  of  being  endowed 
with  understanding  beyond  "the  kings,  my 
fathers"  (Cylinder  48).  Delegates  from  tlie 
Ionian  cities  urged  Seleucus  Nicator  to  ad- 
here to  the  policy  of  his  "ancestors,"  proyonoi, 
altliough  but  one  ancestor  of  his  sat  upou  the 
throne  (Be van.  House  of  Seleucus,  1.161).  In 
the  court  parlance  of  the  day  Belshazzar  was 
Nebuchadnezzar's  son,  politically  his  de- 
scendant, his  successor  on  the  tin-one. 

In  o^5  B.  c,  the  first  year  of  his  father's 
reign,  he  was  occupying  a  house  in  Babylon; 
and  had  taken  into  his  own  establishment,  it 
would  seem,  two  at  least  of  the  servants  who 
had  belonged  to  the  household  of  the  late 
king  Nergalsharusur.  During  the  years  that 
his  father  remained  in  Tenia,  Belshazzar  was 
with  the  army  which  was  (piartered  in  the 
district  of  Accad,  to  the  north  of  Babylon 
and  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Assyria 
(Annals  ii.  5-23).  The  king's  son,  as  his  title 
uniformly  is,  not  only  had  nominal  or  actual 
command  of  the  troops,  but  also  represented 
his  father  in  certain  religious,  administrative, 
and  domestic  duties.  Not  far  from  the  mili- 
tary camp  in  Accad  was  the  city  of  Sippar; 
and  again  and  again  the  documents  certify  to 
his  gift  of  sheep  and  oxen  to  the  temples  at 
Sippar  as  an  offin-ing  of  the  king,  and  even  of 
a  tongue  of  gold  as  a  present  to  the  sun-god. 

The  inscriptions  v/hich  were  written  at 
Ur  by  order  of  Nabuna'id  to  commemorate 
his  restoration  of  the  temple  of  the  moon-god 
are  peculiar  and  significant  because  the  king, 
after  praying  for  himself,  invariably  adds  a  pe- 
tition for  Belshazzar.  "As  forme,  Nabuna'id 
king  of  Babylon,  deliver  me  from  sin  against 
thy  great  divine  nature  and  grant  unto  me 
length  of  days.  And  concerning  Belsharusur 
my  firstborn,  the  ottspring  of  my  body,  his 
heart  also  fill  thou  with  awe  of  thy  great  di- 
vinity, that  he  may  never  indulge  in  sins. 
With  abundance  of  days  let  him  be  satisfied.'" 

The  Persians  under  Cyrus'  generalUgbaru, 
written  Gubaru  also,  entered  Babylon  on  the 
16th  day  of  Tammuz,  the  fourth  month. 
539  B.  C.  They  boasted  that  they  had  taken 
the  city  without  a  battle.  Nabuna'id  was 
seized,  and  a  guard  of  shield-bearers  was 
stationed  at  the  gates  of  the  great  sanctuary 
Esaggila  for  two  weeks  (Annals  iii.  16,  17). 
The  city  was  held  by  a  foreign  army,  but  the 


Belteshazzar 


84 


Bene-jaakan- 


commercial  documents  of  the  time  indicate 
no  interruption  of  ))usiness  and  no  feeling  of 
financial  insecurity.  Property  was  bought 
and  sold  at  Babylon  and  the  transactions 
were  duly  recorded  ;  money  was  loaned,  bills 
payable  were  given,  and  houses  were  taken 
as  security.  Documents  continued  even  to 
he  dated  by  the  regnal  year  of  Nabuna'id, 
notwithstanding  his  arrest.  Indeed,  it  would 
seem  that  beyond  the  restriction  of  Nabu- 
na'id's  liberty,  the  royal  family  was  not 
molested  nor  its  goods  seized.  Eelshazzar 
even  made  a  gift  of  money  out  of  tlie  king's 
substance  to  tbe  sun-god  at  Sippar.  It  was 
not  until  the  third  daj'  of  the  eightli  month 
that  Cyrus  nuide  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Babylon  (Annals  iii.  18),  and  in  the  princely 
])alace  placed  the  seat  of  sovereignty  (Cylin- 
der 23).  About  a  week  later,  on  the  night 
of  the  eleventh,  an  important  event  took 
place.  The  inscription  is  slightly  defaced, 
and  several  of  the  written  characters  are 
rendered  doubtful  ;  but  recent  expert  opinion 
declares  that  the  word  son  is  clear  an<l  cer- 
tain (Pinches,  Delitzsch,  Hagen).  On  this 
reading  the  lecord  states  tbat  "on  the  elev- 
enth of  Marchesvan,  in  the  night,  Gubaru 
upon  .  .  .  killed  the  son  of  the  king."  On 
that  night,  then,  Belshazzar  was  slain.  No 
bodily  injury  was  done  to  his  father  Nabu- 
na'id.  On  the  contrary,  according  to  Berosus, 
although  Nabuna'id  was  deprived  of  the 
crown  and  deported  from  Babylonia,  he  was 
kindly  treated  by  Cyrus,  who  gianted  him 
estates  in  Carmania,  in  southern  Persia  (con- 
tra Apion.  i.  20),  and  endowed  him  with  the 
government  of  the  province  (Eusebius,  Chron. 
i.  10,  3).  The  feast  which  Belshazzar  gave 
to  a  thousand  men  of  rank  (Dan.  v.  ll  took 
l)hice,  on  this  reading  of  the  text,  earlier  in 
the  evening  of  the  eleventh  of  Marchesvan. 
To  judge  f'rom  the  contemporary  records,  it 
was  quite  possible  for  Belshazzar,  after  the 
city  was  occupied  by  the  Persian  troo])s,  to 
give  a  great  l5anquet.  and  to  obtain  cups  of 
gold  and  silver  for  the  purpose  out  of  the 
storehou.se  in  the  temple  of  Marduk  (v.  2; 
Ezra  i.  7).  Perhaps  conspiracy  was  the  mo- 
tive of  the  feast.     See  Cyrus  and  Daniel. 

Bel-te-shaz'zar  [Babylonian,  Bnlatsn-nsnr, 
protect  his  life].  The  name  is  abbreviated 
l)y  omitting  the  name  of  the  deity  invoked. 

The  name  given  by  the  prince  of  the  Baby- 
lonian eunuchs  to  the  i)roi)het  Daniel  (Dan. 
i.  7).  Bel,  the  god  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  was 
the  deity  invoked  in  the  name  (iv.  8). 

Ben  [son]. 

A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xv.  18),  but  probably 
the  name  has  erroneously  crept  into  the  text ; 
cp.  20,  21. 

Ben-a-bin'a-dab  [son  of  Abiuadab]. 

Son-in-law  of  Solomon  and  his  j)urveyor  iu 
the  region  of  Dor  (1  Kin.  iv.  11,  R.  V.). 

Be-na'iah  [.Tehovah  hath  built]. 
1.  A   I-evitc,  the  son   (>f  .Telioiada  of  Kab- 
zeel  in  Judah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20).     His  father 


was  a  priest  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  5).  If  the  title 
here  denotes  a  minister  at  the  altar,  Beuaiah's 
father  was  probably  the  leader  of  the  priests 
who  joined  the  army  which  i)laced  David  on 
the  throne  (xii.  27).  Benaiah  was  a  valiant 
man,  celel)rated  for  having  descended  into  a 
pit  and  killed  a  lion,  for  having  slain  two 
lion-like  men  of  Moab,  and,  when  armed  only 
with  a  Stat}',  for  having  met  an  Egyptian 
giant,  wrested  away  his  spear,  and  killed  him 
with  his  own  weaiion  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20,  21  ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22,  23).  He  was  over  the  Cher- 
ethites  and  I'elethites,  David's  bodyguard 
(2  Sam.  viii.  18).  and  also  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  third  month  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  5,  (j).  He  with  the  bodyguard 
remained  faithful  to  David  during  AbsaUiiu's 
rebellion  (cp.  2  Sam.  xv.  18;  xx.  23)  and  that 
of  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  10).  By  David's  order 
he.  at  the  head  of  the  guard,  escorted  Solo- 
mon to  Gihon,  to  be  anointed  king  (38),  and 
as  chief  of  the  guard  he  executed  Adonijah 
(ii.  2o),Joab  (29-34),  and  Shimei  (46).  The 
death  of  Joab  having  left  the  office  of  com- 
mander-in-chief vacant.  Benaiah  was  pro- 
moted to  the  same  (35). 

2.  A  Pirathonite,  one  of  David's  thirty 
mighty  men  of  the  second  rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
30;  1  Chron.  xi.  31).  He  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  eleventh  month 
(xxvii.  14). 

3.  A  I^evite  of  the  second  degree  who 
played  the  psaltery  before  the  ark  when  it 
was  escorted  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards 
iu  the  tabernacle  erected  by  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18,  20;  xvi.  5). 

4.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  in  the 
company  which  escorted  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem and  afterwards  in  David's  tabernacle 
(1  Chron.  xv.  24;  xvi.  (i). 

5.  A  Levite,  de.scended  from  Asaph,  and 
living  before  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xx.  14). 

f).  A  Simeonite.  possibly  a  contemporary 
of  Hezekiah  (1  Chroq.  iv.  36;  cp.  41). 

7.  A  Levite,  an  overseer  of  dedicated  offer- 
ings in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

8.  Father  of  Ezekiei's  contemporary,  prince 
Pelatiah  (Ezek.  xi.  1,  13). 

9-12.  Four  men,  sons  of  Parosh,  Pahath- 
moab,  Bani,  and  Nebo,  respectively,  who  were 
induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  their  strange 
wives  (Ezra  x.  25,  30,  35,  43). 

Ben-am'mi  [son  of  my  peojile;  a  circum- 
locution tor  my  kinsman,  and  equivalent  to 
Amnion,  kin]. 

Son  of  Lot's  younger  daughter,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Ammonite  tribe  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Ben-de'ker  [son  of  Deker]. 
Solomon's  jiurveyor  in   Bethshemesh  and 
some  other  towns  (1  Kin.  iv.  9,  R.  V.). 

Ben'e-be'rak  [s(ms  of  Berak]. 
A  town  of  Dan   (Josh.  xix.  45),  now  Ibn 
Ibrak,  4  miles  east  of  Jaffa. 

Ben'e-ja'a-kan.     See  Jaakan. 


Ben-geber 


Benjamin 


Ben-ge'ber  [son  of  Geber]. 
Solomon's  imrveyor  in   Eamoth-gilead   (1 
Kin.  iv.  rs,  R.  V.). 

Ben-ha'dad  [son  of  Hadad,  tlie  supreme 
god  of  Sj'riaJ.     See  Hadad. 

Tiie  name  of  three  kings  ruling  at  Da- 
mascus. 

1.  J^enhadad,  son  of  Tabrimmon  and  grand- 
son of  Hezion.  When  Baasha,  kinu  of  Israel, 
built  Ramah  to  blockade  the  entrance  into 
Judah  from  the  north,  Asa,  king  of  Judah, 
hired  Benhadad  to  break  his  treaty  with 
Baasha  and  invade  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
The  army  of  Benliadad  entered  the  territory 
of  the  ten  tribes,  captured  the  cities  of  Ijou, 
Dan,  and  Abel-niaacah,  and  ravaged  the  laud 
west  of  the  lake  of  Geunesaret.  The  diver- 
sion caused  Baasha  to  withdraw  from  Ramah 
and  terminate  the  blockade  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  (1  Kin.  xv.  18-21 ;  2  Chron.  xvi.  1-6). 

2.  Benhadad,  contemporary  of  Ahab.  His 
full  name  appears  to  have  been  Benhadadidri, 
the  son  of  Hadad  is  my  help.  He  besieged 
Samaria,  but  drove  Ahab  to  desperation  and 
forced  him  to  battle  by  insulting  demands, 
and  was  defeated.  The  next  year  Benhadad 
renewed  the  war,  hut  sustained  a  still  heavier 
defeat  than  on  the  previous  occasion.  Ahab 
granted  him  conditions  of  peace,  making  a 
covenant  with  him  and  letting  him  go  (1  Kin. 
XX.  1-34).  The  arrival  of  a  common  enemy, 
Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  west  in 
856  B.  c.  necessitated  the  preservation  of  the 
peace,  and  it  continued  three  years  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  1).  In  854  Benhadad,  assisted  by  Ahab 
and  other  royal  allies,  otfered  resistance  to 
the  Assyrians  at  Karkar  near  Hamath,  but 
was  defeated.  In  the  following  year,  as  is 
probable,  in  early  spring  Ahab  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  wrest  Ramoth-gilead  out  of  the 
hands  of  Benhadad  (xxii.  1-36).  For  some 
time  Benhadad  waged  predatory  warfare  with 
the  Israelites,  and  later  he  invaded  Israel 
with  his  army  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria  (2 
Kin.  V.  2;  vi.  8-vii.  20),  but  these  varied  hos- 
tilities were  repeatedly  interruiitcd  l)y  Shal- 
maneser's  operations  against  J'.cn hadad  in 
the  years  850,  849,  and  846.  Between  845 
and  the  close  of  843,  Benhadad  was  murdered 
and  succeeded  by  Hazael  (2  Kin.  viii.  15). 

3.  Benhadad,  sou  of  Hazael,  and  called  by 
the  murdered  king's  name.  In  the  reign  of 
Jehoahaz,  king  of  Israel,  Hazael  and  then 
Benhadad  oppressed  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin. 
xiii.  3-13).  But  .loash,  son  of  Jehoahaz,  in- 
flicted three  defeats  on  Benhadad,  and  re- 
covered the  cities  of  Israel  which  had  been 
under  Syrian  rule  (22-25).  His  son,  Jeroboam 
II.,  followed  up  these  victories  by  retaking 
Hamath,  and  even  temporarily  occupying 
Damascus  (xiv.  28). 

The  palaces  of  Benhadad  are  the  palaces 
of  Damascus  (Jer.  xlix.  27 ;  Amos  i.  4). 

Ben-ha'il  [son  of  strength,  virtuous]. 
One  of  the  princes  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to 
teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Cbron.  xvii.  7). 


Ben-ha'nan  [son  of  the  kind  one]. 
A  son  of  Shimon,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Ben-he'sed  [sou  of  benevolence  or  of 
Hesed]. 

Solomon's  purveyor  in  Aruboth  (1  Kin.  iv. 
10,  R.  v.). 

Ben'liur  [son  of  Hur]. 

Solomon's  i)urveyor  in  mount  Ephraim  (1 
Kin.  iv.  8,  K.  V.). 

Be-ni'nu  [our  son]. 

A  Levite  who  with  Nehemiah  and  others 
sealed  a  covenant  with  Jehovah  (Neb.  x.  13). 

Ben'ja-min  [sou  of  the  right  hand,  i.  e.  of 
happiness]. 

1.  The  youngest  of  Jacob's  twelve  sons.  He 
was  the  full  brother  of  Joseph,  both  being 
children  of  Rachel.  As  Jacob  was  approach- 
ing Bethlehem,  Rachel  gave  birth  toBenjamin, 
and,  feeling  that  his  advent  into  the  world 
was  about  to  co.st  her  her  life,  named  him 
Beuoni,  son  of  my  sorrow,  but  Jacob  called 
him  Benjamin  (Uen.  xxxv.  16-20).  Being, 
the  youngest,  and  associated  with  such  mem- 
ories, he  was  peculiarly  dear  to  his  t\ither, 
especially  after  the  supposed  death  of  Joseph. 
With  excessive  reluctance  his  parent  allowed 
him  to  go  to  Egypt  with  his  other  bi-others 
(Gen.  xliii.  1-17),  and  Judah  was  probably 
right  in  supposing  that  the  father  would  die 
of  grief  if  any  untoward  occurrence  happened 
to  the  son  of  his  old  age.  Joseph  also  felt 
nnich  atfection  for  Benjamin  (xliii.  29-34; 
xliv.  1-34).  Ultimately  Benjamin  had,  be- 
sides other  descendants,  five  sous  and  two 
grandsons,  through  whom  he  became  the 
founder  of  families  and  a  tribe  in  Israel 
(Gen.  xlvi.  21;  Num.  xxvi.  38-41;  1  Chron. 
vii.  6-12;  viii). 

2.  The  tribe  to  which  Benjamin  gave  ori- 
gin, and  the  territory  that  it  obtained.  Jacob 
])rophesied  :  "  Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravin- 
eth.  In  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the 
])rey,  and  at  even  he  shall  divide  the  spoil  " 
(Gen.  xlix.  27,  R. v.); and  Moses:  "The beloved 
of  the  Lord  shall  dwell  in  safety  by  him.  He 
covereth  him  all  the  day  long  and  he  dwell- 
eth  between  his  shoulders"  (Dent,  xxxiii. 
12,  R.  v.).  In  the  distribution  of  the  land  by 
lot  under  Joshua  at  Shiloh,  after  Judah  and 
Ephraim  had  received  territory,  the  fir.st  lot 
came  to  Benjamin,  who  was  assigned  the  dis- 
trict lying  between  those  of  Judah  and  Ei)h- 
raim.  Its  northern  boundary  ran  from  Jor- 
dan through  Bethel  to  Ataroth-addar,  south 
of  nether  Bethhoron.  Its  western  border  ran 
from  this  point  to  Kirjath-jearim.  Its  south- 
ern boundary  went  thence  through  the  val- 
ley of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  immediately  south 
of  J(U-usalem,  to  the  northern  point  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  eastern  limit  was  the  Jordan 
(Josh,  xviii.  11-20).  The  territory  thus 
niarked  out  extended  from  west  to  east  about 
28  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  aljout  12 
miles.  It  was  a  hilly  country,  but  extremely 
fertile  (Antiq.  v.  1,  22)  and  it  was  studded 


Beno 


86 


Bemice 


with  towns,  the  chief  of  which  were  Jerusalem, 
Jericho,  Bethel,  Gibeon,  Gibeath,  and  Mizpeh 
(Josh,  sviii.  21-28).  The  tribe  early  furnished 
Israel  with  a  deliverer  from  foreign  oppres- 
sion (Judg.  iii.  15).  The  tribe  was  nearly  ex- 
terminated for  protecting  the  guilty  inhabi- 
tants of  Gibeah  (six.-xxi.).  Later  it  gave  the 
first  king  to  Israel,  and  long  clung  to  the 
house  of  8aul  (2  Sam.  ii.  9,  1.') ;  1  Ghron.  xii. 
29).  Even  after  David  had  become  king  of 
all  Israel,  Beujamites  occasionally  showed 
dissatisfaction  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5  ;  xx.  1-22  ;  Ps. 
vii.  title)  ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  tribe  re- 
mained true  to  the  house  of  David  when 
the  ten  tribes  separated  under  Jeroboam  (1 
Kin.  xii.  21),  and  shared  the  fortunes  of 
Judah  to  the  end  (Ezra  iv.  1).  From  this 
tribe  sprang  the  apostle  of  the  gentiles  (Phil. 
iii.  5). 

Two  gates  at  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  of 
Benjamin.  The  upper  or  high  gate  of  Ben- 
jamin was  in  the  temple  (Jer.  xx.  2).  For 
the  other  gate  of  Benjamin,  see  Jerusalem 
II.  3. 

3.  A  Beujamite,  a  son  of  Bilhan,  family  of 
Jediael  (1  Chron.  vii.  10 1. 

4.  A  son  of  Harini,  who  had  taken  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  x.  32). 

Be'no  [his  son]. 

A  descendant  of  Merari  through  Jaaziah 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  26,  27),  if  Beno  is  a  proper 
name,  as  it  seems  to  be  in  ver.  27. 

Ben-o'ni  [son  of  my  sorrow]. 

The  name  designed  by  Eachel  for  the  child 
whose  birth  was  causing  her  death.  But 
Jacob  changed  it  to  Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv. 
18). 

Ben-zo'heth  [son  of  Zoheth]. 

A  descendant  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Cbron.  iv.  20).  Perhaps, 
however,  a  name  has  dropped  out  of  the  text 
before  this  name.  If  so,  the  passage  should 
be  translated :  ' '  And  the  sons  of  Ishi,  Zoheth 
and  ....  the  son  of  Zoheth." 

Be'on.     See  Baal-meon. 

Be'or  [a  torch]. 

1.  Father  of  Bela.  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  32;  1  Chron.  i.  43). 

2.  Father  of  Balaam  (Num.'xxii.  5).  Called 
in  A.  V.  of  2  Pet.  ii.  15  Bosor. 

Be'ra  [excellencel. 

A  king  of  Sodom,  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer 
and  his  confederates  (Gen.  xiv.  2). 

Ber'a-cah,  in  A.  Y.  Berachah  [blessing]. 

1.  A  Beujamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  valley  in  Judah  nearTekoa.  Jehosh- 
aphat  gave  it  its  name  because  he  and  his 
army  there  returned  thanks  to  God  for  a 
great  victory  over  tlie  Ammonites,  Moabites, 
and  Edoniites  (2  Chron.  xx.  2()).  The  name 
still  lingers  as  Bereikut.a  ruin  about  4  miles 
northwest  of  Tekoa,  G  miles  soutlnvest  of 
Bethlehem,  and  a  little  east  of  the  road  from 
the  latter  village  to  Hebron. 


Ber-a-cM'ah.     See  Berechiah. 

Be-ra'iali  [Jehovah  hath  created]. 

A  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chron.  viii.  21,  R.  V.), 
descendant  of  Shaharaim  who  had  his  regis- 
try with  Benjamin  (8,  11-13). 

Be're-a. 

A  town  in  Judiea  near  which  Judas  Mac- 
cabseus  was  slain  (1  Mac.  ix.  4).  Not  iden- 
titied. 

For  Be-re'a,  a  city  of  Macedonia  (Acts  xvii. 
10,  A.  v.),  see  Beecea. 

Ber-e-chi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  BeracMah  (1 
Chron.  vi.  39)  [Jehovah  hath  blessed]. 

1.  A  Levite,  the  father  of  Asaph,  descended 
from  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  39 ;  xv.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  four  doorkeepers 
for  the  ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  23, 
24). 

3.  One  of  the  chief  men  of  Ephraim  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah.  He  took  the  part  of  the  cap- 
tives from  Judah.  He  was  a  son  of  Meshil- 
lemoth  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

4.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

5.  A  Levite.  descended  from  Elkanah  of 
Netophah  (1  Chron.  ix.  16). 

6.  A  son  of  Meshezabel.  His  son  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4,  30). 

7.  Father  of  the  prophet  Zechariah  (Zech. 
i.  1,  7). 

Be'red  [hail]. 

1.  A  place  in  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  to  the 
west  of  Kadesh,  and  not  far  from  Beer-lahai- 
roi  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  14).  Its  exact  locality  has 
not  i)een  determined. 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  of  the  family  of  Shu- 
thelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  20 1. 

Be'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah,  family  of 
Heber  (1  Chron.  vii.  36). 

Be-ri'ah  [perhaps,  with  an  outcry,  or  in 
evil]. 

1.  A  son  of  Asher,  and  founder  of  a  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi.  44). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  23). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Aijalon  (1  Chron. 
viii.  13). 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Shimei,  the  Gershon- 
ite  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  1»>).  His  sons  were  united 
with  the  children  of  his  brother  Jeush  into 
one  father's  house  (11). 

Be 'rite. 

Apparently  a  people  living  near  Abel-beth- 
maacah  (2  Sam.  xx.  14),  but  it  is  questionable 
if  the  present  text  is  correct. 

Be'rith.     See  Baal-berith. 

Ber-ni'ce  [for  Pherenilr,  carrying  off  vic- 
torv,  victiirious]. 

The  eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
She  was  married  to  her  uncle,  Herod,  ruler 
of  Chalcis.  who  soon  afterwards  died.  She 
was  so  much  with  her  brother  Agrippa  that 
scandal  arose  in  c()nse<iuence.  She  tried  to 
allay  it  by  a  marriage  with  Polemo,  king  of 


Berodach-baladan 


Bethany 


Cilicia.  She  soon  became  tired  of  him,  and, 
deserting  him,  returned  to  her  l)rother  Agrip- 
pa  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  3 ;  War  ii.  11,  5).  She  was 
with  him  when  Paul  made  his  defense  before 
him  (Acts  xxv.  23;  xxvi.  30).  She  afterwards 
became  the  mistress,  first  of  Vespasian  and 
then  of  Titus. 
Ber'o-dach-bal'a-dan.      See   Merodach- 

BALADAN. 

Be-roe'a,  in  A.  V.  Be-re'a. 

1.  A  city  of  Macedonia,  about  50  miles  west 
of  Thessalouica  and  23  or  24  miles  from  the 
sea,  where  Paul  preached  on  his  first  journey 
to  Europe  (Acts  xvii.  10-14 ;  xx.  4).  It  is  now 
called  Verria  or  Boor. 

2.  A  Syrian  city  between  Antioch  and 
Hierapolis,  where  Menelaus  was  smothered 
in  a  tower  of  ashes  (2  Mac.  xiii.  4).  An  earlier 
name  of  the  town  survives  in  Aleppo,  the 
designation  Beroea,  which  was  given  by  Se- 
leucus  Nicator,  having  had  a  transient  ex- 
istence. 

3.  See  Bekea  1. 

Be-ro'thah  or  Ber'o-thai  [wells]. 

Berothah  was  a  town  situated  between  Ha- 
math  and  Damascus  (Ezek.telvii.  16).  It  is 
probably  identical  with  Berothai,  a  city  which 
was  once  subject  to  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah, 
but  was  captured  by  David  and  yielded  him 
large  booty  in  brass  (2  Sam.  viii.  8 ;  in  1 
Chron.  xviii.  8  called  Cuu,  in  A.  V.  Chun ; 
probably  a  corruption,  for  the  Seventy  read 
the  noun  Mihhar,  of  which  the  letters  are 
much  like  those  of  Berothai).  Site  unknown. 

Ber'yl. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tarshish, 
a  precious  stone  brought  doubtless  from  the 
place  bearing  the  same  name.  It  was  the 
first  stone  of  the  fourth  row  on  the  Jewish 
high  priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  20; 
xxxix.  13;  Song  v.  14;  Ezek.  i.  16;  x.  9; 
xxviii.  13;  Dan.  x.  6).  None  of  these  pas- 
sages tells  the  color  of  the  stone.  On  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V.  of  Song  v.  14  tarithish  is 
rendered  topaz,  and  on  that  of  Ex.  xxviii.  20 
chalcedony.  The  Septuagint  renders  the  word 
by  chrysolite  in  Ex.  xxviii.  20;  xxxix.  13; 
Ezek.  xxviii.  13  ;  and  by  anthrax,  carijuncle, 
in  Ezek.  x.  9. 

2.  The  Greek  Bendlos  (Rev.  xxi.  20),  the 
eighth  foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  New 
Jerusalem.  The  beryl  is  an  earthy  mineral, 
having  as  its  chief  constituents  silica,  alumina, 
and  beryllium  (gluciuum).  It  may  be  color- 
less or  aquamarine,  bluish  gi-een,  or  various 
blues  and  violet,  or  yellow  and  brown.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  the  emerald.  It  is  found  in 
Siberia,  India,  Brazil,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Great  Britain. 

Be'sai. 

One  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Ezra  ii.  49  ;  Neb.  vii.  52). 

Bes-0-de'iah  [in  familiarity  with  Jehovah]. 

Father  of  MeshuUam.  who  helped  to  repair 
a  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 


Be'sor  [perhaitscoldness,  or,  jiossibly,  haste]. 

A  brook  south  of  /iklau  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9,  10, 
21),  perlia])s  tlu^  Nalir  (ihazzeh,  which  rises 
near  Beer-sheba  and  empties  into  the  Medi- 
terranean south  of  Gaza. 

Be'tali  [trust,  confidence]. 

A  city  of  Aram-zobah  (2  Sam.  viii.  8),  prob- 
ably to  be  read  Tebah.  Called  Tibhath  in 
1  Chron.  xviii.  8.     Site  unknown. 

Be'ten  [body,  belly,  or  valley]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  25).  Eusebius 
identified  it  with  a  village  Beth-beten,  8  Ro- 
man miles  east  of  Acre. 

Beth. 

The  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Originally  it  was  a  rude  representation  of  a 
dwelling,  and  from  this  circumstance  it  de- 
rives its  name,  which  means  a  house.  The 
English  letter  B  has  the  same  origin.  Beth 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  second  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.  in  many  versions,  in  which  section 
each  verse  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  Hebrew  letters,  beth,  caph,  mem.  and 
pe,  or  b,  k,  m,  and  p,  have  at  ditierent  stages 
of  their  develoiiiiunt  been  so  similar  as  to 
cause  readers  some  dilliculty  in  distinguish- 
ing them,  and  ojieii  the  way  to  misreadings ; 
for  example,  they  are  written,  in  the  order 
just  named,  on 


^/»6  of  James 

l"Centuiy£C 

Syna^o<^iieathefr     -^ 
Bir'itn 

Palmyrvw  , 


a 
^ 


Beth-ab'a-ra  [house  of  the  ford] . 

A  place  beyond  Jordan  at  which  John  bap- 
tized (John  i.  28,  A.  V.).  The  oldest  manu- 
scripts have  Bethany,  as  now  the  R.  V. ;  but 
Origen,  not  being  able  to  find  a  place  of  this 
name,  decided  in  favor  of  the  reading  Beth- 
abara.  If  the  correct  reading  be  Bethabara, 
then  the  site  is  evidently  at  one  of  the  nu- 
merous fords  of  the  Jordan,  and  of  these  only 
one  is  now  called  Makhadet  'Abarah.  It  is  a 
main  ford  of  the  river  just  above  the  place 
where  the  Jalud  stream,  flowing  down  the 
valley  of  Jezreel  by  Beisan,  enters  the  Jor- 
dan. The  traditional  site,  however,  is  east 
of  Jericho. 

Beth-a'nath  [house  of  the  goddess  Anath]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38), 
fr(»m  which,  however,  that  tribe  failed  to 
drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i. 
33).  Suitably  located  at  the  village  of  'Anata, 
'Ainata,  or  'Ainitha,  6  miles  west  of  Kedesh. 

Beth-a'noth  [house  of  the  goddess  Anath]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  59) ;  commonly  sought  at  Beit  'Ainun,  14 
miles  southeast  of  Halhul. 

Beth'a-ny  [liouse  of  the  afliicted  one  ;  in 
Talmud,  house  of  non-maturing  dates]. 


Beth-arabah 


Beth-biri 


1.  A  small  town  on  the  mount  of  Olives 
(Mark  xi.  1 ;  Luke  xix.  29),  about  15  furlongs 
from  Jerusalem  (John  xi.  18)  on  the  road  to 
Jericho.  Our  Lord  often  lodged  there  (Mat. 
xxi.  17  ;  xxvi.  6  ;  Mark  xi.  1,  11,  12  ;  xiv.  3). 
It  was  the  town  of  Lazarus,  of  Martha,  and 
of  Mary  (John  xi.  1 ;  xii.  1),  as  well  as  of 
Simon  the  leper,  in  whose  house  one  of  the 
anointings  of  Jesus  took  place  (Mat.  xxvi.  6- 
13;  Mark  xiv.  3).  From  near  the  town  Jesus 
accended  to  heaven  (Luke  xxiv.  50, 51).  It  has 
been  generally  identified  as  the  village  of  el- 
'Aziriyeh  (Lazarus'  village),  on  the  farther 
side  of  a  shallow  valley  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  mount  of  Olives,  southeast  from  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  now  a  miserable  village  with  a 
few  ancient  stones  built  into  modern  habita- 
tions.    The  houses  of  Simon  and  of  Martha 


Beth-ar'bel  [house  of  God's  ambush]. 

A  town  destroyed  by  Shalman  with  hor- 
rible cruelty  (Hos.  x.  14).  The  best  identifi- 
cation that  has  been  proposed  is  with  Arbela 
of  Galilee  (Antiq.  xii.  11,  1;  xiv.  15,  4;  cp. 
1  Mac.  ix.  2),  now  Irbid,  4  miles  west-north- 
west of  Tiberias.  There  are  many  natural  cav- 
erns in  a  limestone  precijiice,  which  have  been 
connected  by  artificial  passages  cut  througli 
tlie  rock,  with  defenses  wherever  access  was 
possible.  Herod  the  Great  found  these  cav- 
erns the  abode  of  robbers,  whom  he  rooted 
out. 

Beth-a'ven  [house  of  nothingness  or  idol- 
atry]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
near  Ai,  east  of  Bethel  (Josh.  vii.  2),  west  of 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5;  cp.  xiv.  23),  and 


f^^^pB^^^^^ 


Bethany. 


and  Mary  and  the  tomb  of  Lazarus  are  all 
shown,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
they  are  genuine.  Presumably  when  the  vil- 
lage was  first  named  date  palms  grew  in  the 
vicinity.  They  do  not  do  so  now.  but  in 
their  place  are  olives,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 
2.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  probably  a 
village,  where  John  was  baptizing  when 
Jesus  returned  from  the  temptation  (John  i. 
2H,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  X.  40).    See  Bethabar.\.. 

Beth-ar'a-bah  [house  of  the  wilderness]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  .Tudah,  on 
the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Benja- 
min (Josh.  XV.  6,  61 ;  xviii.  22).  Called  simply 
Arabah  in  xviii.  18;  unless  the  reading  of 
the  SeptuaKint  be  correct,  Beth-arabah  in- 
stead of  "  the  side  over  against  the  Arabah." 
Site  not  yet  identified. 

Beth-a'ram.     See  Beth-haram. 


on  the  border  of  a  wilderness  (Josh,  xviii. 
12).     Not  yet  identified. 

2.  A  name  applied  by  Hosea  contemptu- 
ouslv  to  Bethel  after  it  had  Ijecome  a  seat  of 
idolatry  (Hos.  iv.  15;  v.  8;  x.  5). 

Beth-az'ma-vetli.     See  Azm.weth. 

Beth-ba'al-me'on.     See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-ba'rah  [jierhaps  for  Beth-abarah, 
house  of  the  ford]. 

A  ]ilace  on  tlie  Jordan,  pro))ably  on  the 
right  bank  (Judg.  vii.  24). 

Beth-ba'si. 

A  i>lace  in  the  wilderness  (1  Mac.  ix.  62), 
probal)ly  the  wilderness  of  Tekoa  (33).  Jose- 
j)hus  calls  it  Betlialaga  (Antiq.  xiii.  1,  5). 

Beth-bi'ri,  in  A.  V.  Beth-bir'e-i  [house  of 
my  <Teution]. 

A  Simeonite  town   (1  Chron.  iv.  31).     The 


Beth-car 


89 


Bethesda 


name  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Beth- 
lebaoth  (cp.  Josh.  xix.  6). 

Beth'-car  [house  of  pasture,  a  place  fit  for 
grazing]. 

A  place  which  is  named  to  indicate  the  point 
to  which  the  Philistines  were  pursued  by  the 
Israelites  after  the  second  and  decisive  battle 
of  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  11).  The  use  of  the 
word  '■  under"  seems  to  imply  that  it  over- 
looked a  plain. 

Betli-da'gon  [house  of  Dagon]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  (»f  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  33,  41),  apparently  in  the  vicinity  of 
Eleutheropolis.     Not  identified. 

2.  A  town  of  Asher,  on  the  frontier  toward 
Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  27).     Not  identified. 

Beth-dib-la-tha'im  [house  of  fig  cakes]. 

A  town  on  the  tableland  of  Moal).  territory 
once  in  possession  of  Israel  (.ler.  xlviii.  21, 
22;  Mt)abite  Stone  30).  Probably  the  same 
as  Ahnon-diblathaim. 

Beth-e'den.     See  Eden  2. 

Beth'el  [house  of  God]. 

1.  A  town  of  Palestine,  west  of  Ai,  south 
of  Shiloh  (Gen.  xii.  8;  Judg.  xxi.  1ft),  and 
near  Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  Abraham 
on  his  first  journey  into  Palestine,  and  sub- 
sequently, pitched  his  tent  near  it  (Gen.  xiii. 
3).  The  town  was  called  Luz  by  the  Canaan- 
ites  ;  but  Jacob  called  the  name  of  the  place 
close  by,  where  he  passed  the  night  sleei)ing 
on  the  ground,  Bethel  on  account  of  the 
vision  which  he  saw  there,  and  he  erected  a 
pillar  to  mark  the  spot  (Gen.  xxviii.  19  seq.  ; 
xxxi.  13).  The  two  are  distinguished  (Josh. 
xvi.  2) ;  but  the  name  Bethel  soon  supplanted 
Luz  as  desiginition  of  the  town.  On  the  re- 
turn of  Jacoli  from  Paddan-aram  he  went  to 
Bethel,  built  an  altar,  and  reaffirmed  the  name 
(Gen.  XXXV.  1-15 ;  Hos.  xii.  4).  The  i)eople  of 
the  town  helped  those  of  Ai  in  the  second  bat- 
tle with  .loshua  (Josh.  viii.  9, 12,  17).  I.,ater  it 
was  taken  and  its  king  slain  (xii.  9,  16).  It 
was  assigned  to  Benjamin,  and  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  between  that  tribe  and  Eph- 
raim  (Josh.  xvi.  2  ;  xviii.  13,  22).  It  was  en- 
tered and  its  Canaanite  inhabitants  were 
slain  by  the  men  of  Ephraim  when  they  were 
engaged  in  securing  their  recently  acquired 
territory  (Judg.  i.  22  seq.).  Its  villages  on 
the  north  of  the  boundary  line  belonged  to 
Ephraim,  and  so  perhaps  did  the  town,  as  a 
result  of  this  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
within  its  walls  (1  Chron.  vii.  28).  When 
tlie  Israelites  were  gathered  at  Miz()ah  near 
Gibeah  to  war  against  Benjamin,  the  ark  was 
brought  from  Shiloh,  18  miles  distant,  to 
Bethel,  8  miles  off  (Judg.  xx.  1,  27).  Thither 
the  men  of  Israel  repaired  to  ask  counsel  of 
God,  and  there  they  built  a  temporary  altar 
and  oflered  sacrifices  (18,  26,  K.  V.).  At  the 
end  of  the  war  they  came  again  to  Bethel, 
sat  there  before  the  Lord,  built  a  new  altar 
or  repaired  the  old  one,  and  ottered  sacrifices 
(xxi.   2-4,   R.   v.).      When   the  regular  ser- 


vices of  the  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  were  sus- 
pended during  the  loss  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark.  Bethel  was  one  of  the  places  where 
Samuel  judged  Israel,  and  whither  men  went 
with  their  offerings  to  God  (1  Sam.  vii.  16; 
X.  3).  Jeroboam  fixed  one  of  his  calves  there 
(1  Kin.  xii.  29-33),  and  Bethel  became  a  great 
center  of  idolatry  (1  Kin.  xiii.  1-32;  2  Kin. 
X.  29).  It  was  taken  and  temporarily  held 
by  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  19).  Elijah  passed 
through  it  (2  Kin.  ii.  1-3),  and  it  was  from 
Bethel  that  the  youths  came  who  mocked 
Elisha  (23,  24).  The  prophets  denounced  it 
for  its  idolatries  (Jer.  xlviii.  13;  Hos.  x.  I'l: 
Amos  iii.  14  ;  iv.  4  ;  v.  5,  6),  and  called  it 
Beth-aven,  house  of  naught  (Hos.  iv.  15;  v. 
8  ;  X.  5).  Amos  was  in  danger  in  Bethel  for 
his  bold  preaching  (Amos  vii.  10-13).  Josiah 
broke  down  its  altars  and  its  nigh  ]ilaces,  and, 
as  foretold,  burned  the  bones  of  the  priests 
taken  from  its  sepulchers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  4, 
15-20).  Some  of  its  inhabitants  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zeru))babel  (Ezraii.  28; 
Neh.  vii.  32),  the  place  again  reverting  to  the 
Beujamites  (xi.  31).  In  Maccabee  times  it 
was  fortified  by  the  Syrian  Bacchides  (1  Mac. 
ix.  50).  In  the  Jewish  war  it  was  captured 
by  Vespasian,  later  Eoman  emperor  (War  iv. 
9^  9).  The  ruins,  called  Beitin,  lie  on  the 
watershed  of  Palestine,  about  11  miles  north 
from  Jerusalem.  They  are  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill  sloping  to  the  southeast,  and  cover 
three  or  four  acres.  A  range  of  hills  trends 
to  the  southeast  (cp.  1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  In  the 
valley  to  the  west  is  a  broken  reservoir,  314 
feet  long  by  217  broad,  with  two  brooks  of 
living  water.  Two  other  lirooks  are  in  the 
vicinity.  There  are  sepulchers  cut  in  a  low 
cliff.  The  country  round  is  of  gray  stone  or 
white  chalk,  with  scant  vegetable  mould. 
As  in  Abraham's  time,  it  is  a  pastoral  region. 

2.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Simeon  1 1 
Sam.  XXX.  27).     See  Bethuel. 

Beth-e'mek  [house  of  the  valley]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  27).     Not  identified. 

Be'ther  [separation,  division]. 

Probably  a  common  noun,  describing  cer- 
tain mountains  as  cleft  and  rugged  (Soug  ii. 
17;  cp.  iv.  6;  viii.  14)  ;  and  not  the  town  in 
Judah  called  Baither  or  Bethther  (Josh.  xv. 
59,  Greek),  now  Bittir,  six  miles  southwest 
of  Jerusalem,  where  on  the  height  above  the 
village  the  Jews  under  Bar-cocheba  made 
their  last  stand  against  the  Romans,  B.  C.  135. 

Be-thes'da  [house  of  mercy]. 

Earlier  manuscripts  of  the  N.  T.  have  other 
spellings,  as  Bethsaida,  house  of  fishing,  and 
Bethzatha,  house  of  the  olive. 

A  pool  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  near  the 
sheep  gate  and  had  five  porches,  that  were 
sufficiently  ample  to  accommodate  a  great 
multitude  (John  v.  2  seq.).  Its  waters  were 
supposed  to  possess  healing  virtue.  The 
fourth  verse  of  the  A.  V'.,  which  mentions  a 
periodic  troubling  of  the  waters,  and  ascribes 


Beth-ezel 


90 


Bethlehem 


it  to  an  angel,  is  omitted  in  R.  Y.  as  being 
insufficiently  supported  by  early  texts.  Tra- 
dition located  Bethesda  at  the  Birket  Israel,  ^ 
n(jrth  of  the  temple,  or  at  an  adjacent  pool.  * 
The  tradition  was  well  founded,  even  if  it 
ultimately  went  astray.  1.  In  A.  D.  333  the 
Bordeaux  pilgrim  stated  that  there  were  two 
pools  and  live  porches.  2.  Early  manuscripts, 
f .  f/.  the  Sinaitic,  have  Bethzatha,  al)lirevi;ited 
Bezatha,  instead  of  Bethesda.  These  words 
are  apparently  variations  of  Bezetha,  the 
name  of  the  quarter  of  the  city  noi'th  of  the 
teuiple  hill,  and  imply  that  the  pool  was  in 
the  Bezethan  section  of  the  city.  3.  The 
pool  was  near  the  sheep  gate,  and  the  natural 
explanation  of  Neh.  iii.  determines  the  loca- 
tion of  this  gate  to  have  been  north  of  the 
temple  area.  4.  In  the  autumn  of  1888  ex- 
cavation in  the  northeast  part  of  Jerusalem, 
in  connection  with  the  repair  of  the  church 
of  St.  Anne,  laid  bare  100  feet  northwest  of 
that  building  a  pool  with  five  porches.  A 
faded  iresco  on  the  wall  depicts  an  angel  and 
water,  and  shows  that  in  the  early  Christian 
ages  this  pool  was  regarded  as  Bethesda. 

Beth-e'zel  [perhaps,  house  at  the  side]. 

A  town  of  Judah  or  Samaria — it  is  uncer- 
tain which  (Mic.  i.  11).  Perhaps  identical 
with  Azal,  i.  e.  Azel  (Zech.  xiv.  5). 

Beth-ga'dor  [house  of  a  wall]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  51).  See 
Gedek. 

Beth-ga'mul  [house  of  perfection]. 

A  Moabite  town  (Jer.  xlviii.  23),  possibly 
Jemail,  east  of  Dibon. 

Betli-girgal.     See  Gilgal  1. 

Beth-hac'che-rem,  in  A.  V.  Beth-hac'ce- 
rem  [house  of  the  vineyard]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Neh.  iii.  14:  Jer.  vi.  1). 
.Jerome  knew  a  village  Beta-charma.  It  was 
visible  from  Bethlehem  where  he  resided, 
and  was  situated  on  a  hill  between  Tekoa 
and  .Terusalem.  Accordingly  its  site  has  been 
sought  at  the  Frank  mountain,  3V  miles  south- 
east of  Bethlehem. 

Beth-ha'ran,    Beth-a'ram,     Beth-ha'ram 

[last   two   forms   may   signify  place   of    the 
height]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley,  rebuilt  by 
the  children  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  36;  Josh, 
xiii.  27).  Tristram  well  identified  it  with 
the  mound  called  Beth-haran,  in  the  plain 
east  of  the  Jordan,  opposite  .Jericho  on  the 
southeast.  This  mound  must  be  distinguished 
from  Tell  er-Rameh.  3  miles  farther  up  the 
wady  to  the  east,  the  site  of  Betharamphtha. 
where  Herod  had  a  palace  (Antiq.  xviii.  2. 1 ; 
War  ii.  4,  2  ;  9,  1). 

Beth-hog'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth-hogla 
[house  of  the  ]>artridge]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  on  the  boundary 
line  between  that  tribe  and  .Judah,  and  near 
the  river  .Jordan  (Josh.  xv.  (i ;  xviii.  19,  21). 
The  name  and  site  are  found  at  'Ain  Hajlah, 
4  miles  southeast  of  Jericho. 


Beth-ho'ron  [house  of  hollowuess]. 

Twin  towns  of  Ephraim,  IJ  miles  apart, 
but  with  a  difference  of  600  feet  in  altitude, 
on  the  boundaryj^tween  Ephraim  and  Ben- 
jamin, built  by  a  woman  of  Ei)hraim  called 
Sherah  (Josh.  xvi.  3,  5;  xviii.  13;  1  Chron. 
vii.  24).  One  of  them  was  assigned  as  residence 
to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohath  (Josh. 
xxi.  22;  1  Chron.  vi.  68).  The  towns  lay  in 
a  mountain  pass,  on  the  ancient  highway  be- 
tween .Jerusalem  and  the  plain,  12  Roman 
miles  northwest  of  the  capital.  They  con- 
trolled the  pass,  and  were  fortified  V)y  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  viii.  5)  :  but  especially  did  the 
walls  of  the  upper  town  engage  military  at- 
tention, for  it  occupied  the  more  strategic 
position  (1  Kin.  ix.  17;  1  Mac.  ix.  50;  ci). 
Judith  iv.  4).  Up  and  down,  i)ast  these 
towns,  repeatedly  surged  the  tide  of  war. 
The  Amorites  fled  down  this  pass  before 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  10  seq.).  The  Philistines 
ascended  it  to  make  war  with  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  18).  Judas  Maccabaeus  fought  two  bat- 
tles here  (1  Mac.  iii.  15  seq. ;  vii.  39  seq.),  and 
the  army  of  Cestius  Gallus,  governor  of  Syria, 
was  almost  annihilated  here  by  the  Jews 
(War  ii.  19,  8).  The  towns  still  exist  under 
the  names  Beit  'Ur  et-Tahta  and  el-Foka. 

Beth-jesh'i-motli,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth- 
jes'i-moth  [house  of  the  wastes]. 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pisgah 
and  the  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xii.  3  ;  xiii.  20;  War 
iv.  7,  6).  When  the  Israelites  encamped  at 
Shittim,  it  formed  the  southern  limit  of  the 
camp  (Num.  xxxiii.  49).  It  was  10  Roman 
miles  southeast  of  Jericho.  Direction  and 
distance  indicate  'Ain  es-Suwemeh,  and  this 
name  .seems  an  echo  of  Jeshimoth.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  Reubenites,  but  in  the  time 
of  Ezekiel  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Moabites 
(Josh.  xiii.  20;  Ezek.  xxv.  9). 

Beth-le-aph'rali.     See  Aphkah. 

Beth-leb'a-oth  [house  of  lionesses]. 

A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  assigned  to 
the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xv.  32 ;  xix.  6)  ;  see 
Beth-biri.     Not  identified. 

Bethle-hem  [house  of  bread]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  .Judah, 
originally  called  Ephrath  ;  hence,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  place  of  the  same  name  in 
Zebulun,  called  also  Bethlehem-judah  and 
Bethlehem-ephrathah  (Gen.  xxxv.  19;  Judg. 
xvii.  7;  Mic.  v.  2).  Bethlehem  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  cities  assigned  to  Judah 
(Josh.  XV. ;  .see,  however,  ver.  .">9,  Sei)tuagint). 
But  as  a  village  it  existed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  .Jacob.  Rachel  died  and  was  buried  in  its 
vicinity  (Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19;  xlviii.  7).  Its 
citizens  were  hospital)le  to  the  Levites  (Judg. 
xvii.  7;  xix.  1).  A  branch  of  Caleb's  family 
settled  in  the  town  and  attained  to  great  in- 
fluence (1  Chron.  ii.  51.  .54;  cp.  Ruth.  iv.  20). 
It  was  the  residence  of  Boaz.  of  Ruth  (i.  19 ; 
iv.  9-11),  doubtless  of  Obed  (iv.  21,  22),  and 
of  Jesse,  the  father  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  11, 
17  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1,  4).     As  the  birthplace  and 


Beth-maacah 


92 


Bethsaida 


ancestral  home  of  David,  it  was  the  city  of 
David  (Luke  ii.  11).  It  was  a  walled  town 
as  early  as  the  time  of  David.  It  fell  tem- 
porarily into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15).  Eehoboam  strengthened 
its  fortifications  (2  Chrou.  xi.  6).  Bethlehem- 
ites  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  21 ;  Neh.  vii.  26).  It  was  looked  to 
as  the  place  where  the  Messiah  should  be 
born  (Mic.  v.  2:  Mat.  ii.  5),  and  accordingly 
when  the  fullness  of  time  had  come  Jesus  be- 
came incarnate  at  Bethlehem.  In  its  vicinity 
the  annunciation  to  the  shepherds  took  place 
(Luke  ii.  1-20).  Thither  the  Magi  went  to 
salute  the  newborn  babe,  and  it  was  the  in- 
fants of  Bethlehem  who  were  murdered  by 
Herod  to  make  sure  that  among  them  he  had 
cut  ofi'the  future  king  (Mat.  ii.  1-18).  There 
has  never  been  any  doubt  as  to  its  .site.  It  is 
5  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  modern 
village  of  Beit  Lahm,  on  the  east  and  north- 
east slope  of  a  long  ridge,  which  to  the  west 
is  higher  than  the  village.  The  town  has 
several  gates.  The  houses  are  mostly  small, 
but  well  built.  The  inhabitants,  who  may 
be  4000  or  more,  are  mostly  Christians  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  Church.  There  are  in 
the  vicinity  vineyards,  orchards  of  fig  trees, 
and  olive  trees.  The  fields,  though  stony, 
produce  grain  abundantly,  and  at  harvest 
gleaning  may  be  seen  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Ruth.  A  little  east  of  the  town  is  the 
church  built  by  Helena,  the  mother  of  Con- 
stantine,  over  the  cave  said  to  be  the  stable 
in  which  the  nativity  took  jilace.  Half  a 
mile  to  the  north  of  the  town  is  the  tradi- 
tional tomb  of  Eachel.  On  the  southern  side 
of  the  town  is  a  valley  running  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  while  alnicst  at  the  walls  on  the  east  a 
valley  begins  which  joins  the  wady  es-Surar  or 
vale  of  Sorek,  and  near  by  is  also  an  upper 
branch  of  the  wady  es-Suut  or  vale  of  Elah 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvii.  2). 

2.  A  town  with  dependent  villages  within 
the  territory  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15).  It 
seems  to  have  been  this  Bethlehem  which 
gave  birth  to  the  judge  Ibzan  (Judg.  xii. 
8-10 ;  cp.  11).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  on 
the  site  of  the  modern  Beit  Lahm,  a  small 
and  wretched  village  7  miles  northwest  of 
Nazareth. 

Beth-ma'a-cah,  in  A.   V.  Beth-maachah 

[house  of  ]\I:uicah]. 

A  town  near  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon 
(2  Sam.  XX.  14, 15).  See  Abel-beth-maacah. 

Beth-mar'ca-both  [house  of  the  chariots]. 

A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xix.  5;  1 
Chron.  iv.  31).  Exact  site  unknown.  Per- 
haps Madmannah  was  a  chariot  station,  and 
was  spoken  of  by  this  name  (Josh.  xv.  31). 

Beth-me'on.     See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-mer'hak  [house  of  removal]. 

Probably  only  a  house  beside  the  brook 
Kidron,  between  Jerusalem  and  the  mount 
of  Olives  (2  Sam.  xv.  17,  R.  V.).     The  margin 


renders  it  the  Far  House  ;  the  A.  V.,  a  place 
that  was  far  oil'. 

Beth-nim'rah  [house  of  limpid  fresh 
water]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley  east  of  the 
river,  assigned  to  Gad  and  rebuilt  by  that 
tribe  (Num.  xxxii.  36  ;  Josh.  xiii.  27).  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome  locate  it  5  Roman  miles  to 
the  north  of  Livias,  now  Tell  er-Rameh.  At 
the  place  thus  indicated  ruins  bear  the  name 
Nimrin.  They  lie  amidst  rich,  well-watered 
j)asture  land. 

Beth-pa'let.     See  Beth-pelet. 

Beth-paz'zez  [house  of  dispersion]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  21).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Beth-pelet;  in  A.  Y.  Beth-phelet  and 
Beth-palet  [house  of  escape]. 

A  town  in  the  most  southerly  part  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27 ;  Neh.  xi.  26).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Betb-pe'or  [house  of  Peor]. 

A  town  near  Pisgah.  In  the  valley  opposite 
to  it  the  Israelites  had  their  main  encamp- 
ment, elsewhere  referred  to  as  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Abarim,  when  their  army  was  war- 
ring with  Sihon  and  Og  (cp.  Deut  iii.  29;  iv. 
46;  with  Num.  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  2S;  xxxiii. 
47-49).  In  this  valley  Moses  was  afterwards 
buried  (Deut.  xxxiv.  6).  The  town  was  as- 
signed to  the  Reubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  20).  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  it  lay  6  Roman  miles 
above,  that  is  in  the  mountains  east  of,  Livias, 
now  Tell  er-Rameh. 

Beth'pha-ge  [house  of  figs]. 

A  village  near  Bethany,  on  or  near  the 
road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem  (Mark  xi.  1 ; 
Luke  xix.  29).  It  probably  stood  between 
Bethany  and  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  the 
descent  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxi.  1 ; 
John  xii.  1,  12,  14),  and  near  the  old  road 
that  crosses  the  mountain  at  the  summit. 

Beth-phe'let.     See  Beth-pelet. 

Beth-ra'pha  [house  of  Rapha,  house  of  a 
giant]. 

A  family  of  Judah,  or  a  town  whose  inhabi- 
tants belonged  to  that  tribe  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Beth-re 'hob  [house  of  a  street]. 

A  town  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  by  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Jordan  (Num.  xiii.  21. 
where  it  is  called  simply  Rehob;  Judg.  xviii. 
28).  It  was  inhabited  by  Syrians,  who  joined 
the  Ammonites  in  a  great  war  with  David  (2 
Sam.  x.  6).  Robinson  doubtfully  located  it 
at  the  modern  fortress  of  Huuin  conmiand- 
ing  the  plain  of  Huleh.  in  which  Dan  was 
situated  ;  but  the  location  is  improbable. 

Beth-sa'i-da  [liouse  of  hunting  or  fishing]. 

A  town  on  the  lake  of  Gennesaret,  near 
the  Jordan,  rebuilt  by  Pliilip  tlie  tetrarch, 
and  named  by  him  Julias  in  honor  of  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus  (Anticj. 
xviii.  2,  1;  Life  72).  To  this  town,  wliich 
was  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea  (actually  at 


Beth-shean 


93 


Beth-shemesh 


the  northern  end),  Jesus  withdrew  on  re- 
ceiving news  of  the  murder  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist (Luke  ix.  10 ;  cp.  Mat.  xiv.  13 ;  John 
vi.  1).  Going  forth  to  a  desert  grassy  place, 
apparently  about  2  miles  down  the  eastern 
side  of  the  lake,  he  was  followed  by  the  mul- 
titude. In  the  evening  he  miraculously  fed 
them.  The  disciples  then  entered  into  a  boat 
to  i)recede  him  "  unto  the  other  side  to  [or 
toward]  Bethsaida  "  (Mark  vi.  45,  R.  V.).  Dur- 
ing the  evening  and  night,  the  disciples  were 
in  the  midst  of  the  sea  distressed  in  rowing, 
for  the  winjd  was  contrary  unto  them.  Jesus 
came  walking  on  the  sea,  and  was  taken  into 
the  boat.  And  when  they  had  crossed  over 
they  came  to  the  land  unto  Gennesaret  (ver. 
53).  Do  these  statements,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  John's  mention  of  "  Bethsaida  of 
Galilee"  (xii.  21),  imply  another  Bethsaida? 
Notable  scholars,  like  Robinson,  think  so,  and 
locate  it,  among  other  places,  at  'Ain  et-Tabi- 
ghah,  about  3  miles  southwest  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan.  But  the  existence  of  two  towns 
of  the  same  name  on  the  same  lake,  and  at  most 
only  a  few  miles  apart,  is  so  improbable  that 
the  words  of  the  evangelists  must  be  subjected 
to  careful  scrutiny  to  learn  whether  they  re- 
quire this  assumption ;  and  1.  The  ultimate 
destination  of  the  disciples  was  Capernaum 
(John  vi.  17) ;  but  it  was  determined  that 
they  should  sail  "toward  Bethsaida,"  keep- 
ing nearer  the  shore  than  the  direct  course 
to  Capernaum  would  require  (Thomson).  2. 
Even  if  their  purpose  was  to  make  a  stop  at 
Bethsaida,  it  was  proper  to  speak  of  going 
"  to  the  other  side  to  Bethsaida,"  for  Josephus 
uses  a  similar  expression  for  proceeding  by 
boat  from  Tiberias  3|  miles  to  Tarichese.  He 
"sailed  over  to  Tarichese"  (Life  59,  quoted 
by  G.  A.  Smith).  3.  Philip  was  of  Bethsaida 
of  Galilee  (John  xii.  21).  Thomson  suggests 
that  any  city  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  nar- 
row Jordan,  as"  Bethsaida-Julias  admittedly 
was,  would  almost  necessarily  have  part  of 
its  houses  or  a  suburb  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  river,  which  would  be  in  Gralilee.  Peter, 
Andrew,  and  Philip  were  Galilseans  and  of 
Bjthsaida.  Thomson  further  suggests  that 
probably  the  whole  city  on  both  banks  of 
the  river  was  ordinarily  attached  to  Galilee. 
Geo.  Adam  Smith  affirms  that  "  the  province 
of  Galilee  ran  right  round  the  lake."  His 
opinion  is  based  on  Josephus'  mention  of  a 
certain  Judas,  who  belonged  to  Ganiala  in 
Gaulouitis,  as  a  Galiltean  (War  ii.  8,  1  with 
Auticj.  xviii.  1,  1). 

Beth-she'an,  or,  contracted,  Beth'-shan 
[house  of  quiet  or  restful  security]. 

A  city  splendidly  situated  on  the  brow  of 
a  hill  just  where  the  valley  of  Jezreel  drops 
down  300  feet  to  the  level  of  the  Jordan.  In 
addition  to  enjoying  the  security  afl'orded  by 
the  natural  strength  of  the  city,  its  inhabi- 
tants early  rendered  themselves  formidable 
by  the  use  of  war  chariots  of  iron  (Josh. 
xvii.  16).  Beth-shean,  with  its  dependent 
towns,  fell   within  the  area  of  Issachar,  but 


was  given  to  the  Mauassites  (Josh.  xvii.  11 ; 
1  Chron.  vii.  29).  They  failed,  however,  to 
drive  out  the  Canaanites,  but  were  strong 
enough  to  make  them  paj'  tribute  (Josh.  xvii. 
12-16 ;  Judg.  i.  27,  28).  After  the  battle  of 
Gilboa,  the  Philistines  fastened  the  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  sons  to  the  wall  of  Beth-shean 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  10-13 ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  12-14).  In 
the  Greek  period  it  was  sometimes  called 
Nyssa,  but  its  common  name  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature  is  Scythopolis.  It  bore  this 
name  as  early  as  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabseus. 
In  several  instances  Scythopolis  is  written 
^Kv9u>v  TToAis,  city  of  the  Scythians  (Judg.  i.  27. 
Septuagiut;  Judith  iii.  10;  2  Mac.  xii.  29)  ; 
and  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  remnant  of 
the  Scythian  hordes  settled  here,  who  are 
said  to  have  advanced  through  Palestine 
against  Egypt  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh 
century  before  Christ  (Herod,  i.  103,  105; 
Pliny,  hist.  nat.  v.  16).  The  name  Scythopolis 
may.  however,  be  the  echo  of  some  Semitic 
word.  In  the  first  century  A.  v>.  the  popula- 
tion of  the  citv  was  predominantly  gentile 
(2  Mac.  xii.  30^;  War  ii.  18,  1,  3,  4  ;  Life  6), 
and  the  Jews  consequently  sacked  it  during 
the  war  with  the  Romans.  The  citizens  re- 
taliated by  massacring  the  Jewish  residents. 
Josephus  says  that  it  was  the  largest  of  the 
ten  cities  called  Decapolis,  apparently  disre- 
garding Damascus,  possibly  because  the  city 
on  the  Abanali  was  not  at  this  moment  a  mem- 
ber of  the  league  (War  iii.  9,  7).  It  was  the 
only  one  of  the  ten  cities  that  lay  west  of  the 
Jordan.  It  continued  to  figure  in  history 
as  late  as  the  crusades.  Though  the  name 
Scythopolis  lasted  for  centuries,  it  did  not 
ultimately  take  root,  and  the  Arab  village 
which  now  marks  its  site  is  called  Beisan. 
Extensive  ruins  of  the  city  still  remain,  which 
date  largely  from  the  Greco-Roman  period. 
Its  walls  must  have  been  between  2  and  3 
miles  round.  The  city  was  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  streams  flowing  through  deep 
ravines.  The  southern  section  contains  .he 
modern  village  and  hippodrome  (race  course), 
a  theater,  with  a  ruined  mosque,  and  part  of 
the  ancient  city  walls.  The  central  section 
is  almost  surrounded  by  the  two  streams,  and 
includes  the  present  mound  or  tell,  which 
rises  about  200  feet  high,  with  sides  nearly 
perpendicular,  and  at  its  top  traces  of  the 
thick  wall  which  once  enclosed  the  summit. 
The  northerly  one  has  a  church,  tombs,  and 
fort.  The  pri  ncipal  edifices  were  built  of  black 
basalt,  the  region  around  being  volcanic. 

Beth-stie'niesh  [house  of  the  sun]. 

1.  A  town  of  the  lowland,  in  the  vale  of 
Sorek,  now  called  Ain  Shems.  The  name 
suggests  that  it  was  once  a  seat  of  the  Canaan- 
ite  worship  of  the  sun.  It  was  allotted  to 
Judah,  and  lay  on  the  assigned  boundary 
line  (.Josh.  xv.  10)  ;  but  as  this  tribe  found 
itself  possessed  of  more  territory  than  neces- 
sary (xix.  9),  it  was  transferred  with  several 
other  towns  to  Dan  (41,  where  the  synonymous 
name  Ir-shemesh  is  used).     The  Danites  did 


Beth-shemite 


94 


Bezek 


not  occupy  it ;  and  when  provision  was  made 
for  the  tribe  of  Levi,  it  was  given  to  the 
priests  the  sons  of  Aaron,  and  reckoned  as 
set  apart  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (xxi.  16, 
cp.  9  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  5!)).  Of  course,  after  the 
formation  of  the  kingdom  it  was  within 
Judah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  11).  When  the  ark  was 
sent  back  from  the  Philistine  country  on  a 
new  cart  drawn  by  two  milch  kine  without 
human  guidance,  the  animals  took  the  way 
to  Beth-shemesh.  The  townspeople,  profanely 
looking  into  the  ark,  were  struck  by  a  plague 
which  was  fatal  to  seventy  of  their  number 
(Antiq.  vi.  1,  4).  After  the  words  seventy  men 
there  is  the  strange  insertion  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  rendered  suspicious  by  the  absence  of  the 
conjunction,  of  the  further  words  fifty  thou- 
sand men  (1  Sam.  vi.  1-21,  E.  V.).  One  of  Solo- 
mon's twelve  purveyors  drew  supplies  of 
food  from  the  town  and  district  (1  Kin.  iv. 
7,  9).  It  was  the  sceue  of  a  battle  between 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Joash,  king  of 
Israel,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  11;  2  Chron.  xxv.  21),  and  it  was 
taken  by  the  Philistines  during  the  reign  of 
Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Issachar,  be- 
tween Tabor  and  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xix.  22). 
Not  identified. 

3.  A  fenced  city  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
from  which,  however,  the  Canaanites  were 
not  driven  (Josh.  xix.  38;  Judg.  i.  33).  Not 
identified.  Possibly  the  town  of  this  name, 
already  mentioned  as  ou  the  boundary  of 
Issachar,  is  intended. 

4.  An  Egyptian  city  where  the  sun  was 
M'orshiped  (Jer.  xliii.  13) ;  doubtless  On. 

Beth-slie'mlte. 

A  native  of  Beth-shemesh  (1  Sam.  vi.  14, 
iS}. 

Beth-sMt'tali  [house  of  the  acacia]. 

A  town  between  the  valley  of  Jezreel  and 
Zererah  in  the  Jordan  valley  (Judg.  vii.  22, 
R.  V. ).  The  fact  that  it  is  coupled  with 
Zererah,  and  not  with  Beth-shean,  excludes 
its  identification  with  Shutta. 

Beth-su'ra.     See  Beth-zuk. 

Beth-tap'pu-ah  [house  of  apples  or  similar 
fruit]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  53),  the  modern  village  of  Tufiuh,  about 
■1  miles  west  of  Hebron  (cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Be-thu'el  [perhaps  abode  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Nahor  by.  liiswife  Milcah.  He 
was  the  father  of  Laban  and  Eebekah,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  22,  23 ; 
xxiv.  15,  29;  xxv.  20;  xxviii.  2,  5). 

2.  A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv. 
30;  in  Josh.  xix.  4  Bethul).  David  sent 
thither  part  of  the  recai)tnred  spoil  of  Ziklag 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  27).  In  tliis  latter  jiassage  it  is 
called  Bethel,  a  modified  form  of  the  name, 
more  suggestive  to  the  Hebrew  ear.  It  seems 
to  be  the  Cbesil  of  Josh.  xv.  30.  Not  identi- 
fied. Possibly  the  small  village  of  Beit  Aula, 
Gj  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 


Be'thul.     See  Bethuel  2. 

Beth-zach-a-ri'as. 

A  town  (1  Mac.  vi.  32,  33),  70  stades  or  8 
miles  from  Bethsura  (Antiq.  xii.  9,  4).  It  is 
identified  with  the  modern  Beit  Zakariya,  9 
Eoman  miles  l)y  road  north  of  Bethsura. 

Beth'-zur,  in  Maccabees  Bethsura  [house 
of  a  rockj. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  58).  It  was  fortified  by  Eehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  7).  In  Nehemiah's  time  half  of 
its  district  was  subject  to  Azbuk  (Neh.  iii.  16). 
In  the  Greek  period  the  name  was  written 
Bethsura.  and  it  was  important  as  a  frontier 
town  toward  Idumsea.  Here  Judas  Macca- 
bseus  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Syrian 
general  Lysias  (1  Mac.  iv.  29 ;  2  Mac.  xi.  5 : 
xiii.  19,  22).  The  patriot  leader  afterwards 
fortified  it  (1  Mac.  iv.  61 ;  vi.  7,  26,  31).  Want 
of  food  compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender 
it  to  the  Syrians  (49,  50).  Its  defeu.ses  were 
strengthened  by  Bacchides  (ix.  52).  but  it  was 
recaptured  by  Simon  (xi.  65,  66 ;  xiv.  7)  and 
refortified  (33).  The  name  lingers  in  the 
ruins  Beit  Sar,  4  miles  to  the  north  of  He- 
bron. 

Bet'o-nim  [pistachio-nuts] . 

A  town  of  Gad  (Josh.  xiii.  26).  Not  prop- 
erly identified. 

Beu'lah  [married]. 

A  name  prophetically  applied  to  the  once 
forsaken  land  of  Palestine  when  it  was  re- 
stored to  God's  favor  and  repeopled  after  the 
ca])tivity  (Is.  Ixii.  4). 

Be'zai. 

Founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whom  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  17  :  Neh.  vii.  23).  A  representative  of  the 
family  signed  the  covenant  of  fidelity  to  Je- 
hovah (Neh.  x.  18). 

Be'zal-el,  in  A.  V.  Be-zal'e-el  [in  the 
shadow  {i.  e.  under  the  pr<jtection)  of  God]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb,  and  a  grandson  of  Hur  (1 
Chron.  ii.  20)  ;  a  skillful  artificer  raised  up 
of  God  and  appointed  to  work  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  in  the  setting  of  precious  stones,  and 
the  carving  of  wood  for  the  furnishing  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  1-11 ;  xxxv.  30-35). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Be'zek  [dissemination,  sowing,  plantation]. 

A  town  evidently  in  central  Palestine,  not 
a  great  distnuce  from  Jabesh-gilead  (1  Sam. 
xi.  8,  11).  Twin  villages  of  this  name  ex- 
isted in  Euse))ius'  time  17  Eoman  miles  from 
Shechem  toward  Betii-shean.  Conder  iden- 
tifies the  site  with  the  ruin  Ilizik,  13  miles 
northeast  of  Shechem.  \\'ith  this  town  may 
be  identified  Bezek  mentioned  in  Judg.  i.  4 
seq..  on  the  assumiition  that  Adoni-bezck  ad- 
vanced southwanl  witli  his  forces  to  unite 
with  the  southern  Canaanites,  was  met  and 
repulsed  by  Judah  and  Simeon,  and  pursued 
to  his  capital. 


Bezer 


95 


Bible 


Be'zer  [gold  or  silver  ore]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Cbron. 
vii.  37). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Avilderness,  on  the  plateau 
within  the  territory  of  Reuben.  It  was  given 
to  the  Levites,  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
refuge  (Deut.  iv.  43  ;  Josh.  xx.  8 ;  xxi.  36  ;  1 
Mac.  V.  26).  It  afterwards  came  into  the 
possession  of  Moab,  and  Mesha,  king  of  Moab, 
fortitied  it  (Moabite  Stone  27).  Not  identified. 

Be'zeth. 

A  place  not  far  from  Jerusalem,  where 
Bacchides  jjitched  his  camp  (1  Mac.  vii.  19), 
the  village  of  Beth-zetho  or  Berzetho  (Antiq. 
xii.  10,  2),  doubtless  Bezetha,  the  northern 
suburb  of  Jerusalem.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Bi'ble  [Greek  Biblin,  books,  ecclesiastical 
Latin  Bibiia].  It  is  believed  that  the  Greek 
word  Bihlla  was  first  applied  to  the  sacred 
books  by  John  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople from  A.  D.  398  to  404. 

Etymologically  viewed,  the  Bible  means 
"the  Books,"  and  that  no  qualifying  adjec- 
tive stands  before  the  noun  implies  that  these 
writings  were  regarded  by  those  who  used 
the  term  as  forming  a  class  by  themselves 
and  as  superior  to  all  other  literary  produc- 
tions. They  are  uniquely  and  preeminently 
the  books.  The  same  view  is  suggested  by 
the  etymology  of  the  word  Scripture  and 
Scriptures,  and  the  fact  is  rendered  all  the 
more  significant  that  both  terms  occur  fre- 
quently with  this  implied  meaning  in  the 
N.  T. '(Mat.  xxi.  42;  Acts.  viii.  32).  The 
term  Bible  is  absent  from  the  sacred  page ; 
it  is  of  ecclesiasticitl  origin.  The  plural  term 
Biblia  marks  the  important  fact  that  the 
Bible  is  not  a  single  book,  but  a  great  many. 
The  words  Bible  and  Scripture,  on  the  other 
hand,  being  both  in  the  singular  number,  em- 
phasize the  fact  that,  under  the  diversity  of 
human  authorship,  there  lies  a  wonderful 
unity,  pointing  to  the  operation  of  one  direct- 
ing Mind,  which  acted  during  more  than  a 
thou.sand  consecutive  years  when  these  writ- 
ings were  being  prod  uced.  The  claims  to  divine 
authority  made  by  Scripture  are  investigated 
bj'  the  science  of  Apologetics.  The  word  is 
used  in  a  Greek  rather  than  in  an  English 
sense,  and  is,  therefore,  liable  to  be  misun- 
derstood. It  is  related  that  when  George  III. 
was  told  that  Bishop  Watson  had  published 
an  Apohxjy  for  the  Bible,  he  drily  remarked 
that  he  did  not  know  before  that  the  Bible 
required  an  apology.  The  bishop  used  the 
word  "Apology"  like  the  Greek  apologia, 
to  mean  defense;  and  the  science  of  Apolo- 
getics defends  the  Bible.  A  second  science  is 
that  of  Biblical  Criticism.  This  is  divided 
into  Higher  Criticism,  which  inquires  into 
the  origin  and  character  of  the  several  books, 
and  seeks  to  determine  by  whom,  under  what 
circumstances,  and  with  what  design  they 
were  written ;  and  Lower  or  Textual  Criticism, 
which  seeks,  by  the  aid  of  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts and  versions,  to  bring  the  text  of  these 


books  to  the  highest  practicable  level  of  ac- 
curacy. Cp.  Apocrypha,  Canon.  The  science 
of  Hermeueutics  investigates  the  principles 
of  interpretation,  while  Exegesis  applies  them. 
The;rCoutents  of  the  Bible  are  then  methodi- 
cally arranged.  It  will  be  found  when  this 
is  done  that  they  touch  geography,  history, 
science,  philosophy,  ethics— in  fact,  nearly 
every  department  of  human  thought.  Further, 
Biblical  Theology  investigates  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bible  in  their  historical  development, 
and  Dogmatic  or  Systematic  Theology  seeks  to 
arrange  the  doctrines  into  the  system  which 
is  contained  in  Scripture,  shjow  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  other  truths,  and  to  state 
them  with  precision. 

The  Bible  embraces  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  or  covenants.  The  O.  T.  was 
written  in  Hebrew,  except  a  few  passages  in 
Aramaic,  and  the  IS'.  T.  in  Greek.  For  the 
several  books  of  the  O.  T.  and  N.  T.,  see  the 
articles  which  bear  their  names  ;  and  for  the 
versions  of  the  Scripture  into  other  tongues, 
see  Samaritan,  Septuagint,  Versions, 
and  Vulgate. 

Each  of  the  sacred  books  on  its  original 
publication  came  forth  without  division  into 
chapters  or  verses.  The  author  of  the  pres- 
ent division  into  chapters  is  believed  to  have 
been  either  the  Spanish  cardinal  Hugo  or  the 
British  archbishop  Laugton,  both  of  whom 
lived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Jewish 
Masorites  of  the  ninth  century  divided  the 
O.  T.  into  verses.  The  division  of  the  N.  T. 
into  its  present  verses  is  due  to  Eobert 
Stephens,  who  introduced  them  into  the 
Greek  and  Latin  N.  T.  wiiich  he  published 
at  Geneva  in  1551 ;  and  they  were  adopted 
in  the  English  version  of  the  N.  T.  printed 
at  Geneva  in  1557.  The  whole  Bible  first 
appeared  with  its  present  chapters  and  verses 
in  Stephen's  edition  of  the  Vulgate  in  1555. 
The  first  English  Bible  to  be  thus  divided 
was  the  Genevan  edition  of  1560  (see  New 
Testament).  They  are  not  perfect.  Ee- 
garding  chapters,  there  is  an  imperfection  in 
drawing  the  line  between  the  i.  and  ii.  of 
Genesis  at  the  place  where  the  separation  is 
now  made.  Gen.  i.  should  also  include  Gen. 
ii.  1-3,  and  chapter  ii.  begin  at  ii.  4,  where 
"God"  is  succeeded  by  "the  Lord  God." 
Is.  liii.  should  begin  with  Hi.  13,  and  John 
vii.  should  take  in  also  viii.  1.  Regarding 
the  verses,  they  are  absolutely  indispensable 
for  the  purpose  of  reference,  but  they  should 
be  ignored  when  one  is  following  the  thread 
of  an  argument  or  of  a  narrative.  The  R.  V. 
enables  one  to  do  this  easily,  for  it  does  not 
make  the  division  into  verses  prominent ;  but 
greater  accuracy  of  reference  is  secured  by 
citing  the  number  of  the  ver.se  from  the  A.  V. 

The  Bible  has  already  been  translated, 
in  its  entirety  or  in  jiart,  into  more  than 
three  hundred  languages  or  dialects.  It  is 
not  an  exaggeration,  when  referring  to  the 
writers  of  the  Bible,  to  adopt  the  language 
of  the  psalmist,    meant   originally  for  the 


Bichri 


96 


Birsha 


silent  theological  teaching  of  the  starry  sky: 
"Their  line  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth, 
and  their  words  to  the  end  of  the  world  (Ps. 
xix.  4). 

Bich'ri  [youthful]. 

Father  oi"  the  rebel  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xx.  1). 

Bid'kar. 

A  cai)tuin  under  Jehu  {2  Kin.  ix.  25). 

Big'tha. 

A  chamberlain  who  ministered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Xerxes  (Esth.  1.  10). 

Big'than  or  Big'tba-na  [Pei-sian  and  San- 
scrit Baijtulnna,  gift  of  fortune]. 

A  chamberlain,  keeper  of  the  palace  door, 
who  conspired  against  king  Xerxes  (Esth.  ii. 
21  ;  vi.  2). 

Big'vai. 

1.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  exiles  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  2). 

2.  Founder  of  a  family,  of  which  some  2000 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  14;  Neh.  vii.  19),  and  several  score  after- 
wards with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  14): 

Bil'dad. 

A  Shuhite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii.  11), 
who  made  three  speeches  to  the  patriarch 
(viii.,  xviii.,  xxv.). 

Bil'e-am  [perhaps  greed,  consumption,  de- 
struction]. 

A  town  of  Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jordan, 
which  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the 
family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron.  vi.  70)  ;  see 
Ibleam.  In  its  stead  Gath-rimmon  appears 
in  the  jiresent  Hebrew  text  of  Josh.  xxi.  25. 
This  latter  name  has  probably  been  errone- 
ously copied  from  the  preceding  verse.  The 
Septuagint  (Vat.  and  Alex.)  lends  confirma- 
tion to  this  view. 

Bil'gah  [cheerful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  fifteenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  6,  14). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  perhaps  repre- 
senting the  ])riestly  course  of  this  name,  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
xii.  5,  7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's 
house  among  the  priests  bore  this  name  (ver. 

IH)  :    cp.  BiLGAI. 

Bil'gai  [cheerful]. 

One  of  the  priests  who,  doubtless  in  behalf 
of  a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in 
the  (lays  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8) ;  cp.  under 
tlicsimilar  name  Bilgah. 

Bil'hali  [perhaps  bashfulness]. 

1.  Rachel's  maidservant,  who,  at  her  mis- 
tress' desire,  became  one  of  Jacob's  secondary 
wives.  She  was  the  mother  of  Dan  and  Nanh- 
tali  (den.  xxx.  1-8  :  1  Chron.  vii.  V.',).  Ulti- 
mately she  committed  sin  with  Reuben  (Gen. 
XXXV.  22). 

2.  A  Simeonite  town  (1  Chron.  iv.29).  See 
Baalah. 


Birhan  [perhaps  bashful]. 

1.  A  llorite,  son  of  Ezer  (Gen.  xsxvi.  27). 

2.  A  Benjaniite,  family  of  Jediael,  and  him 
self  the  ancestor  of  several  fathers'  houses 
(1  Clirou.  vii.  lOj. 

Bil'shan. 

One  of  the  twelve  chief  men  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (.Ezra  ii.  2; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

Bim'hal. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Beriah,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chron.  vii.  33). 

Bin'e-a. 

A  son  of  Moza,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  sou  (1  Chron.  viii.  37  ;  ix.  43). 

Bin'nu-i  [built]. 

1.  The  head  of  a  family,  of  which  several 
hundred  returned  from  the  captivity.  His 
name  is  also  pronounced  Bani  (Ezra  ii.  10 ; 
Neh.  vii.  15). 

2  and  3.  Two  men,  a  son  of  Pahath-moab 
and  a  son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wile 
(Ezra  X.  30,  38). 

4.  A  Levite  who  went  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  S).  He  was  a  son  of 
Henadad  (x.  9).  His  son  was  one  who  re- 
ceived the  silver  and  gold  brought  from 
Babylon  to  the  temjile  by  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  33), 
and  his  family  was  represented  at  the  buiUl- 
ing  of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  24),  and  its  repre- 
sentative sealed  the  covenant  (x.  9). 

Birds. 

The  Hebrews  classed  as  birds  all  animals 
which  fly,  including  the  bat  and  winged  in- 
sects. Tristram  enumerates  348  species  of 
birds  as  either  indigenous  or  visitants  to  Pales- 
tine. Of  these  271  belong  to  the  Paliearctic 
zone  of  Sclater — that  to  which  most  of  the 
European  birds  belong  ;  40  to  thi'  Ethiopian, 
and  7  to  the  Indian  zone ;  while  30,  as  far  as 
is  known,  are  peculiar  to  Palestine  itself. 
The  Ethiopian  and  Indian  types  are  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  Dead  Sea  basin, 
but  it  is  so  depressed  beneath  the  level  of  the 
ocean  that  it  is  really  a  small  tropical  region 
located  in  the  midst  of  the  temperate  zone. 
In  the  Mosaic  law  twenty  or  twenty-one  birds 
and,  in  the  case  of  four  of  them,  their  kind 
are  expressly  named  as  uncleaJi  (Lev.  xi.  13 
19  ;  Dent.  xiV.  11-20).  The  flesh  and  the  eggs 
of  all  clean  birds  were  eaten  (cp.  Is.  x.  14  :  1  ^u  ke 
xi.  12 >,  but  the  only  birds  used  for  sacrifice 
were  turtle  doves  and  young  i)igeons  (Lev.  i. 
14).  Doves  were  domesticated  (Is.  Ix.  ^).  and 
later,  chickens.  The  cock  is  mentioned  (Mat. 
xxvi.34),and  the  hen  (xxiii..']7;  Lukexiii.  34). 
Wild  fowl  were  hunted,  among  other  ways,  by 
decoy  birds  (Ecclus.  xi.  30),  with  snares  (Amos 
iii.  5),  and  with  nets  (Prov.  i.  17).  The  mi- 
gration of  birds  is  referred  to  (Jer.  viii.  7). 

Bir'sha. 

A  king  of  Gomorrah  who  was  defeated  by 
Clivdorlaomer  and  his  confederates  (Gen.  xiv. 
2,  8,  10). 


Birthday 

Birth'day. 

The  birth  of  a  child,  especially  of  a  son, 
was  a  glad  occasion,  and  was  often  celebrated 
by  a  feast  (Jer.  xx.  15;  Antiq.  xii.  4,  7).  The 
anniversary  of  one's  birth  was  celebrated  by 
the  EgyjJtians  and  Persians  (Gen.  xl.  20 ; 
Herod,  i.  133).  Herod  the  tetrarch  kept  the 
anniversary  of  either  his  birth  or  his  acces- 
sion, it  is  debated  which  (Mat.  xiv.  6). 

Birth'right. 

A  certain  right  or  privilege  considered  to 
belong  to  the  lirstboru  son  in  a  family,  and 
which  is  not  .shared  by  his  younger  brothers. 
The  eldest  son  ordinarily  succeeded  to  his 
father's  rank  and  position,  as  head  of  the 
family  or  ti-ibe,  and  as  representative  of  its 
prerogatives.  He  also  inherited  a  double 
portion  of  liis  father's  property,  a  right  guar- 
anteed to  the  firstborn  even  wluii  liis  mother 
was  the  less  loved  of  two  wives  (Deut.  xxi. 
17 ;  cp.  2  Kin.  ii.  9).  A  birthright  might  be 
sold  to  a  younger  brother,  as  Esau  sold  his 
birthright  to  Jacob  (Gen.  xxv.  29,  34 :  Heb. 
xii.  16).  It  might  also  be  forfeited  on  account 
of  misconduct  (1  Chron.  v.  1). 

Bir'za-ith,  in  A.  V.  Bir'za-vitli  [openings, 
wounds].  The  form  in  R.  V.  is  the  tradi- 
tional reading,  that  in  A.  V.  represents  the 
consonants  of  the  present  text. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Malchiel ;  or  possibly 
a  town,  meaning  olive  well  (1  Chr(ju.  vii.  31). 

Bish'lam. 

A  Persian  official  who  joined  in  the  com- 
plaint to  Artaxerxes  that  the  Jews  were  re- 
building Jerusalem  (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Bish'op  [a  corruption  of  Latin  episcopus, 
<]rreek  episkopos.  an  overseer]. 

The  Greek  word  is  u.sed  in  the  Septuagint  for 
an  official  overseer,  whether  civil  or  religious, 
as  Eleazar  the  priest  (Num.  iv.  16).  and  offi- 
cers of  the  army  (xxxi.  14).  In  the  N.  T.  the 
word  occurs  first  in  the  exhortation  of  Paul  to 
the  elders  or,  as  in  the  margin,  presbyters  of 
the  church  at  Ephesus,  when  he  said,  "  Take 
heed  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  flock,  in 
the  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you 
bishops,"  or,  as  in  the  margin,  ' ' over.seers " 
{Acts  XX.  17,  28,  R.  V.).  Here  and  elsewhere 
Paul  identifies  elders,  presbyters,  and  bishops 
(Tit.  i.  5-7).  The  terms  are  difierent  desig- 
nations for  the  incumbent  of  the  same  office. 
Elsewhere  he  distinguishes  simply  between 
bishop  and  deacon  (Phil.  i.  1 :  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8). 
Peter,  using  the  verb  episkopeo,  exhorts  the 
■elders  to  tend  the  flock  of  God,  "exercising 
the  oversight,  not  of  constraint,  but  will- 
ingly "  (1  Pet.  V.  2,  R.  v.).  In  the  church  of 
the  N.  T.  the  duties  of  the  bishop  were  to 
care  for  the  flock  of  God  (Acts  xx.  28  ;  1  Pet. 
V.  2).  He  was  the  shepherd,  bearing  rule 
and  watching  in  behalf  of  souls,  admonish- 
ing, encouraging,  and  supporting  (1  Thes.  v. 
14;  Heb.  xiii.  17),  and  some  among  them  la- 
bored in  the  word  and  in  teaching  (1  Tim.  v. 
17).  His  qualifications  are  enumerated  in  1 
7 


97  Bithynia 

Tim. iii.  1-7 and  Tit. i. 7-9.  Ai)luralityof  them 
existed  in  the  church  at  Phili])pi,  as  in  that 
of  Ephesus  (Phil.  i.  1);  and  the  college  of 
presbyter-bishoi)s  ordained  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands  (1  Tim.  iv.  14).  In  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  the  elders  and  apostles  consulted 
together,  and  the  decision  of  the  council  was 
given  in  the  name  of  the  apostles  and  elders 
(Acts  XV.  6,  22 ;  xvi.  4  ;  xxi.  18) ;  see  Elder. 
The  name  is  applied  figuratively  to  Jesus  (1 
Pet.  ii.  25).  A  distinction,  however,  grew  up 
very  early  in  the  Church  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishop.  It  appears  in  the  sec- 
ond century,  being  mentioned  in  the  epistles 
of  Ignatius,  who  died  in  107  or  116.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Roman  Catholic  Council  of  Trent 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  "  Bishops,  being  the 
successors  of  the  apostles,  are  placed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  govern  the  Church  of  God,  and 
to  be  superior  to  their  presbyters  or  priests." 
Roman  Catholic  opinion  assumes  that  the 
apostles  had  a  general  supervision  of  the  con- 
gregation, while  the  elders  whom  they  had 
ordained  had  the  local  oversight;  but  as  the 
congregations  increased  in  number,  the  apos- 
tles ordained  assistants  whom  they  appointed 
their  successors,  to  be  overseers  of  the  con- 
gregation in  a  district.  Such  were  the  angels 
of  the  seven  churches  (Rev.  i.  20)  ;  see  Angel. 
High  Anglicans  find  the  institution  implied 
in  the  position  of  Jesus'  brother  James  in 
the  church  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  angels  of  the 
seven  churches,  and  in  the  work  of  Timothy 
and  Titus.  Paul  did  indeed  exhort  Timothy 
to  tarry  at  Ephesus,  order  public  worship,  ex- 
hort and  teach  (1  Tim.  i.  3  fi".)  ;  and  Titus, 
whom  Paul  had  before  employed  as  a  mes- 
senger to  the  Corinthians  (2  Cor.  xii.  18),  he 
left  in  Crete  to  set  in  order  things  that  were 
wanting,  and  to  appoint  elders,  called  also 
bishops,  in  every  city  (Tit.  i.  5-7).  But  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  Timothy  was  in  the  first  in- 
stance ordained  bj- presbytery  (1  Tim.  iv.  14), 
and  there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  N.  T.  of  the 
apostles  appointing  any  man  to  succeed  them. 

Bi-thi'ah  [a  daughter,  in  the  sense  of  a 
worshiper,  of  Jehovah]. 

A  daughter  of  Pharaoh  and  wife  of  Mered, 
a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  18).  Her  name 
indicates  that  she  was  a  convert  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah. 

Bith'ron  [cut,  division,  gorge]. 

A  region,  doubtless  a  valley,  north  of  the 
Jabbok  near  Mahanaim  (2  Sam.  ii.  29). 

Bi-thyn'i-a. 

A  country  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Black 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  on 
the  east  by  Paphlagouia  and  part  of  Phrygia, 
and  on  the  west  by  Mysia.  But  its  boundaries 
varied  at  diflferent  times.  It  was  colonized 
by  the  Thyni  or  Bithyni  from  Thrace,  in 
Europe,  who  conquered  or  drove  out  the  Beb- 
ryees,  its  original  inhabitants,  and  imparted 
to  it  their  own  name  (Herod,  vii.  75).  Under 
the  Persian  empire  it  constituted  a  satrapy. 


Bittern 


98 


Blindness 


Nicomedes  III.  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans 
in  74  B.  C.  Paul  and  Silas  attempted  to  en- 
ter Bithynia,  but  the  Si)irit  suffered  them  not 
(Acts  xvi.  7).  The  gospel  was  lanied  tliither 
by  other  means.  Peter  was  al)le  to  address 
Christians  of  Bithynia  in  his  first  letter  (1  Pet. 
i.  1).  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury Pliny  the  younger  reported  numerous 
Christians  there.  Laterstill,in  two  of  its  towns, 
Nicsea  and  Chalcedon,  great  councils  of  the 
Church  were  held.  It  is  a  fertile  country,  in 
which  the  vine  is  largely  cultivated.  In 
various  parts,  especially  in  the  chain  of  mount 
01ympus,whichrunsalongitss(iutliern  bound- 
ary, there  are  forests  of  oak,  interspersed  with 
beech  trees,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts. 

Bit'tern. 

The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kippod,  the  one  contracting  or  rolling  itself 
together;  an  animal  frecjuenting  ruins  (Is. 
xiv.  23;  xxxiv.  11),  which  ascended  to  the 
top  of  ruined  doors  or  to  window  sills,  and 
thence  made  its  voice  heard  (Zeph.  ii.  14). 
The  bittern  (Botaurus  steUaris)  is  a  long- 
necked  and  long-legged  wading  bird,  habit- 
ually frequenting  pools  of  water,  but  not 
likely  to  be  heard  giving  voice  from  a  ruined 
window.  The  E.  V.  considers  the  animal  to  be 
the  porcuiiine.  while  Tristram  identifies  it  as 
probal)ly  the  Scops  Owl  {Scops  »//«),  a  migrant 
in  Palestine  for  tlie  summer  months,  breeding 
in  the  walls  of  old  ruins  and  in  hollow  trees. 

Bi-tu'men. 

Mineral  pitch.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  it :  (1)  Earthy  bitumen  ;  (2)  elastic  bitu- 
men, elaterite  or  mineral  caoutchouc ;  (3) 
compact  bitumen  or  asphalt,  asphaltum,  or 
Jew's  pitch.  In  its  appearance  it  resembles 
common  pitch.  It  sinks  in  water,  is  easily 
melted,  is  very  inflammable,  and  when  set 
on  fire  burns  with  a  red  smoky  flame.  It  is 
produced  in  the  chemistry  of  nature  by  the 
enclosure  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  so  that  it  is  in  immediate  contact 
with  water,  while  atmospheric  air  is  quite 
shut  out.  There  is  a  pitch  lake  in  Trinidad. 
Bitumen  or  asphalt  exists  at  or  near  the  Dead 
Sea.  called,  in  consequence,  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  Lake  Asphaltites.  It  is  found 
also  at  Hit,  on  tlie  Euphrates,  above  Babylon, 
and  in  other  places.  Bitumen  was  the  slime 
with  which  the  bricks  used  for  the  erection 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  were  cemented  (Gen. 
xi.  3).  The  slime  pits  in  which  the  defeated 
kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  fell  were  bitu- 
men pits  (xiv.  10). 

Biz'i-o-tM'ali,  in  A.  V.  Biz-joth'jah  [con- 
tempt of  Jehovah]. 

A  town  in  the  most  southerly  portion  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  28).  The  text  is  suspicious. 
Almost  the  same  consonants  would  mean  "its 
daughters  or  suburbs "  (Septuagint,  cp.  Neh. 
xi.  27). 

Biz'tha. 

A  chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Xerxes  (Esth. 
i.  lOj. 


Blain. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"ba'bu'oth, 
pustules.  It  signifles  a  bleb,  a  bubble  of  mat- 
ter, a  blister  full  of  serum  arising  upon  the 
skin.  It  would  now  probably  be  ranked  un- 
der the  skin  disease  called  pemphigus.  Blains 
accompanied  by  boils  is  the  disease  which  con- 
stituted the  sixth  of  the  ten  plagues  of  Egypt 
(Ex.  ix.  8-11). 

Blas'phe-my. 

Defamatory  or  other  wicked  language  di- 
rected against  God  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  10-18  :  Is.  Hi. 
5;  Rev.  xvi.  9,  11,  21).  Under  the  Mosaic 
law  it  was  punished  bj'  stoning  (Lev.  xxiv. 
Ifi).  The  charge  of  blasphemy  was  falsely 
brought  against  Naboth  (1  Kin.  xxi.  10-13), 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  11),  and  our  Lord  (Mat.  ix. 
3 ;  xxvi.  65.  66:  John  x.  36). 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  con- 
sisted in  attributing  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
which  were  wrought  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  to 
Satanic  power  (Mat.  xii.  22-32 ;  Mark  iii. 
22-30). 

Blas'tus  [a  sprout  or  shoot,  a  sucker]. 

A  palace  functionary  who  had  charge  of 
Herod  Agrippa's  bedchamber  (Acts  xii.  20). 

Bless. 

The  three  leading  meanings  which  the  verb 
bless  has  in  Scripture  are  : 

1.  To  bestow  divine  favor  and  confer  di- 
vine benefits  (Gen.  i.  22;  ii.  3  ;  ix.  1-7). 

2.  To  adore  God  for  his  goodness  and  return 
thanks  (Ps.  ciii.  1;  and  Mat.  xxvi.  26;  Mark 
xiv.  22  with  Luke  xxii.  19  and  1  Cor.  xi.  24). 

3.  To  invoke  God's  favor  on  a  person  (Gen. 
xxvii.  4,  27-29;  1  Chron.  xvi.  2:  Ps.  cxxix. 
8),  including  salutation  and  even  the  ordi- 
nary greeting,  "Peace  be  to  you"  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  5,  6,  14 ;  2  Kin.  iv.  29). 

Bless'ing. 

Any  advantage  conferred  or  wished  for. 
Specially — 

1.  Favors,  advantages,  conferred  by  God, 
and  bringing  pleasure  or  happiness  in  their 
train  (Gen.  xxxix.  5  :  Deut.  xxviii.~8  ;  Prov. 
X.  22,  etc.). 

2.  The  invocation  of  God's  favor  upon  a 
person  (Gen.  xxvii.  12). 

3.  A  present,  a  token  of  good  will  (Gen 
xxxiii.  11 ;  Josh.  xv.  19  ;  2  Kin.  v.  15). 

Blind'ness. 

Blindness  is  extremely  prevalent  in  tlic 
east.  Its  main  causes  are  snialljiox,  and  es- 
pecially ophthalmia,  aggravated  liy  iiecnliar 
conditions,  such  as  the  peri)etnal  glare  of  the 
sun,  the  quantity  of  fine  dust  in  the  air,  and 
flies.  Children  are  also  sometimes  born  blind 
(John  ix.  1).  Consequently  blind  beggars  are 
frequent  (Mat.  ix.  27;  xii.  22;  xx.  30;  xxi. 
14).  Total  or  pai'tial  blindness  may  result 
from  old  age  (Gen.  x.xvii.  1 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  15 ; 
1  Kin.  xiv.  4).  The  eyes  of  captives  tiiken 
in  war  were  frequently  put  out  by  barbarous 
victors,  as  by  tlu'  Ammonites,  Philistines,  As- 
syrians, and  Babylonians  (Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  1 


Blood 


99 


Boil 


Sam.  xi.  2;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7).  In  a  few  in- 
stances men  were  miraculously  smitten  with 
temporary  blindness  (Gen.  xix.  11  ;  2  Kin.  vi. 
18-22  ;  Acts  ix,  9  ;  xiii.  11).  The  Mosaic  law 
inculcated  the  exercise  of  humanity  toward 
the  blind  (Lev.  xix.  14  ;  Deut.  xxvii.  18). 


Assyrian  King  piercing  the  Eyes  of  Captives. 

Blood. 

The  vital  fluid  circulating  through  the 
body,  and  conveyed  by  a  system  of  deep- 
seated  arteries  from  the  heart  to  the  extrem- 
ities, and  by  a  system  of  superficial  veins 
back  again  to  the  heart.  Arterial  blood  is 
florid  red,  while  venous  blood  is  of  a  dark 
purple  or  modena  hue.  The  life  is  in  the 
blood  (Lev.  xvii.  11,  14)  ;  or  the  blood  is  the 
life  (Deut.  xii.  23),  though  not  exclusively 
(Ps.  civ.  30).  The  blood  represented  the  life, 
and  so  sacred  is  life  before  God  that  the  blood 
of  murdered  Abel  could  be  described  as  cry- 
ing to  God  fn)m  the  ground  for  vengeance 
(Gen.  iv.  10) ;  and  immediately  after  the 
flood  the  eating  of  the  blood  of  the  lower 
animals  was  forbidden,  although  their  slaugh- 
ter for  food  was  authorized  (ix.  3,  4  ;  Acts  xv. 
20,  29).  and  the  law  was  laid  down,  "  Whoso 
sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood 
be  shed"  (Gen.  ix.  6).  The  loss  of  life  is  the 
penalty  for  sin,  and  its  typical  vicarious  sur- 
render was  necessary  to  remission  (Heb.  ix. 
22),  and  so,  under  the  ^losaic  law,  the  blood  of 
animals  was  used  in  all  offerings  for  sin,  and 
the  blood  of  beasts  killed  on  the  hunt  or 
slaughtered  for  food  was  poured  out  and  cov- 
ered with  earth,  because  withheld  by  God 
from  man's  consumption  and  reserved  for 
purposes  of  atonement  (Lev.  xvii.  10-14 ;  Deut. 
xii.  15, 16).  The  '"  blood  of  Jesus,"  the  "  blood 
of  Christ,"  the  "blood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  or 
'■  the  blood  of  the  Lamb."  are  figurative  ex- 
pressions for  his  atoning  death  (1  Cor.  x.  16  ; 
Eph.  ii.  13  ;  Heb.  ix.  14  ;  x.  19  ;  1  Pet.  i.  2,  19  ; 
1  John  i.  7:  Eev.  vii.  14;  xii.  11). 

For  revenger,  or  rather  avenger,  of  blood, 
see  Avenger. 

Blood'y  Flux.  See  Dy.sentery. 

Blood'y  Sweat.    See  Sweat. 

Bo-a-ner'ges  [sons  of  tumult  or  thunder]. 


A  name  given  by  Jesus  to  James  and  John 
on  account  of  their  impetuosity  (Mark  iii.  17; 
cp.  Luke  ix.  54,  55). 

Boar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  H^z'tr,  when 
it  refers  to  wild  swine,  and  especially  to  the 
male  of  wild  swine  (Ps.  Ixxx.  13).  When  the 
reference  is  to  the  domesticated  animal,  it  is 
rendered  swine.  The  wild  boar  is  three  or 
more  feet  long,  not  counting  the  tail.  The 
canine  teeth  project  beyond  the  upper  lip, 
constituting  formidable  tusks,  with  which  it 
seeks  to  rip  uxj  its  assailants.  The  female  is 
smaller  than  the  male,  and  has  smaller  tusks. 
The  animal  is  still  found  in  Palestine,  espe- 
cially in  the  ravines  east  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  valley  near  Jericho,  in  the  swamps  of  the 
waters  of  Merom,  on  Tabor,  Lebanon,  and 
Carmel,  and  in  the  plain  of  Sharon. 

Bo'az,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Bo'oz  [commonly 
interpreted  as  meaning  "  In  him  is  strength," 
but  both  spelling  and  accentuation  are  against 
this  explanation]. 

1.  A  wealthy  and  honorable  Bethlehemite, 
kinsman  to  the  husband  of  Euth  the  Moab- 
itess.  He  respected  the  memory  of  the  dead 
by  marrying  Euth  after  the  decease  of  her 
husband,  and  became  ancestor  of  David  and 
of  Christ  (Euth  ii.-iv. ;  Mat.  i.  5).  Late  Jew- 
ish tradition,  destitute  of  all  probability,  iden- 
tifies him  with  the  judge  Ibzan. 

2.  One  of  two  pillars,  that  on  the  left,  set 
up  in  the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin. 
vii.  15-22). 

Boch'e-ru  [firstborn]. 

A  son  of  Azel  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  38). 

Bo'chim  [weepers]. 

A  place  near  Gilgal,  where  the  Israelites 
repented  and  wept  under  the  rebuke  of  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  for  their  disobedience  of 
God's  commands  (Judg.  ii.  1-5).  Its  exact 
site  is  unknown. 

Bo'lian  [thumb]. 

1.  A  son  of  Eeuben  (Josh.  xv.  6;  xviii.  17), 
unless  Bohan  is  a  common  noun  in  these 
passages. 

2.  The  stone  of  Bohan,  son  of  Eeuben,  op 
the  stone  known  as  the  Eeubenite's  thumb, 
was  a  landmark  on  the  boundary  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  not  a  great  distance 
from  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xv.  6 ;  xviii.  17). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Boil. 

An  inflamed  ulcer.  It  was  inflicted  along 
with  blains  as  the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  (Ex. 
ix.  8-11 ;  cp.  Deut.  xxviii.  27,  35^.  It  was  a 
prominent  symptom  in  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii.  18- 
20).  It  constituted  the  main  feature  of  Heze- 
kiah's  disease,  which  brought  his  life  into 
imminent  danger  (2  Kin.  xx.  7  ;  Is.  xxxviii. 
21).  Job  was  smitten  by  Satan  with  boils 
from  head  to  foot  (Job  ii.  7).  Ordinary  boils 
are  common,  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  East, 
during  the  rainy  season.  They  are  unsightlj, 


Bolster 


100 


Borrow 


but  are  not  dangerous.  One  type  of  boil, 
however,  the  cai'buncle,  arising  from  poisoned 
blood  and  eating  away  the  llesh  like  an  ulcer, 
may  terminate  the  life.  This  was  probably 
Hezekiah's  disease.  The  application  of  a 
poultice  of  figs  would  do  it  good,  but  the 
rapid  cure  was  due  to  God. 

Bol'ster. 

The  usual  Hebrew  word  which  is  rendered 
bolster  or  pillow  means  simply  at  the  head, 
and  the  Greek  word  rendered  pillow  in  A.  V. 
does  not  necessarily  mean  a  cushion  for  the 
head.  Jacob,  sleeping  in  the  open  field,  took 
a  stone  to  support  his  head  (Gen.  xxviii.  11, 
18).  Jesus  probably  placed  the  leather  cushion 
of  the  steersman's  seat  under  his  head  when 
he  lay  down  to  sleep  in  the  stern  of  the  boat 
(Mark  iv.  38).  Michal  put  some  article  of 
goats'  hair  at  the  head  of  the  teraphim  which 
she  laid  in  the  bed  to  deceive  the  messengers 
who  were  sent  to  take  David.  She  did  this 
perhaps  to  give  the  appearance  of  human 
hair  or  of  a  covering  laid  over  the  sleeper 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13). 

Bon'net. 

Originally  a  head  dress  for  men  (Ezek.  xliv. 
18),  a  sense  which  the  word  still  retains  in 
Scotland.  Then  it  was  applied  to  a  head  dre.ss 
for  women  (Is.  iii.  20).  The  E.  V.  renders  it 
head  tires  and  tires  (q.  v.). 

Book. 

Documents  were  early  inscribed  on  clay  or 
graven  on  stone.  Skin  or  parchment  and 
papyrus  came  into  use  at  an  early  period  also. 
When  written  on  skin,  a  long  document  took 
the  form  of  a  roll  with  writing  on  one  or 
both  of  its  sides.  Of  this  type  of  book  there 
is  a  memorial  in  the  word  volume,  Latin 
volumen,  properly,  something  rolled  up  (Ps. 
xl.  7;  Jer.  xxxvi.  2;  Ezek.  ii.  9).  Books  are 
first  mentioned  as  written  by  the  Hebrews 
after  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  where  written 
literature  had  existed  for  centuries  (Ex.  xvii. 
14).  The  39  books  of  the  O.  T.  and  the  27 
of  the  N.  T.,  which  constitute  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  do  not  represent  the  entire  literary 
activity  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  time  em- 
braced by  the  canon.  There  were,  for  exam- 
ple, the  books  of  the  Apocrypha.  Later  there 
were  memoirs  of  Jesus  (Luke  i.  1).  In  the 
O.  T.  period  there  were  two  poetical  books  at 
least,  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  and 
the  Book  of  Jashar  (Num.  xxi.  14  ;  Josh.  x. 
13).  The  events  of  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon  were  recorded  in  the  History  of 
Samuel  the  Seer,  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Prophet,  the  History  of  Gad  the  Seer  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29;  2  Chron.  ix.  29),  and  also  in  the 
Chronicles  of  King  David,  which  apparently 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  custom  of  keep- 
ing royal  annals  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  24).  The 
reigns  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  found  record 
in  the  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron.  ix. 
29),  and  Rehoboam's  reign  in  the  History  of 
Shemaiah  the  Prophet  and  in  the  History  of 
Iddo  the  Seer  (xii.  15).     The  Chronicles  of  the 


Kings  of  Israel  and  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah  recorded  the  history  of  the 
two  kingdoms  from  the  time  of  Rehoboam  and 
Jeroboam,  until  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19, 29; 2 Kin.  xxiv.  5  ;  2 Chron, 
xxxvi.  8)  ;  see  Kings.  In  addition  to  these 
works,  there  was  quite  a  library  in  existence 
at  the  time  when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were 
written,  consisting  largely  of  monographs, 
of  which  not  a  few  titles  are  cited  (2  Chron. 
ix.  29;  xiii.  22;  xx.  34;  xxiv,  27;  xxvi,  22; 
xxxii,  32;  xxxiii,  18,  19;  xxxv,  25;  see  also 
Prov.  XXV.  1 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  32,  33). 

Booth. 

A  rude  habitation  designed  in  most  cases 
for  a  longer  occupation  than  a  tent,  but  not 
for  permanence  like  a  house.  It  was  often 
formed  with  branches  of  trees.  Jacob  made 
booths  at  Shechem  for  his  cattle,  the  place 
in  consequence  being  afterwards  called  Suc- 
coth  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17).  The  keeper  of  a  vine- 
yard occupied  a  booth  (Job  xxvii.  18;  Is.  i.  8, 
E.  v.),  which  during  the  vintage  sheltered  the 
owner  and  his  friends.  The  Israelites  were 
required  to  form  booths  of  branches  of  trees, 
palm  leaves,  etc.,  and  dwell  in  them  for  seven 
days  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  The  booths 
at  this  harvest  festival  were  a  reminder  of  the 
vintage  life  ;  but  with  this  recollection  there 
was  also  to  be  associated  the  memory  of  their 
deliverance  from  Egy]>t,  when  tliey  sojourned 
in  the  wilderness  without  permanent  habita- 
tion (Lev.  xxiii.  39-43 ;  Neh.  viii.  14). 

Boo'ty. 

The  plunder  of  a  conquered  district  or 
town.  It  consisted  of  everything  of  value — 
household  goods,  gold,  silver,  cattle,  and  cap- 
tives to  be  used  as  slaves  (Gen.  xiv.  11,  12, 
16  ;  Num.  xxxi.  9,  26-52 ;  Josh.  vii.  21).  At 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Israelites  were 
required  to  slay  everything  that  breathed 
and  to  destroy  all  idols  and  places  of  idola- 
trous worship,  but  in  foreign  conquests  they 
were  bidden  to  slay  the  men  only,  and  were 
authorized  to  take  the  remaining  spoil  (Num. 
xxxiii.  .52  ;  Deut.  xx.  14-16).  Exceptrons  were 
occasionally  made  when  everything  was  de- 
voted, the  living  to  destruction,  the  goods  to 
the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary,  or  when  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  spoil  was  dedicated  to  the 
Lord  (Num.  xxxi.  26-47 ;  Josh.  vi.  19;  1  Sam. 
XV.  2,  3).  David  made  a  law  that  the  troops 
.detailed  to  guard  the  baggage  should  share 
equally  with  those  who  engaged  in  the  battle 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  23-25). 

Bo'oz.     See  Boaz. 

Bor'row. 

To  ask  in  loan.  Did  the  Israelites,  when 
the  Egyptians  urged  them  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, borrow  goods  from  the  Egyptians  or  ob- 
tain them  as  gifts?  The  word  rendered  bor- 
row in  A,  V,  of  Ex.  iii.  22;  xi.  2;  xii.  35, 
means  simply  ask  (R.  V.)  or  request,  whether 
the  object  desired  was  to  be  returned  (2  Kin. 
vi.  5)  or  not  (Jiulg.  v.  25  ;  viii.  24)  ;  and  the 
word  translated  lend  (Ex.  xii.  36,  A.  V.)  is  a 


Boscath 


101 


Bozrah 


form  of  the  same  verb,  and  means  to  grant  a 
request  or  let  one  have  what  one  asks  (R.  V. ; 
cp.  1  Sam.  i.  28). 

Bos'cath.     See  Bozkath. 

Bo'sor. 

1.  A  town  of  Gilead,  Gilead  being  doubtless 
used  in  a  broad  sense  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  o(J) ;  per- 
haps Bezer  in  the  former  territorj'  of  Keuben 
(Josh.  XX.  8). 

2.  See  Beor. 
Bos'o-ra. 

A  town  of  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  2G,  28),  either 
Bozrah  in  Edom  or  Bostra  in  Hauran. 

Botch. 

The  rendering  in  A.V.  of  Deut.  xxviii.  27, 35 
of  the  Hebrew  word  elsewhere  translated  boil. 

Bot'tle. 

1.  A  hollow  vessel  of  leather,  or  the  hollow 
hide  of  an  animal,  used  for  holding  liquids 
(Job  xxxii.  19 ;  Mat.  ix.  17).  See  under  Butter. 


Skin  Bottles. 


2.  A  small  vessel  of  earthenware  formed  by 
potters,  and  which  was  capable  of  being  Ijroken 
(Jer.  xix.  1,  10, 11).  If  any  glass  bottle  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Scripture,  it  was  probabl  j-  a  small 
lachrymatory  for  holding  tears  (Ps.  Ivi.  8). 

Bow. 

A  weapon  used  for  shooting  arrows  (2  Kin. 


.35;  Job  XX.  24),  with  a  cord  stretched  be- 
tween its  two  ends  (Ps.  xi.  2).  and  was  held 
in  the  left  hand  (Ezek.  xxxix.3).  It  was  used 
both  in  hunting  and  war  (Gen.  xxvii.  3; 
xlviii.  22).  Its  use  was  general  among  the 
nations  of  antiquity  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  3;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  34 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  9;  xlix.  35).  There  were 
archers  among  the  soldiers  of  Reuben,  Gad, 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Ejjhraim,  and  es- 
pecially Benjamin  (1  Chron.  v.  18:  2  Chron. 
xiv.  8;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  9).  The  bow  was  carried 
by  othcers  and  soldiers  on  foot,  in  chariots,  or 
on  horseback  (2  Kin.  ix.  24).  The  archers 
cari-ied  the  little  sliield  and  a  sword  (1  Sam. 
xviii.  4;  1  Chron.  v.  18:  2  Chron.  xiv.  8), 
and  with  the  slingers  constituted  the  light- 
armed  troops. 

The  arrows  were  of  cane  or  polished  wood, 
and  were  carried  in  a  quiver  (Lam.  iii.  13; 
Is.  xlix.  2;  Ezek.  xxxix.  9).  Their  heads 
were  made  of  iron,  copi)er,  or  stone,  and  were 
sometimes  poisoned  (Job  vi.  4). 

Bowl.     See  Basin. 

Box. 

1.  A  small  case  or  vessel  with  a  cover.  In 
Scripture  times  they  were  used  to  hold  oil, 
ointment,  etc.  (2  Kin.  ix.  1 ;  Mat.  xxvi.  7). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  T^'fls/i- 
nhi'ir,  meaning  a  straight  tree.  Boat  seats  were 
made  of  it  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6,  R.  Y. ),  and  writing 
tablets  (2  Esdr.  xiv.  24).  The  box,  fir,  and 
pine  were  the  glory  of  Lebanon  (Is.  Ix.  13  ;  on 
R.  V.  margin  of  Is.  xli.  19  cypress).  The  box 
tree  of  Lebanon  is  Buxus  longifoUa,  a  small 
evergreen  tree  about  20  feet  high. 

Bo'zez  [shining]. 

Of  two  crags  near  Gibeah,  the  northern- 
most, in  front  of  Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4,  5). 
It  overlooked  the  Wady  Suweinit. 

Boz'kath,  in  A.  V.  once  Bos'cath  [elevated, 
stony  ground]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  39).  Josiah's  maternal  grandfather, 
Adaiah,  was  of  the  place  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1)- 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Boz'rah  [an  enclosure,  a  sheepfold]. 


Bow  used  ill  Battle  between  Assyrians  and  their  Fues. 


vi.  22 ;  1  Chron.  xii.  2).     It  was  made  of  a 
strip  of  elastic  wood  or  metal  (2  Sam.  xxii. 


1.  An  important  city  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
33;  1  Chron.   i.   44;  Is.    xxxiv.  6;  Ixiii.   1). 


Bracelet 


102 


Bread 


Amos  predicted  that  its  palaces  should  be 
destroyed  (Amos  i.  lii)  ;  and  Jeremiah  fore- 
told its  utter  destruction  (Jer.  xlix.  13,  22). 
It  was  noted  for  its  sheep  (Mic.  ii.  12).  Burck- 
hardt  and  Robinson  located  it  at  el-Buseira, 
a  village  of  some  fifty  houses,  about  18  miles 
southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea.  This  identifica- 
tion is  generally  accepted. 

2.  A  city  of  Moab  mentioned  with  Kerioth, 
Beth-meon,  Dibon,  and  other  towns  of  the 
plateau  (Jer.  xlviii.  24)  ;  probably  the  same 
as  Bezer  (in  Septuagint,  Bosor). 

Bracelet. 

An  ornament  for  the  wrist  or  for  the  arm, 
worn  by  both  sexes  (Ezek.  xvi.  11).  One  was 
put  on  Rebekah's  wrist  by  Abraham's  servant 
(Gen.  xxiv.  22).  Bracelets  were  given  by  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to  furnish  gold  or 
silver  for  the  construction  of  the  vessels  of 


Egyptian  Bracelets. 

the  tabernacle  (Num.  xxxi.  50).  Saul  wore 
one,  unless  what  he  had  on  was  rather  an 
armlet  (2  Sam.  i.  10).  For  bracelet  in  A.  V.  in 
Gen.  xxxviii.  18,  25,  R.  V.  substitutes  cord  ; 
in  Ex.  XXXV.  22,  brooches;  and  in  Is.  iii.  19, 
on  the  margin,  chains. 

Bram'ble. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Atad 
in  Judg.  ix.  14,  15.  The  plant  is  named  from 
its  firmness.  The  R.  V.  renders  it  on  the 
margin  by  thorn,  and  both  versions  so  trans- 
late the  word  in  Ps.  Iviii.  9.  It  is  doubtless  a 
variety  of  Khamnus.  The  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  by  Rhamnus.  This  thorn  is 
quite  common  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (cp.  Gen.  1.  10),  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
about  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  is  also  found  at 
Jerusalem.  The  Rhamnus  is  still  called  by  the 
Arabs  'atad  or  nabjc,  applying  the  name  not 
only  to  Christ's  Thorn  (Zizyphus  spina  Christi), 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  tradition  that 
the  crown  placed  on  Christ's  head  was  made 
from  its  twigs,  but  apparently  also  to  Rham- 
nus palmrns. 

Branch. 

A  title  applied  to  the  Messiah  as  the  off- 
spring of  David  (Jer.  xxiii.  5 ;  xxxiii.  15  : 
Zech.  iii.  8  ;  vi.  12). 

Brass. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  N'ho- 
sheth  and  the  Greek  Chalkos.  The  margin  of 
the  R.  v.,  however,  at  Gen.  iv.  22  gives  cop- 
per as  a  constant  alternative.  Copper  was 
smelted  from  the  ore  dug  from  the  ground 
(Deut.  viii.  9 ;  Job  xxviii.  2).     Traces  of  an- 


cient copper  works  exist  in  Lebanon  and  in 
Edom.  It  was  obtained  notably  in  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  in  Cyprus,  and  in  Meshechand 
Tubal  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13).  Brass  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  with  from  28  to  34  per  cent,  of  zinc. 
Unless  accidentally  associated  with  calamine, 
it  does  not  occur  in  nature,  but  is  an  artificial 
product.  The  assertion  used  to  be  made  that 
it  was  not  known  till  it  was  accidentally 
formed  by  the  running  together  of  dilierent 
melted  metals  when  Corinth  was  burned,  146 
B.  c,  by  the  consul  Mummius.  But  vessels 
of  brass  have  been  found  of  much  higher  an- 
tiquity in  Egyptian  tombs.  Bronze  is  another 
artificial  product  from  copper,  being  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin.  From  copper  and  its  alloys 
utensils  were  made :  pots,  shovels,  basins, 
pans,  spoons,  snutters  (Ex.  xxxviii.  3;  Lev. 
vi.  28  ;  Num.  xvi.  39 ;  Jer.  Iii.  18) ;  armor, 
also,  such  as  helmets,  coats  of  mail,  greaves, 
shields,  spear  points,  and  even  bows  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  16 ;  xxii.  35,  R.V. ;  2  Chron.  xii.  10) ;  fetters 
also,  mirrors,  city  gates,  musical  instruments, 
idols,  and  in  later  times  coins  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
8  ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7,  13;  Is.  xlv.  2;  Mat.  x.  9  ; 
1  Cor.  xiii.  1 ;  Rev.  ix.  20).  Where  casting  is 
spoken  of,  the  metal  was  bronze.  Thus  were 
made  the  plating  and  railing  for  the  altar, 
the  lavers  and  the  sea  with  its  pedestal  of 
oxen,  and  two  magnificent  pillars  for  the 
temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  41-46;  2  Chron.  iv.  1-17). 

Bra'zen  Ser'pent. 

The  figure  of  a  serpent,  made  of  metfil,  and 
erected  by  Moses  on  a  pole  in  the  wilderness, 
that  the  Israelites  who  were  bitten  by  fiery 
serpents  might  look  at  it  with  faith  in  God's 
promise  to  heal  those  who  looked  (Num.  xxi. 
8,  9).  In  after  yeai-s  the  Israelites  began  to 
use  it  as  an  idol,  and  Hezekiah  had  it  broken 
in  pieces,  contemptuously  calling  it  N'hushtan, 
that  is  to  say,  only  a  piece  of  brass  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  4).  Jesus  in  foretelling  his  crucifixion 
explained  its  spiritual  significance  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  rearing  of  the  brazen  ser- 
pent (John  iii.  14,  15). 

Bread. 

The  bread  in  use  among  the  Israelites  con- 
sisted generally  of  small  flat  cakes  of  wheaten 
flour  or,  among  the  poor,  of  barley  flour 
The  grain  was  ground  daily  in  a  hand  mill, 
and  fresh  bread  baked  everyday.  When  this 
bread  was  to  be  eaten  at  once,  it  was  often 
unleavened  (Gen.  xix.  3;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24), 
but  the  art  of  making  leavened  bread  was 
also  understood  (Mat.  xiii.  .33).  The  show- 
bread  which  was  edible  after  eight  days  was 
evidently  leavened.  The  flour  was  made  into 
a  paste  or  dough  by  mixing  with  water,  and 
might  be  leavened  some  time  after  mixing ; 
for  example,  at  the  first  passover  the  dough 
was  already  mixed  in  the  troughs,  but  not 
yet  leavened  when  the  order  came  to  march 
(Ex.  xii.  34). 

The  oven  used  by  private  families  was  a 
p((rtablejar  in  which,  after  it  had  Ih'imi  luatcd, 
the  loaves  were  laid  or  were  stuck  against  the 


Breastplate 


103 


Brick 


sides,  the  cakes  baked  in  this  later  fashion 
being  very  thin. 

Besides  the  bread  baked  in  the  oven  (Lev. 
ii.  4),  cakes  also  were  baked  on  a  slightly 
concave  pan  put  over  a  fire,  these  being  some- 
thing like  pancakes  (Lev.  ii.  5).  Bread  was 
also  baked  on  the  heated  hearth  or  on  any 
hot  stones  after  the  ashes  were  swept  aside  (1 
Kin.  xix.  6).  This  kind  was  made  especially 
when  food  was  wanted  in  a  hurry  (Gen.  xviii. 
6).  The  Bedouin  at  present  commonly  bake 
by  placing  their  loaves  in  a  hole  in  the  ground 


distinguished  leader  of  the  Jerusalem  church 
(Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13;  Gal.  ii.  9),  and  was  the 
author  of  the  epistle  which  goes  by  his  name. 
In  what  sense  they  were  Christ's  "  brethren  " 
has  been  much  disputed.  In  very  early  times 
they  were  regarded  as  the  children  of  Joseph 
by  a  former  marriage.  The  disappearance  of 
Joseph  from  the  gospels  suggests  that  he  had 
died,  and  may  have  been  much  older  tlian 
Mary,  and  may  have  been  previously  mar- 
ried. This  view  is  a  possible  one,  but,  in 
view   of    Mat.   i.   25    and    Luke    ii.   7,    not 


Egyptian  Bakers. 


which  has  previously  held  a  fire  and  then 
been  cleared  out.  The  hole  is  carefully  cov- 
ered and  the  bread  allowed  to  bake  all  night. 
This  method  was  probably  well  known  to  the 
Israelites.  Baking  was  ordinarily  done  by 
the  women  (Gen.  xviii.  6:  1  Sam.  viii.  13; 
Lev.  xxvi.  26;  but  Judg.  vi.  19),  and  in  large 
households  by  the  slaves,  but  in  the  cities 
there  were  also  bakers  who  sold  bread  (Jer. 
xxxvii.21  ;  cp.  Hos.  vii.  4,  6).  In  the  second 
chapter  of  Leviticus  is  given  a  list  of  the 
different  kinds  of  bread  which  were  accepta- 
ble as  offerings.  In  some  places  the  word  is 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  food  (Luke  xi.  3). 
Breast'plate. 

1.  A  sacred  article  of  dress  worn  by  the 
Jewish  high  priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  15-30).  See 
High  Priest. 

2.  Armor  designed  to  protect  the  body  in 
battle  (Rev.  ix.  9) :  see  Armor.  Figuratively, 
righteousness  (Is.  lix.  17;  Eph.  vi.  14;  Wisd. 
V.  19),  or  faith  and  love,  constitute  a  spiritual 
breastplate  (1  Thes.  v.  8). 

Breth'ren  of  the  Lord. 

Their  names  are  given  in  the  gospels  as 
James,  Joseph  or  Joses,  Simon,  and  Judas 
(Mat.  xiii.  .55,  R.  V. ;  Mark  vi.  3).  They  ap- 
pear in  company  with  Mary  (Mat.  xii.  47-50 ; 
Mark  iii.  31-35;  Luke  viii!  19-21),  moved  to 
Capernaum  with  her  and  Jesus  and  the  lat- 
ter's  disciples  at  the  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  (John  ii.  12),  but  are  said  not  to 
have  believed  in  Jesus  even  toward  the  close 
of  his  life  (John  vii.  4,  5).  After  the  resur- 
rection, however,  they  are  found  united  with 
the  disciples  (Acts  i.  14),  and  are  afterwards 
mentioned  as  Christian  workers  (1  Cor.  ix.  5). 
One  of  them,  James  (Gal.  i.  19),  became  a 


probable.  In  the  fourth  century  Jerome 
proposed  another  view  ;  viz.,  that  they  were 
Christ's  cousins  on  his  mother's  side,  the 
children  of  Alphseus  (or  Clopas)  and  Mary's 
sister  of  the  same  name.  This  is  inferred 
mainly  from  a  combination  of  Mark  xv.  40 
and  John  xix.  25  (the  latter  being  thought 
to  mention  but  three  women),  and  from 
the  identity  of  the  names  Alphteus  and 
Clopas.  On  this  view  one  (James  the  son  of 
Alphfeus)  and  perhaps  more  (Simon  and 
Judas)  of  the  apostles  were  Christ's  brethren. 
But  the  apostles  are  distinguished  from  his 
brethren  ;  the  latter  did  not  believe  in  him, 
and  it  is  unlikely  that  two  sisters  had  the 
.same  name.  Another  very  old  view  was  that 
they  were  cousins  on  Joseph's  side,  and  some 
have  even  supposed  they  were  the  children 
of  the  widow  of  Joseph's  brother  (Deut.  xxv. 
5-10).  But  all  these  theories  appear  to  have 
originated  from  a  wish  to  maintain  the  per- 
petual virginity  of  Mary.  That  they  were 
the  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  born  after 
Jesus,  is  the  natural  view,  and  that  Mary  had 
other  children  is  implied  in  Mat.  i.  25 ;  Luke 
ii.  7.  This  view  explains  also  the  constant 
association  of  "the  brethren"  with  Mary. 

G.  T.  P. 

Brick. 

A  mass  of  clay  tempered,  made  rectangular 
in  shape,  and  hardened  either  by  burning  in 
a  kiln  (Gen.  xi.  3)  or  by  drying  in  the  sun 
(Herod,  ii.  136).  They  were  of  course  .sun-dried 
when  the  clay  was  mixed  with  straw  (Ex.  v.  7). 
Both  bricks  and  tiles  are  often  found  stamped 
with  names  and  inscriptions,  from  which  we 
have  derived  much  of  our  knowledge  of 
those  ancient  times,  as  well  as  from  the  tab- 


Brickkiln 


104 


Bullock 


lets  of  burnt  clay  specially  prepared  as  docu- 
ments in  a  similar  way  (cp.  Ezek.  iv.  1).  For 
illuatratiou  of  brickuiaking,  see  Egypt. 


Brick  bearing  Name  and  Inscription  of 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

Brick'kiln. 

A  kiln  for  enclosing  bricks  while  they  are 
being  burned  (2  Sam.  xii.  31  and  Nah.  iii. 
14,  where  R.  V.  margin  translates  brickmould  ; 
Jer.  xliii.  9,  in  R.  V.  brickwork). 

Bri'er. 

The  rendering  of  six  distinct  Hebrew  words 
and  of  one  Greek  word. 

1.  Barkan  ( Judg.  viii.  7,  16) ;  perhaps,  as 
etymology  suggests,  so  named  because  it 
grows  in  stony  ground. 

2.  Shamir,  bristling,  prickly  (Is.  ix.  18 ;  x. 
17;  xxvii.  4;  xxxii.  13),  such  as  springs  up 
in  abandoned  vineyards  (v.  6 ;  vii.  2.3). 

3.  Slrpad  (Is.  Iv.  13).  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  nettle. 

4.  Sarab,  refractory  (Ezek.  ii.  6). 

5.  Sillon  (Ezek.  xxviii.  24 ;  in  ii.  6  rendered 
thorn). 

6.  Hedeh  (Mic.  vii.  4),  used  in  hedges  (Prov. 
XV.  19,  where  it  is  rendered  thorn).  The  cor- 
responding word  in  Arabic  means  the  Egg- 
plant, Mad-apple,  Jew's-apple  or  Brin jal  (fiola- 
nummelongena),  onevariety  of  which  is  thorny. 
It  is  a  native  of  India  and,  it  is  believed,  of 
Arabia.  It  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  potato, 
but  the  edible  part  is  the  fruit,  which  is  much 
used  in  curries  in  the  East. 

7.  Greek  Akantha,  a  thorn  or  a  prickly 
plant  or  thorny  tree  (Heb.  vi.  8,  A.  V.). 

Brig 'an- dine. 

A  name  for  a  coat  of  mail,  composed  of 
light  thin-jointed  scales,  or  of  thin  pliant 
plate  armor  (.Ter.  xlvi.  4  ;  Ii.  3).  The  R.  V. 
substitutes  coat  of  mail. 

Brim'stone. 

Suljjhur  (Gen.  xix.  24 ;  Deut.  xxix.  23). 

Brook. 

A  small  perennial  stream,  as  the  Kishon 
(1  Kin.  xviii.40)  and  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
23,  A.  v.).  Generally,  however,  in  Scripture 
the  word  is  used  for  a  stream  which  flows  in 
the  rainy,  winter  season,  but  is  dry  in  sum- 


mer, as  the  brook  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv.  5. 
R.  V. ;  see  River),  the  Zered  (Dent.  ii.  13), 
and  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  23  ;  John  xviii.  1, 
R.  v.). 

Broom. 

A  much-branched  bush, with  twiggy,  nearly 
leafless,  branches,  and  clusters  of  pinkish- 
white  flowers,  which  grows  in  the  Jordan 
valley  and  Arabia,  and  is  common  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  (Job  xxx.  4  ;  1  Kin.  xix. 
4).  Its  large  root  stalk  is  made  into  charcoal 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  In  the  text  of  the  last  two  pas- 
sages in  the  R.  V.,  and  in  all  the  three  in  the 
A.  v.,  it  is  rendered  juniper,  but  the  He- 
brew word  corresponds  to  the  still  existing 
Arabic  name  for  Retama,  broom. 

Broth'er. 

1.  A  kinsman  born  of  the  same  parents  as 
the  person  to  whom  he  is  brother  (Gen.  xxvii. 
6),  or  at  least  of  the  .same  father  (xxviii.  2)  or 
the  same  mother  (Judg.  viii.  19). 

2.  A  man  of  the  same  near  ancestry  (as  a 
nephew.  Gen.  xiv.  16),  or  of  the  same  race  or 
of  a  kindred  nation  (Deut.  xxiii.  7 ;  Neb.  v. 
7  ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  9). 

3.  An  ally  (Amos  i.  9)  or  co-religionist  (Acts 
ix.  17  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  6  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  13)  ;  often  in  the 
plural  applied  to  Christian  disciples  (Mat. 
xxiii.  8;  Rom.  i.  13). 

4.  One  of  the  male  sex  greatly  beloved  or 
politely  addressed  by  the  person  who  calls 
him  brother  (2  Sam.  i.  26 ;  1  Kin.  xx.  32). 

5.  Any  man  whatever,  the  common  broth- 
erhood of  the  human  race  being  recognized 
(Gen.  ix.  5;  Mat.  v.  22;  xviii.  35). 

Buckler.    See  Armor. 

Buk'ki  [abbreviation  of  Bukkiah]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  and  member 
of  the  commission  for  allotting  the  land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron,  in  the  high- 
priestly  line  of  Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  5,  51 ; 
Ezra  vii.  4). 

Buk-ki'ah  [devastation  sent  by  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Heman,  and  head  of  the 
sixth  of  the  twenty-four  companies  of  twelve 
musicians  each  which  David  appointed  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
4,  1.3). 

Bul  [growth]. 

The  eighth  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (I 
Kin.  vi.  38).     See  Ye.\r. 

Bull. 

The  male  of  the  species  called  by  iiatural- 
ists  Bo><  tavrus  (Job.  xxi.  10;  Ps.  Ixviii.  30; 
Is.  xxxiv.  7;  Jer.  Iii.  20);  see  Ox.  A  par- 
ticularly strong  and  fierce  breed  of  bulls  ex- 
isted in  Bashan  (Ps.  xxii.  12). 

The  word  To',  rendered  wild  ox  and  wild 
bull  in  A.  V.  (Deut.  xiv.  5 ;  Is.  Ii.  20),  is  trans- 
lated in  R.  V.  by  antelope  'q.  v.). 

BuU'ock. 

A  young  bull,  though  the  Hebrew  word  is 
used  once  of  an  animal  seven  years  old  (Judg. 
vi.  25).  Bullocks  were  used  as  draught  animals 


Bulrush 


105 


Cabul 


bearing  a  yoke  (Jer.   xxxi.  18,  A.  V.),  and 
were  largely  offered  in  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix. 
1 ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  21). 
Bul'rush  [bull,  i.  e.  a  large,  rush]. 

1.  Hebrew  Gome'  (Ex.  ii.  3;  Is.  xviii.  2, 
A.  V.)  ;  papyrus  (q.  v.). 

2.  Hebrew  'Agmon.  The  etymology  sug- 
gests that  it  grows  in  swamps ;  and  it  is  a  low 
plant  (Is.  ix.  14;  xix.  15),  bows  the  head 
(Iviii.  5),  and  was  twisted  into  ropes  (Job  xli. 
2,  R.  V.  margin). 

Bu'nah  [pruc^pnce]. 

A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  25). 
Bun'ni  [built,  erected]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  lived  before  the  exile 
(Neh.  xi.  15). 

2.  A  Levite,  contemporary  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  ix.  4). 

3.  Representative  of  a  family  or  father's 
house  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  15). 

Bur'deu. 

1.  A  heavy  load  to  be  borne  ;  used  in  a  lite- 
ral or  a  figurative  sense  (Ex.  xxiii.  5;  Num. 
xi.  11,  etc.). 

2.  An  utterance  or  prophecy,  in  almost 
every  instance  denouncing  heavy  judgment 
on  a  place  or  people  (Is.  xiv.  28 ;  xv.  1 ;  Ezek. 
xii.  10;  Hos.  viii.  10;  Nah.  i.  1). 

Bur'i-al. 

Interment,  the  committal  of  a  corpse  to 
the  ground,  or  its  disposal  in  another  rev- 
erential way.  When  a  death  occurred  friends, 
especially  women,  hurried  to  the  house  and 
made  loud  lamentation  (Mark  v.  38).  Mourn- 
'ers  were  even  hired  (Jer.  ix.  17).  The  body 
was  washed  (Acts  ix.  37),  and  wrapped  in  a 
cloth  or  closely  bound  in  bands  (Mat.  xxvii. 
59;  John  xi.  44).  The  wealthy  added  spices 
and  perfumes  (John  xii.  7  ;  xix.  39)  or  burned 
fragrant  materials  (Jer.  xxxiv.  5).  The  body 
was  carried  upon  a  bier  to  the  grave  (2  Sam. 
iii.  31 ;  Luke  vii.  14).  Burial  was  generally 
in  a  cave  or  in  a  sepulcher  scooped  horizon- 
tally in  the  rock  (Gen.  xxv.  9,  10  :  Mat.  xxvii. 
60).     See  Mourning  and  Sepulcher. 

Burnt  Of'fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Bixrnt  Sac'ri-flce,  the  same  as  burnt  offer- 
ing.    See  Offerings. 

Bush. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  S'neh  and 
Greek  Bntos,  a  thorny  bush  (Luke  vi.  44). 
which  Moses  saw  burning  and  from  which 
Jehovah  spoke  (Ex.  iii.  2,  3;  Deut.  xxxiii. 
16;  Mark  xii.  26).  Tristram  believes  it  to 
have  been  the  Acacia  vera  or  nilofica,  the 
Egyptian  thorn.  It  is  a  withered-looking 
thorny  tree,  12  feet  high,  with  bipinnate 
leaves  and  white  flowers.  It  grows  through- 
out a  large  part  of  Africa,  also  in  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  and,  in  Palestine,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  yields  the  gum  arable  of 
commerce,  which  naturally  exudes  in  a  nearly 
fluid  state  from  the  trunk  and  branches,  har- 
dening on  exposure  to  the  air. 


2.  Hebrew  SiaJ}  (Job.  xxx.  4,  7;  and  Gen. 
ii.  5,  where  it  is  rendered  plant) ;  a  shrub 
large  enough  to  afford  some  shade  (Gen.  xxi. 
15,  where  it  is  rendered  shrub). 

3.  Hebrew  Nnh^lol  (Is.  vii.  19),  rendered  in 
the  text  of  R.  V.  by  pasture,  and  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  A.  V.  by  commendable  trees. 

Bush'el. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Moilios,  a  dry 
measure  containing  more  than  two  gallons 
(^Slat.  V.  15 ;  Mark  iv.  21).     See  Measure. 

But'ler.     See  Cupbearer. 

But'ter. 

In  Scripture,  curdled  milk  or  curds  (Gen. 
xviii.  8;  Deut.  xxxii.  14;  Prov.  xxx.  33;  Is. 
vii.  15,  22).  On  margin  of  R.  V.  of  Is.  vii.  15 
the  translation  is  curds.  Thomson  says  that 
neither  the  ancient  nor  the  modern  Orientals 
have  made  butter  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 
The  butter  given  to  Sisera  by  Jael  was  sour 
milk,  called  in  Arabic  lehen.  The  butter,  so 
called,  of  Prov.  xxx.  33  is  a  production  made 
in  this  way.  A  bottle  formed  by  stripjiing  off 
the  entire  skin  of  a  young  bufl'alo  is  filled 
with  milk  and  then  perseveringly  kneaded 
or  shaken  by  women.  Then  the  contents  are 
taken  out,  boiled  or  melted,  and  put  into 
bottles  of  goats'  skins.  In  winter  it  resem- 
bles candied  honey,  and  in  summer  is  mere 
oil. 

Buz  [contempt]. 

1.  An  Aramsean  tribe,  descended  from  a 
son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  21),  and  proba- 
bly dwelling  in  Jeremiah's  time  near  Dedan 
and  Tenia  in  Arabia  (Jer.  xxv.  23). 

2.  A  Gadite,  founder  of  a  tribal  family  or 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

Bu'zi  [descendant  of  Buz]. 

Father  of  the  priest  and  prophet  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  3). 

Buz'ite. 

One  belonging  to  the  Arabian  tribe  of  Buz 
(Job.  xxxii.  2). 


C. 


Cab,  in  R.  V.  Kab  [a  hollow  vessel]. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity  for  dry  ar- 
ticles (2  Kin.  vi.  25).  It  held,  according  to 
Rabbinical  tradition,  the  sixth  part  of  a  seah 
or  one  hundred  and  eightieth  part  of  a  homer. 

Cab'bon  [a  cake,  or  ]ierhaps  a  binding]. 

A  village  of  Judah  in  the  lowland  (Josh. 
XV.  40).  Perhaps  identical  with  Machbenah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  49).  The  radical  letters  are  the 
same  and  the  location  is  suitable. 

Ca'bul  [perhaps,  fettered  land  ;  proverbial 
for  hard,  dry  land  which  produces  no  fruit]. 

1.  A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27;  Life 
43,  45).  It  is  still  known  as  Kabiil,  a  village 
9  miles  east-southeast  of  Acre. 

2.  A  district  of  Galilee,  that  is,  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  territory  of  Naphtali,  for  the 


Caesar 


106 


Caesar 


most  part  inhabited  by  people  other  than  Is- 
raelites (Is.  ix.  1).  It  contained  twenty  towns, 
which  Solomon  presented  to  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  in  return  for  services  rendered  in  con- 
nection with  the  building  of  the  temple. 
Hiram  was  disjileased  with  the  gift,  and 
therefore  called  the  region  Cabul  (1  Kin.  ix. 
13).  Hiram  thus  apparently  rejected  the 
proffered  compensation  as  inadequate,  and 
returned  the  district  to  Solomon,  who  there- 
upon fortified  the  cities  thus  put  back  on  his 
hands,  and  caused  Israelites  to  dwell  in  them 
(2  Chron.  viii.  2 ;  Antiq.  viii.  5,  3J. 

Cse'sar. 

The  family  name  of  a  branch  of  the  Julian 
house  or  clan  in  Rome.  According  to  Pliny 
(7,  9),  the  first  who  bore  the  name  was  so 
called  quod  cieso  mortuse  matris  ntero  natus 
fuerit.  Though  it  is  traceable  from  501  B.  C, 
it  did  not  gain  extensive  celebrity  till  it  was 
borne  by  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  who  ranks  with 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Napoleon  as  one  of 
the  three  most  remarkable  conquerors  the 
civilized  world  has  produced.  On  the  assas- 
sination of  Julius  Csesar,  44  B.  c,  his  will  re- 
quested his  grandnephew  Octavius,  after- 
wards the  emperor  Augustus,  to  assume  the 
name  of  Csesar.  Tiberius,  who  succeeded 
Augustus,  and  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero, 
who  followed  in  succession,  were  all  entitled 
by  relationship  to  the  great  dictator  to  bear 
the  family  name  ;  the  seven  succeeding  em- 
perors— Galba,  Otho.  Vitellius,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  Domitian,  and  Nerva — assumed  it,  so 
that  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  twelve 
Caesars.  From  having  been  the  name  of  one 
mighty  conqueror,  and  then  of  a  series  of 
emperors,  the  name  Caesar  became  the  type 
or  symbol  of  the  civil  power  in  general,  and 
it  is  continually  used  in  this  sense  in  discus- 
sions as  to  the  relative  domains  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  rulers  (cp.  Mat.  xxii.  17,  21 ; 
Mark  xii.  14,  16,  17;  Luke  xx.  22,  24,  25). 

The  name  Caesar  is  applied  in  the  N.  T.  to : 

1.  Au-gus'tus  C^e'sar,  the  first  Eoman 
emperor  (Luke  ii.  1).  In  43  b.  c.  he  was 
named  one  of  the  second  triumvirate,  Marc 
Antony  and  Lepidus  being  the  other  two. 
Lepidus  was  found  incompetent  and  forced 
to  retire  ;  and  after  the  defeat  of  Antony 
at  Actium  in  31  B.  c.  Augustus  was  sole 
ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  and  was  given 
the  title  of  emperor.  It  was  in  consequence 
of  a  decree  of  Augustus  that  Joseph  and 
Mary  went  to  Bethlehem  to  be  taxed,  at  the 
time  of  Christ's  birth.  Although  Augustus 
was  not  fond  of  the  Jews,  he  favored  them 
from  policy,  and  caused  sacrifices  to  be  made 
daily  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  at  his  ex- 
pense. He  was  friendly  to  Herod,  recogniz- 
ing that  in  him  he  had  a  valuable  ally. 
Cae.sarea  Philijipi  and  Caesarea  by  the  Sea 
were  built  in  his  honor  by  Herod.  Augustus 
died  A.  D.  14,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his 
age. 

2.  Ti-be'ki-us  Cm'sau,  the  second  Eoman 


emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17 ;  Mark  xii.  14  ;  Luke 
iii.  1;  XX.  21,  22;  John  xix.  12),  born  42  b.  c, 
was  the  adopted  son,  also  stepson  and  son-in- 
law,  of  Augustus.  He  was  of  a  morose  and 
gloomy  temper,  and  spent  a  large  part  of  his 
reign  in  voluntary  exile  on  the  island  of 
Capri.   During  his  reign  Judaea  was  governed 


Bust  of  Tiberius. 

by  Valerius  Gratus  and  Pontius  Pilatus.  At 
one  time  he  banished  the  Jews  from  Rome, 
but  later  recalled  the  edict,  and  gave  them 
redress  for  the  severity  of  the  provincial 
governors.  Tiberias,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
was  built  in  his  honor  by  Herod  Antipas.  His 
death  was  hastened  by  the  hand  of  Caligula, 
A.  D.  37.     See  p.  134,  years  12-37. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Claudius. 

3.  Clau'di-US,  the  fourth  Roman  emperor. 
He  was  a  weak,  vacillating  man,  a  nephew 
of  Tiberius.     He  was  made  emperor  almost 


Caesar 


107 


Csesarea 


against  his  will,  and  left  the  real  power  in 
the  hands  of  unprincipled  favorites.  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  had  been  in  Eonie,  and  had  as- 
sisted iu  his  coronation,  and  in  consequence 
was  given  the  whole  of  Palestine  as  a  mark 
of  favor.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
Claudius  favored  the  Jews,  and  reinstated 
the  Alexandrian  Jews  in  their  former  privi- 
leges, but  later  he  banished  all  Jews  from 
Rome  (Acts  xviii.  2).  He  died  A.  D.  54,  iu  the 
Tourteenth  year  of  his  reign. 

4.  Ne'ro,  the  fifth  Roman  emperor  (Acts 
XXV.  12,  21 ;  xxvi.  32;  Phil.  iv.  22).  He  was 
the  adopted  son  of  his  predecessor  Claudius, 
and  secured  his  own  position  by  poisoning  his 
stepbrother  Britannicus.  Nero  was  a  mon- 
ster of  lust  and  cruelty,  though,  perliaps,  his 
crimes  have  been  exaggerated.  In  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign,  A.  d.  64,  a  great  fire  broke 
out  at  Rome,  in  large  measure  destroying 
three  of  the  fourteen  districts  into  which  the 
city  was  divided.  The  emperor  was  believed, 
apparently  on  insulHcient  evidence,  to  have 


Head  of  Nero. 

been  himself  the  incendiary,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence in  danger  of  his  life.  To  screen 
himself,  he  falsely  accused  the  Christians  of 
having  caused  the  fire,  and  put  many  of 
them  to  cruel  deaths,  tradition  adding  that 
both  Paul  and  Peter  were  among  the  suffer- 
ers. Nero  is  the  "  lion "  of  2  Tim.  iv.  17. 
Finding  that  he  was  deserted  by  his  troops, 
and  that  he  would  soon  be  put  to  death,  he 
anticipated  his  fate.  Like  Saul,  he  attempted 
suicide,  and,  failing,  induced  one  of  his  sup- 
porters to  complete  the  act  of  slaughter.  He 
died  A.  D.  68,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his 
age  and  the  fourteenth  of  his  reign. 

Titus,  son  of  Vespasian,  and  tenth  Roman 
emperor.  In  a.  d.  66  Vespasian  was  sent  to 
Palestine  to  quell  a  revolt  of  the  Jews,  and 
Titus  accompanied  him.  In  69,  when  Ves- 
pasian hurried  from  Judfea  to  Rome  to  secure 
the  imperial  oflice  for  himself,  he  left  Titus 
in  command  of  the  army,  and  Titus  con- 
ducted the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70 
'War  iii.  1,  3-vii.  3,  1)  :  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Titus. 


Titus  became  emperor  in  79  ;  and  died  in  81, 
in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age. 

Caes-a-re'a  [pertaining  to  Ctesar]. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  about  23 
miles  south  of  mount  Carmel.  It  was  built  by 
Herod  the  Great,  on  the  site  of  a  town  called 
Strato's  Tower.  Twelve  years,  from  25  to  13 
B.  c,  were  spent  in  its  erection.  A  sea  mole 
was  built  of  stones  50  feet  long,  18  broad,  and 
9  deep.  It  was  200  feet  wide,  stood  in  20 
fathoms  of  water,  and  enclosed  a  harbor  as 
large  as  that  at  Athens.  The  entrance  to  the 
artificial  port  was  on  the  north,  where  there 
was  a  tower.  The  city  was  provided  with  a 
temple,  a  theater,  and  an  amphitheater,  and 
had  a  complete  system  of  drainage.  Herod 
named  the  place  Cfesarea,  after  his  patron 
Augustus  Caesar  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  6 ;  War  i.  21,  5, 
seq.).  It  was  sometimes  called  Csesarea  of 
Palestine,  or  Csesarea  by  the  Sea,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Cfesarea  Philippi.  It  became 
the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine.  The  gospel 
was  carried  thither  by  Philip  the  evangelist, 
who  made  it  his  residence  (Acts  viii.  40;  xxi. 
8).  When  Paul,  soon  after  his  conversion, 
was  in  danger  of  being  murdered  by  the 
Jews  of  Jerusalem,  his  Christian  brethren 
brought  him  down  to  Csesarea,  whence  he 
sailed  to  his  birthplace.  Tarsus,  in  Asia  Minor 
(ix.  30).  It  was  at  Csesarea  that  the  Roman 
centurion  Cornelius  lived,  to  whom  Peter 
preached  Christ,  and  that  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles  took  place  (x.  1.  24  ;  xi.  11).  Herod 
Agrippa  died  at  Csesarea  in  a.  D.  44  (Acts  xii. 
19.  23  ;  Antiq.  xix.  8,  2).  Paul  twice  revisited 
the  city,  and  found  a  church  existing  (Acts 
xviii.  22  ;  xxi.  8.  16).  He  was  afterwards  taken 
thither  as  a  prisoner  (xxiii.  23,  33),  and  it 
was  there  that  his  trial  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  took  place  (xxv.  1-4,  6-13).  Thff 
population  of  the  city  was  mixed,  and  race 
jealousies  existed  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
the  reign  of  Nero  the  Syrians  made  a  whole- 
sale massacre  of  the  Jews,  commencing  the 


Csesarea  Philippi 


108 


Caiaphas 


troubles  which  culminated  in  A.  D.  70  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (War  ii.  18, 
1).  In  the  second  century  A.  D.  Cwsarea  be- 
came the  residence  of  a  bishop,  who  down  to 
451  was  metropolitan  of  Palsestina  Prima. 
In  195  a  council  was  held  there.  A  Chris- 
tian school  was  established  in  the  city,  in 
which  Origen  taught  and  where  Eusebius, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Csesarea,  was  educated. 
In  548  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  joined  in 
assaulting  the  Christians.  In  638  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Mohammedans.  In 
1102  it  was  taken  by  the  crusaders,  led  by 
Baldwin  I.  Saladin  retook  it  from  them  in 
1189  ;  the  crusaders  recovered  it  in  1191,  but 
lost  it  to  the  sultan  Bibars  in  r2(i5. 

The  ruins  are  of  two  periods.  There  is,  first, 
the  Komau  town  with  mole  and  walls,  a  the- 
ater.hippodronie,  temple,  and  aqueducts;  and, 
secondly,  the  Crusading  town  with  walls,  a 
castle,  a  cathedral,  a  smaller  church,  and  a 
harbor.  The  Roman  wall  extends  4800  feet 
from  north  to  south,  and  2700  from  east  to 
west.  The  harbor  measures  540  feet  across. 
A  reef  running  into  the  sea  is  probably  the 
old  mole.     Csesarea  is  still  called  Kaisarieh. 


able  conversation  took  place  between  him  and 
Peter  arising  out  of  the  question  "  Who  do 
men  say  that  I  am?"  (Mat.  xvi.  13;  Mark 
viii.  27).  Agrip])a  II.  still  further  embellished 
it,  and  changed  the  name  to  Neronias,  to 
compliment  the  emperor  Nero  ;  but  on  the 
emperor's  death  the  name  speedily  lapsed 
(Antiq.  xx.  9,  4).  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  Titus  exhibited  gladiatorial  shows 
in  this  town  also,  one  part  of  the  spectacle 
being  Jewish  captives  thrown  to  the  wild 
beasts,  or  compelled  to  encounter  each  other 
in  deadly  warfare  (War  vii.  2,  1 ;  3,  1).  Part 
of  its  fortifications  still  remain,  and  there  are 
Greek  inscriptions  on  the  adjacent  rocks.  The 
town  has  dwindled  to  a  small  village  called 
Banias,  an  alteration  of  its  early  name  Paneas. 

Cage. 

A  box  or  basket,  Hebrew  KHuh,  in  which 
birds  were  kept,  especially  for  purposes  of 
decoy  (Jer.  v.  27;  Ecclus.  xi.  30).  Senna- 
cherib boasts  of  having  shut  up  Hezekiah  iu 
Jerusalem  like  a  bird  in  a  cage. 

Ca'ia-phas  [depression]. 

Joseph  Caiaphas,  who  was  appointed  to  the 


Ruins  of  Casarea  Philippi. 


Cses-a-re'a  PM-lip'pi  [Csesarea  of  Philip, 
in  distinction  from  Csesarea  of  Palestine]. 

A  city  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  at  the 
main  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  angle 
of  a  small  phiin,  with  hills  on  all  sides  ex- 
cept on  tlie  west.  It  has  sonietimes  been 
identified  with  Baal-gad.  Tlu^  worship  of  the 
Eoman  god  Pan  long  prevailed  in  the  locality ; 
and  Herod  tbe  Great  having  built  a  temple 
of  fine  marble  near  the  sacred  spot,  the  place 
was  called  Paneas  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3).  The 
town  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  adorned 
by  Phili]>  tlie  tetrarch,  and  its  name  altered 
to  Csesarea  in  honor  of  tbe  Rtmian  emperor 
Tiberius  Caisar  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1;  War  ii. 
9,  1).  Jesus  and  liis  disciples  visited  it  at 
least  once,  and  it  was  there  that  the  remark- 


high  priesthood  not  earlier  than  A.  d.  18  by  Va- 
lerius Gratus,  the  Eoman  procurator  and  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  Pontius  Pilate  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Caiaphas  and  his  father-in-law 
Annas  (John  xviii.  13)  were  high  priests  when 
■John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  ministry 
(Luke  iii.  2).  Caiaphas  projiosed  llie  death 
of  Jesus,  and,  speaking  of  its  im))ort  more 
significantly  than  he  was  aware,  said  :  "  It  is 
expedient  for  us,  that  one  man  should  die  for 
the  people,  and  that  the  wliole  nation  perish 
not "  (.John  xi.  49-53 ;  xviii.  14).  At  his  pal- 
ace the  council  of  chief  priests,  scribes,  and 
elders  was  held  to  devise  measures  for  the 
arrest  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  xxvi.  3-5).  When 
Jesus  was  apprehended,  he  was  taken  first  to 
the  palace  of  Annas,  who  sent  him  bound  to 


Cain 


109 


Caleb 


Caiaphas  (John  xviii.  24),  whence  he  was  led 
next  to  the  prietoriuiu  of  Pilate  (28).  Deeply 
responsible  for  the  judicial  murder  of  the  iu- 
uoceut  prisoner,  Caiaphas  afterwards  took 
part  in  tlie  trial  of  Peter  and  John  ( Acts  i  v.  fi). 
In  A.  D.  3(5  he  was  deposed  by  Vitellius,  the 
Eoinau  president  of  Syria  (Autiq.  xviii.  4,2). 
Cain  [fabrication,  forged  instrument, smith]. 

1.  The  elder  brother  of  Abel,  by  calling  an 
agriculturist.  He  brought  of  the  fruits  of 
the  ground  an  offering  to  God,  an  imi)lied 
acknowledgment  of  gratitude  to  God  for  the 
]>roduce  of  the  earth.  But  the  heart  of  Cain 
was  not  right,  and  his  offering  was  rejected. 

Then  his  character  was  revealed.  He  showed 
envy  and  auger,  refused  the  exhortation  to 
strive  against  sin,  committed  murder,  denied 
his  guilt;  and  when  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced, gave  no  evidence  of  repentance  for 
his  sin,  but  only  of  fear  of  the  punishment. 
Sent  into  exile,  he  lived  in  the  laud  of  Nod, 
eastward  of  Eden.  He  had  a  wife,  one  of  the 
unnamed  daughters  or  granddaughters  of 
Adam.  In  early  ages  no  impropriety  existed 
or  was  felt  in  such  a  marriage  (cp.  Gen.  xi. 
27,  29;  XX.  12).  In  his  exile  Cain  built  a 
fortified  hamlet,  and  became  the  progenitor 
of  a  race  which  made  considerable  progress 
in  the  mechanical  arts  (Gen.  iv.  1-25 ;  1  John 
iii.  12;  Jude  11). 

2.  The  progenitor  of  the  Kenites.  SeeKAiN. 

3.  A  village  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  57).  Doubtfully  located  at  the 
ruin  Yukiu,  3  miles  southeast  of  Hebron. 

Cai'nan,  in  A.  V.  once  Kenan  (1  Chron.  i. 
2),  as  alwavs  in  R.  V.  of  O.  T. 

1.  Son  of  Euos  (Gen.  v.  9-14 ;  1  Chron.  i.  2  ; 
Luke  iii.  37,  38). 

2.  Son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of  Shelah 
(Luke  iii.  36,  E.  V.).  The  corresponding 
genealogy  of  Gen.  xi.  12  has  no  Cainan  ;  the 
Septuagint,  however,  has,  and  it  was  from  the 
Septuagint  that  Luke  quotes. 

Ca'lah. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  built  by  Nimrod  or  by 
people  from  his  country,  and  forming  part  of 
that  complex  of  cities  which  collectively  were 
called  by  the  Hebrews  that  great  city  (Gen. 
X.  11,  12 ;  cp.  Jon.  i.  2).  According  to  Ashur- 
nasirpal  (about  885-860  B.  c.)  it  was  built  or 
rebuilt,  embellished,  and  fortified  by  Shal- 
maneser.  who  reigned  about  1300  B.  c.  Early 
in  the  ninth  century  B.  c.  it  had  fallen  into 
decay,  but  was  restored  by  Ashurnasirjial, 
who  erected  a  palace  and  made  the  city  the 
place  of  royal  residence.  Calah  remained 
the  favorite  dwelling  place  of  the  Assyrian 
kings  for  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.  Its  ruins,  now  called  Nimriid,  lie 
about  20  miles  south  of  Nineveh. 

Cal'a-mus  [Greek  kalamos,  a  reed,  a  cane] . 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  K'neh  bosem, 
reed  of  fragrance,  and  Kaneh,  cane,  reed, 
when  an  odorous  variety  is  intended.  The 
plant  was  sweet  smelling  (Song.  iv.  14),  a  con- 
stituent of  the  anointing  oil   (Ex.  xxx.  23), 


and  used  in  connection  with  sacrifice  (Is. 
xliii.  24  and  Jer.  vi.  20,  margin  of  R.  V.).  It 
was  brought  from  a  far  country  (Jer.  vi.  20). 
The  Tyrians  obtained  it  apparently  from 
Javan,  the  regions  of  western  Asia'  Minor 
and  Greece  (Ezek.  xxvii.  19).  What  came 
from  Europe  was  probably  the  Acorn.s  calamus, 
or  common  Sweet  Sedge  of  England,  an  en- 
dogenous plant,  with  a  spadix  and  spathe, 
akin  to  the  Aroids,  but  belonging  to  the  al- 
lied order  of  the  Oronfiacew  or  Orontiads. 
The  rhizome  or  undergrouud  stem  is  aro- 
matic. If  an  Indian  plant  is  permissible, 
then  the  calamus  was  probably  the  Andro- 
pogon  calamus  aromaticus,  a  genuine  grass, 
w-hich,  like  its  near  ally,  the  Lemon  Grass, 
A.  schcenanthus,  is  highly  scented. 

Cal'col,  in  A.  V.  once  Chalcol  [sustenance, 
maintenance]. 

One  of  three  sons  of  Mahol,  each  of  whom 
was  celebrated  for  wisdom  (1  Kin.  iv.  31  ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  6). 

Cal'dron.     See  Pot. 
Caleb. 

1.  Son  of  Hezron,  and  brother  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  18,  42).  A  variant  form  of  the 
name  is  Chelubai  (ver.  9).  In  tribal  registra- 
tion, his  posterity  constituted  a  subdivision 
of  the  house  of  Hezron,  family  of  Perez,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Sam.  xxv.  3  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3,  R.  V., 
seq.).  Among  his  more  immediate  descend- 
ants were  Hur,  Aaron's  associate,  and  Hur's 
grandson,  the  skilled  artificer  Bezalel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  19,  E.  V.,  seq.). 

2.  Son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite  and  an 
elder  brother  of  Othniel  (Num.  xxxii.  12,  R. 
V. ;  Josh.  XV.  17 ;  1  Chron.  iv.  15,  cp.  13).  He 
was  the  head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah ;  was  one  of  the  twelve  men  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land  of  Canaan ;  was  one  of 
the  two  members  of  this  commission  who 
kept  their  faith  in  Jehovah,  and  forty  years 
later  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan  ; 
was,  in  fact,  the  first  to  speak  for  this  minor- 
ity of  two  (Num.  xiii.  2,  6,  .30;  xiv.  6,  24,38; 
Josh.  xiv.  6,  14;  1  Mac.  ii.  56).  He  was  on 
the  commission  appointed  by  Moses  before 
the  conquest  to  distribute  the  land,  and  he 
represented,  as  before,  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(Num.  xxxiv.  19).  He  was  85  years  old 
when  the  conquest  was  completed  (Josh.  xiv. 
7,  10).  He  received  as  his  portion  the  town 
of  Hebron  1 14),  from  which  he  expelled  the 
Anakim  by  whom  it  had  been  previously 
occupied  (xv.  13,  14)  ;  see  Hebkon.  He  had 
also  to  do  with  the  taking  of  the  adjacent 
town  of  Kirjath-sepher,  or  Debir  (15-19). 
The  south  of  Caleb  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  xxx. 
14  was  probably  tlie  south  of  the  Hebron 
district  or  the  vicinity  of  Debir. 

In  1  Chron.  ii.  49  "(cp.  19,  42,  46)  Achsah, 
the  well-known  daughter  of  Caleb  the  spy.  is 
registered  as  daughter  or  descendant  of  Caleb 
the  brother  of  Jerahmeel.  To  judge  from 
this  register,  Caleb  the  sou  of  Jephunneh 
and  father  of  Achsah  was  descended  from 


Caleb-ephrathali 


110 


Calvary 


the  elder  Caleb,  and  pernaiis  liis  coucubine 
Maauali,  and  hence  tlirough  Hezrou  and 
Perez  from  .ludah.  Tliere  are  many  details 
tobeaceounted  for,  and  tlie  ordinary  dittieulty 
of  interpretinjj  an  aneient  Hebrew  genealogy 
is  in  this  case  greatly  increased  by  the  imper- 
fect state  of  the  text  in  1  Chron.  ii.  and  iv. 
The  general  explanation  probably  is  that  a 
member  of  the  tribe  of  Keni/.zites  liecame 
identified  with  the  Israelites  by  taking  ser- 
vice with  .Tudah  before  the  Israelites  went 
into  Egypt,  and  he  or  his  descendant  married 
a  woman  descended  from  Jiidah  through 
Perez.  Various  modifications  of  this  general 
theory  are  possible.  All  genealogical  and  his- 
torical references,  and  the  ])eculiarities  of 
the  register  are  satisfied  by  the  assumption 
that  shortly  before  the  exodus  .Jephunneh 
the  Kenizzite  married  a  woman  of  the  house- 
hold of  Calei)  the  brother  of  Jerahmeel,  and 
by  her  had  a  firstborn  son  to  whom  was  given 
the  family  name  Caleb.  This  youth  inherited 
the  prerogatives  of  the  family,  and  in  time 
became  head  of  the  house  and  a  chief  of 
Judah.  Jei)hunneh  the  Kenizzite  took  a 
second  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Othniel  and 
Seraiah.  Hence  they  are  called  sous  of  Kenez 
or  Kenizzites,  and  are  enrolled  loosely  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  aud  reckoned  like  Je- 
phunneh as  Kenizzites. 

Ca'leb-eph'ra-thali,  in  A.V.  Caleb-eph'ra- 
tah. 

The  co!nmunity  formed  by  the  descendants 
of  Caleb  and  his  wife  ICiilirath  (1  Chron.  ii. 
19,  24).  The  Sci»tnagint  had  a  slightly  differ- 
ent text.  If  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, and  the  genealogy  is  here  dealing  strictly 
with  persons,  then  Hezron,  the  father  of 
Caleb,  late  in  life  married  a  grand-daugliter 
of  Manasseh.  Their  descendants  were  after- 
wards reckoned  through  the  ancestress  with 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  but  in  this  register 
they  are  included  with  Hezron's  descendants 
throiigli  Caleb  and  Kphratli.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  recorde(l  that  Hezron  died  in 
Caleb-ephratliah  ;  that  is,  either  in  that  ]tart 
of  Goshen  where  the  branch  of  his  family 
known  as  Cal(0)-ephnich  resiiled,  or  in  Pales- 
tine, whitherCaleb  had  gone  back  from  Egypt. 

Calf. 

.\  young  bull  or  cow,  lion  taanis.  Calves 
were  killed  for  food  ((ten.  xviii.  7)  and  for 
sacrifii^i!  ( Heb.  ix.  12.  IS)).  .Varon  made  a 
goldt^n  imago  of  a  m;il(?  calf  that  the  i>eopie 
might  worship  Jehovah  under  this  form  (  Ex. 
xxxii.  4;  Ps.  cvi.  19,  ■,'();  see  also  Neh. 
ix.  IS).  The  young  bull  syml)olized  vigor, 
Ktreuglh,  aud  endurance  (cj).  Num.  xxiii.  22) ; 
and  the  choice  of  this  animal  rather  than 
another  to  represc-nt  ( rod  was  favored  also  by 
the  pomp  of  the,  l)ull  worship  in  Egyi)t, 
where  the  Israelites  had  often  seen  the  in- 
habitanls  adore  the  living  bull  ,\pis.  On 
thc^  clivision  of  the  kingdom  .Jeroboam 
instituted  the  calf  worship  anew,  setting 
up   two   calves,    one    at    Hediel    and    one   at 


Dan  (1  Kin.  xii.  29).  He,  too,  had  seen  the 
Apis  worshiped  in  Egypt  while  he  was  a 
refugee  at  the  court  of  Shishak  (1  Kin.  xi. 
40).  but  he  was  influenced  more  by  the  de- 


Image  of  Apis,  the  Sacred  Bull  of  Egypt. 

sire  to  adhere  to  ancient  traditions,  for  in 
recommending  the  calves  he  quoted  the  words 
of  Ex.  xxxii.  4. 

Cal'neh. 

A  city  of  Babylonia,  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Nimrod"(Gen.  x.  10).  A  town  of  this 
name  is  also  mentioned  by  Amos  (Amos  vi.  2). 
Not  identified.  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Eusebius, 
Jerome,  indicate  Ctesiphon  east  of  the  Tigris. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  has  suggested  Kulunu. 

Cal'no. 

A  city,  probably  in  northern  Syria,  which 
the  Assyrians  cited  as  an  example  of  the  futil- 
ity of  ofleriug  resistance  to  Assyria  (Is.  x.  9i. 

Cal'va-ry  [skull]. 

A  place  close  to  .Jerusalem,  but  outside  the 
city  walls,  where  Christ  was  crucified,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  which  he  was  buried  (Mat. 
xxviii.  11;  John  xix.  17,  20,  41:  Heb.  xiii. 
11-13).  It  ai)i)ears  to  have  been  a  conspicu- 
ous spot  (Mark  xv.  40;  Jjuke  xxiii.  49),  and 
was  perbajis  near  a  highway  (Mat.  xxvii.  39). 
The  name  is  derive<l  from  the  Latin  calvaria, 
more  rarely  (■(ilptiriion,  a  skull  (Luke  xxiii. 
33),  corresi)oiiding  to  the  Aramaic  (Tolgotha 
{M.\i.  xxvii.  3.3;  JIark  xv.  22;  John  xix.  17, 
41).  .Teronie  sui)i)osed  that  the  name  arose 
from  uncovered  or  unburied  skulls;  others 
have  thought  rather  of  a  place  of  execution. 
Tiie  connnon  ex]>lanatii)n  is  that  the  name 
was  due  fo  the  craiiial  shape  of  the  rock  or 
hillock,  although  the  expression  mount  Cal- 
vary is  modern. 

The  question  of  the  site  of  the  crucifixion 
is  involved  with  that  of  the  location  of  the 
sejiulcher.  The  theory  advanced  by  Fergus- 
son,  that  the  tomb  was  in  llii'  rock  under  the 
dome  of  the  Mosijue  of  Omar,  has  not  ob- 
tained favor.  Two  sites  contend  for  accept- 
ance: 1.  The  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher, 
within  the  walls  of  the  modern  city.  2.  The 
hill  in  which  is  Jeremiah's  grotto,  about  250 


Camel 


111 


Camp 


yards  northeast  of  the  Damascus  gate.  The 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  has  ancient 
tradition  in  its  favor.  Eusebius,  born  in 
Csesarea  about  a.  d.  264,  is  the  earliest  his- 
torian who  gives  any  information  on  the  sub- 
ject. He  states  that  impious  men  had  cov- 
ered the  sepulcher  with  earth  and  built  a 
temple  to  the  goddess  Venus  over  it,  and  that 
the  place  had  long  been  given  over  to  forget- 
fulness  and  oblivion.  Constantine  erected  a 
church  where  the  temple  of  Venus  stood,  and 
the  site  of  Constantine's  building  is  occupied 
by  the  present  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 
Is  this  church  on  ground  that  was  outside  the 
second  wall?  This  question  can  be  decided 
only  by  costly  excavation  to  determine  the 
course  of  the  second  wall. 

The  theory  that  the  hill  above  Jeremiah's 
grotto  marks  the  site  of  Calvary  is  at  jiresent 
in  the  ascendant.  It  was  suggested  by  Otto 
Thenius  some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  and 
has  been  adopted  or  independently  reached 
by  other  scholars,  and  greatly  elaborated. 
This  location  unquestionably  satisfies  all  the 
conditions  of  the  problem.  The  hill  in  which 
is  Jeremiah's  grotto  admittedly  rises  beyond 
the  course  of  the  second  wall.  The  rounded 
summit  of  the  hill,  and  the  two  hollow  cave 
entrances  beneath,  present  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  a  skull.  Its  commanding  position 
renders  it  visible  from  a  distance.  Near  it 
was  the  great  highway  to  the  north.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  gardens  and  rock-hewn 
tombs.  But  no  ancient  tradition  connects 
the  crucifixion  with  this  place. 

Cam'el  [borrowed  from  Semitic  gamal]. 

The  one-humped  camel,  which  runs  into 
two  well  marked  varieties,  the  camel  prop- 
erly so  called,  which  is  a  slow-going  draught 
animal  (2  Kin.  viii.  9),  and  the  dromedary, 
which  is  swift  of  foot  (cp.  Is.  Ixvi.  20,  margin 
of  R.  v.).  The  two-humped  Bactrian  camel 
may  be  referred  to  in  Tobit  ix.  2.  The  camel 
has  been  called  the  ship  of  the  desert,  and 
its  whole  organization  fits  it  to  cross  sandy 


wastes.  It  is  a  ruminating  animal,  but  be- 
longs to  that  aberrant  portion  of  the  Eiimi- 
nantia   in  which,   in  place  of  the   ordinary 


cloven  hoof,  the  foot  is  envcloiied  in  a  hard- 
ened skin,  enclosing  the  cushion-like  .soles, 
which  can  be  spread  out  sidewise  so  as  to 
adapt  it  to  walk,  without  sinking  deeply,  over 
soft  and  yielding  sand.  Another  adaptation 
is  that  in  the  walls  of  the  paunch  or  first 
stomach  there  are  two  collections  of  water 
cells  on  which  the  animal  can  draw  when  no 
other  water  is  procurable.  Vet  anotiier adapta- 
tion is  its  al)ility  to  subsist  on  the  jioorest 
food.  Even  the  hunij)  is  anotlu^r  adaptation. 
It  is  a  storehouse  of  food,  and  Incomes  larger 
or  smaller  according  as  the  animal  is  in  good 
or  in  bad  condition.  The  camel  is  .stn]pi(i,  ill- 
tempered,  and  .sometimes  vindictive  ;  hut  its 
passive  obedience  and  power  of  endunince 
render  it  very  valuable.  It  is  not  now  any- 
where found  wild,  nor  has  it  been  known 
wild  in  historical  times.  Abraham  and  .hicob 
had  camels  (Gen.  xii.  1(5;  xxx.  4'-i).  and  so 
had  later  nomads  in  the  south  of  Palestine 
(1  Sam.  xxvii.  9  ;  2  C'hron.  siv.  1.')).  The  Ish- 
maelites  who  bought  Joseph  also  had  <'amels 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  25).  The  camel  was  not,  how- 
ever, so  much  at  home  in  Palestine,  which  is  a 
hilly  country,  as  in  the  Arabian  and  the  .\fri- 
can  deserts  (Ex.  ix.  3;  Judg.  vi.  ."> :  1  Kin.  x.  2  ; 
1  Chron.  v.  18-21).  But  it  is  still  l.red  al.nnd- 
antly  on  the  plains  of  Moab  and  in  the  south 
of  Judsea.  The  milk  was  used  (c]).  (ien. 
xxxii.  15),  but  the  animal  was  ceremonially 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  4).  From  its  hair  a  coarse 
cloth  was  woven,  which  was  sometimes  made 
into  clothing  (Mat.  iii.  4)  and  used  for  tents. 
The  burden  was  borne  on  the  hump  Us.  xxx. 
6).  When  the  camel  is  ridden,  a  saddle  is 
commonly  used,  and  sometimes  a  palan(|iiin 
(cp.  Gen.  xxxi.  34).  The  Arabs  commonly 
deck  their  camels'  necks  with  ornaments  (cp. 
Judg.  viii.  21,  26). 
Ca'mon.    See  Kamon. 

Camp. 

The  station  of  an  army  or  other  body  of  peo- 
ple, where  tcmiiorary  structures  are  erected 
for  their  accommodation  (Ex.  xiv.  19;  1  Siun. 
iv.  5;  xvii.  4;  2  Kin.  vii.  7).  Strict  regula- 
tions were  prescribed  for  the  army  of  Israel 
in  order  to  secure  cleanliness  in  their  camp 


Camfi  of  Dan 

J>ait^her.,Sup/ilah . 


Camp 

-r 

Ephraim 

f/J,raun. 

Benjamin. 


I  Camf, 


Camp  of  Reuben 

Reuben,  S union.  Cad. 


(Deut.  xxiii.  9-14).  The  arrangement  of  the 
camp  of  the  migrating  Hebrew  nation,  whu'h 
was  adopted  for  the  journey  tlirongh  the 
wilderness,  is  described  in  Num.  i.  4~-ii.  .'$4 ; 
iii    14-39  ;    cp.  x.  11-28,  and  see  Shittim. 


CampMre 


112 


It  was,  (.f  coiiisc.  absolutely  regular  only 
when  the  peojile  were  encamped  on  a  broad, 
level  plain.  For  the  eneanipnients  of  Israel 
durinf;  the  journey  through  the  wilderness, 

see  WiLDKKNKSS  OF  THK  WaNDEKING. 

Cam'pliire  [old  form  of  English  eanii>lior; 
(Jreek  kdphonni,  Arabic  kaj'nr ;  all  from 
Malay  kaj}ni-,  chalkj.  ^ 

Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kopher 
in  Song  i.  14 ;  iv.  13,  A.  V.  See  Henna. 
Ca'na  [])lace  of  reeds]. 
A  village,  more  fully  named  Cana  of  Gali- 
lee, where  Jesus  wrougiit  his  first  miracle, 
making  water  wine  (Johnii.  1-11),  and  healed 
the  nobleman's  son  at  Capernaum  (iv.  46). 
Nathanael  Mas  of  Cana  (xxi.  2).  Possibly 
the  words  "of  Galilee"  are  added  to  this 
Caiui  to  distinguish  it  from  another  in  Coele- 
svria  (Antiq.  xv.  5,  1).  Josephus  also  men- 
tions Cana  of  Galilee  (Life  16,  71 ).  The  tra- 
ditional site  is  Kefr  Keniia,  a  village  about 
33  miles  northeast  of  Nsizareth,  on  the  road 
to  Tiberias.  Kobinson  advocated  the  view, 
held  by  some  inquirers  in  the  Crusading 
period,  that  Cana  of  Galilee  was  at  Kana-el- 
.lelil,  v.hicb  is  the  old  name  scarcely  changed, 
about  «  miles  north  by  east  of  Nazareth. 

Ca'naan,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Cha'naan 
[low,  lowland]. 

1.  Son  of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah  ;  or 
better,  the  descendants  of  Ham  who  occupied 
Canaan  and  took  their  name  from  that  coun- 
try, and  in  whom  the  low  traits  manifested  bj- 
their  progenitor  were  strongly  marked  (Gen. 
X.  6, 1") ;  Hos.  xii.  7,  margin).  The  continuance 
of  Ham's  character  in  a  branch  of  his  descend- 
ants had  been  prophesied  by  Noah,  and  the 
consequence  of  yielding  to  the  bestial  im- 
pulses had  been  foretold  (Gen.  ix.  18-"J7).  In 
this  passage  the  progenitor  (»f  the  Canaanites 
is  called  Canaan  prolejjfically  by  a  late  trans- 
mitter of  the  venerable  prophecy.  Wishing 
to  indicate  the  forefather  of  the  Canaanites 
among  the  sons  of  Ham,  the  narrator  gives 
to  their  ancestor  the  name  borne  by  his  de- 
scendants, and  by  which  he  had  come  to  be 
familiarly  known,  irrespective  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  was  his  ])ersonal  name  or  not. 
'■i.  A  name  probably  <,Mven  at  fust  only  to 
the  low-lying  coast  line  of  Palestine  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  neighboring  hill  country 
(Num.  xiii.  2!);  Josh.  xi.  .'{).  Afterwards  the 
name  Canaan  was  extended  first  to  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  and  then  to  the  whole  of  Pales- 
line  west  of  the  river,  and  became  oiu'  of  the 
most  coniinon  designations  of  the  country  in- 
habited by  the  Hebn^ws,  though  what  they 
occupied  was  really  the  highland  ]iortion  of 
Palestine  and  the  Jordan  valley,  with  little 
of  the  coast  line  (Gen.  xi.  .'51  ;  Num.  xiii.  2). 
The  langiuige  of  Canaan  after  the  conquest 
<if  the  country  by  the  Israelites  was  Hebrew, 
the  siiecch  of  the  people  of  (;o<l  (Is.  xix.  IH). 
Tiie  Hebrews  (•oii(|Uere<l  Canaan  under  the 
leadership  of  .losbiia  after  I  be  death  of  Moses. 
The  plan  of  I  he  campaign  included  (he  estal)- 


Canaan 

lishment  of  a  fixed  camp  at  Gilgal.  The  site 
was  on  the  east  of  Jericho,  in  the  plain  (Josh, 
iv.  19;  v.  10).  From  it  the  Israelites  uent  up 
to  Ai  and  Gibeon  (vii.  .'J  :  viii.  1,  3  ;  x.  9).  The 
advantages  of  this  location  for  the  camp  of 
Israel  were  great.  At  Gilgal  Joshua  had  no 
enemies  in  his  rear,  had  water  in  abundance 
for  the  people,  could  draw  supplies  from  the 
two  tribes  and  a  half  which  had  settled  in 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  had  a 
safe  place  for  hoarding  spoil.  The  charac- 
teristic objects  in  this  camp  were  the  taber- 
nacle (Josh.  vi.  24 ;  cp.  ix.  23 ;  xviii.  1 ;  xxii.  19) ; 
the  ark  (iii.  17;  vi.  11,  etc.  ;  vii.  6) ;  the  altar 
(ix.  27  ;  cp.  xxii.  19,  28,  29) ;  Eleazar  the  priest 
(xiv.  1  ;  cp.  6),  besides  other  priests  (vi.  6,  12, 
etc. ;  viii.  33) ;  tT\'elve  stones  w'hich  had  been 
taken  out  of  the  bed  of  the  Jordan  and  set 
up  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the  river 
(iv.  20).  Joshua's  plan  further  included  a 
preliminary  campaign  for  the  overthrow  of 
the  enemies  which  threatened  the  camp.  He 
took  Jericho,  the  outpost  of  Canaan,  the  mis- 
tress of  the  valley.  Then  he  marched  into 
the  mountain,  directly  to  the  west,  and  over- 
threw Ai.  This  town  lay  at  the  head  of  the 
valley  which  emerged  opiiosite  Gilgal,  and 
from  it  troo])s  might  be  poured  down  against 
the  camp.  After  this  preliminary  campaign 
he  fulfilled  the  injunction  of  Moses  to  erect 
an  altar  on  Ebal  (Josh.  viii.  30-35 ;  Deut. 
xxvii.).  According  to  Josephus,  this  solem- 
nit.v  was  performed  after  the  conquest  of  the 
entire  country  (Antiq.  v.  1,  19).  At  this 
juncture  ambassadors  from  the  town  of 
Gibeon  appeared,  with  whom  Joshua  made  a 
treaty  without  asking  counsel  of  the  Lord. 
It  was  an  unfortunate  step,  as  will  be  shown 
presently.  Having  obtained  secure  foothold 
in  the  country,  Joshua  i)roceeded  to  conquer 
Canaan  in  two  campaigns.  The  alliance  of 
the  five  kings  determined  the  southern  expe- 
dition (Josh.  X.).  The  king  of  Jerusalem 
summoned  the  kings  of  Hebron,  Lachish, 
Eglon,  and  .Jarmuth  to  war  against  Gibeon  ; 
and  Joshua  was  obliged  to  help  those  with 
whom  he  was  in  treaty.  The  five  kings  were 
routed,  and  fled  down  the  pass  of  Beth-horon. 
Following  up  the  victory,  Joshua  cai>tured 
Makkedah,  in  or  hard  by  the  maritime  plain, 
and  jiitched  a  temporary  cam^)  there  ;  took 
Libnah,  which  was  likewise  in  the  jdain  ; 
Lachish,  where  the  king  of  Gezer  also  was 
defeated  ;  Eglon.  where  another  temporary 
camp  was  lixed  ;  and  Heliron.  From  Hebron 
he  turned  and  sn)ote  Debir,  in  the  liill  coun- 
try. Thus  the  entire  region  included  be- 
tween Gibeon,  (iaza,  and  Kadesh-barnea  was 
smitten,  and  .Joshua  returned  to  Gilgal. 

It  was  during  this  campaign  that  .Joshua 
bad(!  the  .sun  to  stand  still  (x.  12-151.  This 
event  occiiri'ed  during  a  miracle  period  ;  see 
MiKACi.K.  Put  it  is  cited  from  the  book  of 
Jasliar,  which  contained  jioems  accompanied 
by  remarks  in  ]irose.     See  SuN. 

Having  coii(|uered  tlu>  central  region  and 
flu-  south,  .losbua  determined  as  a  nuitter  of 


Canaan 


113 


Canaan 


expediency,  or  under  compulsion  of  the  iiorth- 
eru  confederacy,  to  neglect  the  inconsidera- 
hle  towns  on  the  coast  north  of  the  Philistine 
country,  and  to  strike  at  the  i)opuloiis  and 
powerful  north  (Josh.  xi.).  With  this  end  in 
view,  he  undertook  a  northern  camjiaiijn. 
The  king  of  Hazor  was  head  of  a  confed 
eracy  of  petty  mouarchs,  and  on  hearing  of 
tlie  Israelitish  victories  in  the  south  he  sum- 
moned the  remaining  kings  of  the  country 
to  a  united  attempt  to  crush  Joshua.  The 
allied  armies  met  at  the  waters  of  Merom. 
Joshua  had  reacluHl  the  same  neighborhood, 
and  he  attacked  them.  He  routed  them,  pur- 
sued the  fugitives  as  far  as  Sidon  toward  the 
northwest  and  eastward  to  Mizpeh.  He  then 
returned,  captured  and  burnt  the  town  of 
Hazor.  and  took  the  capitals  of  the  other 
petty  kingdoms  which  had  been  in  alliance. 
In  xi.  16-xii.  24  a  summary  of  the  conquest 
is  given. 

The  power  of  the  Canaanites  was  broken 
by  these  campaigns,  but  the  inhabitants  were 
not  wholly  exterminated.  Many  of  the  na- 
tives remained.  Important  towns  were  left 
in  the  possession  of  the  Canaanitish  popula- 
tion (xi.  13;  XV.  63;  xvi.  10,  etc.);  and  even 
where  the  destruction  was  most  complete, 
not  a  few  of  tlie  people  had  escaped  by  flight 
or  hiding  and,  when  the  army  of  Israel  with- 
drew (x.  43),  they  returned,  rebuilt  ruined 
towns,  and  placed  the  wasted  iiehls  diuie 
more  under  cultivation.  Years  afterwarcls, 
when  the  tribes  of  Israel  scattered  over  the 
country  in  order  to  .settle,  they  met  with 
sporadic  resistance  (Judg.  i.-^see  Hebrox, 
Joshua). 

The  time  occupied  in  the  conquest  of  Ca- 
naan was  long,  because  not  a  city  made  peace 
with  Israel  save  the  five  cities  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites  (xi.  18,  19).  It  may  be  calculated  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  accuracy.  From  the 
sending  forth  of  the  spies  in  the  second  year 
(cp.  Num.  x.  11 ;  xiii.  20 ;  Deut.  i.  2)  to"  the 
time  of  assigning  the  reconquest  of  Hebron 
to  Caleb  when  the  land  was  about  to  be  dis- 
tributed was  (Josh.  xiv.  7,  10)  45  years;  from 
the  sending  forth  of  the  spies  to  the  crossing 
of  the  Zered  was  (Deut.  ii.  14)  38  years; 
leaving  for  the  conquest  of  the  country,  both 
east  and  west  of  the  Jordan,  about  6  or  7  years. 
From  this  is  to  be  deducted  the  time  con- 
sumed in  the  conquest  of  the  eastern  coun- 
try and  by  the  events  at  Shittim.  The  death 
of  Aaron  (Num.  xxxiii.  .38)  occurred  in  the 
40th  year,  .5th  month,  1st  day,  and  the  cross- 
ing of  .lordan  (Josh.  iv.  19)  in  1st  month,  10th 
day  ;  leaving  for  the  conquest  of  the  country 
of  Sihon  and  Og,  and  for  the  events  at  Shit- 
tim, nearly  8  months,  9  days,  of  which  period 
the  events  at  Shittim  occupied  about  two 
mt)nths  (cp.  Deut.  i.  3,  4,  with  Josh.  iv.  19; 
Deut.  xxxiv.  8 ;  Josh.  ii.  22,  etc.  ;  Ant,  iv.  8, 
49  and  iv.  8,  1),  leaving  for  the  conquest  of 
western  Palestine  5  or  6  years.  Josephus  as- 
signs 5  years  to  this  conquest  (Antiq.  v.  1, 19). 

Three  political  blunders  were  committed 
8 


by  .loshua:  his  making  a  treatv  with  the 
Gibeonites;  alb.wing  tlie  Jcbiisitcs  to  hold  Je- 
rusaU^m  (.Tosh.  xv.  (;3) ;  and  failure  to  dispos- 
sess the  Philistiuesand  control  the  country  to 
the  sea.  A  study  of  the  map  shows  that,  as 
a  result  of  these  mistakes,  Judah  and  Simeon 
were  is.ilated  from  the  n^st  of  the  nation. 
Ihe  mam  road  from  Judaii  to  tiu-  nortii  was 
commanded  by  the  Jebiisite  strongiiold  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  skirted  for  10  niiU's  on 
the  west  by  the  settlements  of  the  (Jibeonites 
Between  Jerusalem  and  Jericjio  on  tlie  east 
wasa  tractof  wild,  rocky,  uninhabited  inoiin- 
tam  land  crossed  east  and  west  l)v  im|ia>.sal)le 
gorges.  From  Jeru.salem  to  tlu'  Mediterranean 
Sea  a  strip  of  country  stretched,  wliicli  was 
occupied  by  foreigners :  first  (iiheonites.  next 
Canaanites  iu  Dan,  then  Philistines  as  far  as 
the  sea.  The  consequences  of  this  isolation 
of  Judah  and  Simeon  were  seriou.s,  distinctly 
aflecting  the  course  of  history  in  the  years 
that  followed. 

Was  the  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
by  the  Israelites  a  justifiable  act?  The  mere 
matter  of  their  dispossessing  the  Canaanites 
presents  no  moral  difficulties.  Tliis  procedure 
accorded  with  the  sjjirit  of  tiie  age.  The  Is- 
raelites doubtless  had  as  much  right  to  Ca- 
naan as  had  the  inhabitants  whom  they  drove 
out.  They  despoiled  despoilers.  Nor  does 
the  manner  of  warfare  i)resent  moral  diffi- 
culties, for  the  conduct  of  the  Hebrews  in 
war  compares  favorably  with  the  practices 
of  the  time.  Judged  by  the  standards  of 
their  own  age,  they  were  not  bloodthii-sty  or 
cruel.  The  Assyrians  have  pictured  their  own 
war.s.  It  was  not  infrequent  for  them  to  de- 
capitate the  inhabitants  of  cai>tured  cities, 
and  pile  the  heads  in  heai)s;  to  crucify  or 
impale  prisoners,  pierce  their  eyeballs  with  a 
spear,  or  flay  them  alive.  In  the  battles  of 
Israel  with  the  ('anaanites  tluTe  is  record  of 
death,  but  not  of  torture.  The  moral  cliffi- 
culty  connected  with  the  extermination  of 
the  Canaanites  is  that  God  commanded  it. 
God's  character  is  involved.  I5ut  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  God  had  a  lwofr)ld  end  in 
view  in  the  utter  extermination  l)y  death  and 
expulsion  which  he  commanded.  It  was 
punitive  (Gen.  xv.  16;  Lev.  xviii.  25;  Deut. 
ix.  3,  4;  xviii.  12)  and  preventive  (Ex.  xxiii. 
31-33  ;  xxxiv.  12-16  ;  Deut.  vii.  2-4).  It  was 
to  punish  the  Canaanites  for  their  outrageous 
wickedness,  and  to  previ'ut  them  from  con- 
taminating the  peo])le  of  (iod.  It  is  not  as- 
serted that  the  Canaanites  were  sinners  aliove 
all  men  that  ever  lived.  Their  personal  morals 
were  perha]>s  not  worse  than  those  of  otlier 
heathen  as  described  in  Rom.  i.  The  Canaan- 
ites were  idolaters,  they  indulged  in  shame- 
ful and  abominat)le  vice,  they  went  l)eyond 
other  nations  in  practicing  human  sacrifice. 
It  is  appointed  unto  all  nuui  to  die.  God 
holds  nations  as  well  as  iiulividuals  responsi- 
ble, and  deals  with  them  accordingly.  He 
doomed  the  nations  of  Canaan  to  extermina- 
tion as  a  punishment  for  tlieir  wickednes.s, 


Canaan 


114 


Canaanite 


and  to  prevent  them  from  seduciui?  the  people 
of  God.  He  had  exterminated  the  wieked 
race  of  men  in  tlie  (hiys  of  Noali  hy  the 
Hood :  he  had  swept  away  the  ini(initoiis 
cities  of  the  plain  by  an  eruption,  it  would 
seem,  of  burning  naplitha ;  he  had  over- 
tlirown  Pharaoh  and  his  host  in  the  Red 
Sea  ;  he  had  destroyed  Korah  and  his  rebel- 
lious erew  by  an  earthquake  and  l)y  tire. 
Now,  instead  "of  using  tiie  forces  of  nature  to 
effect  his  punitory  ends,  he  employed  the 
Israelites  as  the  ministers  of  his  justice;  a,s 
the  public  executioiu^-,  employed  l)y  the  civil 
tribunal,  is  the  minister  of  human  justice. 
Tliis  trutli  was  taught  to  tlie  Israelites.  They 
were  informed  that  they  were  the  instru- 
ments of  divi)ie  justice.  For  these  reasons 
the  extermination  of  tlie  Canaanites  by  the 
Israelites  was  just:  the  employment  of  the 
Israelites  for  the  purjiose  was  right;  and  in 
connection  with  the  righteous  judgment  was 
an  intention  to  benefit  the  world.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  Israelites  to  carry  out  God's  com- 
mand fully  was  one  of  the  great  blunders 
whiciv  they  committed,  as  well  as  a  sin,  and 
it  resulted  in  lasting  injury  to  the  nation. 

Tlie  distribution  of  the  conquered  territory 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  was  made  partly  at 
(iilgaland  jiartly  at  Sliihih,  wliither  the  taber- 
nacle was  removed  (.losli.  xiv.  1,  2,  6-xviii.  1, 
2).  It  was  conducted  ))y  Eleazar  the  priest, 
Joshua,  and  ten  heads  of  fathers'  houses  (xvii. 
4  ;  c]).  Num.  xxxiv.  17,  18),  and  was  made  by 
lot  (Josh,  xviii.  ())■  The  law  to  govern  the  dis- 
tribution had  already  been  enacted  ;  namely, 
to  the  more  numerous  a  larger  inheritance, 
and  wheri'soever  the  lot  falleth  to  any  man 
(Num.  xxvi..^)2-r)(j;  xxxiii.  .51). The  rabbis  state 
that  two  urns  were  u.sed  :  in  one  were  placed 
tickets  with  the  names  of  the  tribes,  and  in 
the  other  were  tickets  with  the  names  of  the 
districts.  A  tribe  was  drawn  and  the  district 
which  it  should  possess.  Tlie  size  of  the  ter- 
ritory was  then  determined  l)y  the  populous- 
ness  of  the  tribe.  I'rohably,  however,  the 
commission  selected  a  distri(;t  without  nar- 
rowly <lellning  its  boundaries,  and  merely  de- 
termined by  lot  what  tribe  should  i)ossess  it; 
for — 1.  Compare  the  form  of  the  (juestion  in 
Judg.  i.  1.  2.  This  theory  satislies  Num. 
xxxiii.  54.  .'}.  Compare  .losh.  xviii.  1-10, 
where  the  lanil  is  first  described  in  seven  ])()r- 
tions,  and  .Joshua  then  cast  lots  for  the  tribes. 
4.  Tliis  theory  also  satisfies  .losh.  xix.  1,  etc., 
where  it  is  stated  that  at  the  final  allot- 
ment the  second  lot  came  out  for  Simeon,  the 
third  for  Zebulun,  etc.  5.  The  districts  were 
assigne<l  for  occupation,  not  as  though  de- 
termined liy  lot,  but  in  regular  order,  build- 
ing up  the  nation  (•om|)actly  as  the  allolnicnt 
pr<icee(led,and  not  leai)ing  hither  and  thither. 
(J.  Much  was  evidently  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  supervisors.  Caleb  must  have  nel)ron 
whether  t lie  lot  of  the  main  body  of  the  tribe, 
of  Juilali  alliiwed  them  to  set  lie  in  that  neigh- 
borhood or  not.  .hicob's  last  wislies  would  he 
observed   so    far  as   the    lot    permitted    ((ien. 


xlix.),  though  the  lot  did  not  permit  Zebulun 
to  possess  the  seacoast,  but  his  possession  was 
doubtless  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
patriarch's  desire.  Mistakes  w^ere  made  and 
rectified.  Before  the  allotment  was  com- 
pleted—and it  was  not  carried  out  in  a  day 
or  a  week— Judah  reported  that  it  had  been 
granted  too  much  territory.  The  surplus  was 
accordingly  added  to  the  undistributed  do- 
main. The  children  of  Joseph,  on  the  other 
hand,  informed  Joshua  that  they  had  re- 
ceived too  little  land,  and  they  asked  and  re- 
ceived more.  It  was  intended,  in  accordance 
with  Jacob's  wish,  that  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh  should  dwell  side  by  side ;  hence  the  lot 
was  not  cast  for  them  separately,  but  for  them 
unitedly  as  the  children  of  Joseph  (Josh.  xvi. 
1,  4).  In  this  manner  the  nation  was  com- 
jiactly  built  up,  the  territory  which  lay  near- 
est tlie  camp  being  distributed  first. 

1.  Southern  hill  conn-    To   Judah,  4th  son  of 

try.  I>eah. 

2.  Central  hill  country.    To  .loseph,  firstborn  of 

Rachel. 

3.  Intervening         hill    To  Benjamin,  2d  son  of 

country.  Rachel. 

4.  Part  of  the  surplus    To  Simeon,  2d  son  of 

of  the  southern  hill        Leah, 
country  which  Ju- 
dah gave  back. 
5, 6.  Territory  bounding  (To  Zebulun,  6th  son  of 
central  hill  country  <;     Leah, 
on  the  north.  (To  Issachar,  5th  son  of 

Leah. 

7.  Adjoining  seacoast.      To  Asher,   2d    son    of 

Leah's  maid. 

8.  Territory    north    of    To  Naphtali,  2d  son  of 

fssacbiir  and  Zebu-        Rachel's  maid, 
lou. 

9.  Remaining    part    of    To  Dan,  1st  Bon  of  Ra- 

Judah's  surplus.  chel's  maid. 

Eeuben,  firstborn  of  Leah,  Gad,  son  of 
Leah's  maid,  and  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
descendant  of  Rachel,  had  obtained  lauds 
east  of  the  Jordan.  These  with  Levi,  son  of 
Leah,  did  not  participate  in  the  distribution. 

Ca'naan-ite. 

1.  An  inhabitant  of  Canaan,  especially  one 
of  Hamitic  blood,  although  persons  and  tribes 
incorporated  with  the  descendants  of  Ham  in 
this  region  ac(|uired  the  name.  According  as 
the  geograi>hical  designation  Canaan  is  used 
in  its  broader  or  its  narrower  sense,  the  word 
Canaanite  has  a  broader  or  narrower  signifi- 
cation. In  the  narrow  sense,  the  Canaanites 
were  tlu^  i)eo])le  of  the  coast  and  valleys 
((ien.  XV.  21;  Josh.  ix.  1).  In  the  broad 
sense,  they  were  the  tribes  enumerated  in 
(ien.  X.  1.5-19.  The  Canaanites  were  doomed 
to  destruction  on  account  of  their  sins  (Dent. 
xx.  17).  Rut  the  Israelites  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent failed  to  carry  out  the  injunction.  They 
in  many  ca.ses  contented  themselves  with 
]uitting  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  to  tribute 
(.ludg.  i.  27-:5()).  Solomon  levied  on  them  a 
tribute  of  bondser\  ice  ;  in  other  words,  made 
them  iieriorm  forced  labor  (1  Kin.  ix.  20.  21). 
The   Canaanites   eventually   devoted    them- 


Canaanitess 


115 


Cane 


selves  extensively  to  trade,  and  their  name 
became  synonymous  with  trader  (Is.  xxiii.  8). 

2.  A  member  of  a  Jewish  patriotic  part}'. 
See  C'anan.ean. 

Ca'naan-i'tess. 

A  woman  of  t'anaan  (1  Chron.  ii.  3). 

Ca-na-nse'an,  in  A.  Y.  Canaanite  [translit- 
eration of  the  Aramaic  word  kan'dii,  zeall. 

A  member  of  a  Jewish  patriotic  party,  which 
was  also  known  by  the  synonymous  (ireek 
name  Zealot  (q.  v.).  Simon  the  apostle  bore 
this  epithet  to  distinguish  him  from  Simon 
Peter  (Mat.  x.  4;  cp.  Luke  vi.  15,  R.  Y.). 

Can'da-ce. 

A  queen  of  Ethiopia,  i.  e.,  probably  of 
Meroe,  in  southern  Nubia.  A  eunuch  of 
great  authority  at  her  court,  when  returning 
home  from  a  visit  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  had 
gone  to  worship,  was  converted  to  Christian- 
ity through  the  instrumentality  of  Philip  the 
evangelist  (Acts  viii.  26-39).  Strabo,  Dion 
Cassius,  and  Pliny,  all  concur  in  stating  that 
Meroe  in  the  first  century  of  the  C^hristian 
era  was  governed  by  a  succession  of  queens, 
each  called  Candace. 

Candle.    See  Lamp. 


solid  gold,  and  it  supjjorted  seven  lamps.  It 
stood  on  the  south  side  of  the  sanctuary  (Kx. 
XXV.  31-40;  xl.  24;  Iav.  xxiv.  2-4).'  Pure 
olive  oil  was  used  in  tiie  ianiiis.  and  the  liglit 
burned  from  evening  to  moniiug  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20,  21  ;  XXX.  7,  8  ;  1  Sam.  iii.  3).  According  U< 
Josephus,  three  of  the  lamps  v.ere  allowed  u, 
burn  byday  (Antiij.  iii.  8,  3).  This  conliinious 
burning  appaieiitly  synibdli/.cd  the  iininler- 
ruptedworshij),  even  by  night,  and  the  unceas- 
ing emission  of  light  by  the  people  of  (iod  (c|.. 
Zech.  iv.).  For  the  temple  Solomon  made  ten 
candlesticks,  five  for  the  right  and  live  for  tlic 
left  of  the  oracle  (1  Kin.  vii.  4!t;  2  Clirou.  iv. 
7).  They  were  carried  away  to  Pahylon  (.Icr. 
Iii.  19).  Zerubhabel  returned  to  the  earlier  ar- 
rangement, and  had  but  a  .single  candlestick  ; 
this  was  carried  otf  by  Antiochus  Eiiipliaues 
(1  Mac.  i.  21).  Being'reiilaccd  (iv.  4!ti.  it  con- 
tinued till  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
when  it  was  carried  ofl'  to  Konie,  figured  in 
Titus'  triumph,  and  was  sculptured  on  his 
arch  (War  vii.  5,  5). 

Cane  [from  Hebrew  kuueli,  a  reed]. 
The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Knneh 
in  Is.  xliii.  24  and  Jer.  vi.  20.     In  both  places 


The  ^e^  en  branched  Candk'^tick  of  Herod's  Temple     (/>om  the  Irrh  of  T,tn^ ) 


Can'dle-stlck. 

A  stand  for  a  candle.  That  in  the  taber- 
nacle was  for  lamps.  It  consisted  of  a  base 
and  a  shaft  with  six  branches,  beaten  out  of 


on  the  margin  of  the  R.  Y.  it  is  rendered 
calamus,  and  so  it  is  elsewlicre  translated  in 
both  versions,  where  a  specific  odorous  i-ane 
is  intended. 


Cankerworm 


116 


Canon 


Can'ker-worm. 

Tlic  icikU  riiij;  of  the  Hebrew  Yetek  in  Joel 
aud  Nahiiiu,  and  also  in  K.  V.  of  Ps.  cv.  34 
and  Jer.  li.  27.  In  the  two  latter  passages  A. 
V.  lias  caterpillar.  It  is  a  winged  insect  (Nah. 
iii.  l(i.  K.  v.),  rough  (Jer.  li.  27),  and  very  de- 
-structive  to  growing  crops.  As  it  is  men- 
tioned with  the  typical  locust  (Joel  i.  4  ;  Nah. 
iii.  1")),  which  it  "resembles  also  in  the  num- 
bers in  whicli  it  appears  (Joel  ii.  25),  it  is  prob- 
ably a  locust  of  some  species  or  in  some  stage 
of  development. 

Can'neh. 

A  place,  evidently  in  Mesopotamia,  per- 
haps the  same  as  Calueh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23). 

Can'on  [reed.  cane]. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  was  extended  to 
denote  :  (1)  any  straight  rod  or  bar,  such  as  a 
rod  or  level  used  by  masons  in  building  ;  (2) 
liguratively.  anything  which  serves  to  regu- 
late or  determine  otlier  things,  especially 
clas.siciil  books  ;  a  guide  or  model  (Gal.  vi. 
Ifi ;  Phil.  iii.  1(5)  ;  (3)  a  type  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, the  orthodox  as  opjio.sed  to  the  hetero- 
dox ;  (4)  the  Scriptures  viewed  as  a  rule  of 
faith  and  conduct.  The  word  is  Greek.  It 
was  first  used  in  this  fourth  sense  by  the 
early  fathers,  but  the  idea  denoted  was  an- 
cient. A  book  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  Bible 
is  called  canonical;  one  not  so  entitled,  un- 
canonical  ;  and  title  to  a  place,  caiionicity. 

The  Old  Testamknt  C;.\non.  Authorita- 
tive literature  grew  up  by  degi'ces  and  was 
i-arefully  preserved.  The  ten  commandments, 
written  on  tahlesof  stone,  Isra(!rs(;oiistitutioii, 
were  deposited  in  the  ark  I  Ex.  xl.  20).  The 
statutes  Were  rec(jr(led  in  tlie  l)<)ok  of  the  cov- 
enant (xx.2.'i-xxiii.  33;  xxiv.  7).  Tlie  book  of 
tlie  law,  written  by  Mose.s,  was  jiiit  liy  the  side 
of  theark  Deut.  xxxi.21  2()).  Joshua  added 
to  the  collection  wliat  lie  wrote  f.losli.  xxiv. 
26).  SaniiU'l  wrote  the  niaiiner  of  (lie  king- 
dom in  a  liook,  and  laid  it  upliefore  tlie  Lord 
(1  Sam.  X.  2.')).  In  the  days  of  Josiali  the  book 
of  the  law  of  tlie  Lord,  the  wi'll-known  book, 
was  found  in  the  trniple  and  recognized  by 
king,  priests,  i)ro|)liets,  and  people,  asautiiori- 
tative  and  ancient  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8-20).  (.lopies 
of  the  law  were  made  (Dent.  xvii.  18-20). 
Proi)hets  committed  their  words  to  writing 
(c.  (I.  .ler.  xxxvi.32).  and  tliey  wereac(|iiainted 
witli  each  other's  writings  and  (|Uoted  them  as 
authority  (Is.  ii.  2-4  with  Mic.  iv.  1-3).  The 
law  and  the  words  of  the  ]>ro])hets  were 
recognized  as  aulhoritative.  insi)ired  by  the 
Spirit  of  God.  and  jealously  guarded  by  Je- 
hovah (Zech.  i.  1  ;  vii.  7,  12). 

The  law  of  .Mo.ses,  comprising  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  circulated  as  a  distinct  |)ortion  of 
the  sacred  lileralure  in  the  tune  of  l']zra.  It 
was  in  l^zra's  Iiaixl  (l'>.ia  vii.  II),  and  he  Wiis 
a  ready  scribe  in  it  ((i,  11).  .\t  the  re<iiK'st 
of  the  peojih",  he  read  the  book  ]mblicly  to 
lheni(\eh.  viii.  \Jy,  8).  About  this  time  al.so, 
belong  the  schism  lietween  the  .lews  ami 
Samaritans  had  liceonie  (inal,  tiie  Pentateiu'h 


was  taken  to  Samaria.  The  arrangement  of 
the  minor  prophets  into  a  group  of  twelve  is 
attested  bv  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  as  in  vogue 
by  the  year  200  b.  c.  (Ecclns.  xlix.  10).  His 
language  further  suggests  the  great  group  of 
books— Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  Twelve  (xlvi.- 
xlix.)— which  constitute  the  second  division 
of  the  Hebrew  canon.  The  existence  of  the 
threefold  division  of  all  the  Scriptures  into 
"the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  others  that 
have  followed  in  their  steps,"  or  "the  law, 
the  jirophets,  and  the  other  books,"  or,  "  the 
law,  the  prophecies,  and  the  rest  of  the 
books,"  is  attested  as  early  as  the  year  132 
B.  c,  and  the  existence  of  a  Greek  version 
of  them  at  the  same  time;  for  the  grandson 
of  Jesus,  .son  of  Sirach,  states  these  things 
(Ecclns.  prologue).  Reference  is  made  in  a 
l)assage  which  dates  from  about  100  B.  c.  to 
"the  sacred  books  which  are  now  in  our 
hands"  (1  Mac.  xii.  9).  Philo  Judseus,  who 
was  born  at  Alexandria  in  20  B.  c,  aud  died 
there  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  had  the  present 
canon,  and  quotes  from  nearly  all  the  books 
while  he  cites  nothing  from  the  Apocrypha. 
The  N.  T.  refers  to  "the  Scriptures"  as 
a  body  of  authoritative  writings  (Mat.  xxi. 
42 ;  xxvi.  56  ;  Mark  xiv.  49 ;  John  x.  35  ;  2 
Tim.  iii.  16),  as  holy  (Eom.  i.  2 ;  2  Tim.  iii. 
15),  and  as  the  oracles  of  God  (Eom.  iii.  2; 
Heb.  V.  12  ;  1  Pet.  iv.  11)  ;  mentions  a  three- 
fold division  into  "  the  law  of  Moses,  and  the 
prophets,  and  the  psalms  "  (Luke  xxiv.  44);  and 
quotes  from  or  refers  to  all  the  books  except 
Obadiah  and  Nahum,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  and  Ecciesiastes.  Jo- 
sephus,  a  contemporary  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
writing  about  a.  D.  100,  and  speaking  for 
his  nation,  says:  "We  have  but  twenty- 
two  [books],  containing  the  history  of  all 
time,  books  that  arc  justly  believed  in," 
or,  according  to  the  usual  reading,  "  be- 
lieved to  be  divine,"  and  he  speaks  in  the 
strongest  terms  of  the  exclusive  authority 
of  these  writings,  continuing:  "From  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  to  our  own  times  every 
event  has  indeed  been  recorded  ;  but  these 
recent  records  have  not  been  deemed  worthy 
of  equal  credit  with  those  which  preceded 
them,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  the  exact 
succession  of  the  jirophets.  There  is  practical 
jiroof  of  the  spirit  in  Avhich  we  treat  our 
Scriptures;  for  although  so  great  an  interval 
of  time  has  now  passed,  not  a  soul  has  ven- 
tured either  to  add  or  to  remove  or  to  alter  a 
syllable,  and  it  is  the  instinct  of  every  .lew, 
from  the  day  of  his  birth,  to  consider  these 
Scrii)tnres  as  the  teaching  of  God,  and  to 
abide  by  them  and,  if  need  be,  cheerfully  to 
lay  down  his  life  in  their  behalf"  (against 
Aiiioii,  i.  8).  .losejihus  states  the  contents  of 
Scripture  under  three  heads:  (1)  "Five  be- 
long to  Moses,  which  contain  his  laws  and 
the  traditions  of  the  origin  of  mankind  till 
his  death."  (2)  "' Frimi  the  death  of  Mo.ses 
to  .\rtaxerxes  the  prophets  who  were  after 


Canon 


117 


Canon 


Moses  wrote  dowu  what  was  done  in  their 
time  in  thirteen  books."  Josephus  followed 
the  arrangement  of  the  Septuagint  probably, 
and  the  enumeration  of  the  Alexandrians.  The 
thirteen  books  are  probably  Joshua,  Jndges 
with  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezra 
with  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Job,  Daniel,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah  with  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  the 
Twelve  Minor  Prophets.  (3)  "The  remain- 
ing four  books  contain  hymns  to  God  and 
precepts  for  the  conduct  of  human  life." 
These  were  doubtless  Psalms.  Song  of  Songs, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes. 

So  far  facts.  There  was  also  a  tradition 
current  that  the  canon  was  arranged  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  Josephus,  as 
already  cited,  exi)resses  the  universal  belief 
of  his  countrymen  that  no  books  had  been 
added  since  the  time  of  Artaxerxes — that  is, 
since  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  An 
extravagant  legend  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
first  century  of  the  Christian  era  (2  Esd.  xiv.) 
grew  out  of  the  current  tradition  that  Ezra 
restored  the  law  and  even  the  entire  O.  T. 
(21,  22,  40),  of  which  the  temple  copies  had 
been  lost.  It  attests  that  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine in  that  age  reckoned  the  canonical  books 
at  twenty -four  (24  +  70  =  94  ;  vers.  44-46,  R. 
v.).  A  passage  of  doubtful  date  and  authen- 
ticity, perhaps  penned  about  100  B.  c.  (2  Mac. 
ii.  13),  alludes  to  Nehemiah's  activity  in  con- 
nection with  the  second  and  third  divisions 
of  the  canon.  Irenseus  transmits  the  tradi- 
tion thus  :  "  After  the  sacred  writings  had 
been  destroyed  in  the  exile  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, when  the  Jews  after  seventy  years 
had  returned  to  their  own  country.  He  in  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  inspired  Ezra  the  priest, 
of  the  tribe  of  I^evi,  to  rearrange  all  the 
words  of  the  prophets  who  had  gone  before, 
and  to  restore  to  the  people  the  legislation  of 
Moses."  Elias  Levita,  writing  in  1538,  states 
the  belief  of  his  peojile  in  this  wise:  "In 
Ezra's  time  the  twenty-four  books  were  not 
yet  united  in  a  single  volume.  Ezra  and  his 
associates  united  them  together  and  divided 
them  into  three  parts,  the  law,  the  prophets, 
and  the  hagiographa."  This  tradition  con- 
tains truth.  Whether  it  can  be  acce])ted  in 
every  particular  depends  on  the  settlement 
of  the  date  when  certain  books  were  written, 
such  as  Nehemiah  and  Chronicles. 

The  Pentateuch  as  the  work  of  Moses,  and 
as  embodying  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
nation,  formed  one  division  of  the  canon,  and 
with  chronological  fitness  occupied  the  first 
place  in  the  collection.  To  the  second  di- 
vision books  written  by  the  proidiets  were 
assigned,  as  the  name  and  largely  the  ccm- 
tents  indicate.  The  books  were  eight  in  num- 
ber— Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings, 
which  came  to  be  known  as  the  former 
prophets,  and  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
the  Twelve,  which  were  called  the  latter 
l)rophets.  For  Joshua,  regarded  as  a  prophet, 
see  Ecclus.  xlvi.  1.  The  nucleus  of  the  third 
division  consisted  of   sections  of  the  books 


of  Psalms  and  Proverbs.  They  had  two 
characteristics— they  were  jxtetry,  and  their 
authors  were  not  official  jirophets.  Tlicy  at- 
tracted to  themselves  all  otlier  similar  au- 
thoritative literature.  The  prayer  of  .Moses 
(Ps.  xc),  though  written  by  a  propliet,  was 
placed  in  this  division  of  Scripture  because 
it  is  poetry.  So,  too.  Lamentations,  though 
written  by  a  prophet,  yet  licing  iioctiy,  like- 
wise found  place  in  the  third  (livision'of  tlie 
Hebrew  canon.  An  additional  reason  ex- 
isted for  separating  it  from  Jeremiah.  It 
was  read  on  the  anniversary  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  both  temples,  and  hence  was  ]iut  willi 
four  other  short  hooks  which  were  read  on 
four  other  anniversaries.  Song,  Ruth.  Eccle- 
siastes, and  Esther.  They  constitute  the  five 
rolls  or  Megilloth.  The 'book  of  Daniel  was 
placed  here  because  written  l)y  a  man  wlio, 
although  gifted  with  proiihecy,  was  not  by 
office  a  prophet.  In  all  probability  Ciironi- 
cles  was  written,  not  by  a  i)ro])het,  hut  by  a 
priest;  hence  it  belonged  in  the  third  "di- 
vision of  the  canon.  The  mere  fact  of  its 
late  authorship  does  not  account  for  its  ])lace 
in  this  division,  for  books  and  .sections  of 
books  in  this  division  were  in  existence  be- 
fore Zechariah  and  Malachi,  which  were  put 
in  the  second  division.  It  is  jjrojier  to  add 
that  while  the  contents  of  the  several  di- 
visions of  the  canon  were  fixed,  the  order  of 
the  books  in  the  third  division  varied  from 
time  to  time  ;  and  even  in  the  second  division 
the  Talmud  knew  Isaiah  as  standing  between 
Ezekiel  and  the  Minor  Pro])hets.  This  order 
of  the  four  prophetical  books  (Jeremiah,  Eze- 
kiel, Isaiah,  and  Minor  Pro])hets),  was  evi- 
dently determined  by  size,  the  largest  being 
placed  first.  As  late  as  the  clo.se  of  the  first 
century  .\.  D.,  the  right  of  several  books  of 
the  third  division  to  remain  in  the  canon  was 
di-scussed.  The  books  were  in  the  canon,  none 
questioned  that.  The  discussions  concerned 
the  contents  of  the  books  and  difficulties  in 
reconciling  them  with  other  books;  but  the 
debates  were  probably  mere  intellectual  dis- 
plays. There  was  no  intention  of  removing 
any  book  from  the  canon.  l)ut  rather  the  pur- 
pose to  establish  its  right  to  the  i)lace  it  al- 
ready occupied.  ■!.  i>.  i>. 

Canon  of  the  New  Tp:st.\ment.  The 
apostolic  church  received  from  the  Jewish 
the  belief  in  a  written  rule  of  faith.  Christ 
himself  confirmed  this  belief  by  aiiiiealiiig 
to  the  O.  T.  as  the  written  word  of  (iod  (<■.  <i. 
John  V.  37-47 :  Mat.  v.  17.  18 ;  Mark  xii.  30. 
37  ;  Luke  xvi.  31),  and  by  instructing  his  dis- 
ciples out  of  it  (Luke  xxiv.  45) :  and  the  apos- 
tles habituallv  refer  to  the  O.  T.  as  authori- 
tative (e.  q.  Rom.  iii.  2,  21  ;  1  Cor.  iv.  <i;  Rom, 
XV.  4;  2  Tim.  iii.  15-17;  2  Pet.  i.  21).  In 
the  next  place,  the  apostles  claimed  for  their 
own  teaching,  oral  and  written,  like  autlior- 
itv  with  the  O.  T.  (1  Cor.  ii.  7  13;  xiv.  37:  1 
Thess.  ii.  13;  Rev.  i.  3).  and  directed  the  pub- 
Mc  reading  of  their  epistles  (1  Thess.  v.  27; 
Col.  iv.  16,  17;  2  The-ss.  ii.  15;   2  Pet.  i.  15; 


Canon 


118 


Capernaum 


iii.    1,    2),    while   revelations,   given   to    the 
church  throujjh  inspired  jjrophets,  were  con- 
sidered to  form,  with  apostolic  instruction, 
the  foundation  of  the   church   (Eph.  ii.  20). 
It  was  therefore  both  natural  and  right  that 
the  N.  T.  literature  should  he  added  to  the 
Old  and  thus  the  written  canon  of  faith  be 
enlarKcd.     In  the   N.   T.   itself  we  may  see 
this   beginning    to   be  done    (1    Tim.  v.  US; 
2  Pet.  iii.  1,  2,   Ki),  and  in  the  generations 
which    followed    the   apostles,    the   writings 
which  were   known    to   have    apostolic   au- 
thority  were   gradually   collected   into    the 
second  half  of  the  church's  canon,  and  final- 
ly called  the  New  Testament.     For,  from  the 
beginning,  the  proof  that  a  book  had  a  right 
to  a  place  in  the  canon  was  its  (iiiiiMoVicltii,  liy 
which  was  meant  that  it  was  beciueathed  to 
the    church  with  apo.stolic  sanction,  having 
either   been   written    by   an   apostle  or  else 
guaranteed  by  one  as  authoritative.     This, 
as  we  have  said,  was  the  ai)ostolic  doctrine; 
and  evidence  is  abundant  that,  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  this  was  the  principle  on 
which  the  N.  T.  collection  was  made.     The 
complete    collection,    however,    was    formed 
slowly  for  various  reasons.     At  tirst  certain 
books  were  known  only  in  some  churches  to 
be  apostolic,  and  it  was  not  until  the  whole 
body  of  believers  throughout  the  Roman  em- 
pire  was   united   in    one    ecclesiastical    con- 
sciousness that  all  the  books,  which  in  the 
several  parts  of  the   church  were  known  to 
be  apostolic,  were  universally  accepted.    The 
process  of  collection  also  did  not  at  tirst  have 
the  incentive  which  it  afterwards  received 
through   the   rise  of  heresy  and  of  spurious 
writings  claiming  apostolic  authority.     But, 
while  the  i)rocess  of  collection  was  slow,  the 
books  which  in  any  church  were  accepted 
were  regarded  as  canonical  because  apostolic. 
The  teaching  of  tiie  apostles  was  the  rule  of 
faith.     Their  works  were  read  in  jtublic  wor- 
ship.    Early  in  the  second  century  we  find 
them  directly  called  Scripture  (Ep.  of  Poly- 
car])  12;   E|).  of  Barnabas  4).     The  books  by 
Mark  and  Lulce  wen-  received  Ix'causc  stamp- 
ed with   the  authority  of   I'cter  and   I'aul. 
ICven  commentaries  began  to  bo  made  U])on 
them,  and  their  statements  and  i)hraseology 
siiturate   the   literature  of   the  ])ost-ai)ostolic 
age.     Then,   as  to    the   extent  and   rapidity 
with   whicli   tlie  collection    itself  was  made, 
the  following  facts  are  the  most  nolewortliy. 
Tlie  four   gospels  were  everywhere  received 
from  the  Iteginning  of  the  .second   century, 
while  2    Pet    iii.    Ui  shows  that    its    readers 
were  already  familiar  with   a  collection   of 
Paul's    epistles.      Very   oarly    we    find    the 
phrases  "gospel  "  and  "  apostles  "  used  to  de- 
scribe the  two  parts  of  the  new  colhiction.  The 
evidence  of  the  ("in(ini<-ity  of  The  Acts  like- 
wi.se  carries  us  l)ack  to  llie   first  half  of  the 
.second   century.     Some    books   ind<'ed    were 
disputed  in  some  s(u-,tions  of  the  church,  but 
this  only  shows  that  their  final  ac(!eptanco 
was  ba.sed  on  suflicient  evidence.     Finally  it 


appears  that  the  Syrian  church  in  the  second 
century  received  all  our  N.  T.  except  Rev., 
Jude,  2  Pet.,  2  and  3  John ;  the  Romau 
church,  all  except  Heb.,  Epp.  of  Pet.,  Jas., 
3  John;  the  North  African,  all  except  Heb., 
2  Pet.,  and  perhaps  James.  These  collections, 
however,  only  contained  the  books  formally 
received  in  the  respective  churches,  and  do 
not  prove  that  no  other  apostolic  books  were 
known.  The  remainder  were  in  fact  univer- 
sally accei>ted  in  the  course  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, though  difference  of  opinion  existed 
about  some;  and,  when  the  age  of  councils 
came,  our  present  N.  T.  canon  appears  in  the 
lists  as  the  accepted  one.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ten  fathers  and  two  councils  have  left 
lists  of  canonical  books.  Of  these  three  omit 
Revelation,  against  which  prejudice  existed 
in  some  quarters,  though  earlier  testimouy  to 
it  is  abundant.  The  rest  give  the  N.  T.  as 
we  have  it. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  should  be  noted  : 
(1)  That  while  the  collection  of  the  N.  T.  into 
one  volume  was  slow,  the  belief  in  a  written 
rule  of  faith  was  primitive  and  apostolic. 
The  history  of  the  formation  of  the  collec- 
tion should  not  be  thought  to  give  the  rise 
into  authority  of  a  written  rule  of  faith.     It 
only  shows  the  stages  by  which  the  books 
rightly  belonging  to  the  canon  were  recog- 
nized and  brought  together.     (2)  Differences 
of  opinion  and  usage,  as  to  what  books  were 
canonical,  and  as  to  the  degree  of  certainty 
with  which  a  book  could  be  received,  appear 
in  the  writers  and  churches  even  of  the  sec- 
ond century.    This  fact,  however,  again  only 
marks  the  stages  by  which  the  evidence  for 
the   books  was  gradually   accepted   by   the 
church    as  a  whole,  and  the  carefulness  of 
the  primitive  Christians  in  receiving  books 
as  apostolic.     In  like  manner  the  occasional 
acceptance  of  spurious  writings  was  corrected 
in   due   time.     (3)    The   proof  on  Avhich  we 
should  accept  the  several  N.  T.  books  as 
canonical  is  historical  evidence.      As  to  this, 
the  judgment  of  the  early  church  that  our 
twenty-seven  books  are  apostolic  is  entitled 
to  acceptance  unless  it  can  be  proved  false. 
We  should  not,  however,  receive  them  merely 
because  ecclesiastical  councils  decreed  them 
canonical ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  because 
of  their  contents.     The  question  is  one  of 
historical    evidence   alone.     (4)    Finally,  we 
note  that  the  name  canon  is  not  known  to 
have  been  ai)iilied  to  the  collection  of  sacred 
books  until  the  fourth  century.     But  while 
this  term,   now  universal,   was  not  at  first 
used,  the  thing  denoted  by  it — viz.  that  the 
sacred  books  were  the  rule  of  faith — was,  as 
we  liave  .seen,  an  apostolic  doctrine. 

G.  T.  P. 

Can'ti-cles.    See  Song  of  Solomon. 

Ca-per'na-um  [village  of  Nahum  or  of 
consolal  ion]. 

A  town  on  the  northwestern  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  in  the  region  of  Zebulun  and 


Capernaum 


119 


Capernaum 


Naphtali  (Mat.  iv.  13-16;  cp.  Luke  iv.  31 ; 
John  vi.  17-:24).  It  was  the  seat  of  a  tax- 
collector  (Mark  ii.  1,  14),  and  was  apparently 
a  Romau  military  post  (Mat.  viii.  5-13  ;  Luke 
vii.  1-10).  Our  Lord  at  au  early  period  of 
his  ministry  removed  thither  from  Nazareth 
and  made  it  so  continually  his  headquarters 
that  it  came  to  he  called  "his  own  city  (Mat. 
ix.  1;  cp.  Mark  ii.  1).  It  was  there  that  he 
lu-aled  the  centurion's  palsied  servant  (Mat. 
viii.  5-13;  Luke  vii.  1-10),  Peter's  wife's 
mother  when  she  was  prostrate  with  fever 
(Mat.  viii.  14-17;  Mark  i.  -29-31),  a  demoniac 
(Mark  i.  21-28;  Luke  iv.  31-37),  a  man  sick 
of  the  jialsy  borne  of  four  (Mark  ii.  1-13;  cp. 
Mat.  ix.  1-8),  a  nobleman's  son  (John.  iv.  46- 
54),  and  a  number  of  other  diseased  people 
(Mat.  viii.  16,  17;  Mark  i.  32-34  ;  Luke  iv. 
23,  40,  41).     The  discourse  recorded  in  John 


heintf  the  site  of  Capernaum.  Tliev  are  about 
2^,  miles  apart.  The  more  northerly  is  called 
Tell  Hum,  and  the  more  soutlurlv  Klian  Miii- 
yeh  or  Minia.  Each  of  tiicm  minks  the  site 
of  a  lornier  town.  At  t'apernaiun.  or  near 
It,  was  a  receipt  of  custom  (Mark  ii.  i:{,  14). 
If  the  object  was  the  collection  of  toll  from 
passing  caravans,  the  tollhouse  naturally 
stood  close  to  the  fjreat  trade  ronti;  froi'n 
Damascus  to  the  Mediterranean  seacoast  and 
Egypt ;  and  that  location  belongs  jireemi- 
nently  to  Khan  Miiiyeh.  But  if  the  taxes 
were  levied  on  the  products  of  mills  and  the 
produce  of  the  fields  ((■]).  Luke  xix.  2),  the 
town  was  ])robably  situated  near  the  exten- 
sive water-power  and  celebrated  wlieat  fields 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tell  Hum  (Talmud). 
The  fountain  of  Capernaum,  from  which  the 
plain  of   Gennesaret  was  in  part  irrigated, 


/ ..  p'ff  (^  iV-)'^7  P^^'  ,'Tt 


Tell  Hum  from  the  Northeast. 


vi.  24-71,  which  followed  on  the  feeding  of 
the  5000,  with  many  other  addresses,  was 
delivered  in  the  synagogue  at  Capernaum  or 
elsewhere  in  the  town  (Mark.  ix.  33-50).  It 
was  at  Capernaum  also  that  Jesus  called  to 
the  apostleship  Matthew  or  Levi,  as  he  was 
sitting  at  the  receipt  of  custom  (Mat.  ix. 
9-13;  Mark  ii.  14-17;  Luke  v.  27-32;  cp. 
Mat.  xvii.  24).  Notwithstanding  the  teach- 
ing and  works  of  Jesus  its  people  did  not  re- 
pent, and  Jesus  predicted  the  utter  ruin  of 
the  place  (Mat.  xi.  23,  24;  Luke  x.  15 1. 

Capernaum  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T., 
and  perhaps  did  not  arise  till  after  the  cap- 
tivity. Josephus  was  carried  with  bruised 
wrist  from  near  Julias  (not  far  from  the  spot 
where  the  Jordan  enters  the  sea  of  Galilee) 
into  a  village  named  Cepharnome  or  Caper- 
naum (Life  72). 

Two  spots  contend  for  the  distinction  of 


and  where  coracin  fish  were  and  are  found 
(War  iii.  10,  8),  was  doubtless  the  abundant 
source  at  Tabighah,  midway  between  Khan 
Minyeh  and  Tell  Hum.  The  locality  is  con- 
nected topogra))liically  with  Tell  Hum,  not 
with  Khan  ISIinyeh.  Mills  doubtless  stood 
there  then  as  now;  water  was  conducted 
thence  to  the  ]ilain  by  a  canal,  portions  of 
which  still  remain  ;  and  a  considerable  town 
lay  immediately  to  the  north,  the  ruins  of 
wiiich  include  the  site  of  Tell  Hum  and  ex- 
tend westward  from  the  shore  for  at  least  800 
feet.  The  houses  were  largely  of  black  ba- 
salt, while  the  ruins  of  a  synagogue  are 
of  marble  or  fine  limestone  quarried  in  the 
mountains  northwest  of  the  ]>lace. 

In  the  word  Cajiernaiim  the  first  two  sylla- 
bles, Caper,  represent  the  Hebrew  word  for 
village,  and  might  well  be  siipidanted  by  the 
Arabic  Tell,  mound,  when  the  place  became 


Caph 


120 


Captivity 


a  ruin.  Hum  in  Arabic  means  "a  herd  of 
cauK'ls";  if  Hebrew,  it  is  i)r()bably  part  of 
the  W(trd  Nahuui.  But  Tell  Hum  is  jierhaps 
not  an  eelio  of  Capernaum,  but  a  corruption 
of  Taubum,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  rabbi  who 
was  buried  there. 

Caph,  in  A.  K.  V.  Kaph. 

The  eleventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Enf^lish  K  conies  from  the  same  source;  but 
C  and.  esjiecially  before  e  and  i,  or  when  final, 
fh  are  enii)l()yed  as  its  representative  in  an- 
f;lici/e<l  Hebrew  names.  Caph  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  eleventh  section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  iu 
which  section  each  ver,se  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original.     See  Bkth. 

Caph-ar-sal'a-ma  [village  of  Salem]. 
A   town  i]   Mac.  vii.  31;  Antiq.  xii.  10,  4), 
l>eriiaps  the  later  Carvasalim,  near  Ramleb. 

Ca-phen'a-tlia.    See  Ch.a^phenatha. 

Capli'tor. 

An  i.sle  or  seacoast,  from  which  the  Philis- 
tines originally  came  (Jer.  xlvii.  4 ;  Amosix.  7). 
The  Philistines  as  a  whole  were  Cherethites, 
that  is,  probably  Cretans  (1  Sam.  xxx.  14; 
Ezek.  XXV.  IH;  Zei)h.  ii.  .">),  and  Caphtor  was 
l>erhaps  the  island  Crete.  However,  an  Egyp- 
tian uome  in  the  delta  bore  the  name  Ka- 
pet-hor.  This  word  may  be  the  original  of 
Caphtor.  If  .so,  the  ancestors  of  the  Philis- 
tiiies  went  thence  to  Crete  and  later  to  Philis- 
tia,  or  they  went  thither  from  Crete  and  ulti- 
mately to"Philistia. 

Capli'to-rim ;  in  A.  V.  once  Caphtorims 
and  once  Caphtborim. 

A  tribe  descended  from  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  14  :  1  Chron.  i.  12),  and  inhabiting  Caphtor 
(Deut.  ii.  S.-?). 

Cap-pa-do'ci-a. 

A  highland  jirovince  of  Asia  Minor,  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Pontus,  on  the  south  by 
Cilicia,  on  the  east  by  Syria  and  Lesser  Ar- 
menia, and  on  the  west  by  Lycaonia.  It  i)ro- 
duced  excellent  wheat  and  horses,  l)Ut  was 
regarded  as  a  region  of  uncultivatud  juinds 
and  immoral  practices.  Worshii)ers  from  Cap- 
])adocia  were  present  at  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, rendered  mcniorabli^  by  the  descent  of 
the  Hi.ly  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  !)),  Some  of  the  Dis- 
jiersion  to  whom  Peter  addressed  his  first 
epistle  sojourned  in  Cappadocia  (1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Cap'tain. 

As  a  military  title,  captain  is  generally  in 
O.  T.  the  rendering  of  tim  Hebrew  word  Sar. 
It  is  a  l)road  designation  for  an  otlicial, 
whether  he  be  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  ((ien.  xxi.  22:  .ludg.  iv.  2;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  .")() ;  2  Sam.  x.  l(i),  or  the  commander  of 
•A  division  of  the  army  {2  Sam.  xviii.  2  with 
r>),  or  part  of  a  division  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9)  ;  an 
otlicer  over  1000  men  or  KM)  men  or  .")()  men 
(Num.  xxxi.  14,  4«;  1  Sam.  viii.  12;  xvii.  IS; 
xviii.  i:j;  xxii.  7;  2  Sam.  xviii.  1 ;  2  Kin.  1.  9; 
I.s.  iii.  .■{) ;  the  commander  of  the  king's  body 
guard  ((ren.  xxxvii.  :i(i :  and  2  Kin.  xxv.  s"; 
Dan.  ii.  M,  wlw  re   the   wiml    is  h'n'i),  or  of  a 


jiost  of  sentries  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13,  in  Hebrew 
Ba'nl).  The  word  rendered  captain  in  A.  V. 
of  Num.  ii.  is  Nasi',  and  denotes  a  tribal 
prince.  luisin  is  thrice  rendered  captain  in 
A.  V.  (Josh.  X.  24;  Judg.  xi.  6,  11),  where  it 
refers  to  leaders  of  the  host ;  but  the  word  is 
a  general  term  for  one  with  whom  decision 
rests,  and  it  is  applied  to  civil  rulers  (Is.  i. 
10;  iii.  6,  7;  Mic.  iii.  1,  9),  whose  duties  in- 
cluded that  of  judging  (Prov.  vi.  7;  xxv.  15, 
R.  V.  margin). 

In  N.  T.  the  chief  captain  was  a  chrharcho.% 
a  term  which  originally  denoted  the  com- 
mander of  1000  men,  but  was  used  broadly 
for  the  commandant  of  a  garri.son,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Roman  military  tribune 
(John  xviii.  12,  R.  V.  margin).  He  was  one  of 
the  general  officers  of  a  legion,  and  higher  in 
rank  than  a  centurion  (Acts  xxi.  31,  32,  R.  V. 
margin;  xxii.  25).  The  captain  of  the  guard  at 
Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  16,  A,  V.)  was  a  stratoped- 
archos,  or  commander  of  a  legion,  in  this  par- 
ticular instance  the  chief  officer  of  the  legion 
known  as  the  pra?torian  guard  (R.  V.  margin). 
The  captain  of  the  temple  was  not  a  military 
officer,  but  the  priest  in  command  of  the 
guard  of  Levites  who  kept  watch  at  the 
temple  (Acts  iv.  1;  v.  24,  26;  Antiq.  xx. 
6,  2  with  War  ii.  12,  6 ;  vi.  5,  3).  Under  him 
were  subordinate  officers  of  the  several  di- 
visions of  the  guard  (Luke  xxii.  4,  52). 

Cap-tiv'i-ty. 

The  state  of  being  in  bondage  to  enemies, 
especially  in  a  foreign  land.  In  O.  T.  times 
the  Assyrians  introduced,  and  the  Babylon- 
ians adopted,  the  practice  of  making  a  whole- 
sale deportation  of  at  least  the  leading  men 
belonging  to  each  country  which  they  con- 
quered, and  locating  them  in  districts  where 
they  would  be  removed  from  familiar  asso- 
ciations and  patriotic  memories,  and  would 
be  under  the  eye  of  the  central  goveriiment. 
Dc'iiortation  was  generally  resorted  to  as  an 
extreme  measure  when  other  means  failed. 
The  stronger  state  was  usually  content  with 
imposing  tribute.  The  withholding  of  the 
customary  trilnite  was  treated  as  rebellion, 
and  was  jiunished  by  a  military  invasion  and 
pillage  of  the  country.  If  these  harsh  meas- 
ures proved  ineft'ective,  resort  was  had  to  de- 
l)ortation. 

Two  ])rincipal  captivities  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  : 

I.  The  Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 
As  early  as  842  B.  c.  Jehu  paid  tribute  to 
Shulmnucser,  king  of  Assyria.  About  803 
liaiiinianiiiiari  reiuirts  receiving  tribute  from 
the  Israelites,  liut  it  w'as  not  until  the  reign 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  74r>-727,  that  the  Assyrians 
began  emptying  the  land  of  the  ten  tribes  of 
its  inhabitants.  That  king  received  tribute 
fnim  Mcnabcni.  In  the  reign  of  I'ekah  he 
captured  cities  of  Najilitali  and  carried  olf 
the  inhabitants  to  As.syria  (2  Kin.  xv.  29). 
He  overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  deported  the  Reubenites.  Gadites,  and 
luilf  tribe  of   Manasseh    to  Mesopotamia   (1 


Captivity 


121 


Carites 


Chron.  v.  26).  By  his  connivance  also  Pekah 
was  eventually  slain  and  Hosliea  placed  on 
the  throne.  His  successor  Shalmaneser  be- 
sieged Samaria,  the  city  was  taken  in  the 
accession  year  of  Sargon,  722  B.  c,  and  a 
large  number  of  the  inhabitants  were  trans- 
ported to  Mesopotamia  and  Media  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  5,  6),  and  the  rest  were  placed  undei 
tribute.  This  remnant,  in  alliance  with 
Hamath  and  Damascus,  pre.sently  attempted 
to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke  ;  but  Sargon 
crushed  the  rebellion  and  began  introducing 
foreigners  into  Samaria,  a  process  which  his 
successors  continued  until  a  new  and  hetero- 
geneous people  occupied  the  former  territory 
of  the  ten  tribes.  Some  of  the  Israelites 
eventually  returned  to  Jerusalem  (Luke  ii. 
3ti),  but  most  of  them  remained  in  the  coun- 
tries whither  they  had  been  carried,  xtre- 
serving  their  racial  distinctions,  continuing 
their  religious  observances,  and  visiting  Jeru- 
s;:lem  from  time  to  time  (Acts  ii.  9;  xxvi.  7). 
II.  The  Captivity  of  Judah.  Senna- 
cherib has  recorded  that  he  removed  200,000 
captives  from  Judah  (cp.  2  Kin.  xviii.  13). 
But  by  the  captivity  of  Judah  is  meant  the 
deportation  of  the  people  to  Babylonia.  Ju- 
dah's  captivity  was  predicted  a  century  and 
a  half  before  its  occurrence  (Is.  vi.  11,  12;  xi. 
12),  and  Babylonia  as  the  place  was  foretold 
by  Micah  (iv.  10)  and  Isaiah  (xi.  11 ;  xxxix. 
()).  The  prophet  Jeremiah  announced  that 
it  should  continue  seventy  years  (Jer.  xxv. 
1,  11,  12).  It  was  effected  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. In  605  B.  c,  in  the  third  or  fourth  year 
of  Jehoiakim,  according  to  the  method  of 
reckoning  which  one  adopts,  he  came  unto 
Jerusalem,  took  the  vessels  of  the  temple  to 
Babylon,  and  carried  off  certain  of  the  seed 
royal  as  captives  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  2-7  ;  Dan. 
i.  ]-3).  Seven  years  later  he  carried  off  Je- 
hoiachin,  the  king's  mother,  wives,  and  3000 
princes,  7000  men  of  might  and  1000  artisans 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  14-16).  Eleven  years  later  his 
army  burned  the  temple,  destroyed  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  off  the  residue  of  the  people, 
leaving  only  the  poorest  of  the  land  to  be 
vinedressers  and  husbandmen  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
2-2]).  Five  years  after  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  another  batch  was  deported  to  Baby- 
lonia (Jer.  lii.  30).  In  their  exile  the  Jews 
enjoyed  many  privileges.  They  were  per- 
mitted to  build  and  occupy  houses,  keep  ser- 
vants, and  engage  in  business  (Jer.  xxix. 
5-7;  Ezra  ii.  65),  and  there  was  nothing  to 
hinder  them  from  rising  to  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  state  (Dan.  ii.  48;  Neb.  i.  11). 
Their  priests  and  teachers  were  with  them 
(Jer.  xxix.  1 ;  Ezra  i.  5),  and  they  had  the 
instructions  and  encouragement  of  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  1).  In  539  B.  c.  Daniel  understood 
by  the  books  that  the  captivity  was  to  last 
for  seventy  years,  and,  as  the  time  was  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  began  to  supplicate  God  for  the 
restoration  of  divine  favor  to  his  people  (Dan. 
ix.  2).  In  538  Cyrus  issued  a  decree  author- 
izing the  Jews  to  return  to  the  land  of  their 


fathers  and  rebuild  the  temple  (K/.ra  i.  1-4), 
when  about  43,(100  of  tlicin  embraced  fhe  op- 
portunity (ii.  61).  Many,  liowever,  preferred 
to  remain  in  Babylonia  and  I  he  east,  and  with 
the  Israelites  in  Mesopotamia  and  iledia 
formed  part  of  what  became  known  as  the 
Diaspora  (Zech.  vi.  10;  Acts  ii.  9).  See  Dis- 
persion. 

Carbuncle. 

1.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Unrrl-cth  and 
Bar^kath,  shining  like  lightning.  It  denotes  a 
gem(Ezek.  xxviii.  13),and  wasthelhirdstone 
in  the  first  row  of  the  liigli  iniest's  lireast  plate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  17).  In  hotli  eases  the  margin  of 
the  R.  v.,  following  the  Sejituagiiit,  tiie  Vul- 
gate, and  Josephus.  makes  it  an  emerald. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ekdah, 
blaze,  sparkle.  It  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(Is.  liv.  12). 

According  to  Dana  three  distinct  minerals 
are  called  by  Pliny  carbuncles.  They  are  the 
garnet,  the  ruby  spinel,  and  the  sapphire. 
The  garnet  specially  included  under  Pliny's 
carbuncles  is  the  precious  or  Oriental  garnet 
or  almandine.  It  is  of  a  fine  deep  trans- 
parent color ;  the  best  are  from  Pegu.  The 
ruby  spinel  is  a  spinel  of  a  clear  red  or  red- 
dish color,  transparent  or  translucent.  For 
the  sapphire,  see  the  article. 

Car'cas. 

One  of  seven  chamberlains  who  served  in 
the  presence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Car'che-misli,  in  A.  V.  once  Charchemisli 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  20). 

The  eastern  cai)ital  of  the  Hittites,  west  of 
the  Euphrates,  at  a  ford  of  the  river,  and 
north  of  the  confiuence  with  the  Sajur.  Ad- 
mirably situated  for  commercial  imriioses,  it 
became  very  wealthy.  The  Assyrian  king, 
Ashurnasirpal  (8H5  to  H(i0  E.  c.)  was  about  to 
assault  it,  but  was  bought  off  by  the  promise 
of  rich  tribute.  In  717  K.  c.  it  was  captured 
by  Sargon.  and  with  it  fell  the  Hittite  enii)ire 
(is.  X.  9).  Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Kgyjit.  was 
heavily  defeated  at  Carchemish  by  Nelnichad- 
nezzar  in  605  B.  c.  (2  Chnm.  xxxv.  20;  Jer. 
xlvi.  2).  Its  site  is  called  Jenibis.  It  is  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  midway 
between  Birejik  and  the  mouth  of  the  Sajur, 
about  200  miles  northwest  of  Circesium.  An 
artificial  mound  covers  ruins.  The  human 
figures  on  the  sculptured  blocks  have  boots 
with  upturned  tips,  which  is  believed  to  settle 
conclusively  that  they  are  of  Hittite  origin. 

Ca-re'ah.    See  Kakeah. 

Ca'ri-a. 

A  country  at  the  southwestern  point  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  was  part  of  the  territory  con- 
quered by  the  Komans  from  Antiochus  the 
Great.  The  Koman  senate  bestowed  it  on 
the  Ehodians,  but  released  it  again  in  168 
B.  c.  It  was  still  a  separate  district  in  139 
B.  c.  (1  Mac.  XV.  23),  but  it  was  finally  incor- 
porated in  the  province  of  A.sia. 

Car'ites.    See  Cherethites. 


Cannel 


122 


Cart 


Car'mel  [iVuitful  field,  garden  park]. 

1.  A  range  uf  bills,  about  15  uiile.s  long,  cou- 
neeted  by  a  chain  of  lower  bills  witb  the 
momitaiiious  region  of  central  Palestine  and 
terminating  in  a  promontory  which  juts  into 
the  Mi'diterranean  (Jer.  xlvi.  IH),  and  con- 
siitutes  the  southern  bonndary  of  the  bay 
of  Acre.  Near  its  southeastern  end  it  is  1742 
feel  liigh.a  little  further  onward  it  is  1715, 
and  it  gradually  falls  more  and  more,  till  at 
the  northwestern  top,  whicli  constitutes  the 
liromontory,  it  is  only  556  feet  high.  The 
range  constitutes  the  sonthwestern  boundary 
of  the  valley  of  Esdraelon,  through  which 
the  Kishoii  runs,  and  at  one  place  that  brook 
washes  the  northern  slope  of  Carmel  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  40).  The  summit  of  the  range  consists 
of  a  series  of  eminences  witb  table-lands  on 
their  tops,  sometimes  bare  and  rocky,  and 
sometimes  covered  with  shrubs,  especially  the 
prickly  oak  and  the  juniper.  The  strata  are 
of  limestone,  and  there  are  caves  ou  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  chain,  though  not  on  its 
summit.  The  view  from  its  higher  parts  is 
tine.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  Kurmul.  Car- 
mel was  ou  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  •2(i),  within  the  limits  of  that  tribe 
(cp.  xvii.  11).  On  the  top  of  Carmel  Elijah 
brought  to  a  decisive  issue  the  tiuestion  be- 
twi'cn  .lehovah  and  the  worship  of  Baal  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  17-40),  and  from  the  top  of  the 
siime  range  his  servant  saw  the  ascent  from 
the  Mediterranean  of  the  little  cloud  like  a 
man's  hand  w^hich  heralded  the  rain  storm 
and  tlie  termination  of  the  drought  (41-4(5). 
Carmel  was  visited  by  Elisha  (2  Kin.  ii.  25; 
iv.  25).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  anciently 
cultivated  to  the  summit,  with  fruit  trees  in 
orchards  or  gardens,  as  its  name  imi)orts,  and 
as  the  fruitfulness  ascribed  to  it  indicates 
(Is.  xxxiii.  9;  xxxv.  2;  Jer.  1.19).  A  forest, 
lirobably  consisting  chiefly  of  fruit  trees,  was 
in  its  liiidst  (Mic.  vii.  14).  When  in  Song 
vii.  5  the  lover  says  to  the  olyect  of  his  affec- 
tion, "  Thine  head  upon  thee  is  like  Carmel," 
he  probably  means  covered  with  luxuriant 
hair,  as  Carmel  is  with  fruit  trees.  Amos 
prophesied  :  "  The  top  of  Carmel  shall  wither  " 
(i.  2).  There  has  long  been  a  convent  on 
mount  Carmel,  after  which  the  Carmelite 
monks  arc  luimed. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountainous  part  of  Ju- 
dah  (Josh.  XV.  55;  cp.  1  Sam.  xv.  12;  xxv.  2). 
Tiie  cliurlish  Nai)ars  possessions  lay  in  the 
vicinity  (I  Sam.  xxv.  2-4U).  Tlie  name  is 
still  retained  in  the  nnidern  Kurmul,  a  ruin 
al)out  7  miles  south-southeast  of  Ileliron. 
From  tliis  town  one  of  David's  wives  bailed 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  5),  and  also  one  of  his  mighty 
uieu  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Car 'mi  [vinedresser]. 

1.  \  son  of  Keiiben,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (den.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.ti). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  and  father  of 
Achan  (Jrish.  vii.  1 ;  1  Cliron.  ii.  (i,  7). 

Car'na-im.     See  Ashtkuotii-icaunai.m. 


Car'pen-ter. 

The  first  mention  of  carpentry  in  the  Bible 
as  a  distinct  occupation  is  on  occasion  of  car- 
penters being  brought  from  Tyre  to  build 
David  a  palace  (2  Sam.  v.  11).  Among  car- 
penter's tools  were  the  axe,  saw  (Is.  x.  15), 
measuring  line,  plane,  compass  (xliv.  1.3), 
iron  nails,  hammers  (Jer.  x.  4  ;  1  Chron.  xxii. 
3).  Joseph,  husband  of  Mary,  was  a  carpen- 
ter (Mat.  xiii.  .55),  and  Jesus  in  his  youth 
worked  at  the  same  calling  (Mark  vi.  3). 

Car'pus  [the  wrist] . 

A  resident  at  Troas,  with  whom  Paul  left 
his  cloak,  for  which  he  afterwards  sent  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13). 

Car'riage. 

That  which  is  carried  ;  baggage  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  22  ;  Is.  x.  2«  ;  1  Mac.  ix.  35,  39  ;  Acts  xxi. 
15),  heavy  matters  or  goods  (Jndg.  xviii.  21), 
a  burden  (Is.  xlvi.  1).  The  place  of  the  car- 
riage (1  Sam.  xvii.  20;  xxvi.  5,  7,  A.  V.  mar- 
gin) was  the  enclosure  formed  by  the  carts 
which  were  used  to  transport  goods  lor  the 
army,  and  which  were  drawn  up  in  a  circle 
around  the  camp.  In  all  passages  K.  V.  has 
abandoned  this  obsolete  sense  of  carriage  and 
substituted  the  appropriate  modern  word. 

Car'she-na  [perhaps  pillage  of  war,  spoiler]. 

One  of  the  seven  leacjing  princes  of  Persia 
at  the  court  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Cart. 

A  wheeled  vehicle  employed  in  peaceful  oc- 
cupations, and  distinguished  from  the  chariot, 
which  was  used  for  state  and  war.  It  was 
made  of  wood  (1  Sam.  vi.  14),  was  either  cov- 
ered or  uncovered  (Num.  vii.  3,  where  the 
Hebrew  word  is  rendered  wagon),  was  drawn 
by  cattle  (vii.  7 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  7 ;  2  Sam.  vi. 
ti),  though  horses  occasionally  dragged  the 
threshing  cart,  it  would  seem  (Is.  xxviii.  28), 
and  was  used  in  threshing  in  lieu  of  a  sledge 
(Is.  xxviii.  27),  for  transporting  goods  (2  Sam. 
vi.  3),  hauling  grain  (Amos  ii.  13),  and  con- 
veying persons  (Gen.  xlv.  19,  rendered  wag- 


Ancient  Egyptian  Cart. 

on).  In  Egypt  a  cart  was  used  like  that 
which  is  now  employed  universally  in  west- 
ern Asia,  with  two  wheels  of  solid  wood. 
Asiatic  carts,  including  the  one  in  which 
Jewish  captive  women  of  Lachish  are  riding 


Carving 


123 


Castor  and  Pollux 


on  sacks  of  grain,  are  represented  in  As- 
syrian bas-reliefs  as  having  two  wlieels  with 
eight,  six,  or  four  spokes  each  and  drawn  by 


Cart  with  Captive  Women  of  Laehish. 

oxen.  They  are  also  depicted  as  drawn  by 
mules,  or  by  two  men. 

Carv'ing. 

Tlie  art  of  cutting  letters,  images,  or  orna- 
mental designs  in  wood,  st(me,  ivory,  or 
other  material.  Bezaleel,  a  man  of  .ludab, 
and  Aholiab,  a  Danite,  were  gifted  for  tliis 
work,  and  wrought  the  carving  for  the  taber- 
nacle (Ex.  xxxi.  1-7 ;  xxxv.  30-35).  There  was 
carved  work  in  Solomon's  temple — flowers, 
palm  trees,  and  cherubim  (1  Kin.  vi.  lb,  2i))  ; 
in  that  of  Zerubbabel  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  (i),  aud  in 
the  superior  kind  of  domestic  architecture 
(Prov.  vii.  16). 

Case'ment. 

A  sash  which  moves  on  a  hinge.;  or  part  of 
a  window,  made  movable  by  a  hinge,  so  that 
it  may  be  opened  while  tlie  rest  of  the  win- 
dow remains  shut  (Prov.  vii.  6,  A.  V.).  But 
in  Judg.  v.  28  aud  iu  E.  V.  of  both  passages 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  lattice. 

Ca-siph'i-a. 

A  phice  not  far  from  the  route  between 
Babylon  and  Jerusalem,  and  iu  or  near  Baby- 
lonia (Ezra  viii.  17). 

Cas'lu-him. 

A  people  descended  from  the  Egyptians  (or 
possibly  only  conquered  aud  incorporated 
with  them),  and  standing  somewhere  iu  the 
ancestral  line  of  the  Philistines  (Gen.  x.  14 ; 
1  Cliron.  i.  12).  Apparently  they  were  the  im- 
mediate ancestors  of  the  Philistines.  Perhaps 
tiiey  were  the  inhabitants  of  Casiotis,  a  dis- 
trict on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  exteiidingfrom 
the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  Philistia. 

Cas'phor. 

A  fortified  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  cap- 
tured by  Judas  Maccabajus  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  36). 
In  the  'latter  verse  A.  V.  gives  the  name  as 
C'asphon.  Josephus  calls  it  Casphoma  (.\ntiq. 
xii.  8,  3). 

Cas'sla. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kid- 
dnh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  19).  It  denotes  an  aromatic 
wood,  and  was  an  ingredient  of  the  anoint- 
ing oil  (Ex.  XXX.  24).  The  translation  cassia 
is  supported  bv  the  Syriac  version,  the  Tar- 
gum,  and  the  Vulgate.  If  correct,  the  word 
probably  (U-notes  a  species  of  the  wood.  On 
the  margin  K.  ^^  has  costus.     The  Costus  of 


the  ancients  was  discovered  bv  Falcontr  to 
be  a  composite  plant  with  purple  flowers  now 
called  Aplotnj:is  /((;)/><(,  growing  in  Casliniere 
from  8000  to  9000  feet  above  (he  sea  level. 
It  is  exported  to  various  countries,  the  valua- 
ble part  being  the  root.  The  Chinese  burn  it 
in  their  tenijiles  for  incense. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
K'si'ah.  It  is  fragrant  (Ps.  xlv.  S).  Cassia 
bark  is  derived  from  various  species  of  Cin- 
namomiim.     See  Cinn.\mon'. 

Cas'ta-net. 

In  the  plural  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
M''nii'(iH''iju.  moving  to  and  I'ro  C'  Sam.  vi.  .">, 
E.  v.),  a  musical  instrument  whiih  David  and 
his  subjects  played.  The  margin,  following 
the  Vulgate,  has  sistra,  and  the  A.  V.  cornets. 
Castanets  are  a  jiair  of  small  spoon-.sliaped 
cymbals  fastened  to  the  thumb  and  beaten 
together  by  the  nuddle  linger.  The  word 
castanets  is  derived  from  cti.itniica.  a  chest- 
nut, two  of  these  fruits  being  anciently  at- 
tached to  the  fingers  and  beaten  together. 
Castanets  were  employed  in  (ireeee  and  Home 
as  an  accomi)animenl  to  hymns  iu  honor  of 
the  goddess  Artenns  or  Diana. 

Cas'tle. 

A  fortified  building  or  stronghold  (Prov. 
xviii.  19).  David  took  the  Jebusite  castle 
and  converted  it  into  Iiis  residence  :  and  it 
was  afterwards  called  the  city  of  David  (1 
Chron.  xi.  5,  7).  Jehoshaphat  built  castles  in 
the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  12 ;  mar- 
gin of  A.  V.  palaces),  and  Jotham  in  its  forests 
(xxvii.  4).  The  habitations  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Aaron  (1  Chron.  vi.  7)1).  and  probably 
those  of  the  Ishmaelite  chieftains  and  of  the 
Midianites  (Gen.  xxv.  16 ;  Xum.  xxxi.  10),  were 
encampments  (E.  V.)  and  not  castles  (A.  V.). 

Thecastle  which  Nehemiah  erected  was  pre- 
sumably succeeded  by  the  stronghold  event- 
ually known  as  Autonia.  aud  in  which  Paul 
was  confined  at  Jerusalem.  See  Antoxia, 
Tower  of. 

Cas'tor  and  Pol'lux. 

Two  Greek  and  Konian  divinities,  born  of 
the  same  mother,  Leda,  but  by  dili'erent  fa- 
thers. Castor's  father  was  Tyndareus.  a  Spar- 
tan king,  while  that  of  Pollux  was  Zeu.s,  the 
Greek  supreme  god.  By  another  account, 
however.  Castor  was  also  the  .son  of  Zeus. 
Castor  was  a  great  charioteer  and  horse-nia.s- 
ter,  who  was  eventually  killed  in  a  light. 
Pollux  was  a  highly  distinguished  imgilist. 
His  father  Zeus  offered  him  innnortality,  but 
he  begged  to  be  allowed  to  share  it  day  and 
day  about  with  the  deceased  Castor.  The 
request  was  granted,  and  both  brothers  were 
worshiped,  especially  at  Sjiarta.  under  the 
name  of  the  Dioscuri,  or  sons  of  Zeus.  They 
were  regarded  as  the  special  protectoi-s  of  dis- 
tressed mariners.  The  Alexandrian  ves,sel  in 
which  Paul  sailed  from  Melila  to  Puteoli  had 
for  its  sign  or  figurehead  Dioskoumi.  Tliis 
the  R.  V.  renders  The  Twin  Brothers  and  the 
A.  v.,  with  more  latitude,  Ca.stor  aud  Pollux 


Caterpillar  124 


Census 


(  \cts  xxviii.  11).  The  constellation  Gemini 
(the  Twins)  is  called  after  the  attectionate 
bn.tliers,  and  its  two  leading  stars  are  named 
('a>tor  and  roUux. 

Cat'er-pil-lar. 

The  renderinii  of  the  Hehrew  word  Haml, 
devourer.  It  is  associated  with  the  locust, 
and  is  a  destroyer  of  vegetation  (1  Kin.  viii. 
:57  ;  2  Chron.  vi.  28 ;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  4() ;  Is.  xxxiii. 
4  ;  Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  27>).  Probably  a  species  of 
locust,  or  the  common  migratory  locust  in 
one  stage  of  development  (cp.  Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  25. 
margin  of  E.  V.).  For  Ps.  cv.  34  and  Jer.  Ii 
27  of  A.  v.,  see  Cankkrwokm. 

Cat'tle. 

A  comprehensive  term  used  in  the  0.1. 
for  domestic  animals,  large  and  small,  for 
camels,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  oxen,  and  asses 
((ien.  xiii.  2;  xxvi.  13,  14;  xxx.  32,  A.  V. ; 
xxxi.  8,  9,  .38,  41 ;  xlvii.  16-18). 

Cau'da.     See  Clauda. 

Caul. 

1.  A  net  worn  over  the  hair  by  Hebrew  wo- 
men (Is.  iii.  18) ;  rendered  networks  on  the 
margin  of  both  the  K.  V.  and  the  A.  V. 

2.  The  lesser  omentum,  a  layer  of  the  inner 
lining  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  partly  en- 
veloping the  liver,  as  the  greater  omenturn 
does  the  stomach  (Ex.  xxix.  13,  22;  Lev.  iii. 
4,  10,  15). 

Cave. 

A  hollow  place  or  cavern  in  the  side  of  a 
hill  or  in  any  similar  situation,  t'aves  tend 
to  occur  in  all  difis  which  are  now  or  have 
at  any  former  time  been  washed  by  sea  waves ; 
they  are,  however,  most  numerous  and  largest 
in  limestone  countries,  of  which  Palestine  is 
one.  Caves  served  as  dwellings  for  the 
aborigines  of  mount  Seir,  as  the  name  Horite 
indicates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  Even  in  later 
times  they  were  used  as  temporary  abodes, 
as  by  Lot  and  his  daughters  after  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  (xix.  30),  and  by  Elijah 
1  Kin.  xix.  9).  They  often  served  as  stables 
forcattle.  They  wen^  natural  tombs, iind  were 
constantly  employed  for  ))uriai  purposes;  for 
example,  the  cavi;  of  Machpclab  (Gen.  xxiii. 
1-20;  xlix.  29)aii<l  tlw  tomhof  i;;i/,arns  (.John 
xi.  38).  In  times  of  war  and  oppression  they 
atforded  a  place  of  refuge  ( Judg.  vi.2;  1  Sam. 
\\\\.  f>;  xxiv.  3-10;  1  Mac.  i.  .■)3 ;  2  Mac.  vi. 
II),  the  most  noted  being  the  caves  at  Mak- 
kedah  i.losh.  x.  Hi  27)  and  AduUam  (1  Sam. 
<xii.  1  :  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13). 

Ce'dar. 

A  famous  tree  of  Ijcbanou  (1  Kin.  v.  (\),  tall 

I  and  stately  (Is.  ii.  13;  I'./.ek.  xvii.22;  xxxi. 
3).  It  furnisbe(l  a  timl>er  nuicb  jjrized  in 
the  construction  of  palaces  and  temi>les  (2 
Ham.  V.  11;  1  Kin.  v.  .5,  (> ;  vii.  1-12;  Ezra 
iii.  7).  From  it  inllars,  ix-ams.  and  planks 
were  cut  (1  Kin.  vi.  9,  10,  IS;  vii.  2,  7) ;  idols 
were  hewn  (Is.  xliv.  14);  masts  were  made 
for  shii>s  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5).  It  is  fragrant 
(Song  iv.  11  ;  IIos.  xiv.  7),  and  it  was  u.sed  in 
ceremonial  purificiilions  (Lev.  xiv.  4  ;  Num. 


xix.  6).  The  tree  is  evidently  tne  Cedar  of 
Lebanon  {Abies  cednis  or  Cedrus  libani),  is 
called  'erez  in  Hebrew,  and  bears  the  same 
name  in  Arabic,  namely  ^arz.  It  is  a  large 
tree  of  dome-shaped  form,  with  long,  spread- 
ing, contorted  branches,  evergreen  leaves, 
and  cones  3  to  5  inches  long.  It  is  wild  on 
mount  Taurus  as  well  as  in  Lebanon.  The 
little  grove  of  trees  on  the  latter  range  gen- 
erally visited  by  travelers  was  long  believed 
to  be  the  only  one  ;  but  others  have  now  been 
discovered  on  the  back  of  the  mountain.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  Deodar  of  the  Hima- 
laya mountains  is  really  a  distinct  .species. 

Ce'dron.     See  Kidron. 

Cel-o-syr'i-a.     See  Ccelesyria. 

Cen'chre-se,  in  A.  V.  Cenchrea  [millet]. 

The  eastern  of  the  two  ports  of  Corinth, 
that  which  gave  access  to  the  Archipelago. 
It  was  about  9  miles  from  the  city.  It  was 
visited  by  Paul  (Acts  x  /iii.  18) ;  and  it  pos- 
sessed a  Christian  church,  of  which  Phebe 
was  a  servant  or  deaconess  (Eom.  xvi.  1).  The 
village  of  Kikries  marks  the  site  and  pre- 
serves the  old  name  a  little  changed. 

Cen-de-bse'us,  in  A.  V.  Cendebeus. 

A  general  placed  in  command  of  the  sea- 
coast  of  Judffia  by  Antiochus  VII.  (1  Mac. 
XV.  .38).  He  was  routed  by  Judas  and  John, 
sous  of  Simon  Maccabseus  (xvi.  1-10). 

Cen'ser. 

A  vessel  for  holding  incense  whilst  it  is 
being  burned  (Num.  xvi.  6,  7, 39).  Thecensers 
of  the  tabernacle  were  of  brass  (Lev.  xvi.  12  ; 
cp.  Ex.  xxvii.  3,  firepans)  ;  tho.se  of  the  tem- 
ple were  of  gold  (1  Kin.  vii.  50  ;  2  Chron.  iv. 
22 ;  Heb.  ix.  4).  The  censers  of  the  book  of 
Eevelation  (viii.  3,  5)  were  also  of  gold. 

Cen'sus. 

An  enumeration  and  registration  of  a  peo- 
ple, conveniently  made  among  the  Hebrews 
according  to  tribe,  family,  and  house  (Num. 
i.  18),  and  in  the  wilderness  probably  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  officers  over  thousands, 
hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens  (Ex.  xviii.  25 ;  cp. 
round  numbers.  Num.  1.  21,23,  etc.).  Besides 
enumerations  of  classes  of  the  people,  like 
that  of  the  firstborn  (Num.  iii.  43),  a  formal 
census  of  all  the  Israelites  of  military  age  is 
recorded  in  the  O.  T.  as  having  been  taken  on 
thre»'  different  occasions.  The  first  was  tnken 
at  mount  Sinai  in  the  second  month  of  the 
second  year  after  they  had  left  Egypt  (Num. 
i).  Omitting  the  Levites  (47-54),  there  were 
of  males  above  20  years  of  age,  and  capable 
of  ))eariug  arms,  (i03,.550  (4,5-47  ;  xi.  21).  The 
recordsof  those  who  had  recently  paid  tribute 
were  i)robal)ly  used  in  making  uj)  the  lists 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  2()).  The  Levites  fnmi  one 
month  old  and  ui)ward  were  counted  sepa- 
rately, and  numbered  22,000  (Num.  iii.  39). 
Tlu^  second  census  was  taken  38  years  later 
at  the  camp  at  Sbittim  in  the  Moabite  coun- 
try at  the  close  of  the  forty  years'  wandering. 
The  number  of  men  had  altered  but  slightly. 


Centurion 


125 


Chaldea 


;iiid  now  was  601,730  (Num.  xxvi.  1-51),  ].o- 
vites  23,000  (xxvi.  62).  The  third  census  was 
made  by  order  of  David,  who  found  that  there 
were  of  fighting  men  in  Israel  800,000,  in 
.Tudah  500,000  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  1-9;  cp.  1  Chron. 
xxi.  1-6).  About  the  same  time  the  Levites, 
from  30  years  old  and  upward,  numbered 
38,000  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  3).  An  enumeration 
was  made  of  the  exiles  who  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem from  Babylonia  with  Zerubl)abel  (Ezra 
ii.),  and  an  enrollment  was  ordered  by  the 
emperor  Augustus  for  the  Roman  empire 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  Christ  (Luke  ii, 
1 ;  see  Quirinius). 

Cen-tu'ri-on  [from  Latin  cevinm,  one  hun- 
dred]. 

An  officer  in  the  Roman  army  (Acts  xxi. 
32 ;  xxii.  26),  who  at  first  commanded  100 
soldiers  and  afterwards  about  that  number 
(cp.  xxiii.  23).  Two  are  mentioned  by  name 
in  the  N.  T. :  Cornelius,  stationed  at  Csesarea, 
through  whom  it  was  made  evident  that  the 


Roman  Centurion. 

Holy  Spirit  is  given  to  gentile  believers  not 
less  than  to  Jewish  (Acts  x.),  and  Julius,  who 


conducted  Paul  and  other  prisoners  to  Rome 
arid  treated  Paul   kindly  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  3 
43).     Two  centurions,  besides  Cornelius/bc- 
lieved— one  at  Capernaum  (Mat.  viii.  5-13) 
the  other  at  the  cross  (xxvii.  .51).  ' 

Ce'phas  [Aramaic,  rock  or  stone]. 

An  appellation  given  by  Jesus  to  the  apos- 
tle Simon  (John  i.  42  ;  1  ('or.  i.  12;  iii.  22;  ix. 
5  ;  XV.  5  ;  Gal.  ii.  9)  ;  from  it  his  best-known 
name  Peter,  wliich  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of 
.Cephas,  arose. 

Chal-ced'o-ny  [from  Chalknldn.  KnRMon, 
a  town  in  Asia  Minor  where  the  mineral  was 
found] . 

A  precious  stone,  the  third  foundation  of  the 
wallofthe  New  Jerusalem  (Rev. xxi. 19).  Chal- 
cedony used  to  be  regarded  as  adistinct  .species 
of  siliceous  (flinty)  mineral,  but  is  now  reduced 
to  a  variety  of  the  species  quartz.  It  is  hard, 
its  largest  ingredient  being  silica.  It  is  of  a 
M'axy  luster,  and  therefore  much  duller  than 
typical  quartz.  It  is  white-gray,  lirown,  blue, 
etc.  It  is  not  perfectly  crystallized, 
but  often  coats  crystals  of  quartz.  It 
occurs  massive,  in  vein.s,  in  nodules 
of  botryoidal  form  (?.  e.  resembling  a 
cluster  of  grapes),  or  in  stalactites. 
This  stone,  however,  did  not  receive 
the  name  chalcedony,  it  is  believed, 
until  the  Middle  Age.s,  so  that  John, 
it  would  seem,  had  a  different  stone 
of  Chalcedon  in  mind,  jjcrhaps  the 
Chalcedonian  emerald  or  the  Chal- 
cedonian  jasper  which  are  mentioned 
by  Pliny  (37,  18  and  37). 

Charcol.    See  Calcol. 

Chal-de'a  [akin  to  Hebrew  Kas- 
dini,  and  perhaps  meaning  land  of  the 
conquerors  or  t)f  the  Cushlanders]. 

Originally  the  .soutberji  jiortion  of 
Babylonia,  at  the  head  of  the  Persi;iM 
Gulf,  but  the   designation   was  ulti- 
mately extended  to  the  whole  of  tlu^ 
alluvial  plain  stretching  from  above 
Hit  to  the  gulf    In  the  southern  por- 
tion were  situated  Cr  anil  Erech  :  in 
the   northern    part   Babylon,  Cutlia. 
Sippara.     There  were  other  cities  in 
the  country  which  are  not  mentioiu'd 
in  the  Scriptures  or  are  not  identified. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  term 
Chaldea  included  the  i)lateau  to  the 
iH)rth,    in   whole   or    in    j)art.      Tlie 
theory  that  it  did  is  ultimately  ba.-ied 
on    tlie   identification    of    the    river 
)    Chebar,  which  was  in  the  land  of  the 
*>    Chaldeans  (Ezek.  i.  3),  with  the  river 
of  Mesopotamia  called  by  the  (ireeks 
Chaboras.  But  this  identification  can- 
not be  maintained,  for  the  Hebrews 
distinguished  the  two  rivers  by  names 
radically  diUcrent,  K'^barand  llalior. 
Again,   the  lu-esence  of  peojile  called   Chal- 
deans   in    the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  dur- 
ing the  retreat  of  the  ten  thou.-^and   under 


Chaldean 


126 


Charger 


Xeiiophon  (Anabasis  iv.  3,  4,  etc.),  and  of 
others  in  Pontus  mentioned  l)y  Strabo  (549) 
has  been  nrfred  as  proof  tliat  the  iirimitive 
lionie  of  tlie  (  lialdcans  was  in  Arnuiiia.  Tliat 
theory  seems  now  to  lie  abandoned  ;  ])artly 
doul)tless  beeause.  although  the  Knrdisli 
mountains  and  adjacent  country  were  re- 
peatedly traversed  by  the  armies  of  Assyria 
diirinj:  a  period  of  seven  hundred  years,  be- 
pinnir.ir  in  the  fourteenth  century  R.  v..  and 
the  {;eograi)hical  notices  in  the  records  of 
these  military  exiieditionsare  full  and  minute,' 
yet  there  is  no  rei)ort  of  the  AssyriaTis  having 
found  a  i)eo])le  or  country  called  Kaldu  in  all 
that  region.  If  the  peojjle  called  Chaldeans 
by  the  classical  writers  referred  to  are  properly 
named,  and  have  any  connection  with  the 
('lialdcans  of  the  south,  they  are  late  immi- 
grants, relics  jierliaps  of  the  inii)erial  army 
of  f5al)ylouia,  rather  than  the  original  stock. 
Chal-de'an,  in  N.  T.  Clialdsean. 
A  native  or  in  habitant  of  Chaldea.  Chalde- 
ans early  entered  Babylonia.  By  the  9th 
••entury  n.  c.  they  were  firmly  established  on 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  gulf,  with  Bit-yakin 
for  their  capital.  L'mler  Merodach-baladan 
they  conquered  Babylonia,  but  he  was  finally 
crushed  by  Sennachciib,  king  of  Assyria.  In 
liSi  li.  c.  a  Chaldean,  Nabopolassar,  founded 
the  new  Babylonian  empire.  The  Chaldeans 
were  now  the  dominant  race,  and  doubtless 
po.sses.sed  themselves  of  all  offices  of  in  tiuence. 
So  e.vclusively  did  they  till  ecclesiastical  po- 
sitH)ns  at  the  cajiital  that  at  Babylon  their 
name  became  synonymous  with  priests  of 
I'.el-marduk  (Herod,  i'.  181, 183).  These  priests 
Were  esteemed  as  pos.sessors  of  wisdom  (Dan. 
i.  4;  ii.  2.  4i. 
Chal-dees'. 

A  variant  form  of  Chaldeans  used  in  the 
expression  I"r  of  the  Chaldees  ((icii.  xi.  31; 
Keh.  ix.T),  and  also  sometimes  in  A.  V.  when 
there  is  no  mention  of  Ur  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2; 
XXV.  4-28;  2Chron.  xxxvi.  17;  Is.  xiii.  19). 
Chalk'stone. 

A  siunc  taken  from  the  limestone  rocks 
which  constitute  a  marked  feature  of  Pales- 
tine (Is.  xxvii.  9). 

Chal'pM,  in  A.  V.  Calphi. 

Father  of  Jmlas,  one  of  the  two  captain.s 
who  stoo<l  by  Jonathan  Maccabseus  at  liazor 
(1  Mac.  xi.  7(1). 

Cham'ber-lain. 

One  who  looks  after  (he  private  chambers 
of  a  palace  or  mansion  ;  as  Blastus,  who  was 
over  Herod's  bcdcliamjjer  (Acts  xii.  20)  ;  or 
one  who  has  charge  of  the  treasure  chamber, 
as  Krastns,  the  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth 
(liom.  xvi.  23,  A.  V.  ;  in  K.  V.  treasurer).  In 
the  ().  T.  the  word  renilcrcd  cliam!)crlain  sig- 
nifies eunuch,  and  is  often  translated  so-  see 

EUMtll. 

Cha-me'le-on  [the  ground  lion]. 
A  reptile  which  belongs  to  the  same  order 
as  lizards,  but,  according  to  the  present  classi- 


fication, not  to  the  same  group.  The  name  is 
found  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  In  R.  V.  it  is  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Tinshemefh,  breathing, 
inllation  (in  A.  V.  mole),  whereas  in  A.  V.  it 
represents  the  Hebrew  word  Koah  (in  E.  V. 
land  crocodile ;  see  Lizard).  The  lungs  of 
the  lizard  are  very  large  and,  when  ex- 
panded, render  it  .semi-transparent.  Its  eye- 
balls protrude  from  the  head,  and  are  inde- 
])endent  in  their  action,  so  that  it  can  turn 
one  eye  up  and  the  other  down,  or  look  in 
different  directions  and  at  different  objects  at 
the  same  time.  It  has  also  the  faculty  of 
changing  its  hue  in  accordance  with  the  color 
of  the  objects  about  it  or  with  its  temper 
when  disturbed.  This  power  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  clear  or  pigment-bearing  cells  in 
the  skin,  their  contractions  and  dilatations 
being  controlled  by  the  nervous  system.  It 
lives  in  trees.  Its  feet  are  fitted  for  use  as 
hands  and  its  tail  is  prehensile,  so  that  it  is 
able  to  cling  to  the  branches.  It  feeds  upon 
insects  which  it  captures  by  means  of  its  long 
tongue  covered  at  the  end  with  a  viscous  sub- 
stance. 

Chain'ois. 

The  reu'^-ringof  the  Hebi'ew  Zemer,  leaper. 
The  animal  is  ruminant.  (Dent.  xiv.  5).  It 
is  not  the  real  chamois,  which  is  a  native  of 
the  European  mountains  from  the  Pyrenees 
to  th.  Caucasus,  but  does  not  occur  in  Pales- 
tine. 

Cham-paign'  [open  country]  (Deut.  xi.  30, 
A.  v.).     See  Arabah. 

Cha'naan.     See  Canaan. 

Cha-phen'a-tha,  in  A.  V.  Caphenatha. 

Apparently  ;i  portion  of  the  eastern  wall 
of  Jerusalem,  perhaps  one  of  the  towers  or 
other  mural  fortifications  (1  Mac.  xii.  37),  and 
possibly  even  the  tower  that  stood  out  from 
the  upper  house  of  the  king  (Neh.  iii.  25;. 

Chap'i-ter. 

The  capital,  /.  e.  the  head  or  uppermost 
part  of  a  column,  pillar,  or  pilaster  (1  Kin. 
vii.  16).  It  can  be  varied  in  form  and  orna- 
mentation, according  to  the  order  of  archi- 
tecture used  in  the  building  (Ex.  xxxvi.  38; 
xxxviii.  17,  19;  1  Kin.  vii.  19,  20). 

Chap 'man. 

Originally  a  merchant;  then  a  mere  ped- 
lar (2  Chron.  ix.  14). 

Char'a-shim  [craftsmen],  in  R.  Y.  Ge-har- 
asMm  [valley  of  craftsmen]. 

A  valley  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  14),  in- 
habited after  the  exile  by  the  tribe  cf  Ben- 
jamin (Neh.  xi.  35).  C(mder  suggests  the 
ruin  Hirsha  as  an  echo  of  the  name,  on  the 
slope  of  a  wady  13  miles  southeast  of  Aijaloa 
and  11  miles  west-northwest  of  Jeru.salem. 

Char'che-mish.    See  Carchemish. 

Char'ger. 

A  large  dish  or  platter.  The  name  is  ap- 
propriately used  in  tae  English  version  for 
the  dish  on  which  the  head  of  John  the  Baj)- 


Chariot  ] : 

tist  was  brought  to  Heroflias'  daughter  (Mat. 
xiv.  8),  and  lor  the  silver  dishes  of  130 
shekels'  weight  presented  by  the  tribal  princes 
at  the  dedication  of  the  altar  (Num.  vii.  13). 
The  Hebrew  word  rendered  charger  in  the 
last  passage  denotes  the  golden  dishes  which 
stood  on  the  table  of  showbread  (Ex.  xxvi 
29;  Num.  iv.  7). 

Char'i-ot. 

A  two-wheeled  vehicle,  of  various  forms, 
diawn  by  horses  (2  Sam.  viii.  4),  and  used 
for  military  (Ex.  xiv.  9 ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  5),  state 
(Gen.  xli.  43 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  1  ;  1  Kin.  i.  5),  and 
private  purposes  (Gen.  xlvi.  29 ;  2  Kin.  v.  9; 
Acts  viii.  28).  The  bed  was  open  behind,  and 
rested  on  the  axle  without  springs.  The 
wheels  were  not  clumsy,  but  consisted  of 
felloes,  spokes,  and  naves,  and  w'ere  often 
of  metal  (1  Kin.  vii.  33).  Chariots  were  but 
poorly  adapted  to  the  hills  of  Palestine,  and 
were  not  much  used,  but  the.v  were  common 
among  the  Canaauites  in  the  valley  (Josh, 
xvii.  16  ;  Judg.  iv.  3),  and  among  the  Egyp- 
tians (Is.  xxxi.  1),  Ethiopians  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
8),  Syrians  (2  Kin.  v.  9),  Hittites  (2  Kin.  vii. 


Royal  Assyrian  Chariot. 

6),  and  Assyrians  (Nah.  ii.  3,  4  ;  iii.  2).  The 
war  chariots  commonly  carried  a  driver  (2 
Chron.  xviii.  33),  and  occasionally  a  shield- 
bearer,  besides  the  warrior  himself.  Probably 
among  the  Hebrews  a  third  person,  perhaps 
shieldbearer,  sometimes  occupied  the  chariot 
(2  Kin.  ix.  25).  The  war  chariot  was  at  times 
constructed  of  iron  or  covered  with  iron 
plates  (Josh.  xvii.  16,  18  ;  Judg.  i.  19;  iv.  3). 
The  Persians  ai-med  the  axles  and  sometimes 
the  tongue  with  scythes.  Cruel  chariots  of 
this  sort  were  seen  in  Palestine  in  the  Seleuci- 
dan  period  (2  Mac.  xiii.  2).  A  four-wheeled 
vehicle  may  be  intended  in  Eev.  xviii.  13. 
See  additional  illustration  under  Bow. 

Char'i-ty. 

Love,  often  manifested  by  almsgiving.  The 
charity  described  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  is  not  alms- 
giving, as  is  evident  from  ver.  3;  it  is  love, 
charity  in  the  broad  sense,  love  toward  all. 
It  is  so  rendered  by  the  E.  V. 

Char'ran.     See  Haran. 

Che'bar. 

A  river  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans,  on 


'  Chelub 

the  banks  of  whicli  some  of  the  Jewish  ex- 
1  es  including  the  proi)het  Ezekiel,  were  se't- 
tler  .  It  was  tlu're  tliat  tlie  i)roi)het  saw  sev- 
eral of  Ins  visions  (Ezek.  i.  1,  3;  iii.  1."),  2:5;  x 
15,20).  ItisnottherivercallcdhvthcGrceks 
Chaboras,  which  ri.ses  near  Nisii.is  in  upper 
Mesopotamia,  and  falls  int..  the  Kuplirates 
at  Circesium,  for  the  Hebrew  name  of  this 
river  was  Ilabor.  The  Clubar  was  a  great 
canal,  southeast  of  Babylon.  Tiiesr  streams 
were  known  by  the  naiiie  nnr,  river. 

Ched-or-la'o-mer  [Elamite,  .servant  of  (lie 
god  Lagamar]. 

A  king  of  Elani,  who  evidently  lield  the 
sovereignty  over  Babylonia.  In  the  da.vsof 
Abraham,  in  alliance  with  Amraphel,  king  of 
Shinar,  Arioch,  king  of  Ellasar.  and  Tidal, 
king  of  Goiim,  he  made  an  expedition  to  the 
west  and  subjugated  the  country  about  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  people  of  the  plain  served 
him  twelve  years  and  then  n^volted.  The 
next  year  Chedorlaomer  came  with  his  allies 
and  smote  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  from 
Ba.shau  southward,  the  land  of  Kdoiu  to  the 
head  of  the  Eed  Sea,  the  country  afterwards 
inhabited  by  the  Amalekites.  ami  the  ])l:-.in 
about  the  Dead  Sea.  This  coiuiuest  gave 
him  control  of  the  caravan  routes  from 
Arabia  past  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  to 
Egypt,  Canaan,  and  the  north.  But  he 
carried  off  Lot  from  Sodom.  This  in- 
duced Abraham  to  lead  his  miinerous 
servants  and  his  allied  chieftains  to  the 
pursuit.  They  fell  u])on  Chedorlaomer 
by  night  at  Dan,  put  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  flight,  and  recovered  the  captives 
and  the  spoil  (Gen.  xiv.  l-l(i).  It  was  not 
strange,  even  in  those  earl.v  days,  for  a 
Babylonian  monarch  to  make  an  exjiedi- 
tion  to  the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean 
sea.  Long  before  the  time  of  Abraham 
great  kings,  such  as  Lugal-zaggisi,  Sargon. 
Gudea,  had  extended  their  conquests  to  the 
western  sea  or  drawn  sujjplics  from  that 
region. 

Kudurmabug,  the  overlord  of  Babylonia, 
was  an  Elamite,  and  Eriaku,  king  of  Larsa, 
was  his  son.  Chedorlaonier's  name,  in  its 
native  form  Kudurlagamar,  jiroves  that  lie 
was  an  Elamite,  and  his  association  with 
Arioch  and  the  extent  of  his  sway,  strongly 
indicate  that  he  was  a  member  of  this  dyn- 
asty and  a  successor  of  Kudurmabug. 
Cheese. 

The   curd   of  milk,    coagulated,   sejiarated 
from  the  whey,  and  pressed  (Job  x.  in;  c].. 
1  Sam.  xvii.  IH  ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).    A  valley  at 
Jerusalem  bore  the  name  TyroiiOMiii    \\\w  v. 
4,  1),  which  in  Greek  means  cheesemakers. 
Che'lal  [consummation,  completion]. 
A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  whom  Ezra  induced 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  3(1). 
Che'lub  [wicker  basket ;  bird's  cag<-1. 
1    A  brother  of  Shiiali.  whose  lineage  is  not 
t'-aced,  but  who  was  eiitit  le<l  to  registry  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 


Chelubai 


128 


Cherub 


2.  The  fatlier  of  David's  officer  over  the 
cultivators  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  26). 

Che-lu'bai.     See  Calkp.  1. 

Cheru-hi,  in  A.  V.  diel'luli. 
A  son  of  IJani,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  di- 
vorce his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  o5). 

Chem'a-rim,  in  text  of  A.  V.  Chemarims. 

I'ricsis  (if  the  high  i)kices  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5, 
margin),  of  tiie  calves  at  Bethel  (Hos.  x.  5, 
margin),  and  of  IJaal  jZeph.  i.  4). 

Che'mosh  [prohahly  suhduer]. 

The  god  of  the  Moabites  {Num.  xxi.  29; 
Jer.  xlviii.  4() ;  Moabite  Stone  3),  worshiiied  in 
the  same  manner  as  was  Molecli,  by  the  sac- 
rifice of  children  as  burnt  oti'eriiigs  (2  Kiu. 
iii.  27).  His  ideulity  with  Molech  appears 
further  from  Judg.  xi.  24,  where  the  god  of 
the  Ammonites,  who  was  Molech  (1  Kin.  xi. 
7),  is  called  C'liemosh.  Solomon  erected  a 
liigh  i)lace  for  him  near  .Teru.salem  (1  Kiu.  xi. 
7),  which  was  afterwards  defiled  by  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  i:>). 

Che-na'a-nah  [feminine  of  Canaan]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

2.  The  father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
who  deluded  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  11 ;  2  Chron. 
xviii.  10). 

Chen'a-ni  [firm]. 

A  L(\  itc  who  assisted  in  bringing  the  re- 
turned exiles  to  such  a  frame  of  mind  that 
they  agreed  to  enter  into  a  covenant  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  (Xeh.  ix.  4). 

Chen-a-ni'ali  [.Jehovah  is  firm]. 

A  cliief  of  the  Levites  in  David's  reign,  of 
the  bouse  of  Izhar.  who  was  ai)i)ointed  super- 
intenilent  of  the  outward  business,  such  as 
.judging  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  2!)),  and  the  trans- 
jtortation  of  the  ark  (xv.  22,  27,  margin  ;  in 
text,  song). 

Che-phar-am'mo-ni,  in  A.  V.  Che-phar- 
lia-am'mo-nai  [village  of  the  Ammonite]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  24). 
Site  unknown. 

Che-phi'rah  [village]. 

A  city  ol'  llic  (iibeonites  (Josh.  ix.  17),  al- 
lotted to  the  Hcnjaiuites  (xviii.  2()).  It  con- 
tinued to  exist  after  the  cajitivity  (Ezra  ii. 
2.");  Neh.  vii.  29).  Its  site  is  the  ruiii  Kefireh, 
h  miles  wi'st-uorthwest  of  JerusaU'm. 

Che'ran  [ixissibly  cither  c.r  lute]. 

A  lloiiic,  a  son  of  Dishon  (Cell,  xxxvi.  20  • 
1  Clirnii.  i.  41). 

Cher'eth-ites,  in  A.  V.  once  CheretMms 
[probably  Cretans]. 

A  nation  or  tribe  inhabiting  the  Pbilistine 
country  or  its  soutbcrn  portion  (1  .Sani.  xxx. 
14  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  Ki ;  Zepli.  ii.  .5,  (i).  Tbey  may 
be  identical  with  tlie  I'hilistiiies  who' came 
fntm  C.iplitnr  (q.  v.),  or  may  represent  a  di- 
rect emigration  from  Crete.  Some  of  them 
were  members  of  David's  bodvguard  (2  Sam. 
viii.   IM  witli   xxiii.  2!!;    xv.  'is).      In   three 


])laces  the  name  Car ite  appears  in  their  stead 
(2  Sam.  XX.  23;  2  Kin.  xi.  4,  19,  both  E.  V.). 
It  has  been  suggested  that  this  name  preserves 
the  memory  of  Carian  inhabitants  of  Crete, 
alluded  to  by  classical  writers. 

Che'rith  [cut,  gorge]. 

A  brook  before  Jordan,  by  which  Elijah 
sojourned  (1  Kin.  xvii.  3,  5).  Whether  east 
or  west  of  the  .Jordan  is  uncertain. 

Cher'ub,  plural  Cher'u-biin ;  in  A.  V. 
Cherubims. 

1.  Guardians  placed  east  of  the  garden  of 
Eden  to  prevent  the  approach  of  our  fir.st  pa- 
rents to  the  tree  of  life  after  their  expulsion 
from  the  garden  (Geu.  iii.  24).  When  the  ark 
was  constructed  for  the  tabernacle,  cherubim 
wrought  of  gold  were  placed  facing  each 
other,  one  at  each  side  of  the  mercj'  seat, 
overshadowing  it  with  their  wings  (Ex.  xxv. 
18-20;  xxxvii.  7-9).  They  symbolized  the 
presence  aud  Unapproachability  of  Jehovah, 
whose  glory  was  manifested  between  them 
(Lev.  xvi.  2),  who  thus  dwelt  in  the  midst  of 
his  people,  and  was  present  in  the  tabernacle 
to  receive  worship  (Ex.  xxv.  22 ;  Lev.  i.  1). 
Frequent  reference  is  made  to  Jehovah  dwell- 
ing between  the  cherubim  (Num.  vii.  89;  1 
Sam.  iv.  4  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  2  ;  2  Kiu.  xix.  15  ;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  1;  xcix.  1;  Is.  xxxvii.  16).  Cherubim 
were  also  embroidered  on  the  hangings  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1).  For  the  grander 
temple  Solomon  had  two  gigantic  cherubs 
made.  The  height  was  ten  cubits,  or  about 
fifteen  feet,  and  the  expansion  of  their 
wings  as  many  more.  They  were  of  olive 
wood,  and  were  overlaid  with  gold  (1  Kin.  vi. 
2.5-28;  viii.  7:  2  Chron.  iii.  10-13;  v.  7.  8 ; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  Cherubs,  with  palm  trees  and 
open  flowers,  were  also  carved  all  round  the 
walls  of  the  temple  (1  Kin.  vi.  29).  In  a 
poem  r)avid  represented  Jehovah  as  riding 
upon  a  cherub  and  flying  (2  Sam.  xxii.  11  ; 
Ps.  xviii.  10).  Ezekiel  had  a  vision  of  cherubs 
l)y  tlie  river  Chebar.  Each  had  four  laces 
and  four  wings  (Ezek.  x.  1-22  ;  cp.  ix.  3),  and 
since  they  seem  to  be  identical  with  the 
four  living  creatures  previously  seen  by  the 
prophet,  these  four  faces  were  those  of  anian, 
a  lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle  (cp.  i.  5-12  with 
X.  20,  21).  They  carried  the  throne  of  Jeho- 
vah (i.  26-28 ;  ix.  3).  Finally  the  apostle  John 
in  the  apocalypse  describes  four  living  crea- 
tures, who  had  faces  like  those  of  the  same 
four  animals  (Rev.  iv.  6  9). 

It  is  possible,  though  not  yet  proven,  that 
the  Assyrians  bad  ac(|uaintance  with  the 
same  idea.  Their  winged,  man-headed  bulls 
have  a  certain  external  physical  resemblance 
to  cherubim  as  sometimes  described  in  the 
llcl)rew  S(iii)tures  ;  and  they  ))errorined  the 
same  fiiuclion,  being  jilaccd  "at  tbe  entrance 
of  i)alaccs  and  temiiles  where  majesty  dwelt. 
It  is  esi)ecially  ])reniature,  however,  to  assert 
tliat  the  bulls  of  Assyria  bore  a  uame  similar 
to  that  of  the  Hebrew  cherubim. 

The  varying  fornisassumed  bv  the  cherubim 


Chesalon 


129 


Chittim 


ill  art  and  poetic  imagery  show  that  they 
were  symbols.  But  symbols  of  what?  The 
flaming  sword  (Geu.  iii.  24).  and  the  dark- 
ness under  Him  who  did  ride  upon  a  cherub 
and  flew  upon  the  wings  of  the  wind  (Ps. 
xviii.  10),  have  been  cited  as  the  main  sup- 
port of  the  theory  that  the  cherub  is  in  ulti- 
mate analysis  the  storm  cloud.  It  is  true 
that  the  cherubim  might  represent  some 
power  of  nature,  or  all  the  powers  of  nature, 
as  the  servants  of  Jehovah  and  guardians  of 
his  abode.  But  the  bil^lical  writers  represent 
the  cherubim,  symbolically  at  least,  as  ani- 
mate beings  with  the  intelligence  of  man, 
the  strength  of  the  ox,  the  courage  of  the 
lion,  and  the  free  motion  of  the  eagle  through 
the  air.  The  facts  at  present  obtainable  in- 
dicate an  order  of  angels. 

2.  A  place  in  Babylonia,  from  which  cer- 
tain persons  came  who  could  not  prove  their 
Israelite  descent  (Ezra  11.  59  ;  Neh.  vii.  61). 
Situation  unknown.     Pronounced  ke'rub. 

Ches'a-lon  [trust,  hope]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Judah,  on 
mount  Jearim  (Josh.  xv.  10),  commonly  iden- 
titied  with  the  village  of  Kesla,  10  miles  west 
of  Jeru.salem. 

Che'sed  [perhaps  the  noun  from  which 
Kasdim,  Chaldeans,  is  derived]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  by  his  wife  Milcah  (Gen. 
xxii.  22). 

Che'sil  [a  fool]. 

A  village  in  the  most  southerly  region  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  30)  ;  apparently  called  also 
Bethul  and  Bethuel. 

Chest'nut.     See  Plane. 

Che-sul'loth  [trusts,  or  perhaps  the  loins 
or  slopes] . 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  18),  probably  the  same  as  Chisloth- 
tabor  (q.  v.). 

CUeth,  in  R.  Y.  Heth  and  mieth. 

The  eighth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  H,  which  developed  out  of  the  same 
original,  and  Ch,  though  neither  is  pronounced 
with  the  guttural  sound  of  cheth,  re])resent 
it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names,  as  Haran, 
C'hezib.  It  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions, 
in  which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter. 

Che'zib.     See  Achzie. 

Chi'don  [a  javelin]. 

A  name  for  the  threshing  floor  at  which 
Uzza  was  struck  dead  for  touching  the  ark 
(1  Chrou.  xiii.  9).  In  2  Sam.  vi.  6  called 
Nachon.  The  difl'erence  of  name  has  not 
heen  satisfactorily  exjilaiued.  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Chil'e-ab. 

David's  second  son  (2  Sam.  iii.  3  ;  where 
the  Greek  gives  his  name  as  Daluia[h],  born 
at  Hebron.  His  mother  was  Abigail.  In 
1  Chron.  iii.  1  he  is  called  Daniel. 


Chiri-on  [a  wasting  away]. 
The  younger  son  of  Elimelcch  and  Naomi 
(Euth  i.  2,  5). 

Chil'mad. 

A  placi!  which  traded  with  Tyre,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  Sheba  and  Asshur  (Ezok 
xxvii.  23). 

Chim'liam  [longing]. 

The  sou  of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite.  When 
the  father  was  invited  ])y  David  to  Jerusalem, 
and  declined  tlie  honur  on  account  of  his  ad- 
vanced age,  Chimham  was  sent  in  his  place 
(2  Sam.  xix.  37,  38).  He  seems  to  have  set- 
tled in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem  and  erected 
a  caravansary  (Jer.  xli.  17). 

Chin'ne-reth  and  CMnneroth,  in  A.  V.  once 
Cinneroth  (1  Kin.  xv.  20)  [lute,  harp]. 

1.  A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xi.x. 
35  ;  cp.  also  Deut.  iii.  17). 

2.  The  region  around  the  city  of  Chinncreth 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20 ;  cp.  also  Josh.  xi.  2),  com- 
moulv  identified  with  the  plain  of  Genncsaret 
(Mat.'xiv.  34). 

3.  The  sheet  of  water  adjacent  to  the  forti- 
fied city  and  region  of  Chinnereth  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11:  Josh.  xii.  3;  xiii.  27;  1  Kin.  xv. 
20).  In  later  times  known  as  the  lake  of 
Gennesaret  (laike  v.  1)  and  sea  of  Galilee  or 
Tiberias  (John  vi.  1). 

CM'os. 

An  island,  now  called  Scio  or  Chio,  in  the 
Greek  Archijielago,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna.  It  has  Lesbos  on  the  north 
and  Samos  on  the  south.  It  is  about  32  miles 
long  from  north  to  south,  18  broad  from  east 
to  west,  and  has  an  area  of  about  400  square 
miles.  Paul's  vessel  passed  it  on  his  last  voy- 
age to  Palestine  (Acts  xx.  15). 

Cliis'lev,  in  A.  V.  Chisleu. 
The  ninth  month  of  the  Hebrew  year  (Neh. 
i.  1;  Zech.  vii.  1 ;  1  Mac.  i.  54).     See  Ykae. 

Chis'lon  [trust,  hope]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  Benjamin  in  the 
time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

CMs'loth-ta'toor  [the  flanks  of  Tabor  oi 
the  trust  of  Tabor]. 

A  locality  hard  by  mount  Tabor,  and  a 
landmark  on  the  boundary  of  Zel)uhin  (Josh, 
xix.  12);  probably  the  same  as  Chesullotli.  a 
town  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (  ver.  18J.  Tho 
two  names  are  radically  identicjil ;  tliey  differ 
merely  in  tiie  vocalization,  and  this  difl'er- 
ence of  pronunciation  is  not  sup])orted  by 
the  Septuagint.  Eusebius  mentions  a  vil- 
lage Chasalus  in  the  plain  near  mount  Tabor. 
The  place  is  commonly  identilied  with  the 
modern  village  of  Iksal  or  Ksal,  whicli 
stands  on  a  low,  rocky  eminence  west  of 
Tabor. 

CMthlish,  in  A.  V.  Kithlish. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah    Josh. 
XV.  40). 
{       CMt'tim.     See  Kitti.m. 


Chiun 


130 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


CWiin. 

A  Wind  occurring  but  once  in  the  He- 
hrt'W  Hil)le  (Amos  v.  26t.  It  may  denote  the 
planet  Saturn,  known  to  the  Syrians  as 
Kewan  or  Kaivan,  and  wliich  was  looked 
^ipon  as  unpropitious.  The  A.  R.  V.  trans- 
Uites  it  shrine. 

Chlo'e  [the  first  shoot  of  <;recn  grass]. 
A  Christian  woman,  apparently  of  Corinth 
II  Cor.  i.  111. 

Cbor-a'shan.    See  Asiian. 

Cho-ra'zin. 

.\  town  mentioned  along  with  Bethsaida 
and  Capernaum,  and  probably,  like  them, 
near  the  sea  of  Galilee.  Like  the  two  other 
places,  Chorazin  had  at  times  been  the  scene 
of  the  Saviour's  {(reaching  and  beneficent 
miracles;  but  it  failed  to  turn  its  spiritual 
privileges  to  account,  and  was  doomed  to 
sufier  the  penalty  of  its  neglect  (Mat.  xi.  21 ; 
Luke  X.  13).  Eusebius,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, .sjiid  that  it  was  2  Roman  miles  from 
CiipernauMi.  In  1842  the  Rev.  G.  Williams 
believed  that  he  had  found  it  at  Kerazeh, 
about  2i   miles  north  of  Tell  Hum.    The 


the  Hebrew  name  Messiah,  which  denoted 
the  anointed  king  of  Israel,  and,  after  Saul's 
reign,  the  royal  son  of  David.  The  term  was 
borrowed  from  the  Septuagint,  specially  from 
Ps.  ii.  2  ;  Dan.  ix.  2i5.  When  used  in  the  N. 
T.  it  generally  has  the  word  the  prefixed,  and 
means  the  Messiah  of  O.  T.  prophecy  (Mat. 
xvi.  16,  20  ;  xxvi.  6.3  ;  Mark  viii.  29  ;  Luke  Hi. 
l.T ;  John  i.  41).  Sometimes  the  is  omitted 
(Mat.  xxvi.  68;  John  iv.  2.5). 

Clirist,  though  really  used  in  the  primary 
.sense,  is  so  constantly  appended  to  Jesus,  the 
distinctive  personal  uame  of  our  Lord,  given 
from  his  birth,  as  virtually  to  constitute  part 
of  the  proper  name  (.John  i.  17  ;  Acts  xi.  17  ; 
Rom.  i.  1  ;  V.  1  ;  Philemon  1,  etc.). 

Chris'tian. 

A  follower  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The 
name  was  first  given  at  Antioch,  about  a.  d. 
43,  and  apparently  by  foes  rather  than  friends 
(Acts  xi.  26).  Though  destined  ultimately  to 
become  universal,  yet  it  took  root  so  slowly 
that  it  is  found  only  twice  again  in  the  N.  T., 
once  in  the  mouth  of  Agrippa  II.,  when  Paul 
preached  repentance  and  remission  of  sins 
through  Jesus  and  testified  to  the  resurrec- 


KerAzi-li,  Site  of  Chorazin. 


identification  is  now  generally  accepted.  It 
is  !i  little  inland,  in  a  side  valley  branching 
oil'  tVoiii  another  one  which  goes  down  to  the. 
lake.  Till-  sjiot  is  marked  by  extensive  ruins, 
including  a  synagogue. 

Cho-ze'ba.     See  Co/.kba. 

Christ  [Creek,  anointed]. 

The  Anointed  One.  a  title  corresponding  to 


tion  of  Christ  (Acts  xxvi.  18,  23,  28),  and 
once  in  a  letter  from  Peter  to  comfort  the 
faithful  whose  adherence  to  Christ  brought 
persecution  ui.oii  them  (1  Pet.  iv.  16). 

Chronicles,  Books  of  the. 

Two  historical  books  of  the  O.  T.  Thev 
arc  evidently  the  work  of  a  single  "author, 
lor  they  have  unity  of  plan  and  purpose,  and 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


]:u 


Chronology 


are  incomplete  if  one  is  sundered  from  the 
other.  In  fact  they  actually  formed  one  hook 
in  the  old  Hebrew  canon."  The  Scptnaf;iiit 
translators  divided  them  into  two,  and  this 
division  was  finally  admitted  into  printed 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  canon.  The  Hebrew 
name  of  the  books  is  "  Acts  of  the  Days,"  i  e. 
of  the  Times.  The  Septuagint  calls  theni 
ParnlHpomenn,  or  things  left  over.  The  title 
is  unfortunate,  since  it  incorrectly  implies 
that  the  book  was  intended  as  a  supplement, 
whereas  it  has  an  independent  aim.  The 
name  Chronicles  is  derived  from  the  title 
C'hn»iiron  applied  to  these  writings  by  Jerome, 
who  describes  them  as  "a  chronicle  of  the 
whole  of  sacred  history." 

The  work  naturally  divides  itself  into  two 
parts:  1.  The  genealogies,  especially  <(f,Tudah, 
Benjamin,  and  Levi,  from  the  creation  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (1  Chron. 
i.-viii.),  with  a  register  of  those  who,  prob- 
ably before  the  exile,  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  (ix. 
1-34).  The  transition  to  part  second  is  af- 
forded by  means  of  the  genealogy  and  death 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (ix.  35-x.  14).  2.  His- 
tory of  the  Israelites,  more  especially  of 
Judah,  from  the  accession  of  David  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (xi.-2 
Chron.  xxxvi.). 

The  abrupt  conclusion  of  the  work,  and 
the  identity  of  its  closing  verses  with  the 
opening  verses  of  Ezra,  have  been  thought 
to  indicate  that  Chronicles  and  Ezra  were 
originally  one  continuous  history.  But  these 
verses  are  a  quotation  either  in  both  Chroni- 
cles and  Ezra  from  the  same  state  document, 
or,  more  probably,  in  one  book  from  the 
other.  The  books  themselves  never  consti- 
tuted one  work.  They  are  entirely  ditferent 
in  plan,  and  ancient  tradition  never  reckoned 
them  as  one.  They  may,  however,  have  had 
one  and  the  same  author. 

The  first  datum  which  bears  on  the  ques- 
tion as  to  when  the  work  was  composed  is 
found  in  the  genealogies.  The  line  of  David  is 
brought  down  to  a  date  later  than  any  other. 
The  grandchildren  of  Zerubbabel  are  men- 
tioned (1  Chron.  iii.  19-21),  consequently  the 
work  cannot  have  been  composed  a  great 
while  before  the  time  of  Ezra.  It  is,  how- 
ever, frequently  affirmed  that  yet  later  de- 
scendants of  Zerubbabel  are  registered,  even 
the  sixth  generation  after  him  (21-24).  But 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  proof  that  the 
families  enumerated  in  verse  21,  latter  part, 
were  descendants  of  Hananiah,  son  of  Zerub- 
babel. Their  descent  and  that  of  Shecaniah, 
whose  posterity  is  given  at  considerable 
length  (21-24),  are  not  indicated.  _  The  phe- 
nomenon of  unattached  families  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence  in  these  genealogies,  and, 
when  the  text  is  not  at  fault,  indicates  that 
the  family  thus  loosely  catalogued  belonged 
to  the  clan  or  tribe  with  which  it  is  registered, 
though  its  connection  is  not  traced.  The 
four  families  enumerated  in  verse  21  be- 
longed to  the  lineage  of  David,  and  were  col- 


lateral with  the  royal  line  which  descended 
through  Hananiah.  son  of  Zerubbabel.     Tin- 

other  indications  likewise  jniint  to  the  (i 

of  Ezra.  The  amount  contril)nted  toward 
the  erection  of  the  tenqde  is  stated  in  I'er- 
sian  coins,  not  in  Greek  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7, 
R.  v.,  daricsl,\vhi(li  indicates  that  the  (Jreek 
emi)ire  had  not  sui)plaiitcd  tlie  Persian  when 
the  work  was  comixised.  The  desigtiation 
of  the  temple  as  "  the  Birali,"  the  castle  or 
the  palace  (1  Chron.  xxix.  1,  lit),  indicates  a 
time  not  later  than  Nehennah  ;  for  after  his 
time  'the  Hirah"  denoted  not  the  temple, 
but  a  structure  erected  by  him  (Nell.  ii.  H, 
vii.  2.  both  K.  V.),  which  came  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  temi)le  and  all  other 
l)uil(lings  as  the  castle;  see  Axtonia, 
Tower  of. 

Ancient  ojiinion  was  that  Chronicles  was 
written  by  Ezra.  This  tradition  cannot  be 
proved,  and  it  is  not  vital  that  it  should  be. 
But  there  is  no  valid  objection  to  it  ;  and  it 
is  strengthened  ))y  ]>eculiarities  of  language 
connnon  to  Chronicles  and  Ezra.  These  jiecu- 
liarities  have  led  most  modern  critics,  even 
when  intluenced  by  the  unwarranted  inter- 
pretation of  the  genealogy  in  iii.  19-21  to  as- 
sign a  late  date  to  Chronicles,  nevertheless  to 
hold  that  the  two  books  in  their  present  form 
are  from  the  same  hand. 

Chronicles  stands  among  the  Hagiographa, 
the  last  division  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  and 
not  among  "  the  projihets."  This  is  evidence 
that  the  author  was  not  a  prophet ;  sec 
Canon.  The  Masorites,  followed  as  a  rule 
by  Spanish  manuscripts,  jilaced  Chronicles 
first  in  order  among  the  Hagiograi)ha  and 
immediately  before  the  I'siilnis.  In  the 
printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  I5il)le,  and 
in  German  and  French  manuscrijjt.s,  it  fol- 
lows Ezra-Nehemiah,  and  is  the  last  book  in 
the  division.  This  jiosititm  it  probably  oc- 
cujiied  at  the  time  of  Christ,  tor  Zechariah  is 
cited  as  the  last  [named]  prophet  who  suf- 
fered a  violent  death  (Mat.  xxiii.  3");  Luke 
xi.  51 ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22). 

For  the  book  of  the  chronicles  of  the  kings 
of  Israel,  see  Kings,  Books  of  thk. 

Chro-nol'o-gy. 

The  nations  of  antiipiity  did  not  have  a 
uniform  system  of  chronology  :  inn-  did  they 
entertain  the  same  notions  and  feel  the  sjime 
.need  of  an  exact  and  unvarying  chronological 
method  as  does  the  modern  world.  The  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians  ai)iiear  to  liave  been 
confident  of  their  ability  to  date  events  of  re- 
moteantiquity  :  hut.  so  faras  known,  they  did 
not  have  an  era  serving  as  a  fixed  stan<lanl 
from  which  to  reckon  all  occurrences,  but 
named  each  year  after  a  pultlic  official,  and 
kept  a  list  of  these  annual  ejionyms.  An 
event  having  been  dateil  by  the  eiionyniy  in 
which  it  hapiiened,  its  remoteness  was  readily 
ascertained  by  counting  on  the  list  or  canon 
the  number  of  eponyms  that  had  intervened. 
In  Babvlonia,  Assyria.  I'alestine.  and  Egyi>t, 


Chronology 

documents  were  frequently  dated  by  the  reg- 
nal year  of  the  rei^nint;  monarch.  Unfortu- 
nately the  scrihes  did  not  always  reckon  uni- 
formly ;  but  under  the  same  kins  some  rc- 
{larded  the  accession  year  as  the  tirst  regnal 
year,  whili'  others  considered  the  civil  twelve- 
month which  followed  the  accession  as  the 
tirst  year  of  the  reign.  Furthermore,  a  sou 
was  not  infre(iuently  associated  with  his 
father  on  the  throne,  and  some  .scribes  treated 
the  tirst  year  of  association  with  the  father, 
and  otlu'rs  the  first  year  of  sole  reign,  as  the 
first  regnal  year.  The  deficient  sense  of 
c-hronology,  estimated  by  modern  concep- 
tions, is  .seen  in  the  fact  tliat  Josejihus  deter- 
mines the  duration  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
by  simply  adding  together  the  number  of 
years  that  each  king  ruled,  regardless  of  the 
fact  that  the  reigns  regularly  overlapped  one 
year,  .since  the  death  of  a  king  and  tlie  ac- 
cession of  his  successor  fell  in  the  same  year, 
and  this  year  was  a])t  to  be  reckoned  to  both 
reigns.  Pursuing  tliis  method,  he  states  that 
the  kingdt)m  of  Israel  lasted  240  years,  7 
mouths,  and  7  days  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  1)  ;  yet  by 
other  calculatioms,  which  he  makes  on  the 
basis  of  the  reigus  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  he 
implies  that  the  period  was  263  years  (e.  g. 
Antiq.  X.  H,  5  with  viii.  7,  8  and  x.  9,  7).  The 
siime  lack  of  a  nice  chronological  sense  ap- 
pears in  the  fact  that  Josepbus  estimates  the 
number  of  years  that  elapsed  from  the  ex- 
odus to  the  founding  of  the  temple  at  592 
(Antiq.  viii.  ',i,  1),  at  other  times  at  612  (xx. 
10;  con.  Apion.  ii.  2),  the  Hebrew  writer  at 
480  (1  Kin.  vi.  1),  and  Paul  apparently  at 
about  574  (Acts  xiii.  18-21  and  1  Kin.  ii.  11 ; 
vi.  1).  These  diverse  statements  ajiiiear  con- 
tradictory to  the  modern  reader  who  lacks 
the  historic  sense  and  cannot  divest  himself 
of  modern  chronological  conceptions;  but 
they  are  accurate  in  the  sense  in  which  they 
were  intended,  and  in  which  they  were  un- 
derstood. 

Tlie  era,  as  it  is  used  in  modern  chronology, 
came  into  use  at  a  comparativi'ly  late  date. 
The  exodus  from  Egypt  served  the  Hebrews 
for  a  brief  time  as  a  point  from  which  to 
reckon  (Ex.  xvi.  1  ;  Num.  ix.  1 ;  x.  11  ;  xxxiii. 
38).  The  Romans  dated  all  documents  by 
the  name  of  the  consul  in  ofhce,  and  hiter 
they  added  the  regnal  year  of  the  emperor. 
Their  historians  began  to  date  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city,  \.  u.  v.,  but  the  custom 
did  not  ari.se  until  some  centuries  after  the 
event.  V'arro's  date  for  the  founding  of  the 
city,  753  H.  ('.,  is  generally  accejited  as  the 
commeucemeul  of  this  era.  The  (Jreeks 
reckoned  l)y  periods  of  four  years  called 
Olymiiiails.  The  first  began  in  77()  n.  c,  the 
year  in  which  ('oro-hus  was  victor  in  the 
Olympic  games.  The  Syrians  used  the  Se- 
leucidau  era,  beginning  with  October  312 
B.  c.  It  was  used  by  the  Jews  in  Maccaba'an 
tinu's  (1  .Mac.  i.  10).  The  Mohaiunu'dansdale 
from  the  llegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  fnim 
Mecca,  in  .\.  d.  (ij2.     Tiie  .Jews  use  a  world's 


132 


Chronology 


era,  dating  from  the  creation,  which  they 
place  in  the  year  3760-61  b.  c.  Christian 
nations  have  adopted  the  birth  of  Christ  as 
an  era.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  Eoman  abbot  Dionysius  in  his 
Easter  tables  counted  from  the  incamatiou 
of  the  Lord.  The  abbot  erred  in  his  calcula- 
tion of  the  date  of  Christ's  birth,  but  the 
year  which  he  fixed  upon,  A.  v.  c.  754,  has 
been  accepted  as  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  Christian  era  began,  not 
with  no  year,  but  with  a  first  year.  Events 
which  occurred  within  the  civil  year  which 
included  Christ's  birth  are  dated  in  tlie  first 
year. 

Dates  were  placed  in  the  margin  of  A.  V. 
in  1701.  They  represent  the  chronological 
scheme  of  Usher,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
which  he  published  in  his  Annates  Veteris  et\ 
Novi  Testament)  in  1650-54.  His  work  was 
careful  and  scholarly,  and  served  a  useful 
purpose  for  two  centuries  and  a  half.  But 
it  is  inaccurate  and  obsolete.  It  gives  only 
one  of  several  possible  arrangements.  It  is 
based  in  crucial  points  on  Usher's  j)rivate  in- 
terpretation of  disputed  passages,  in  some  of 
which  he  clearly  erred,  as  has  been  proved  in 
recent  years.  His  system  was  worked  out 
from  the  standpoint  of  modern  chronological 
conceptions,  and  fails  to  do  justice  to  the 
different  notions  which  prevailed  in  an- 
tiquity. It  was  constructed  without  the  in- 
valuable aid  of  data  which  have  been  brought 
to  light  by  modern  research.  But  although 
Usher's  system  is  obsolete,  it  cannot  as  yet  be 
superseded  by  a  complete  and  final  scheme. 
A  few  dates  are  fixed,  and  the  chronology  of 
certain  periods  is  established.  Other  dates 
are  still  under  investigation  or  are  awaiting 
disclo.sure  from  uudiscovered  ancient  records. 
Much  is  tentative. 

I.  From  the  Creation  of  the  World  to 
THE  Birth  of  Abraham. 

The  data  are  furnished  by  the  Hebrew 
records  in  Gen.  v.  1-32;  \i\.  11;  xi.  10-26. 
There  are  several  possible  methods  of  inter- 
l>reting  them,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

1.  The  genealogy  was  constructed  by  the 
ancient  writers  in  the  same  manner  tliat  it 
would  be  framed  by  people  of  the  present 
day. 

Adam  having  lived  130  years,  begat 

Seth,  who  "         "     105      "         " 

Euosh,  "     "         "       90      "         " 

Kenan,  "     "         "       70      '•         " 

Mahalalel,  "  "  "  g5  n  i< 
.Tared,  "     "         "     i(j2      "         " 

Enoch,  "     "         "       65      "         " 

Methuselah,"  "  "  187  "  << 
Lamech,  "  "  "  182  "  " 
Noah,  in  whose  600th  year  the  flood 

From  the  creation  to came. 

the  flood,  i(J5B  years. 


Chronology 

Noah  having  lived  500  years,  begat 

Shem,        who   "         "     100 '  "    ~     " 
Arpachshad"     "        "      35      "  " 

Shelah,         "     "         "      30      " 
Eber,  "     "         "      34      "  " 

Peleg,  "     "         "      30      "  " 

Reu,  "     "        "      32      "  " 

Senig,  "     "         "       30      "  " 

Nahor,  "     "         "       29      "  " 

Terah,  "     "         " 70      "  " 

Abram,  Nahor,  and 
Haran,  890  years  after  birth 

of  Noah. 
290     "     after     the 

flood. 
1946     "     after     the 

creation. 

The  two  years  of  Gen.  xi.  10  are  added  to 
this  result  by  Usher,  according  to  whom 
Terah  begat  his  sons  1948  years  after  the 
creation.  On  this  interpretation  Shem  was 
not  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  as  is  generally  be- 
lieved, born  when  his  father  was  500  years  old 
(Gen.  V.  32).  But  xi.  10  has  another  explana- 
tion. Interpreting  the  data  of  the  genealogy 
as  before,  Noah  having  lived  500  years  begat 
Shem,  who  having  lived  100  years,  begat 
Arpachshad.  Arpachshad  was  thus  born  in 
the  601st  year  of  Noah's  life.  He  was  born 
in  the  second  civil  year  after  the  flood  year, 
counting  it  the  first.  The  flood  year  was  the 
600th  of  Noah's  life  (vii.  6,  11),  the  flood 
itself  prevailing  during  five  mouths  of  that 
year.  Noah  lived  350  full  years  after  the 
flood  year,  counting  it  the  first  (ix.  28).  In 
the  flood  year  he  was  599  years  and  some 
months  old.  As  he  lived  350  years  longer,  he 
died  when  he  was  949  years  and  some  mouths 
old,  in  the  950th  year  of  his  age  (ix.  29).  There 
are  discrepancies  between  the  Hebrew,  the 
Septuagint,  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 
The  Hebrew  text  is  evidently  the  most  ac- 
curate one  with  respect  to  dates.  The  Sep- 
tuagint, probably  on  the  ground  that  the  long- 
lived  antediluvians  were  not  likely  to  beget 
a  son  while  they  were  less  than  150  years  old, 
took  the  liberty  of  adding  a  century  to  the 
Hebrew  date,  where  it  was  said  that  they 
had  done  so,  as  in  the  case  of  Adam,  Seth, 
Enosh,  Kenan,  Mahalalel,  and  Enoch.  The 
minor  variations  are  that  to  Lamech  the 
Alexandrian  text  and  Lueian  assign  188  + 
565  =  753  years ;  and  Luciau  divides  Methu- 
selah's life  into  167  +  802  =  969  years.  The 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  on  the  contrary,  ap- 
parently on  the  ground  that  an  antediluvian 
was  not  likely  to  have  lived  150  years  with- 
out begetting'his  first  son,  finding  by  the  He- 
brew text  that  Jared  did  so  at  162,  Jlethuse- 
lah  at  187  (according  to  Lueian  at  167),  and 
Lamech  at  182,  cut  the  figures  down  to  62, 67, 
and  53.  This  reduced  the  total  length  of  their 
lives,  whereas  the  Septuagint  had  carefully 
balanced  its  additions  to  the  first  part  of  the 
lives  by  corresponding  subtractions  from  the 
later  part,  so  that  the  total  length  of  each  life 


133 


Clironology 


was  the  .same  in  that  version  iis  in  the  He- 
brew original,  except  in  the  case  of  Jjunecli. 
Similarly,  in  the  case  ..f  tlic  iiostdihivian  jta- 
triarchs  who  preceded  .M.raliaui,  the  Septua- 
gint hesitates  to  allow  them  to  beget  a  son  till 
they  are  100  years  old.  It  adds  KMt  ye^irs  to 
the  ages  at  which  sons  were  begot t<-n  by 
Arpachshad.  Shelali,  Eber,  IVleg.  Ken.  and 
Serug,  and  5(1  (.\lexaii<lrian  niaiiiiscript  and 
Lueian)  to  the  time  of  life  when  Nalior  hegat 
Terah.  After  Arpachshad  it  inserts  Kenan, 
and  states  that  he  begat  Shelah  wlien  130 
years  old.  The  Samaritan  IVntateiich  allows 
them  to  beget  a  son  after  .Vl ;  and  in  tlie  case 
of  Arpachshad.  Shelah,  Eber,  Peleg,  Keu,  and 
Serug  adds  100  years  to  the  age  assigned  by 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  50  years  in  the  case  of 
Nahor. 

2.  Or  many  links  arc  omitted.  As  in  other 
Hebrew  genealogies,  each  member  is  said  to 
have  begotten  his  successor,  although  the 
latter  may  be  a  grandson  or  even  remoter 
descendant  ;  as  in  the  royal  genealogy  given 
in  Matthew,  the  three  kiugs,Ahaziab,  .loa.sh, 
and  Amaziah  are  passed  over  and  .loram  is 
said  to  have  begotten  Uzziah,  his  great-great- 
grandson  (i.  8,  R.  V. ;  cp.  the  use  of  the  verb 
"  bare  "  in  Gen.  xlvi.  15.  18).  Only  prominent 
members  of  the  line  are  enumerated,  or  else, 
as  an  aid  to  memory,  a  definite  luiniber  is 
chosen;  in  Matthewgroups  of  twice  seven, 
in  Genesis  groups  of  ten. 

Adam,  at  the  age  of  130  begat 
Seth,  who  at  the  age  of  105  begat 

Ancestor  of  Enosh  or  Enosh  himself. 
Enosh,  at  the  age  of  90  begat 

Ancestor  of  Kenan  or  Kenan  himself. 
Kenan,  at  the  age  of  70  begat 

Ancestor  of  Mahalalel  or  Mahalalel  him- 
self. 

According  to  this  theory,  the  Hebrew  records 
aflbrd  no  basis  for  a  chronology  from  Adam 
to  Abraham.  It  assumes,  further,  that  the 
age  assigned  to  the  patriarchs  is  that  of  their 
natural  life.  Adam  lived  930  years.  This 
extraordinary  longevity  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  sin,  which  has  a  iihysical  efl'ect 
and  works  disease  and  death,  had  only  he- 
gun  its  malign  influence  on  the  race,  and  had 
not  reached  its  normal  hereditary  power. 
The  balance  between  man  in  a  sinless  state 
and  man  in  the  condition  of  sinner  had  not 
been  attained. 

.3.  Or  the  names  denote  an  individual  and 
his  family  si)oken  of  collectively  :  as  Israel 
denotes  a  patriarch  and  his  descendants.  Kain 
is  used  for  the  Kenites  (Num.  xxiv.  22,  K.  V.), 
David  for  the  royal  house  il  Kin.  xii.  16). 
Sometimes  the  family  takes  its  name  from  its 
progenitor  or  later  "leading  member  of  the 
tribe;  sometimes  the  name  of  the  tribe  or 
of  the  country  it  inhabits  is  ajiplied  to  its 
chief  representative,  as  to-day  men  are  con- 
stantlv  addressed  by  their  family  name,  and 
nobles'  are  called  by  the  name  of  their  duchy 
or  countv.     In  Gen.  x.  the  names  in  the  gen- 


Chronology 

ealogy  are  sometimes  individuals,  sometimes 
})eoi)le.s,  sometimes  cities,  sometimes  coiiu- 
trics;  and  iu  the  jiedigree  of  Abraham  given 
in  this  eiiapter  Ariiachshad,  wliom  Shem  be- 
gat (x.  22),  is  ai>parently  a  country  wliose  in- 
liahitants  were  descendants  of  Sliem,  and  this 
country  produced  Slielah  (cp.  bear,  beget, 
firstborn  in  Gen.  xxv.  2,  3;  12-16).  The 
longevity  is  the  period  during  which  the 
family  had  prominence  and  leadership. 

Adam,  1 

Familvof  Ketli  originated  when  Adam 

was'llJO  years  old  (v.  ."5).  130 

Adam  ami  his  direct  line  were  at  the 
head  of  affairs  for  930  years  (ver.  5), 
M'hen  thev  were  superseded  by 
Family  of  Seth,  930 

In  Seth,  10.")  years  after  it  attained 
headship,  the  family  of  Enosh  took 
its  rise  (ver.  6).  1035 

After  being  at  the  head  of  affairs  for 
912   years   (ver.   8),  Seth  was  suc- 
ceeded bv 
Family  of  Enosh,  1842 

Ninety  years  after  Enosh  attained  to 
headship  there  sprang  from  it  the 
family  of  Kenan  (ver.  9).  1932 

After  Hnosli   had  luld  the  leadership 
81.")  years  longer   Cver.   10),   Euosh 
gave  place  to 
Family  of  Kenan,  2747 

Family  of  Lamech,  6848 

Family  which  took  its  name  from  Noah 

originated,  7030 

Lamech  is  succeeded  by 
Family  of  Noah,  762.'5 

Shem,  Ham,  and  .Tapheth  born  about  812.") 
Flood,  822.2 

Ari)achshad  originates,  8227 

The  race  of  Shem,  as  distinct  from  the 
other  desciMulauts  of  Noah,  become 
preeminent,  8575 

Hence  the  years  from  the  creation  of  Adam 
to  the.  (IihmI  were  H22."),  and  from  Adam  to  the 
deatii  iif  Tcrali  may  be  11,. "I.  Tiiis  outline 
exhibits  one  ap|>lication  of  the  theory;  but 
it  must  be  rememhere(l  that  at  different  points 
in  the  genealogy  various  interpretations  are 
possible,  wlii(th  must  be  subject  to  individual 
jireference  until  further  data  come  to  light. 

II.    FHOM   TIIK  HiKTII   OF  AbKAIIAM  TO  THE 

Exodus. 

How  long  after  tlie  flood  Abraham  was 
born  cannot  be  determined  from  the  biblical 
record,  not  even  l>y  the  first  metiiod  enume- 
rated above  and  em|>h>yed  by  Usher  in  inter- 
preting tlie  genealogy  from  .Vdam  to  Abra- 
liani,  for  the  age  of  Teral;  at  tiic  birth  of  Ab- 
raham is  not  so  stated  in  (Jen.  xi.  2(i,  32asto  bo 
nn(|Ue,stionable  ;  see  AiMtAHA.M.  According 
to  Usher,  Abraham's  birth  occurred  in  199(J 
B.  C.  The  period  from  the  birth  of  Abraham 
to  the  descent  into  Kgypt  can  be  measured  : 


134 


Chronology 


Birth  of  Abraham  to^ 

"     "    Isaac    100  years  (Gen.  xxi.  5). 
"     •'    Jacob     60  years  (Gen.  xxv.  26). 
Jacob's  age  at  de- 
scent into  Egypt    130  years  (Gen.  xlvii.  9). 

290  years. 
The  sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  was  430  years  (Ex.  xii.  40,  41).  But 
from  what  initial  date  is  this  period  reck- 
oned ?  From  the  covenant  with  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.),  when  he  was  between  75  and  85 
years  old  (xii.  4  ;  xvi.  3),  as  Usher  and  many 
others  believe,  or  from  the  descent  into 
Egypt?  Probably  from  the  latter  event; 
see  Egypt  III.  3. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  Ramses  II. 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  one 
of  his  successors,  probably  Mer-n-ptah  (a  name 
more  familiar  in  the  form  Meneptah),  was 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus  ;  see  Egypt  III.  8. 
The  date  of  Ramses  II.  may  be  approxi- 
mately fixed  by  the  fact  that  Amen-hetep,  or  as 
the  Greeks  pronounced  the  name,  Amenophis 
IV.  of  Egypt  was  a  contemporary  of  Ashuru- 
ballit  of  Assyria.  Tukulti-adar,  fifth  in  descent 
from  Ashuruballit,  reigned,  according  to  a 
statement  of  Sennacherib,  about  1300  B.  c. 
The  fifth  or  sixth  king  on  the  throne  of  Egypt 
after  Amenophis  IV.  was  Ramses  II.,  an  indi- 
cation that  Ramses  II.  reigned  about  1300  b.  c. 
The  date  of  Meneptah's  reign  was  deter- 
mined in  the  following  manner:  Menophres, 
apparently  Meneptah,  is  the  king  iu  whose 
reign  the  Sothic  period  of  1460  years  is  said 
to  have  begun.  According  to  Theon  the  as- 
tronomer, the  Sothic  period  ended  iu  A.  d. 
139.  It  began,  therefore,  iu  1321  B.  c.  Hence 
Meneptah's  reign  iucluded  the  year  1321. 
On  the  basis  of  these  calculations  for  the  date 
of  the  reigns  of  Ramses  II.  and  Meneptah, 
the  exodus  has  been  provisionally  fixed  at 
about  1320.  This  date  will  be  lowered  about 
forty  years  if  Dr.  Mahler,  astronomer  at 
Vienna,  proves  to  be  correct  iu  his  opinion, 
f(junded  on  astronomical  data,  that  Ramses 

II.  reigned  from  1348  to  1281  B.  c. 

III.  From  the  Exodus  to  the  Founda- 

tion OF  Solomon's  Temple. 
This  interval  was  doubtless  reckoned  as 
twelve  periods  of  forty  years  each  (1  Kin. 
yi.  1),  of  which  the  first  covered  the  .sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  \Ex.  xvi.  35  ;  Num.  xiv.  33), 
six  certainly,  and  probably  eight,  were  al- 
lowed for  the  time  of  the  judges  i)roper,  the 
oppression  and  rest  being  frequentlv  iucluded 
HI  the  statement  (Judg.  iii.  11,  30— double 
I)eriod:  v.  31;  viii.  28;  xiii.  1;  and  prob- 
ably X.  1-4  and  xii.  7-14),  the  high  priest- 
hood of  Eli  counted  as  one  (1  Sam.  iv.  18), 
Saul's  reign  i)robably  as  another  (Acts  xiii.' 
21),  while  David's  reign  made  the  twelfth 
(1  km.  li.  11).  But  the  forty  years  are  a 
round  number,  and  not  always  exact.  The 
l)eriods  enumerated  were  sometimes  in  whole 
or  ni  part  contemporary;  see  Judges.   Jeph- 


Chronology 

thah  speaks  of  the  Israelites  having  occupied 
the  country  about  Heshbon  for  300  years 
(Judg.  xi.  26),  some  seven  periods  of  forty 
years.  Josephus,  reckoning  in  a  different  man- 
ner, estimates  tlie  time  from  the  exodus  to  the 
temple  at  592  or  612  years  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1  ; 
XX.  10),  while  Paul,  according  to  the  received 
text,  refers  to  the  period  of  the  judges  as 
lasting  about  450  years  (Acts  xiii.  20).  As 
already  pointed  out,  tliese  diverse  results  do 
not  contradict  eacli  other,  altliough  they  do 
not  agree.  The  variatit)ns  are  due  to  the 
different  methods  employed  in  calculating. 
The  sum  was  not  sujiposed  to  represent  the 
exact  duration  of  the  period,  as  would  a 
modern  chronological  statement.  The  length 
of  the  period  cannot  be  given  in  modern 
terms  until  new  data  come  to  light. 

IV.  From  the  Foundation  of  the  Tem- 
ple TO  THE  Exile  and  Return. 
The  temple  was  founded  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  vi.  1).  Solomon  reigned 
forty  years,  aiiu  was  succeeded  by  Eehoboam, 
on  whose  ascension  of  the  throne  the  ten 
tribes  revolted.  The  data  obtained  from  both 
Hebrew  and  foreign  sources  may  be  arranged 
according  to  the  following  scheme.  For  dis- 
cussion of  the  details,  see  the  articles  in  this 
Manual  which  are  devoted  to  the  several 
kings,  and  a  brief  monograph  on  the  chronol- 
ogy by  Prof.  Davis  in  the  Presbyterian  and  Re- 
fvrmed  Review,  1891,  pp.  98-114.  In  general  it 
may  be  remarked  that  this  scheme  recognizes 
the  existence  of  co-reigns.  They  were  com- 
mon in  the  neighboring  monarchies,  and  are 
proven  in  individual  cases  for  the  Hebrews. 
David  when  incapacitated  by  age  for  govern- 
ment, and   in  danger  of  having  his  throne 


135 


Chronology 


usurped,  had  Solomon  mr.de  king  (1  Kin.  i.). 
When  Uzziah  was  compelled  t«.  .seclude  liim- 
self  because  he  had  iicconic  a  Iciur,  .lotliam 
assumed  the  duties  of  royalty  (2  Kin.  .\v.  5). 
The  scheme  further  recognizes  that  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  among  neighboring  nations,  no 
fixed  rule  existed  as  to  whether  the  accession 
year  of  a  king  or  the  civil  year  wliich  fol- 
lowed should  be  coUTited  as  tiie  first  regnal 
year.  Some  recorders  followed  one  metliod, 
others  another.  Examples  might  he  multi- 
plied;  one  will  suffice.  In  Ptolemy's  canon 
601,  the  civil  year  following  accession  is 
treated  as  the  first  regnal  year  of  N'elmcliad- 
nezzar.  So  it  is  by  Josephus,  Daniel,  and 
Babylonian  scribes,  and  in  the  record  wlienco 
Jer.  lii.  28-30  is  taken.  But  Jeremiah  him- 
self and  other  Palestinian  writers  of  the  day 
numbered  the  accession  year  of  Xchuchad- 
nezzar  his  first  year,  synchronizing  Jelioiakiin 
4  with  Nebuchadnezzar  1,  and  Zedckiah  11 
with  Xehuchadnezzar  19.  It  will  hi-  uhscrved, 
finally,  that  two  events,  the  slaughter  of 
Ahaziah  of  Judah  and  Jehoram  of  Israel  by 
Jehu  and  the  fall  of  Samaria,  divide  the  his- 
tory of  the  divided  monarchy  into  three 
periods,  each  chronologically  complete  in 
itself.  The  dates  of  tliese  two  events  are 
established.  The  chronology,  therefore,  of 
each  of  these  periods  must  be  settled  by 
itself.  Difficulties  which  arise  in  matters 
of  adjustment  affect  only  their  own  period, 
not  the  others. 

This  scheme  is  not  offered  as  final  in  every 
particular.  Slightly  different  arrangements 
of  the  data  are  possible  at  several  points;  for 
example,  in  the  matter  of  Athaliah's  usurpa- 
tion. Such  minor  modifications,  liowever,  do 
not  affect  the  chronology  as  a  whole. 


1 K.  14 :  21.       Rehoboam.  i         'J^i  i    Jeroboajn.  i  K.  14 :  20. 

2  2 

2  C.  11  :  17.  Three  vears'  godliness.         3  3 

4  4 

1 K.  14  :  25.  Shishak's  invasion.  ■■>  5 

6  6 

17  915  17 

IK.  15:1, 2)      Av»<fom                                        1  18 

2  c.  13: 12;    Abijam.  1 is 

2  li> 

1  K.  15  :  9, 10.     Asa  ascends  throne       .  .  .  '^ 20 

1st  regnal  year.  f      1  21  „    ,   .  1  i.'i„  t;..*^ 

I      ■>  .  .  1  ~  Nadab.  1  Km.  15  :  25. 

3  ■  ■         ...  2  1  Baasha.  1  K.  15 :  28-33. 
"^  C.  14  :  1.                Land  quiet  ten  years,   -j      4  "  '   '  iJ08            2 

10  8 

11  9 

2  C.  14  :  9-15.         War   with    Zerah    be-  J     12  900           10 
tweenyearsllandl4  |     13  11 

'  14  12 

2  C.  15 :  10  Reformation.  ~  15  13 

15:19)*  Buys  aid  of  Benhadad  16  14 

16  :  1-2  J  against  Baasha. 

*The  dates  35  and  36  given  in  these  verses  in  the,  Hebrew  text  were  explained  by  the^older 
commentators  1 
then  correct. 

fcfes^llrs'^not  been  trrn'smVtted  as  carefully  as  it  should  have  I^^mi  "ml  tue  pr 

or  other  king  always  refers  to  his  regnal  year,  and  Baasha  was  dead  before  the  3oth  and  36th  years 

of  Asa. 


Chronology 


136 


Chronology 


LXX.l 
2  C.  16  : 
1  K.  22 


K.  16 :  28, 
12. 
:41,42. 


2K.  8: 
2C.  22 


•25.26. 
:1. 


2o  887  23 

26 1  -^  .  Elah.  1  K.  16  :  8. 

27 |2.  .   .  Zimri  (7  days).  IK.  16:10,15. 

OS  2       Omri.  1  K.  16 :  15, 16. 

29  3 

30  4 

31  5  Omri  prevails  and  reigns  with  un- 

disputed autliority.  IK.  16:  22, 23. 
36  876        10 

Jehoshapliatassociated.l 11        .^   ^  fLXX  IK.  16:29. 

2-38 >2-l    ALab.  I    Heb.       do. 

Asa  diseased.  3  39  2 

4  40  3 

Jehoshapbat.  5  4i 4 

Isl  vear  of  sole  reign.        1  870             6 

2  6 

Marries  his  first-born  (■      3  7 

Jehoram  to  daugh--{       4  8 

ter  of  Ahab.              (.5  9 

15  856  19 

16  20 

Jehoram  associated.  .   .  17 1  21    Ahaziall.  ^   ^     ^  ^'^J^aH',^  u.r 

Ahab  and  Benhadad  defeated  by 
Shalmaneser  'lear  Hamath.  Ob.  54. 


2  K.  8 :  16, 17.        Jeboram  sole  king. 


2..18 

3  19 

4  20 

5  21 

1. 


2  C.  21 
2K.  9: 
2K.  8: 


:  18,  19. 
29. 
25, 26. 


2  K.  11  :  1-3. 


4 
5 

Sorely  diseased,  hence     6 
Ahaziah  made  regent.  .   .  7 
Ahaziah,  king.  .  .  8 

Slain  by  Jehu. 
Joasb,  soli' surviving  heir 

and  Ifgitiiiiate  king. 
In  conceulineiit  for  six 

years  from  Athaliah, 

who     usurped     the 

power. 


2K.  11:  4;  12:1.    Placed    on  throne   and      7, 
Athaliah  slain. 


.  2..1..2S 

2 

3 

4 
.   .5 


840 


.  Jehoram.  2  K.  l :  17 ;  3:1. 

War  with  Moab.        2  K.  3  :  4  seq. 

Shalmaneserat  war  with  Benhadad. 
Shalmaneser  at  war  with  Benhadad. 
Benhadad  besieges  Samaria. 

2  K.  6  :  24. 

8         Shalmaneser  at  war  with  Benhadad. 
9 

10  Benhadad  murdered  and  succeeded 

11  by  Ilazael  between  845-3. 

12  Jehoram  slain  l)y  Jehu. 
Jehu  seizes  tlie  tlirone. 

Jehu    and    Hazael    pay  tribute  to 
Shalmaneser.  III.  R.  5,  No.  6,40-66. 


Shalmaneser  at  war 
with  Hazael. 


Obelisk  102. 


2  K.  12  :  6. 


2K.  12:17 


2  Chron.  24  :  ^'>. 
2K.  14:1. 


Ant.  ix.  9  :  3. 


Joash  slain  and  .Vma- 
ziah  sole  king. 


I)efeate<l  and  his  cap- 
ital taken  by  Je 
hoash. 


Conspired  against. 


Renewed  attempt  to  re-    23 
pair  temple. 

28 
Hazael    against    (iath 
and  .lerusiilem.  When 
lie  departs,  lu'  leaves 
Joash  sorely  diseased.      37 
Amaziall      iiecordingly 
undertakes  the  govern- 
ment. 


(40)3 


-] 


On   account  of  Jehu's  increasing 
age  and  inpa))aeity  for  war, 
.   .   .   .    21  1    Jehoahaz  associated.  Antiq.  ix.  8,  5, 
820  2  and  2  K.  VA  :  10,  correcting  ver.  1. 

3       Hazael  against  Israel.  2  K.  10  :  32. 

(28)  8       Jehoahaz  alone.  2  K.  10  :  36. 

Hazael    continues    to 
oppress  Israel  all  the 
davs  of  Jehoahaz.     2  K.  13  :  3,  22. 
....  1  17   Jehoasli.  2  K.  13  :  lo. 


803 


[Bin-addu]-mari,  king  of  Damascus, 
besieged  by  Ramman-nirari. 

Moabites  invade  Israel.  2  K.  13  :  20. 
Jehoash  victorious  over 
Benhadad.  2  K.  13  :  25. 


Jeroboam  ascends. 
1st  regnal  year. 


2  K.  14  :  23. 


Chronology 


137 


Chronology 


2  K.  14  :  21. 

2  K.  14  :  17. 
2  K.  14  :  19. 

2  K.  14  :  22. 
2  K.  15  :  1. 


2  K.  15  :  5. 
2  K.  15  :  32,  33. 


Uzziah  or  Azariah  pro- 
claimed by  populace. 


1 


Amaziah  survives  Je- 

hoash  If)  years. 
Amaziah  slain  and  Uz-  (29)  11 14 

ziah  supreme.  12       775      15 

Builds  Elath  after 

death  of  Amaziah. 
In  special  sense 

"reigns." 


Becomes  leprous  and 
Jotham  conducts  the  gov 
ernment. 


2  K.  15  :  32. 
2  K.  16  :  1, 2. 


2K.  18:1,2. 
Ant.  ix.  13,  1. 

2  K.  18  :  9 ; 
Ant.  ix.  14,  1. 

2  K.  18  :  10. 


2K.  18:130 
2C.  32:  1-8;^ 
Is.  36  :  1.  ) 
2  K.  20  :  1-6 ;  ) 
Is.  38  :  1-8.     ; 

2  K.  20  :  12. 
Is.  39  :  1. 

Is.  20  :  1. 


2  K.  18  :  14  seq. 


2  K.  21 :  1. 


Abaz  associated. 


Uzziah  dies  and 
Jotham  succeeds. 
Ahaz  alone. 


Hezekiah  ascends. 
1st  regnal  year. 
Ahaz  dies. 
Hezekiah  sole  king. 


97 

25 

28 

36 

39 

37 

750 

40 

1-   1  38| 

.  41 

2  (39)  1 
3 

1 

4 

0 

5 

745 

3 

9 

7 

10 

740 

8 

11 

9 

12 

10 

13  (50) 

.  1 

14 

2 

15(52) 

1 

16  1. 

., 

8  i  ■ 

■  " 

9 

733 

3 

10 

11 

12  .  (20)  . 

730 

.  1 

13 

2 

14.  .  . 

3 

15  1  . 

.4 

16  2 

5 

3 

6 

4  . 

.  7 

5 

8 

6.  . 

722 

.  9 

7 

721 
720 

13 

715 

Sennacherib    invades 
Judah. 

Hezekiah  sick. 

Receives  embassy  from 
Merodach-baladan 
about  this  date. 


Sargon  against  Ashdod.     17 
23 


Besieged  by  Senna- 
cherib. 


Dies  and 
Manasseh 

throne. 
1st  year. 


ascends  V 


713 
712 


711 
710 

705 

701 
700 
699 

698 

697 
696 


Ant.  ix.  10,  3. 


Earthquake  hereabouts. 

Contemporary  with  Jotham. 

1  C.  5  :  17. 

Zecbariab.  2  K.  15 : 8. 

Shallum.  2  K.  15  :  13. 

Menahem  ascends.  2  K.  15  :  17. 

1st  rcfinal  year. 

I'ul,  /.  f.  TiKlath-iiileser,  ascends 

throne  of  As.syria. 
Azriyau  of  the  "land  Yaudft,  ;.  e. 
Judft  mentioned  by  Tiglath-pi- 
leser  about  tliis  time. 
Menahem  pays  triljute  to  I'ul. 

2  K.  15:  19. 
PekaMah.  2  K.  15  :  23. 

Pekab.  2  K.  15 :  27.* 

Tiglath-pileser  captures  Gaza. 

Tiglath-pileser  against  Damascus. 
"        "  still  against  Oamascus. 
Receives  tribute  from  .\haz. 
Hosbea.  2  K.  15  :  :io. 

2  K.  17:  1. 

Tiglath-pileser  succeeded  by  Shal- 
maneser. 

Hosbea  seeks  an  alliance  with  Po 
of  Egypt.  2  K.  17  :  4. 

Fall  of  Samaria. 

1st  year  of  Sargon,  who  had  as- 
cended tlie  tlirdiie  cif  .Assyria  in 
lOth  munth  uf  the  iircccdiiigyear. 

Defeats  Sil)e,  /.  e.  ^n,  nf  Egypt. 

Assyrian  troops  in  Samaria  and 
Arabia.     Tribute  from  Egyi)t. 

Assyrian  troojis  "subjugated  .Tu- 
dah,"  perhaps  under  command 
of  Sennacherib,  jirubably  end  of 
715  or  beginning  of  714.  Nimr. 
tablet. 

Judah  tributary  to  Assyria  (Octag. 
Cyl.  o2-:55).  Merodacli-baladan 
incites  neighboring  nations 
against  .Assyria. 

Sargon  against  .\shdod. 

Sargon  dethrones  Merodach- 
baladan. 
Sennacberib  ascends  throne  of  .\s- 

syria. 

Against  Hezekiah  and  Jerusalem. 


*  Usher  and  the  older  chronologists  assumed  that  anarchy  preTa, led  ft  rse^^er^^^^ 
the  death  of  Pekah  and  the  accession  of  Hosbea.    Both  ^he  Hebrew  and  tie  Ass>  succecdt^ 

ever,  clearly  indicate  that  no  interregnum  occurred,  but  that  HnsheasloUka^^^^^       suctecdtd 
him  on  the  throne.    For  the  twenty  years  assigned  to  the  reign  of  Pekah.  ste  1  ekah. 


Chronology 


138 


Chronology 


2  K.  19  :  37. 


2  C.  33  :  11. 


■1  K.  21  :  19 
2  K.  22  :  1. 

2  C.  Jl  :  3. 

2  C.  34  :  3. 
Jer.  1 : 1,  2. 


18  680 


668 


Jer. 


1,3. 


2  K.  23  :  29. 
2  K.  23  :  31. 
2  K  23  :  36. 


Jer  25  :  1 ;  46 
Ant.  X.  6,  1. 


Jer.  36 : 9. 


Ant.  : 
Dau. 


10,3. 
:  1. 


2  K.  24  :  8-12. 
2  C.  36  :  10. 


2  K.  24  :  18. 

Jer.  51  :  59. 

2  K.  2.1 :  1. 
Jer.  32  :  1. 
2  K.  2.i  :  8,  9 ; 
Ant.  X.  8,  .); 
C.  Apion.  i. 
Kzek.  33  :  21 

Jer.  44  :  30. 

Jer.  h2  :  30. 
Ant.  X.  9,  7. 


Carried  in  chains  to 
Babylon  by  the  As- 
syrians, probably  at 
tliis  time. 

Dies  anil  ) 

Amon  asci'uds  throne.    / 
Isi  year. 

Joslah. 


Seeks  Jehovah. 

Begins  to  purge  nation. 
Jeremiah  begins. 


13th  Josiah  to  4th  Je- 
hoiakim  inclusive  = 
23  years. 


Phiin  by  Xccho. 
Jehoahaz  king  3  montlis. 
Jehoiakim. 


He  and  Necho  subju- 
gated by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

9th  month,  public  fast. 
Jeremiah'.s  roll 
burned. 

Two  years  after  the  de- 
stniction    of    Egypt 
Nebuchadnezzar 
dreams. 

Having  paid  tribute  to 
Nub.  three  years,  re- 
bels. 

Yields  to  Neb. 
JeboiacMn,  3  months. 
(i(irs  captive  to  Baby- 
lon toward  close  of 
yrar. 
Zedekiab. 

Visits  Babylon. 

Jerusalem  besieged. 

Temple  burned  in  5th 
month. 

News  reaches  Ezekiel. 

Hophra,  /.  e.  Apries, 
mentioned. 

Captives  carried  to] 
Babylon  5th  yr.  af(er  I 
destruction  of  Jeru-  [ 
salem  =  23d  Neb.        J 


..} 


2  K.  25  :  27. 


2  C.  3C  :  22,  23. 


37th    year   of  Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity. 

Reb>iilrling  of  temple 
author! /.I'll. 


49 

50 

649 

648-7 

55 

643 

642 

1 
2 

1 
2 

641 
640 
639 

638 

8 

632 

12 
13 
14 
15 

628 
627 
626 
625 

30 
31 

) 

2 
3 
4  . 

610 
609 

608 

607 

606 

.  605 

5 

604 

0  . 

.  603 

1 

4 

9 
10 


.  602 


,598 


597 

594 

589 
588 

587 


582 
568 


502 
561 


539 
538 


Esarbaddon. 

Keieives    tribute  from  Manasseh 
of  Judah. 

Asburbanipal. 

Assvrian  garrison  in  Gezer. 

Ashurbanipal  captures  Babylon  and 
dethrones  its  king,  who  had  in- 
cited peoples  from  Elam  to  the 
Mediterranean  to  revolt  against 
Assyria.  Receives  tribute  from 
Manasseh  of  Judah  [about  647 
(Schrader)]. 


Nabopolassar. 

Necbo.  king  of  Egypt. 

Nebucbadnezzar.    • 

2d  or  1st  year. 
3d  or  2d  year. 

4th  year. 

8th  or  7th  year. 


Psammetick  II.  of  Egypt. 

Apries,  king  of  Egypt. 
18th  or  17th  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

19th  or  18th  of  .Nebuchadnezzar. 


23d  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Egypt  in 
:!7th  year  of  his  reign. 

Evil-merodacb. 

1st  year. 

Cyrus  takes  Babylon. 
1st  year. 


Ezra  3  :  8. 
C.  Apion  i 


21. 


Chronology- 


Rebuilding  begun  in] 
2d  month,  having  re-  | 
niained  waste  for  50  I 
years— f.  e.  49  years  ] 
and  9  months.  I 


J  39 


Chronology 


2d  year. 


V.  Feom  the  Eeturn  from  Exile  to  the  Birth  of  Christ. 

Cyrus  on  throne  of  Babylon. 


JudSDa  under  Persian  rule. 

Zerubb;il)fl  loads  back  rj, (11)0  .lews  to  Jerusalem, 
Foundaticin  of  tlie  temple  laid,  but  the  work 
is  soon  interrupted. 


Haggai  and  Zechariah  exhort  the  people  to  re- 
sume work  on  the  temple. 

Temple  completed  in  12th  month  of  6th  year, 
in  the  early  spring. 


Ezra  leads  back  17.5.')  Jews  to  Jerusalem. 
Nehemiah  sent  by  Artaxerxes  to  Jerusalem  in 

month  Nisan. 
Repair  of  city  wall  begun  on  3d  day  of  5th 

month,  and  completed  on  25th  of  Elul,  the 

6th  month. 
Nehemiah  returns  to  the  Persian  court. 


Alexander  the  Great  visits  Jerusalem,  and  is 
met  by  the  high  priest  Jaddua. 


Judsea  annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Soter. 
He  captures  Jerusalem  and  plants  colonies  in 
Alexandria  and  Cyrene. 


After  the  hattle  of  Raphia,  217  b.  c,  Ptolemy 
Philopator  sacrifices  at  Jerusalem.  Being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  he 
attempts  to  destroy  the  Jews  in  Alexandria. 

Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem. 

Scopas  recovers  Juilua  for  Egypt. 
Judaea  annexed  to  Syria,  being  finally  wrested 

by  Antiochus  from  Egypt  at  the  battle  of  Paneas. 


The  high  priest  Onias  removed,  and  Jason  of 

the  Grecian  party  put  in  office. 
Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  massacres  citizens, 

and  defiles  the  temple. 
Antiochus  orders  an  idolatrous  altar  to  be 

erected  on  the  temple  altar  and  heathen 

sacrifices  to  be  offered. 
The  priest  Mattathias  raises  the  standard  of 

revolt. 
The  Maccabees.    Judas  placed  in  command. 
Defeats  Gorgias. 
Defeats  Lysias,  and  on  25th  Chislev  rededicates 

the  temple. 


Falls  in  battle,  and  is  succeeded  by  Jonathan. 


539 
538 
537 

520 
521 
520 

515 

490 
486 
480 

479 
465 
4.58-7 
445-4 


433-2 

424 

359 

338 

336 

334 
333 
332 

331 
330 
323 
320 


203 
199 
198 


175 
174 


170 
168 


166 
165 


162 
160 
1.50 
146 


Cambyses. 
Darius  Hystaspis. 


Defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon. 
Xerxes,  called  by  the  Jews  Ahasuerus. 
Persians  victorious  at  Thermopylae,  but 

defeated  at  Salaniis. 
Persians  defeate<i  at  Plataea. 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 


Darius  Nothus. 

Ochus. 

Arses  or  Arogus. 

Darius  Codomannus. 

Alexander  ascetids  throne  of  Macedon. 
Alexander  victorious  at  the  Granicus. 
"  "         "   Issus. 


Alexander  defeats  Darius  at  Arbela. 
Darius  assassinated. 
Death  of  Alexander. 


Seleucus   founds  the  kingdom  of  the 
.Seleiu'idu'. 

Antioclius  the  Great. 


Defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Magnesia. 


Antioclius  Epiphanes. 


Death  of  Antiochus  and  accession  of 
Antiochus  Eupator. 
Demetrius  I. 

Alexander  Balas. 

Antiochus  VI.  ascends  the  throne  with 
till'  aid  of  his  general  Tryphou.  De- 
metrius II.  his  rival. 


Chronology 


140 


Chronology 


Jonathan  Maceabseus  murdered  by  Tryphon, 

and  succeeded  bv  Simon. 
First  vear  of  the  Freedom  of  Jerusalem  and 

of  Simon,  high  priest  and  captain. 

Simon  murdered;   succeeded  by    John  Hyr- 

canus. 
Pompev  takes  Jerusalem. 
Julius  Casar  appoints  Antipater  procurator  of 

Judfea. 

Assassination  of  .\ntipater. 
Parthiiiiis  taku  Jenisalein  and  place  Antigonus, 
the  .MaccahiH'.  on  the  throne.    The  Roman 
seiiatf,  liciwovor,  toward  the  end  of  the  year 
appoint  llcrod  to  be  king  of  Judsea. 
Herod   takes  Jerusalem,  slays  Antigonus,  the 
last  of  the  Maccahtean  priest-kings,  and  be- 
comes king  of  Judaea. 

Rebuilding  of  the  temple  begun. 
Birth  of  Jesus  Christ.     Close  of 

or  beginning  of 
Death  of  Ilerod  and  division  of  the  kingdom 

among  his  three  sous,  Archelaus  receiving 

Judseu. 


138 
135 

47 

44 
43 
40 


Murder  of  Antiochus. 
Antiochus  VII.  regent  until  128. 


Assassination  of  Julius  Caesar. 


Augustus  becomes  Roman  emperor. 


VI.  From  the  Death  of  Herod  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  chronology  of  the  life  of  Christ  and  of  Paul  is  treated  under  the  respective  articles, 
chronology  of  I'aul's  life  hinges  on  the  date  of  Festus'  appointment  to  the  procuratorship. 

B.  c. 
On  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  his  kingdom  is  4 

divided  among  his  three  sons:  Archelaus  be- 
comes kingof  Judiea;  Ilerod  Antipas,  tetrarch 

of  Galilee  and    Peraa;    Philip,    tetrarch    of 

Itunea  and  Trachonitis.  A.  D. 

Deposition  of  Archelaus;   Judrea  and  Samaria  6 

incorporated  with  the  province  of  Syria,  and 

placed    under    procurators.       Coponius    pro- 

(;urator. 
Marcus  Ambivius  procurator. 


The 


Valerius  Gratus  fourth  procurator.  14 

Pontius  Pilate  procurator.  26 

Jesus  begins  his  iiublie  ministry  (Luke  iii.  1,  23; 

cp.  John  ii.  20)  probably  early  in  27 

Death  of  Philip  the  tetrarch.     His  telrarehy  is         33 

annexed  to  Syria. 
Pontius  Pilate  deposed  by  Vitellius,  governor  of         36 

Syria,  and  sent  to  Rome. 
Ilerod  .\nti|ias  attends  Passover  at  Jerusalem;         37 

Caligula  apiioiiits  Herod  Agrippa  to  he  king 

of  the  trtrarcliies  of  Philip  and  Ly.sunias,  and 

sends  Marulhis  to  be  procurator, 
nenid   Antipas  banished  to  Gaul,  and  his  tet-         39 

rarchy  given  to  king  Ilerod  Agrippa. 
riaudius  makes  Herod  Agrippa  king  of  Judica  41 

and  Samaria. 
I)eath  of  Ilerod  Agrippa.    Jud.'ea  again   placed  44 

nnder  procurators,   ("uspius  Fadus  procurator. 
Tiberius    .\lexander,  renegade  Jew  of  Alexan-  46 

dria.  procurator. 
Ventidius  Cumanus  procurator,  proliably  jointly         48 

with  Felix. 
Antonius  Felix  i>rocurator.  52 


Porcius  Festus  succeeds  Felix;  but  if  the  pro-    59  or  CO 
curatorshiii  of  Felix  lie  reckone<l  from  a.  d.  48, 
it  is  possible  to  date  Festus'  appointment  in  55 
or  .56. 
Altiiims  procurator.  62 

Gessius  Morns  procurator.  64 


or,  as  some  believe,  13.  Tiberius  asso- 
ciated with  Augustus,  receiving  from 
the  senate  imperium  proconsulare  in  all 
provinces. 

Augustus  dies  Aug.  19th,  and  Tiberius  is 
emperor. 


Tiberius   smothered    March    16th,   and 
Caligula  is  emperor. 


Caligula    assassinated    Jan.    24th,    and 
Claudius  becomes  emperor. 


Claudius  expels  the  Jews  and  sorcerers 

and  astrologers  from  Rome. 
Claudius  dies  of  poison  Oct.  13th,  and 

Nero  becomes  emperor. 


Persecutions  under  Nero  begin. 


Chrysolite 


141 


Cinnamon 


Outbreak  of  the  Jewish  war. 


Pestruction  of  Jernsalem. 

Chrys'o-lite,  in  A.  V.  Chrysolyte  [Greek, 
gold  stone'. 

A  unisilicate  mineral  consisting  mainly  of 
magnesia  and  siliea.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  it,  one  precious,  the  other  common.  Tlie 
former,  wliich  is  transparent  and  of  a  pale 
yellowish-green,  is  hroiight  from  the  Levant. 
It  is  disputed  whether  the  chrysolite  of  Pliny 
and  of  the  N.  T.  was  a  gold-colored  chryso- 
lite or  a  topaz.  It  constitutes  the  seventh 
foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi. 
20). 

Chrys'o-prase,  in  A.  V.  Chrysoprasus 
[Greek,  golden-green  stone]. 

A  variety  of  clialcedony  of  an  apple-green 
hue,  the  color  being  jiroduced  liy  the  pres- 
ence of  oxide  of  nickel.  Its  best-known  lo- 
cality is  in  Silesia.  It  constitutes  the  tenth 
foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi. 
20). 

Chub.    See  Cub. 

Chun.     See  Berothai. 

Church  [probably  from  Greek,  kurialcon,  the 
Lord's  house]. 

The  rendering  in  the  N.  T.  of  the  Greek 
Ekklesia,  which  in  the  states  of  Greece 
meant  the  assembly  of  citizens  summoned 
for  legislative  or  other  purposes  (Acts  xix. 
32,  41,  rendered  assembly).  The  sacred  wri- 
ters use  the  word  ekklesia  to  denote  an  organ- 
ized community  acknowledging  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  as  their  supreme  ruler,  and 
meeting  statedly  or  as  opportunities  ofler  for 
religious  worship  (Mat.  xvi.  18;  xviii.  17; 
Acts  ii.  47;  v.  11 ;  Eph.  v.  23,  25).  As  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus  arose  in  many  difl'ereut  cities, 
the  plural  "churches"  began  to  be  em- 
ployed, the  Christian  community  in  each 
separate  locality  being  considered  a  church 
(Acts  ix.  31 ;  xv.  41 ;  Rom.  xvi.  4 ;  1  Cor.  vii. 
17;  1  Thes.  ii.  14).  Church  is  nowhere  un- 
equivocally used  in  the  N.  T.  for  the  build- 
ing in  which  any  particular  Christian  com- 
munity met.  The  Protestant  doctrine  of  the 
church  is  that  the  chui-ch  may  exist  without 
a  visible  form,  because  it  is  both  invisible 
and  visible.  The  invisible  church  is  com- 
posed of  all  who  are  really  united  to  Christ 
(1  Cor.  i.  2;  xii.  12,  13,  27,  28  ;  Col.  i.  24:  1 
Pet.  ii.  9,  10).  It  is  not  an  external  organ- 
ization. Its  members  are  known  to  God, 
though  they  cannot  always  be  infallibly  de- 
tected by  the  human  eye,  and  many  of  them 
are  in  heaven  or  are  yet  to  be  born.  The 
visible  church  consists  of  all  who  profess  to 
be  united  to  Christ. 

The  apostles  occupied  a  peculiar  position 
of  authority  (Acts  v.  2  ;  vi.  6 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  28 ; 


68  Nero  ends  hi.s  life.    Galba   and    Otho 

hccDiiic  cijiiH.ror.s  .successively  and  die 
vKiIciit  (U'iiths. 

69  Vitellius   ol)t!iins  the   empire   and   is 

sluit). 
Vespasian  becomes  emperor. 
70 

Eph.  ii.  20;  2  Pet.  iii.  2)  ;  hut  they  were  not 
the  sole  governing  body,  tiie  elders  or  bishops 
also  exerci.sed  rule  (.Vets  xv.  2,  4,  (i,  22,  23  • 
1  Tim.  iv.  14  ;  v.  17  ;  1  Pet.  v.  1). '  Tlie  offi(~ers 
of  the  local  churches  were  elders  or  bishops 
and  deacons  (Acts  vi.  3;  xiv.  23;  xx.  17;  1 
Tim.  iii.  1,  8  ;  Titus  i.  5-9).  The  apostles 
sometimes  ai)iiointed  commi.ssioners  for  spe- 
cial work  (1  Tim.  i.  3  ;  Titus  i.  5). 

The  public  worship  of  the  cliurch  was  en- 
grafted upon  the  synagogue  .service.  It  con- 
sisted of  jjreaching  (Mat.  xxviii.  20;  Acts 
XX.  7;  1  Cor.  xiv.  19,  2«-36),  reading  of 
Scripture  (Jas.  i.  22 ;  Col.  iv.  1« ;  1  Thes.  v. 
27  ;  cp.  Acts  xiii.  15),  prayer  (1  Cor.  xiv.  14, 
16),  singing  (Eph.  v.  19;  Col.  iii.  Hi;  and  cp. 
the  hymns  Eph.  v.  14  ;  1  Tim.  iii.  Hi),  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper  (Mat.  xxviii.  19;  Acts  ii. 
41 ;  1  Cor.  xi.  18-34),  and  almsgiving  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  1,  2).  When  the  spiritual  gift  was  pres- 
ent, there  were  also  iiroj)hesyings and  tongues. 

Chu'shan-rish-a-tha'im.      See    Cushan- 

EISHATHAI.M. 

Chu'za,  in  \.  R.  V.  Chuzas  [pcrhajjs  .\ra- 
maic  kiizii'.  modest,  or  jug]. 

Herod  the  tetrarch's  steward,  whose  wife 
Joanna  ministered  to  the  wants  of  Jesus 
(Luke  viii.  3). 

Ci-li'ci-a. 

A  province  of  Asia  Minor,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Taurus  mountains  from 
Cappadocia,  Lycaonia,  and  Isauria,  and  on 
the  east  by  mount  Amanus  from  Syria; 
bounded  on  the  .south  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  west  by  Pampliyli:\,  It  was  an- 
ciently divided  into  two  jiortions,  the  western 
one,  which  was  mountainous,  called  the 
Rough,  and  the  eastern  one,  which  was  level, 
the  Plain  Cilicia.  The  chief  town  in  the  lat- 
ter was  Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  St.  Paul 
(Acts  xxi.  39;  xxii.  3;  xxiii.  34).  Cilicia 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria ;  and 
when  in  148-7  B.  c.  Demetrius  II.  landed  on 
its  shores  and  set  himself  up  for  king  of 
Syria,  the  bulk  of  its  inhabitants  supported 
him  (1  Mac.  xi.  14;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3).  Jews 
from  Cilicia  disputed  with  Ste])lien  (Acts  vi. 
9).  The  gospel  reached  it  very  early  (xv. 
23),  planted  apparently  by  Paur(ix.  30;  Gal. 
i.  21).  Afterwards,  passing  through  it.  he  con- 
firmed the  churches  whicli  had  been  founded 
(Acts  XV.  41).  Subsequently  on  his  voyage  as 
a  prisoner  to  Rome  he  sailed  over  the  sea  of 
Cilicia  (xxvii.  5). 

Cin'na-mon. 

A  fragrant  wood  (Song  iv.  14 ;  Rev.  xviii.  13). 
It  was  an  ingredient  in  the  sacred  anointing 


Cinneroth 


142 


City 


oil  used  in  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his 
successors  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  It  was  used  in  after 
times  to  porfunie  beds  (Prov.  vii.  17).  It  is 
the  aromatic  ))ark  of  a  tree,  Ciminmomum  zcy- 
lauicum,  hvlou^infi  to  tiie  laurel  order,  and 
cultivated  in  Ceylon,  of  which  it  is  a  native. 
The  bark  of  the  tree  yields  an  essential  oil, 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  It 
is  of  a  fjolden-yellow  color,  has  an  agreeable 
smell,  and  is  iiscd  in  ])crfumery.  The  tree 
has  been  grown  in  Arabia. 

Cin'ne-roth.  See  ('hinnp:reth. 
Cir-cum-cis'ion  [a  cutting  around]. 
The  initiatory  rite  into  the  covenant  priv- 
ileges of  the  family  of  God  represented  by 
Abraham  and  liis  descendants  through  Isaac, 
and  the  token  of  the  covenant  (Gen.  xvii.  1- 
10,  21).  As  a  rite  of  the  religion  of  this 
people,  it  was  instituted  by  God  and  en- 
joined upon  Abraham,  who  was  himself 
to  be  circumcised,  as  were  all  his  male 
children  and  his  male  slaves,  whether  born 
in  his  house  or  bought  with  money.  The 
act  consists  in  removing  the  foreskin,  and  it 
was  performed  on  the  child  by  the  father  of 
the  house  or  some  other  Israelite,  and  even 
by  the  mother  (Kx.  iv.  2.5  ;  1  Mac.  i.60).  The 
proper  time  to  carry  out  the  rite  was  when 
the  child  was  eight  days  old,  but  those  born 
before  the  institution  of  the  ordinance  were 
to  be  circumcised  at  any  time  of  life.  Abra- 
ham was  circumcised  when  he  was  99,  and 
Ishmael  when  13  (Gen.  xvii.  11-27).  The  rite 
was  observed  during  the  bondage  in  Egypt, 
but  was  neglected  in  the  wilderness.  Before 
the  entry  into  Canaan,  however,  Joshua  made 
knives  of  flint  and  circumcised  the  people 
(Josh.  v.  2-9).  By  this  time  metal  was  known, 
but  there  is  a  strong  conservatism  in  religion, 
and  antiijue  arrangements  tend  to  remain 
after  the  necessity  for  them  has  passed  away  ; 
so  (iiut  held  its  own  against  metal  for  cen- 
turies after  the  time  that  the  former  might 
have  been  superseded  (cp.  Ex.  iv.  25).  For- 
eigners who  wished  to  become  members  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Israel  were  required 
to  submit  to  the  rite,  whatever  their  age 
might  be  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14-17,  22;  Ex.  xii. 
4.S).  Shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  the  cou- 
<iuered  Edomites  and  Iturteans  were  by  force 
added  thus  ti)  the  Jewish  nation  (Antiq.  xiii. 
9,  1  ;  11,  3).  Though  there  were  other  circum- 
cised nations  as  well  as  the  Hebrews,  espe- 
cially the  Egyptians  (con.  .Vpion.  ii.  14;  Herod, 
ii.  104),  and  they  as  early  as  .'5000  k.  c,  yet 
the  Philistines,  the  Pluenicians,  the  Moabites, 
the  Ammonites,  the  Syrians,  tlni  Assyrians, 
the  Babylonians,  and  variuus  other  national- 
ities with  whom  the  .lews  were  in  contact 
were  uncircumcised  ;  so  that  the  word  "  un- 
circumcised,"  as  a  term  of  rejiroach,  meant 
almost  practically  (not  (itymologically)  the 
same  as  heathen  ((Jen.  xxxiv.  II  ;  .ludg.  ,xiv. 
3;  XV.  18;  1  Sam.  xvii.  2(i,  .'{(i ;  xxxi.  4;  2 
Sam.  i.  20;  1  Chron.  x.  4  ;  Ezck.  xxviii.  10; 
xxxi.  18  ;  xxxii.  19-32).    "  The  circumcision," 


on  the  contrary,  used  in  the  N.T.  meant  the 
Jewish  church  and  nation  (Gal.  ii.  8;  Col. 
iv.  11).  Circumcision  was  an  act  of  religious 
purification  (Herod,  ii.  37),  and  in  its  full  sig- 
nificance betokened  the  putting  away  of  car- 
nal lust  (Col.  ii.  11).  To  circumcise  the  heart 
is  so  to  regenerate  it  that  its  irreligious  ob- 
stinacy will  disappear  (Dent.  x.  16),  and  it 
will  be  able  and  willing  to  love  God  with  all 
its  powers  (xxx.  6).  Circumcision  is  uni- 
versal among  the  Mohammedans  as  well  as 
the  Jews. 

Cis.     See  Kish. 

Cis'tern. 

A  small  artificial  reservoir  dug  in  the  earth 
and  enclosed  by  stone  or  brick  work,  or 
scooped  in  a  rock  to  collect  and  retain  rain 
water  (Deut.  vi.  11  ;  Jer.  ii.  13).  Cisterns 
were  very  numerous  in  Palestine,  as  the 
populace  was  largely  dependent  upon  rain 
water  (cp.  War  iii.  7,  12  and  13  ;  iv.  1,  8). 
In  the  cities  they  were  constructed  on  the 
top  of  the  towers  of  the  city  wall  (War  v.  4, 
3).  They  were  also  excavated  under  the 
houses  and  in  the  courtyards  (cp.  2  Sam. 
xvii.  18 ;  Jer.  xxxviii.  6),  provided  with 
bucket  and  windlass  (Ecc.  xii.  6),  and  sup- 
plied with  water  conducted  to  them  from  the 
roof.  In  the  open  country  the  mouth  is 
closed  with  a  large  stone  and  frequently,  es- 
pecially in  the  wilderness,  is  covered  with 
earth  to  conceal  it. 

Cit'y. 

In  Hebrew  usage,  a  collection  of  permanent 
human  habitations,  whether  few  or  numer- 
ous, especially  if  surrounded  by  a  wall  (Gen. 
iv.  17 ;  xviii.  2(j ;  six.  20  ;  Num.  xiii.  19 ; 
Josh,  iiil  16  ;  x.  39  ;  xiii.  17 ;  Judg.  sx.  1.5 ; 
Luke  ii.  4;  xxiii.  51).  Walled  and  unwalled 
cities  are  distinguished  (Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Esth. 
ix.  19,  Hebrew).  Cities  were  built  on  hills 
(Josh.  xi.  3 ;  1  Kin.  xvi.  24 ;  Mat.  v.  14  ; 
War  iii.  7,  7),  where  the  situation  rendered 
defense  easy ;  and  in  fertile  spots,  where 
water  and  soil  invited  man  to  dwell.  They 
were  usually  fenced  with  high  walls,  gates 
and  bars  (Num.  xiii.  28;  Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Josh. 
ii.  5,  15;  vi.  5;  Nch.  iii.  3;  Acts  ix.  24,  25), 
and  further  defended  by  towers  (Neh.  iii.  1, 
11,  25  ;  War  v.  4,  3).  Walls  of  the  thickness 
of  20  to  30  feet  were  not  unusual.  The  gate 
was  a  massive  structure,  with  a  room  over 
the  gateway  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33).  In  time 
of  need  a  guard  was  posted  at  the  gate 
(2.  Kin.  vii.  10 ;  Neh.  xiii.  19),  and  a  watch- 
man was  stationed  on  the  roof  of  gate- 
house or  tower  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24;  2  Kin. 
ix.  17  ;  War  v.  (i,  3).  In  open  places  at  the 
gate  i)ublic  business  was  transacted,  cases 
at  law  adjudicated,  and  markets  held  (Gen. 
xxiii.  10  ;  liutli  iv.  1-11 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  2  ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  vii.  1;  Neh.  viii.  1).  The 
streets  were  as  a  rule  narrow  (Antiq.  xx.  5, 
3;  War  ii.  14,  9;  15,  5;  v.  8,  1),  but  not 
always  (2  Sam.  xv.  1  ;  1  Kin.  i.  5;  Jer.  xvii. 
25J ;  and  some  streets  were  devoted  to  bazaars 


City  of  David 


143 


Clothing 


(1  Kill.  XX.  ;U  ;  Nell.  iii.  31;  Jer.  xxxvii. 
21). 

Cit'y  of  Da'vid.     See  David,  City  of. 

Cit'yof Mo'ab  (Num.xxii.  36,  R.V.).  See Ar. 

Cit'y  of  Refuge. 

Six  Levitical  cities  designed  to  shelter  the 
per.son  who  h:ul  accidentally  committed  man- 
slaughter from  the  pursuit  of  the  avenger 
of  blood  (Num.  xxxv.  9-14  ;  Ex.  xxi.  13)  ; 
see  Avenger.  Moses  appointed  the  three 
east  of  the  Jordan  :  Bezer  in  the  territory  of 
Reuben,  Eamoth-gilcad  in  that  of  Gad,  and 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Deut.  iv.  41-43).  After  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  Joshua  and  the  heads  of  the  tribes 
designated  the  three  west  of  the  river,  setting 
apart  Kedesh  in  the  territory  of  Naphtali, 
Shechem  in  Ephraim,  and  Kirjath-arba,  which 
is  Hebron,  in  the  mountain  of  Judah  (Josh.  xx. 
7).  No  part  of  Palestine  was  far  from  a  city 
of  refuge.  To  the  nearest  the  manslayer  fled. 
He  might  be  overtaken  on  the  way  and  slain 
by  the  avenger ;  but  if  he  reached  a  city  of 
refuge  he  was  received  into  it  and  obtained  a 
fair  trial.  If  guilty  of  willful  murder  he  was 
delivered  to  death.  If  he  had  slain  a  fellow 
creature  by  accident  or  in  self-defense,  actual 
or  constructive,  he  was  granted  asylum  in 
the  city.  If  he  left  the  city  before  the  death 
of  the  high  priest  he  did  so  at  his  own  risk. 
On  the  death  of  the  high  priest  he  was  at 
liberty  to  return  to  his  home  and  enjoy  the 
protection  of  the  authorities  (Num.  xxxv. ; 
Deut.  xix. ;  Josh.  xx.).  The  matter  was  be- 
tween man  and  God  ;  and  the  death  of  the 
high  priest,  who  represented  the  people  be- 
fore God,  closed  a  period  of  theocratic  life 
(cp.  the  release  at  the  year  of  jubilee). 

Clau'da. 

A  small  island  otF  the  southwest  of  Candia 
or  Crete.  Paul's  ship  ran  under  its  lee  when 
caught  by  the  tempest  ofi"  Crete  (Acts  xxvii. 
16).  It  was  also  called  Cauda  (R.  V.  text)  and 
Gaudos  (Pliny,  Hist.  nat.  iv.  42).  The  Greeks 
still  call  it  Claudanesa,  or  Gaudonesi,  which 
the  Italians  have  corrupted  into  Gozzo. 

Clau'di-a. 

A  Christian  woman  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  a  salutation  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21). 

Clau'di-us.     See  C^sak. 

Clau'di-us  Ly'si-as. 

A  chiliarch  or  commander  of  1000  men, 
who  seems  to  have  been  the  military  tribune 
in  charge  of  the  whole  garrison  at  Jerusalem. 
Each  legion  had  as  its  oiiicers  six  such  trib- 
unes. He  resided  in  the  castle  of  Antonia. 
and  sent  soldiers  to  rescue  Paul  from  fanat- 
ical Jewish  rioters.  He  gave  orders  that  this 
unknown  Jew  be  examined  by  scourging, 
but  had  him  unbound  on  being  informed  of 
his  Roman  citizenship.  Soon  afterwards  he 
frustrated  a  plot  against  Paul's  life  by  send- 
ing him  by  night  under  military  escort  to 
Csesarea  to  Felix,  the  Roman  procurator 
(Acts  xxii.  24-xxiii.  35). 


Clean.  See  Unclean  .\nimals,  Unclean- 

NESS. 

Clem'ent  [kind,  merciful]. 

A  Cliristiau  who  lal)ored  along  with  Paul, 
api>arcntly  at  Philipi.i  (I'hil.  iv.  3).  He  may 
have  l)een  the  saiiic  individual  as  the  apos- 
tolic father,  Clement  of  Rome. 

Cle'o-pas. 

One  of  the  two  disciples  who  journeyed  to 
and  from  Enimaus  on  the  evening  of  the 
Resurrection  day  (Luke  xxiv.  IH).  Apjiar- 
ently  not  the  same  as  Clopas  or  Cleo])iias, 
though  some  Christian  fathers,  not  of  early 
date,  assumed  the  identity  of  the  two. 

Cle-0-pa'tra. 

A  name  borne  by  many  Egyjitian  prin- 
cesses. One  was  daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI. 
and  wife  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  x.  .57, 
58).  Her  father  afterwards  took  her  from 
Balas  and  married  her  to  Demetrius  Xicati)r 
when  he  invaded  Syria  (xi.  12;  .\ntiq.  xiii. 
4,  7).  During  the  captivity  of  Demetrius  in 
Parthia,  she  married  his  brother  Antiochus 
VII.  (Antiq.  xiii.  7,  1  ;  9,  3 ;  10.  1).  She  had 
two  sons  by  Demetrius  ;  the  elder  she  mur- 
dered, and  then  raised  to  the  throne  the 
younger,  Antiochus  VIII.,  called  Grypus. 
As  he  was  unwilling  to  gratify  her  ambitiotis 
designs,  she  attempted  to  make  away  with 
him  by  ott'criiig  him  a  cuj)  of  poison,  but  was 
compelled  to  drink  it  herself,  120  b.  c. 

Clo'pas,  in  A.  V.  Cle'o-phas.  See  Alph^u.". 

Clotb'ing. 

Man  at  first  went  naked  (Gen.  ii.  25).  The 
first  clothing  consisted  of  the  skins  of  beasts 
(iii.  21).  Subsequently  the  materials  used  for 
clothing  were  wool  (xxxi.  19:  Lev.  xiii.  47; 
Job  xxxi.  20),  linen  (Ex.  ix.  31  ;  Lev.  xvi.  4), 
byssus,  a  fiibric  made  of  cotton  or  flax  (Gen. 
xii.  42  ;  Luke  xvi.  19),  silk  (Ezek.  xvi.  10, 
13  ;  Rev.  xviii.  12),  goats'  hair  (Rev.  vi.  12), 
and  camels'  hair  (Mat.  iii.  4).  The  essential 
articles  of  the  aiti)arel  of  men  and  women 
were  two  :  1.  An  undergarment  or  tunic,  com- 
monly called  coat,  less  fre(iuently  garment, 
in  the  English  versions.  It  usually  liad  short 
sleeves  and  reached  nearly  to  the  knees, 
though  a  longer  form  with  sleeves  of  full 
length  was  in  use  ((Jen.  xxxvii.  3;  2  Sam. 
xiii.  18,  R.  V.  margin).  This  tunic  was  some- 
times woven  witiiout  seam  (John  xix.  23.  24). 
It  was  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle. 
2.  An  upper  garment  or  mantle  (Ruth  iii.  15, 
R.  v.;  1  Kin.  xi.  30;  Acts  ix.  39),  a  large, 
square  piece  of  cloth,  provided  with  tas.'^els 
(Num.  XV.  38 ;  Mat.  xxiii.  5).  It  was  thrown 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  brought  over  or 
under  the  right  arm.  The  pendant  ends 
were  called  skirts  (Hag.  ii.  12;  Zech.  viii.23). 
The  garment  of  hair  worn  by  i)rophet.s  (2 
Kin.  i.  8;  Zech.  xiii.  4)  may  have  consi.sted 
of  a  .sheepskin  or  goatskin  (cp.  Heb.  xi.  37), 
but  was  more  probably  made  of  coarse  cam- 
el's hair  (cp.  Mat.  iii.  4).  An  occasional  gar- 
ment was  worn  between  the  tunic  and  the 


Cloud 


144 


Colony 


mantle  by  men  and  women  of  distinction 
and  otlicially  by  tl\e  higli  priest  (Lev.  viii.  7; 
1  Sam.  ii.  19;  xviii.  4;  xxiv.  4;  2  Sam.  xiii. 
18;  1  Chron.  xv.  27  ;  Job  i.  20.  margin).  It 
vas  a  Umg  vestment,  with  or  witlioiit  sleeves, 
tied  round  willi  a  girdle  (Antiq.  iii.7,  4).  The 
girdles,  which  conlined  the  nndergarments  at 
the  waist  to  j)revent  them  as  far  as  possible 
from  im])eding  the  action  of  the  limbs,  were 
made  of  leather,  linen,  or  byssus  (2  Kin.  i.  8  ; 
Jcr.  xiii.  1 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  10)  ;  often  elaborately 
wrought  and  richlv  decorated  (Ex.  xxviii. 
89  :  xxxix.  29  ;  Daii.  x.  5  ;  Rev.  i.  1.3).  The 
sword  was  worn  in  tlie  girdle  and  money  was 
carried  there  (.Tndg.  iii.  Ki ;  1  Sam.  xxv. 
1.'5 :  Mat.  x.  9.  R.  V.  margin).  When  outside 
of  a  room  they  wore  sandals,  an  imperfect 
shoe  consisting  of  a  sole  of  wood  or  leather 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10),  fastened  to  the  bare  foot  by 
straps  passing  over  the  instep  and  around  the 
ankle  (Ocn.  xiv.  23;  Is.  v.  27:  Acts  xii.  8). 
Trobably  people  commonly  went  bareheaded ; 
still  turbans' were  on  occasion  worn  by  both 
sexes  (Job.  xxix.  14,  R.  Y.  margin  ;  Is.  iii.  20; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  1.^).  The  veil  was  worn  by  women 
in  the  presence  of  strangers  (Gen.  xxiv.  65  ; 
Song  V.  7) ;  but  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them 
to  go  with  face  unveiled  (Gen.  xxiv  16  ;  xxvi. 
8  ;  Judith  x.  7,  14).  By  the  Mosaic  law  a 
man  was  forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  that 
pertains  to  a  woman,  and  a  woman  to  wear 
that  belonging  to  a  man  (Deut.  xxii.  5 ;  cp.  1 
Cor.  xi.  (i,  14). 

Cloud. 

As  agents  in  connection  with  rain,  clouds 
arc  the  bearers  of  moisture  (2  Sam.  xxii.  12  ; 
Job  xxvi.  8  ;  xxxvii.  11 ;  Ecc.  xi.  3),  and  dis- 
charge it  upon  the  earth  (Judg.  v.  4  ;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17 1.  A  cloud  in  the  west  was  a  har- 
bingerof  rain  (1  Kin.  xviii.  44  ;  Luke  xii.  54). 

The  Pillar  of  Cloud  was  a  miraculous  cloud 
taking  the  form  of  a  pillar,  which  moved  in 
front  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to 
indicate  to  them  the  way  along  which  God 
wished  them  to  advance  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  22; 
Nell.  ix.  19).  When  the  evening  was  too  far 
advanced  for  it  to  be  seen,  it  shone  with  light 
as  a  i>illar  of  fire.  When  (iod  designed  to 
siiow  his  ])rcsence  to  the  Israelites  he  did 
it  in  the  ])illar  of  cloud  (Xum.  xii.  ."> ;  Deut. 
xxxi.  l."i),  and  whiMi  he  designed  to  troul)lc 
the  Egyptians  he  looked  at  them  with  hos- 
tile gaze  through  the  pillar  of  cloud  (Ex. 
xiv.  21). 

Cnl'dus. 
'A  city  of  Caria,  on  the  southwest  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  over  against  the  isle  of  Cos,  which 
is  about  10  miles  away.  It  was  a  Dorian  col- 
ony. Iv\-t<Misivc  ruins  exist  at  the  spot,  con- 
taining line  remains  of  (irecian  architecture. 
A  small  island  just  oil"  the  coast,  now  joined 
to  the  mainland,  constitutes  a  jieninsula  called 
Cape  ( 'rio.  Paul's  ves,sel  ])assed  near  it  during 
the  voyage  to  Rome  (.\cts  xxvii.  7). 

Coal. 

In  Scrii)ture   (his  is  m)t  the  mineral  sub- 


stance coal,  but  charcoal  made  by  burning 
wood.  Hence  we  read  of  coals  of  juniper 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  It  was  used  to  furnish  warmth 
in  winter  (Is.  xlvii.  14  ;  John  xviii.  18),  for 
culinary  purposes  (Is.  xliv.  19;  John  xxi.  9), 
and  by  the  smith  (Is.  xliv.  12  ;  liv.  16). 

Coat.    See  Clothing  and  High  Pkiest. 

Coat  of  Mail.    See  Armor. 

Cock. 

The  male  of  the  well-known  domestic  fowl 
Gallus  domesticus.  It  is  figured  on  the  ancient 
Egyptian  monuments.  The  cock  is  mentioned 
in  "the  N.  T.  (Mat.  xxvi.  34,  74,  75).  Cock- 
crowing,  as  a  portion  of  time,  is  the  third 
watch  of  the  night  (Mark  xiii.  35).  See  Night. 

Cock'a-trice  [Old  French  cocatrice,  a  cor- 
ruption of  Latin  crocodilus,  a  crocodile]. 

A  fabulous  monster,  created  by  the  fancy 
of  Europeans,  and  reputed  to  be  hatched  from 
a  cock's  egg  brooded  by  a  serpent.  The  A.  V. 
so  renders  the  Hebrew  word  Siph'o^ii  (Is. 
xi.  8  ;  lix.  5  ;  Jer.  viii.  17),  and  Sepha'  (Is. 
xiv.  29)  ;  but  in  Prov.  xxiii.  32  it  translat.es 
the  word  by  adder.  The  R.  Y.  everywhere 
alters  it  to  basilisk,  or  in  the  margin  to 
adder. 

Cockle. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bo'shah,  mal- 
odorous plant  (Job  xxxi.  40).  But  the  cockle, 
a  plant  which  is  found  in  grain  fields  and 
grows  one  or  two  feet  high,  does  not  have  a 
bad  smell.  The  margin  has  noisome  weeds, 
which  is  a  more  exact  rendering. 

Coel'e-syr'i-a,  in  A.  Y.  Celosyria  [hollow 
Syria]. 

The  valley  between  the  Lebanon  and  An- 
ti-Lebanon mountains.  It  is  watered  by  the 
two  streams  Orontes  and  Litany,  which  rise 
in  the  vicinity  of  Baalbek  and  flow  in  ojjpo- 
site  directions.  The  term  had,  however,  a 
wider  application  (1  Mac.  x.  69).  It  included 
the  western  side  of  the  Jordan  valley  as  far 
as  Bethshean  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  2)  and  the  re- 
gion extending  from  Damascus  southward 
through  Trachonitis,  Penea,  and  Idumsea  to 
the  borders  of  Egypt  (cp.  Antiq.  i.  11,  5).  It 
was  distinct  from  Ph(Enicia  (2  Mac.  iii.  5). 

Col-ho'zeh  [all-seeing  one]. 

Father  of  Shallun  and  perhaps  one  with 
the  father  of  Baruch  (Neb.  iii.  15;  xi.  5). 

College. 

A  mistranslation  of  the  Hebrew  word  Mish- 
neh  in  A.  Y.  of  2  Kin.  xxii.  14,  and  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  22.  The  word  is  correctly  rendered 
"  the  second  [i)art]  "  in  Zejjh.  i.  10.  In  these 
pas.sages  R.  Y.  has  "  the  second  quarter." 

Col'o-ny. 

A  .settlement  of  Roman  citizens  authorized 
by  the  senate,  in  conquered  territory.  The 
decree  of  the  senate  fixed  the  amount  of  land 
to  be  set  ai)art  for  the  colony,  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  to  be  distributed,  and  the  bur- 
dens to  be  borne.  Philippi  was  a  colony 
(Acts  xvi.  12).    See  Praetor). 


Colors 

Col'ors. 

Colors  are  presented  to  the  eye  by  nature 
(Esth.  i.  6)  and  were  early  imitated.  In 
Babylonia  difl'erent  clays  were  employed  to 
produce  orange,  red,  and  yellow  bricks. 
Bricks  of  blue  were  obtained  l)y  vitrifactiou. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  prepared  colors  from 
various  metallic  and  eartliy  substances.  The 
Hebrews  dyed  skins  in  various  colors  (Ex. 
XXV.  5),  and  wove  and  embroidered  cloth  out 
of  threads  of  various  hues  (Ex.  xxvii.  16; 
Judith  X.  21).  A  reddish  purple  dye  (Ex. 
xxvii.  16  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  23  ;  Acts  xvi.  14)  was  ob- 
tained from  the  secretion  of  a  species  of  shell 
fish,  Murex  trnncnlns,  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Blue  (Num.  iv.  7;  Ezek.  xxiii.  6) 
was  obtained  from  another  shell  fish.  Helix 
iiiiithiua.  Scarlet  or  crimson  was  made  from 
an  insect  (Ex.  xxv.  4;  Is.  i.  18).  They  used 
a  vermilion  pigment  for  decorating  walls, 
beams,  idols,  and  the  like  (.Ter.  xxii.  14  ;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  14;  Wisd.  xiii.  14).  In  addition  to 
these  artificial  coloring  matters,  allusion  is 
made  in  the  Bible  to  white  (Gen.  xlix.  12  ; 
Is.  i.  18),  black,  including  brown  (Gen.  xxx. 
32  ;  Song  i.  6  ;  Mic.  iii.  6,  R.  V.),  red  (Gen. 
xxv.  25,  30 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  22  ;  Prov.  xxiii.  31), 
reddish  (Lev.  xiii.  19),  sorrel  (Zech.  i.  8  ;  in 
A.  V.  speckled  ;  margin,  bay),  greenish  (Ps. 
Ixvii.  13  ;  in  Eng.  vers,  yellow ;  Lev.  xiii. 
49). 

Symbolism  was  connected  with  colors. 
The  temple  of  the  seven  lights  at  Borsippa, 
in  Babylonia,  consisted  of  seven  stages,  each 
colored  in  a  hue  appropriate  to  the  planet  it 
represented.  Beginning  at  the  lowest  stage, 
the  succession  of  colors  was  black,  orange, 
blood-red,  gold,  pale-yellow,  blue,  and  prob- 
ably silver,  according  with  the  planets  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  Mars,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  and 
the  moon.  In  the  Scripture  white  is  the  con- 
stant emblem  of  purity  (Mark  xvi.  5  ;  Rev. 
iii.  4;  xix.  11,  14)  and  "joy  (Ecc.  ix.  8).  The 
white  horse  signifies  victory  in  Rev.  vi.  2. 
The  black  horse  is  typical  of  famine  and 
death  (5,  6).  Red  commonly  typifies  blood, 
in  which  is  life,  or  war  and  carnage  (4).  Blue 
is  the  familiar  color  of  the  sky,  and  purjjle 
was  worn  by  princes  and  the  rich  in  their 
magnificence  (Judg.  viii.  26  ;  Esth.  viii.  15  ; 
Luke  xvi.  19). 

Co-los'sse,  in  A.  V.  Colosse. 

A  city  of  southwestern  Phrygia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  lying  on  the  river  Lycos  not  far  east 
of  its  confluence  with  the  Meander.  It  was 
originally  on  the  trade  route  from  west  to 
east  and  was  a  place  of  much  importance 
(Herod,  vii.  30  ;  Xeu.  Anabasis  I.  ii.  6).  But 
the  road  system  was  changed,  and  the  neigh- 
boring cities  of  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis  (Col. 
ii.  1 ;  iv.  13),  distant  ten  and  thirteen  miles 
respectively,  surpassed  it  in  position  and 
wealth,  and  the  importance  of  Colossse  de- 
clined. It  was,  however,  like  Laodicea,  fa- 
mous for  its  fine  wool,  and  it  retained  mu- 
nicipal independence  under  the  Romans.  A 
Christian  community  grew  up  at  Colossae 
10 


145 


Colossians 


under  the  ministrations  of  Epaphras  and 
later  of  Archippus  (Col.  i.  7  ;  iv.  17;  I'luileni. 
2).  Of  tliis  cliurch  I'bileinoii  was  an  active 
meriil)er,  and  also  Onesimus  (Col.  iv.  9 ; 
Philem.  2). 

Co-los'si-ans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

An  epistle  written  when  the  apostle  Paul 
was  a  prisoner  (iv.  3,  10,  18)  prohahlv  at 
Rome  during  the  two  vears  of  his  first  im- 
prisonment there  (Acts  xxviii.  30,  31),  tliougli 
some  believe  that  it  was  written  from  Ca-s:irea 
(Acts  xxiii.  35 ;  xxiv.  27).  From  Col.  ii.  1  it 
appears  evident  that  he  had  never  himself 
preached  at  Colossse  :  and  i.  7  seems  to  imjily 
that  Epaphras  had  been  the  foiiuder,  or  u"t 
least  had  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Colossian  church.  The  church  mav  have 
been  founded  while  Paul  was  lal)oring  in 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  10).  Epaphras  had  re- 
cently joined  the  apostle  (i.  N),  and  his  rei)ort 
of  the  condition  of  the  church  prompted  the 
writing  of  the  letter.  It  was  sent  by  the 
hand  of  a  certain  Tychicus  (iv.  7,  8).  who  was 
also  intrusted  with  the  letter  to  the  E]>he- 
sians  (Eph.  vi.  21),  written  at  the  same  time. 
With  him  went  Onesimus  (Col.  iv.  9),  who  also 
bore  the  letter  to  Philemon,  a  resident  of 
Colossae,  whose  slave  Onesimus  had  formerly 
been.  The  Archippus  mentioned  in  Phile. 
2,  probably  Philemon's  son,  is  also  menti(med 
in  Col.  iv.  17.  The  salutations  which  the 
letter  contains  (iv.  10-17)  indicate  that  while 
Paul  had  not  labored  in  Colossa-  his  friends 
had,  and  that  he  himself  was  well  acquainted 
with  some  of  the  Colossians.  In  fact,  Phile- 
mon was  one  of  his  converts  (Phile.  19).  made, 
perhaps,  in  Ephesus.  The  reports  of  E])ai)hras 
had  shown  that  the  Colossian  Christians  were 
threatened  by  false  teachers,  who  seemed  to 
have  combined  ritualistic,  ascetic,  and  si>ecu- 
lative  tendencies.  That  they  were  Jewish 
appears  from  ii.  11,  16.  But  they  were  also 
ascetic  (ii.  16,  20-23),  a  feature  which  may 
have  come  from  the  Jewish  sect  of  Essenes. 
With  this  they  united  a  mystic  jthilosophy 
(ii.  8),  which  seems  to  have  claimed  superior 
knowledge  of  divine  things  (ii.  18)  aud  to 
have  introduced  the  worship  of  angels  (ii.  18), 
thus  infringing  on  the  all-sutticiency  and  the 
supremacy  of  Christ.  These  false  teacliers, 
therefore,  were  difl'erent  from  the  Jiulaizei"s 
whom  Paul  opposed  in  the  Ei)istle  to  the  (ia- 
latians.  They  represent  a  new  form  of  error, 
and  in  certain  resiiects  appear  as  the  forerun- 
ners of  the  Gnostics.  They  united  with  ritual- 
ism that  theosophical  tendency  which  wa-; 
almost  characteristic  of  oriental  thought,  ami 
therefore  demanded  an  immediate  refutation 
by  the  apostle.  The  epistle  naturally  falls  into 
four  parts:  (1)  the  introduction  and  thauk.s- 
giving  (i.  1-8) ;  (2)  the  doctrinal  section  (i.  9- 
iii.  4) ;  (3)  practical  exhortations  (iii.  5-iv.  6) ; 
(4)  concluding  salutations  (i v.  7-18).  The  doc- 
trinal section  is  of  great  importance.  Begin- 
ning with  a  prayer  for  their  growth  in  knowl- 
edge and  holiness,  he  rises  to  a  descriiition  of 
the  preeminence  of  t^hrist  iu  his  relation  to 


Commentary 


14G 


Coral 


God.  the  universe,  and  the  church.  Then 
in  ch.  ii.  ho  sets  forth  Christ's  preeminence 
as  iisainst  the  errorists,  iissuring  helievers  of 
their  completeness  in  him,  since  lie  has  once 
for  all  triimiiilu'd  over  their  spiritual  foes, 
and  nothini;  but  union  with  liim  by  faith  is 
requisite  lor  the  full  experience  of  salvation. 
As  against  asceticism  he  further  urges,  in  his 
practical  exhortations,  to  a  spiritual  nujrality 
and  to  social  order.  The  epistle  is,  therefore, 
christological  in  character.  It  assumes  the 
doctrines  of  siilvation  taught  in  previous 
ei)istles,  but  more  cxjilicitly  states  the  pre- 
eminence of  Christ's  person  and  the  suffi- 
ciency of  his  work.  Tliis  epistle,  together 
with  Vhilemon  and  Ephesians,  was  probably 
written  comparatively  early  in  Paul's  Roman 
imprisonment,  perhaps  in  the  early  spring  of 
A.  D.  ()-2.  The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  has 
many  renuirkable  coincidences  of  language 
aiul  thought  with  that  to  the  Colossians, 
though  their  differences  are  equally  note- 
worthy; see  Ei'HESiANH.  While  evidently 
written  at  the  same  time.  Ephesians  presents 
a  further  unfolding  of  the  truths  which  the 
specific  needs  of  his  Colossiau  readers  led 
him  ti)  write  to  them.  G.  T.  P. 

Com-men-ta'ry. 

A  Mid  rash  or  interiiretation  of  history 
from  the  religious  standpoint  and  its  didac- 
tic exi)o.sition  ;  as  the  prophet  Iddo's  eora- 
mentarv  on  the  acts,  wavs,  and  savings  of 
king  Abi.jah  [2  Chron.  xiii.  22,  E.V.),  and 
the  coinnieiitary  of  the  hook  of  the  kings,  in 
wliich  were  set  forth  the  burdens  laid  upon 
king  .Tosiah  and  his  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
(xxiv.  27,  II.  v.). 

Con-a-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Cononiah 
[.Jehovah  hath  cstablislied]. 

1.  A  licvite  who  had  charge  of  the  tithes 
and  offerings  in  llezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  12,  i:j). 

2.  A  Levite  of  high  station  in  the  reign  of 
.Tosiah  (2  ('liron.  xxxv.  9). 

Con'cu-bine. 

In  the  Bible  a  secondary  wife  under  the 
system  of  polygamy.  Concubines  were  com- 
monly taken  from  among  the  purchased  slaves 
or  cajitives;  as  Ilagar  ((tcu.  xvi.  2,  :{ ;  xxi. 
10),  Hilhah  (xxix.  2!l;  xxxv.  22),  Gide(m's 
concubine  (.Judg.  viii.  'M  ;  ix.  18).  They 
could  hv  more  easily  put  .away  than  a  wife 
((icn.  xxi.  10  11).  yet  tlieir  rights  were  recog- 
nized and  guarded  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Ex. 
xxi.  7  11;   Deut.  xxi.  10-14). 

Co'ney. 

The  coney  of  England  is  the  rabbit;  that 
of  Scripture  is  i>robably  the  rock-badger 
(I.cv.  xi.  r>).     See  IvocK-lsAWiKK. 

Con-gre-ga'tion. 

In  S(ri|ilurc  the  word  is  used  mainly  for: 
1.  The  body  politic  of  Israel,  including  men, 
women,  and  children  (Ex.  xii.  3,  IS),  47;  xvi. 
1,  22;  Lev.  iv.  i;{,  15;  xxiv.  14;  Num.  i.  2; 
xiv.  1  ;  XV.  2IJ;  xvi.  !);  xx.  11  ;  .ludg.  xx.  1). 


2.  An  assemblage  of  the  people,  especially 
for  religious  purposes  (1  Kin.  viii.  14,  65  ;  2 
Chron.  xxx.  2,  4  ;  Ps.  xxii.  22,  25),  or  the 
community  regarded  as  ever  summoned  and 
assembled  for  worship.  In  E.  V.  the  word 
assembly  is  often  ju-eferred  (Num.  x.  7 ;  xvi. 
:j  ;  xis.  20  ;  xx.  4  ;  Josh.  viii.  '.io  ;  and  so  also 
sometimes  in  A.  V.  Judg.  xx.  2),  and  in  Acts 
xiii.  43  the  word  synagogue. 

3.  In  A.  V.  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation designates  the  tent  of  meeting  (R.  V.), 
the  appointed  place  where  Jehovah  and  his 
people  met  (Ex.  xxvii.  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  22  ;  xxix. 
42;  xxx.  30). 

Co-ni'ah.     See  Jeconiah. 

Con-o-ni'ah.     See  Conaniah. 

Con-se-cra'tion. 

The  act  whereby  a  person  or  thing  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  and  ^vorship  of  God.  It 
includes  ordination  to  a,  sacred  office  (Ex. 
xxix.  9),  ordination  to  rsacred  service  (Lev. 
viii.  33  ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  5 ;  2  Chron.  xxix. 
31),  and  the  setting  apart  of  things  from  a 
common  to  a  sacred  use  (Josh.  vi.  19  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxi.  6). 

Con-ver-sa'tion. 

In  the  English  versions  the  word  conver- 
sation is  used  in  its  obsolescent  sense  and  de- 
notes manner  of  life. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Greek 
words  PoUteno  and  PoJiteuma.  (Phil.  i.  27 ;  iii. 
20).  The  words  refer  to  civil  life,  as  is  recog- 
nized by  R.  V.  Christians  are  (dtizens  of  the 
heavenly  kingdom  and  their  daily  civil  con- 
duct should  correspond  with  the  teachings  of 
the  gospel  of  the  kingdom. 

2.  The  rendering,  in  many  passages  of  the 
A.  v.,  and  even  in  R.  V.  of  "Ps.  1.  23,  of  vari- 
ous words,  especially  of  the  Greek  Axns- 
trophe.  It  means  conduct,  or  mode  of  life, 
especially  with  respect  to  morals  (Ps.  xxxvii. 
14  :  Eph'  iv.  22  ;  Heb.  xiii.  5  ;  1  Pet.  i.  15). 

Con-vo-ca'tion. 

A  festival  on  which  the  Israelites  were 
summoned  to  assemble  together  and  when  no 
servile  work  was  allowed  to  be  done.  The 
holy  convocations  were  every  sabbath  (Lev. 
xxiii.  1-3),  the  first  and  seventh  days  of  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  (Ex.  xii.  16  ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  6,  7;  Num.  xxviii.  18,  25),  Pentecost 
(Lev.  xxiii.  15-21),  the  firstand  seventh  days 
of  the  tenth  month,  the  latter  being  the 
great  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xxiii.  24-28, 
35 ;  Num.  xxix.  1),  and  the  first  and  eighth 
days  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  which  began 
oil  the  15th  of  the  seventh  month  (Lev.  xxiii. 
34-3(i;  Neh.  viii.  18). 

Co'os.     See  Cos. 

Cop'per.     See  Brass. 

Cor.     See  Measurks. 

Cor'al. 

A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ra'moth.  It 
was  highly  i)rized  (Job  xxviii.  18;  Prov. 
xxiv.   7,   in    E.   V.    ''too  high"),    and   was 


Cor-ashan 


147 


Corinthians 


hron-ilit  to  the  markets  of  Tyre  by  AraniEean 
traders  1  Ezek.  xxvii.  Ifi).  It  was  obtained 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  and  was 
made  into  beads  and  charms.  Coral  is  ])rop- 
erlythe  calcareous  skeleton  of  certain  animals 
of  low  organization,  popularly  but  errono 
ously  called  coral  insects.  They  are  radiated 
animals,  with  a  central  mouth  surrounded 
by  fleshy  limbs ;  and  are  either  attached 
singly  to  a  rock,  or  so  bud  from  parents  as  to 
make  a  compound  being  of  many  half-dis- 
tinct, half-united  individuals.  The  carbon- 
ate of  lime  of  which  the  coral  skeleton  is 
made  is  obtained  from  the  sea  water.  The 
coral  is  often  beautifully  branched  like  a 
tree  or  shrub,  whence  these  animals  are  often 
called  Zoophytes  (Plant  animals).  Some 
species  form  great  reefs. 

Coral  is  also  a  marginal  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Pminim,  rendered  rubies  in  the  text 
(Lam.  iv.  7  ;  Job  sxviii.  18  ;  Prov.  iii.  15). 

Cor-a'shan.     See  Ashan. 

Cor'toan  [Hebrew  korban,  otTering]. 

An  oflering  or  oblation,  either  of  a  bloody 
or  an  unbloody  sacrifice,  given  to  God  (Lev. 
1.  2,  3;  ii.  1;  iii.  1;  Num.  vii.  12-17;  where 
the  word  occurs  in  the  Hebrew  text).  A 
word  korhaiias,  from  the  same  root,  is  ren- 
dered in  Mat.  xxvii.  6  "  treasury,"  and  on  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V.  "sacred  treasury."  Cor- 
ban  is  used  for  money  or  service  dedicated  to 
God  (Mark  vii.  11).  The  reprehensible  prac- 
tice arose  of  children  giving  no  aid  to  parents 
needing  their  support,  on  the  pretense  that 
the  money  or  service  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  available  for  the  parents  had  been 
dedicated  to  God,  and  that  it  would  be  .sacri- 
lege to  divert  it  from  this  sacred  purpose. 
Josephus  relates  that  a  clamorous  mob  beset 
the  tribunal  of  Pontius  Pilate  when  he  took 
the  sacred  money  called  Corlian  and  ex- 
pended it  on  aqueducts  designed  to  improve 
the  water  supjily  of  Jerusalem.  This  doubt- 
less was  a  public  benefit,  but  the  Jews  evi- 
dently thought  that  money  once  dedicated  to 
God  could  never  again  be  lawfully  used  for  a 
secular  purpose,  however  conducive  to  the 
public  welfare  (War  ii.  9,  4). 

Co're.    See  Korah. 

Co-ri-an'der. 

A  plant,  called  in  Hebrew  Gad,  which  had 
white  seeds  (Ex.  xvi.  31 ;  Num.  xi.  7).  Very 
probably  it  was  the  Coriander  {Coriandrum 
sativum),  called  in  Punic  Gold;  a  branched 
annual,  with  cut  leaves,  umbels  of  jtiuk  or 
white  flowers,  and  a  small  globular  fruit  used 
to  season  dishes.  It  is  wild  in  Arabia,  north- 
ern Africa,  and,  perhaps,  in  southern  Europe. 
In  Palestine  it  is  found  in  cultivated  grounds 
and  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Cor'inth. 

A  city  of  Greece,  on  the  narrow  isthmus 
that  connects  the  Peloponnesus  with  the 
mainland.  At  an  early  date  a  town  grew  up 
at  the  southern  end  of  this  neck  of  laud,  on 


the  plateau  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Acro- 
corinthus.  This  mountain  is  17.")()  feet  high, 
and  its  summit  served  as  a  ciladel  and  as  the 
site  for  a  temple.  The  land  traflic  between 
the  peninsula  and  the  mainlainl  was  obliged 
to  pass  the  town,  and  much  of  the  conimerco 
bi'tweeu  Asia  and  the  west  was  bn)U;;ht  to  its 
harbors  ami  portage  l)y  tiic  con  venienc(!  of 
the  water  route  afforded  by  the  Salonic  (iulf 
ou  the  east  of  the  isthmus  and  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth  on  the  west.  Tius  town  attracted 
Phreuician  settlers,  who  made  a  i)urple  dyo 
from  fish  of  the  ningiihoring  waters,  intro- 
duced tlie  manufacture  of  cloth,  ])ottery,  and 
armor,  aiul  established  the  impure  worship 
of  the  Phceuiciaii  deities.  At  a  later  tiino 
emigrants  from  Attica  became  dominant. 
About  1071  B.  c.  the  political  supremacy 
passed  to  the  Dorians.  But  the  character  of 
the  inhabitants  remained  unchanged;  they 
were  commercial  inspirit,  uuwarlike,  luxuri- 
ous, and  licentious.  Tlu-ir  iuimoral  life  gavo 
rise  and  meaning  to  a  verb  "  to  corinthianize." 
Except  during  the  years  243-222  B.  c,  the 
Macedonians  held  the  citadel  from  33.">-l!t7 
B.  c,  when  iu  196  b.  c.  Greece  was  declared 
independent  by  tiie  Romans.  In  14(5  li.  c,  ia 
consequence  of  rebellion  against  Rome,  the 
Roman  consul  Mummius  burncHl  the  city  to 
ashes.  The  accidental  fusing  together  of  dif- 
ferent metals  during  the  conflagration  is  said 
to  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Corinthian 
brass.  The  city  was  rebuilt  by  ■Julius  Ciesir 
shortly  before  his  death  in  41  n.  c. ;  became 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia, 
and  was  ruled  by  a  proconsul.  Paul  reached 
Corinth  probably  in  a.  d.  .^2  and  labored 
there  for  a  year  and  a  half  He  lodged  witli 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  sujiportecl  himself  by 
tent-making,  and  preached  Christ,  first  in  the 
synagogue  and  then  in  the  house  of  Justus. 
At  length  he  was  dragged  before  the  tribunal 
of  the  proconsul  Gallio,  but  was  dismissed 
(Acts  xviii.  1-18).  After  PauTs  departure, 
Apolloscontinued  the  work  (xviii.  24-28).  Ou 
three  several  occasions  later  the  apostle  sent 
letters  to  the  Corinthian  church  ( 1  Cor.  \.9). 
The  Christian  community  continued  to  in- 
crease; and  by  the  second  century  its  bishop 
possessed  great  influence  iu  the  church  at 
large.  The  capture  of  C(mstantino])le  by 
the  Venetians  and  the  crusaders  iu  1204  was 
followed  by  the  surrender  of  Corinth.  In 
1446  the  Tiirks  took  it,  and  in  1()87  the  Vene- 
tians retook  it ;  the  Turks  capturing  it  again 
in  1715.  In  1823  it  joined  in  the  successful 
great  rebellion.  In  February,  1S58,  it  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  has 
since  been  restored.    It  is  now  called  Gortho. 

Co-rin'thi-ans,  E-pis'tles  to  the. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians 
was  written  during  the  apostle"s  long  sojourn 
in  Ephesus  (xvi.  8,  9,  19  ;  .\cts  xix.),  i)robably 
early  in  A.  D.  57.  He  had  had  nmcli  anxiety 
over  the  state  of  the  Corinthian  church,  which 
he  had  founded  a  few  years  before.     The  Co- 


Corinthians 


148 


Corinthians 


riutliiaiis  li;i(l  written  him  a  letter  askiii^  in- 
structions on  the  sul)ject  of  marriage  and 
social  purity,  and  he  had  replied  (v.  9). 
This  letter  has  not  been  preserved.  Ap- 
jxirently  al.so  a  deputation  from  Corinth 
had  been  sent  to  him  {xvi.  17),  and  from 
other  sources  reports  of  divisions  among 
tiieni  had  reached  him  (i.  11).  He  had 
])reviouslv  sent  Timothy  to  Corinth  by 
way  of  Macedonia  (iv.  17  ;  xvi.  10).  but  the 
later  news  moved  him  immediately  to  write 
this  epistle.  It  is  even  thought  by  many 
that  Paul  himself  made  a  brief  unrecorded 
visit  to  Corinth  from  Ejdiesus  for  the  pur- 
])ose  of  exercising  discipline  in  the  church. 
This  is  inferred  from  )>  Cor.  xii.  14;  xiii.  1, 
where  he  speaks  of  being  about  to  visit  them 
a  third  time,  though  The  Acts  speaks  of  only 
one  ])revions  visit.  Some  have  located  this 
unrecorded  visit  before  1  Cor.  was  written  ; 
l)nt,  since  that  epistle  does  not  allude  to  it,  it 
should  be  jilaced  between  1  and  2  Cor.  But 
^  in  1  Cor.  he  takes  up  in  order  the  prac- 
'  tical  and  doctrinal  ])oints  on  which  they 
needed  instruction.  The  epistle  is  carefully 
written.  It  coml)ines  cogent  doctrinal  dis- 
cussion, and  skillful  dealing  with  moral  and 
ecclesiastical  problems.  It  clearly  reflects 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  churches  among 
the  gentiles.  Hence  its  great  importance. 
The  subjects  discussed  are,  after  the  intro- 
ductory salutation  (i.  1-9)  : 

1.  The  divisions  in  the  church  (i.  10-iv. 
21).  Factions  had  arisen,  claiming  to  follow 
particular  hiaders,  and  doubtless  character- 
ized by  .special  theological  tendencies.  He 
mentions  a  Paul-party,  an  ApoUos-party,  a 
Peter-party,  and  a  Christ-party.  Against 
them  all  he  sets  forth  the  dejiendence  of  all 
believers  on  Christ  crucified,  the  inspired  au- 
thority witli  which  the  gosju'l  had  first  been 
preached  to  them,  and  the  subordinate  char- 
acter of  every  one  by  whom  it  was  adminis- 
tered, even  though  he  were  an  apostle  ;  so 
that  none  should  be  made  the  head  of  a  party, 
but  glory  given  to  (iod  in  Christ  alone. 

2.  The  duty  of  exercising  and  honoring 
church  discipline  (v.,  vi.),  especially  in  the 
case  of  ofrenders  ag.ainst  purity,  of  which 
there  had  been  one  conspicuous  example. 

."{.  Directions  on  the  subject  of  marriage 
and  divorce  (vii). 

4.  Directions  concerning  practical  ques- 
tions arising  from  contact  with  heathen 
society  (viii.-xi.  1).  These  pertained  espe- 
cially to  the  eating  of  food  which  had  been 
oll'ered  to  idols;  in  regard  to  which  self-de- 
nial should  control  their  liberty  (viii.),  even 
as  he  sought  to  have  it  do  in  his  own  life  (ix.). 
While  not  needlessly  in(|niriug  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  food  ihey  bought  or  ate,  they 
should  be  careful  not  to  .seem  to  participate 
in  recognition  of  the  idol  (x.). 

5.  Warnings  against  certain  abuses  in  pub- 
lic worship  (xi.  2  :M)  with  respect  to  the 
lirophesying  of  women  and  the  administra- 
tion of  tlic   Kurd's  .Siii)])cr. 


6.  Directions  as  to  the  estimate,  exercise, 
and  regulation,  of  miraculous  gifts  (xii.- 
xiv.). 

7.  Instruction  concerning  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  which  some 
were  dispo.sed  to  doubt  (xv.). 

8.  Directions  about  the  collections  being 
made  for  the  saints  in  Judsea,  and  concluding 
remarks  about  his  own  movements  and  other 
personal  matters  (xvi.). 

The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was 
written  from  ]Macedonia  (ii.  13;  vii.  5;  ix.  2, 
4)  shortly  after  Paul  left  Ephesus  (Acts  xx. 
1),  and  therefore  in  the  summer  or  early  au- 
tumn of  A.  D.  57.  Timothy  was  now  with 
him  again  (i.  1).  Titus  and  another  had  re- 
cently been  sent  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth 
(ii.  13 ;  vii.  6,  7,  13,  14,  15 ;  xii.  18)  with  di- 
rections to  have  the  church  immediately  dis- 
cipline an  offender,  probably  the  incestuous 
pereon  of  1  Cor.  v.  1,  who  had  openly  defied 
the  apostle's  authority  and  whose  continued 
sin  threatened  the  very  stability  of  the 
church.  Titus  was  to  rejoin  Paul  at  Troas, 
but  the  apostle,  not  finding  him  there,  had 
gone  on  to  Macedonia  in  great  distre.ss  of 
mind.  At  last,  however,  Titus  came  with 
the  good  news  that  the  Corinthians  had  dis- 
ciplined the  olTender,  and  that  the  latter  had 
humbly  acknowledged  his  sin.  Thereupon 
this  epistle  was  written,  and  Titus,  with  two 
others  (viii.  16-24),  was  sent  back  with  it  to 
Corinth.  The  epistle  bears  witness  to  the 
intense  anxiety  of  the  apostle  lest  the  Co- 
riuthians  should  be  false  to  him,  and  to  the 
terrible  strain  he  had  been  under  because  of 
their  spiritual  perils.  It  is  the  least  method- 
ical and  the  most  personal  of  his  epistles.  It 
falls,  however,  into  three  main  divisions: 
(1)  i.-vii.,  in  which,  after  grateful  recogni- 
tion of  God's  goodness  to  him  even  amid 
trial  (i.  1-14),  he  vindicates  himself  fnmi 
the  charge  of  vacillation  (i.  15-ii.  4),  bids 
them  not  carry  too  far  their  zeal  against  the 
offender  (ii.  5-11),  and  describes  the  spir- 
itual (iii.),  honest  (iv.  1-6),  suffering  (Iv.  7- 
IS).  hopeful  (v.  1-9),  solemn  (v.  10, 11),  Christ- 
impelled  (v.  12-17)  ministry  of  reconciliation 
(v.  18-21)  with  which,  as  a  co-worker  with 
God,  he  had  been  intrusted  (v.  18-vi.  2),  in 
which  he  had  appeared  himself  (vi.  3-10),  on 
the  ground  of  which  he  appealed  to  them 
(vi.  11-lH),  and  in  their  acknowledgment  of 
which  he  found  boldness  and  joy  (vii.).  (2) 
viii.,  ix.,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  collections 
for  the  .huhean  saints  and  urges  liberality. 
(3)  x.-xii.,  in  which  he  again  gives  a  pathetic 
but  confidLMit  testimony  to  his  apostolic  office 
and  authority.  He  closes  with  a  renewed! 
warning  against  their  besetting  sins,  and  de- 
clares that  if,  when  he  comes  to  them,  he  find 
them  uncorrected,  he  will  exercise  his  author- 
ity upon  them  unsparingly.  <;.  t.  p. 

The  last  section  of  the  ejjistle,  chapters 
x.-xiii..  is  believed  by  many  students  of  the 
New  Testament  to  be  a  separate  letter,  or 
fragment  of  it,  written  by  Paul  soon  after 


Cormorant 


1^9  Cotton 


his  return  to  Ephesus  from  his  unrecorded 
visit  to  Corinth  (see  foregoing  remarks  in- 
troductoi-y  to  the  First  Epistle).  Tlie  mind 
of  the  apostle  was  not  wholly  relieved  by 
that  visit.  He  had  come  back  to  Ephesus 
anxious  about  the  Corinthian  church,  and  in 
his  sorrow  he  wrote  a  letter.  It  is  the  letter 
of  tears  and  anguish  of  heart,  alluded  to  in 
passages  which  refer  to  events  connected 
with  the  unrecorded  visit  (2  Cor.  ii.  4  ;  vii. 
8-12).  The  section,  2  Cor.  x.-xiii.,  so  sad  in 
tone  and  revealing  the  apostle's  distress  of 
mind,  may  be  this  sorrowful  letter.  But 
encouraging  news  from  Corinth  at  length 
reached  the  apostle,  brought  by  Titus.  The 
od'ender  had  been  disciidined.  The  hostility 
toward  Paul,  shown  by  a  minority,  had  dis- 
ajipeared,  and  in  its  stead  loyalty  to  him  and 
growing  all'ection  reigned.  Thereupon  the 
apostle  wrote  the  cheerful  letter  preserved  in 
2  Cor.  i.-ix.  The  theory  is,  of  course,  inter- 
esting as  a  literary  question  (cp.  Mark  xvi. 
9-20),  It  involves  neither  the  genuineness 
of  the  epistle,  as  a  whole  or  in  its  parts,  nor 
its  inspiration.  But  it  is  not  the  only  ten- 
able explanation  of  the  facts  in  the  case,  as 
the  analysis  given  in  the  former  part  of  this 
article  shows  ;  and,  if  the  last  four  chapters 
ever  existed  as  a  separate  letter,  it  if  strange, 
indeed,  that  no  tiace  of  the  fact  has  been 
left  iu  the  history  of  the  New  Testament 
text.  J-  i>.  D. 

Cor'mo-rant. 

1.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Shalal;  plun- 
ger; a  bird  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
17;  Dent.  xiv.  17).  It  is  probably  the  com- 
mon cormorant  (Phalacrocoiax  carlo),  a  large 
swimming  bird  of  the  Pelican  family,  but 
distinguished  from  the  pelican  by  not  having 
a  pouch  below  the  lower  mandible.  The 
common  cormorant  is  widely  distributed.  In 
Palestine  it  lives  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
and  on  the  sea  of  Galilee.  Its  appetite  is 
proverbial ;  and  Tristram  describes  it  as  sit- 
ting on  the  snag  of  a  tree  where  the  Jordan 
enters  the  Dead  Sea,  and  catching  the  tish 
while  they  are  stup^fied  by  being  carried  into 
the  briny  water.  Another  species,  PhuJacro- 
coraxpigmwus,  the  Pygmy  Cormorant,  is  found 
sparingly  on  the  streams  which  flow  through 
Palestine  to  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  The  rendering;  of  Hebrew  Ka'iith  in  text 
of  A.  Y.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11;  Zeph.  ii.  14);  see 
Pelican. 

Corn. 

The  generic  name  for  the  several  cereal 
grasses  cultivated  in  Palestine,  and  so  staple 
that  corn  and  wine  stand  figuratively  for  the 
entire  vegetable  produce  of  the  fields  (Gen. 
xxvii.  28;  Dent.  vii.  13,  etc.).  The  chief 
were  wheat,  barley,  spelt,  and  millet  (Dcut. 
viii.  8  ;  and  E.  Y.'of  Is.  xxviii.  25  and  Ezek. 
iv.  9). 

Cor-ne'li-us. 

A  centurion  of  the  Eoman  cohort  called 
the  Italian  band.     He  lived  at  Ctesarea ;  and 


was  a  devout,  charitable.  God-fearing  gentile. 
Ou  the  ground  of  visions  received  bv  jiini 
and  Peter,  and  tlie  descent  of  the  "lloly 
Spirit  upon  him  and  iiis  liouscbold  wli.'n 
they  believed,  Peter  baptized  him.  The  de- 
scent of  the  HoIyCJbost  upon  him  \v<i.s  an 
event  of  i)rime  importance  in  tlie  early 
church.  It  marked  tlie  beginning  of  the 
calling<of  the  gentib's  and  revealed  that  the 
Spirit  is  given  to  believers  irrespective  of 
nationality  (.\ets  .y.  1-4S). 

Cor'ner  Stone. 

A  stone  placed  at  the  angle  where  two  walls 
of  a  building  meet,  and  heliiing  to  bind  them 
together.  Any  stone  in  this  position,  from  the 
foundation  (Job  xxxviii.  (>;  Is.  xxviii.  Ki) 
to  the  roof  (Ps.  cxviii.  22;  Zecli.  iv.  7),  is  a 
corner  stone.  Figuratively,  Christ  is  the 
chief  corner  stone  at  the  foundation  (Kora. 
ix.  3.3 ;  Eph.  ii.  20;  1  Pet.  ii.  G)  and  also  the 
head  of  the  corner  (Mat.  xxi.  42;  1  Pet.  ii.7). 

Cor'net. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shophar 
in  1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2  Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps. 
xcviii.  6 ;  Hos.  v.  8.  Elsewhere,  as  iu  Lev. 
XXV.  9,  it  is  translated  trumpet  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  il'iia'an''im 
in  2  Sam.  vi.  5,  A.  V.  The  E.  V.  renders  the 
word  castanets  (q.  v.). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  Karna\ 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  Keren  in  Dan. 
iii.  5,  7,  10,  15.  It  means  a  horn,  and  is  so 
rendered  in  viii.  20.  This  instrument  orig- 
inally consisted  of  the  hollow  horn  of  some 
mammal ;  but  later  it  was  generally  made  of 
metal,  and  was  curved,  like  many  animals' 
horns,  instead  of  being  straight. 

Cor-rup'tion,  Mount  of. 

A  hill  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  13 ;  cp.  1  Kin.  xi.  7).  Solomon  built 
altars  on  its  southern  side  to  the  gods  wor- 
shiped by  his  heathen  wives.  By  common 
consent  it  is  the  southern  portion  of  the 
mount  of  Olives.  It  is  more  familiarly  known 
in  tradition  as  the  mount  of  Ofl'euse. 

Cos,  in  A.  V.  Coos. 

An  island,  now  called  Stanko  or  f^ianchio, 
in  the  Archipelago  off'  the  coast  of  Caria  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  a  gulf  between  Cnidus  and 
Halicarna.ssus.  It  lies  between  Miletus  and 
Ehodes,  about  a  day's  sail  from  the  latter  city 
(Acts  xxi.  1 ;  mentioned  1  .Mac.  x v.  23).  It 
is  about  21  miles  long  by  6  broad.  Its  prin- 
cipal city  has  been  more  than  once  seriously 
injured  by  earthquakes.  Cos  was  celebrated 
for  its  wines,  its  ointments,  and  its  purple 
dyes. 

Co'sam. 

A  descendant  of  David  through  Nathan 
and  an  ancestor  of  Zerubbabel  and  Christ 
(Luke  iii.  28). 

Cot'ton. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rarpa.s  in 
the  margin  of  the  E.  V.  in  Esth.  i.  (J.  In  the 
court  of  the  roval  palace  at  Shushan  were 


Council 


150 


Council  House 


haiiKiiigs  of  fine  wliito  cotton  and  l)lue.  The 
word  whicli  eoiTesiwiiids  to  hirpus  in  San- 
scrit. IVrsian,  Armenian,  and  Arabic  denotes 
colliin.  Cotton  is  the  bunch  of  threads  sur- 
rounding the  ripe  seeds  of  the  cotton  plants. 
They  beh>ng  to  the  genus  Gossypium,  which 
is  oiie  of  the  mallow  order.  The  leaves  have 
three  or  five  lobes;  the  flowers,  which  are 
large  and  showy,  and  often  of  a  yellow  color, 
are  surrounded  by  an  outer  involucre  or  calyx 
of  three  great  leaves.  The  Indian  cotton 
(r;as-.svjj((u/i  herhaceuiH)  was  early  cultivated 
in  Persia,  and  was  probably  that  of  Esther. 

Coun'cil. 

The  .Tewish  governing  body.    The  Persians 
granted  to  the  Jews  jurisdiction  over  their 
own  alfairs  (Ezra  vii.  2r3,26;  x.  14).     After 
the  fall  of  the  Persian  empire  similar  privi- 
leges were  enjoyed  by  the  Jews.     A  govern- 
ing body  arose  and  became  known  as  (jerousia 
or  senate  (Antiq.  xii.  3,  3),  and  more  fully  as 
the  senate  of  the  nation  (1  Mac.  xii.  6).     It 
was  composed   of   elders    (cp.    xiv.   20).     It 
represented  the  nation  (xii.  3),  and  united 
with  Jonathan,  their  high  priest  and  leader, 
in   making  otleusive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  tile  Spartans.     Jonathan  also  called  the 
elders  of  the  people  together  and  consulted 
with    them   about    building    strongholds  in 
Judiea   and    increasing   the    height   of    the 
walls   of    Jerusalem    (35;    cp.    furtiier    xiii. 
3(};  xiv.  20,  28,  and  47).     Under  (Jabinius, 
proconsul  of  Syria,  57-55  B.  c,  Judaea  was 
divided    into   five    districts,    each    under    a 
sunedrion  or  sitnoilos — i.  e.  assembly  or  sanhe- 
drin  (Antiq.  xiv.  5,  4;  War  i.  8,  5).     Hence- 
forth   the    highest   body   at   Jerusalem    was 
called  sunedrion,  though  not  to  the  exclusion 
of  gerousia  or  buttle.     The  arrangement,  how- 
ever, did  not  last  long.     In  47  15.  c,  ('a'sar 
extended  the  jurisdiction  of   tiie  sanhedrin 
of  .leru.salem  once  more  over  all  Judiea  (cp. 
Anli().  xiv.  9,  3-5;  War  i.  10,  7).     At  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  Herod  the  Great  put 
forty-five  of  its  members   to  death   (Antiq. 
xiv.  !*,  4;  XV.  1,  2),  but  did  not  abolish  the 
council  (xv.  (),  2).     Under  the  Roman  j)rocu- 
rators,  a.  d.  (i-WJ,  its  powers  were  extensive. 
According  to  Jewish  authorities,  it  was  coin- 
l)osed  of  71  members  (c)).  the  mock   council. 
War  iv.  5,  I),  and  only   Israelites  whose  de- 
scent   was   al)ove    <iuestioii   wt^re   eligible  to 
inemi)ershii).  The  seventy  ordinary  members 
corresponded,  jirobably,  to  the  seventy  elders 
appointed   by  Moses  to  assist  hiiii  as  judges. 
Tiiesevenly-drst  nieiul»er  was  the  high  i)riest, 
the  ollicial  ))resident  of  the  body.    It  was  the 
highest  court,  with  ])ower  of  life  and  death 
(Antiq.   xiv.  !),   3  and   4;  Mat.   xxvi.  3,   57; 
Acts  iv.  5.  (5,  15;  v.  21.  27.  31,  II  ;  vi.  12.  15; 
vii.  1  ;   x.xiii.  2),  tboiigli  ai)iiarenlly  it  had  no 
recognized  authority  to  execute  its  .sentence 
of  death,  but  must  submit  its  action  to  the 
review  of  the    Kimian   authorities.     It    had 
the   general    administration    of  the  govern- 
ment and  of  justice,  so  far  as  this  was  not 


exercised  by  the  procurator  and  subordinate 
officials  (cp.  Acts  xxii.  aO).  In  the  time  of 
Florus,  at  least,  the  revenue  was  collected  by 
the  rulers  and  councilors,  who  dispersed 
themselves  among  the  villages  for  that  pur- 
pose (War  ii.  17,  1).  It  had  police  at  com- 
mand and  could  make  arrests  on  its  own 
authority  (Mat.  xxvi.  47;  Mark  xiv.  43). 
Jesus  was  tried  before  the  council  (Mat. 
xxvi.  59;  Mark  xiv.  55;  xv.  1:  Luke  xxii. 
G(j ;  John  xi.  47).  It  was  before  the  council 
that  Peter.  John,  and  the  other  apostles  were 
brought  (Acts  iv.  5,  6,  15;  v.  21.  27,  34,  41). 
Stephen  was  taken  before  the  council  (Acts 
vi.  12),  so  also  was  Paul  (xxii.  30;  xxiii.  15; 
xxiv.  20).  The  sanhedrin  was  swept  away 
at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  body  of  advisers  selected  by  the 
highest  Roman  official  of  a  province,  in 
Judsea  the  procurator,  to  assist  him  in  the 
administration  of  justice,  before  whom,  with 
the  official  as  president,  cases  were  tried 
(Acts  XXV.  12  ;  Antiq.  xvi.  11,  1  seq. ;  War  ii. 
16,  1). 

Coun'cil  House. 

A  building  in  Jerusalem  west  of  the  temple, 
near  the  gymnasium  and  adjoining  the  inner- 
mo.st  city  wall  (War  v.  4,  2).  It  was  burned 
by  the  Romans  under  Titus  in  the  course  of 
their  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  city 
(vi.  6,  3).  The  council  house  was  probably 
the  place  where  the  sanhedrin  met :  for  1. 
Its  name  in  Greek  was  bouleuterion,  and  a 
member  of  the  sanhedrin  was  called  bonlentes 
(Luke  xxiii.  50,  51 ;  cp.  War  ii.  17,  1).  2. 
The  council  is  called  by  Josephus  sunedrion — 
i.  e.  sanhedrin — and  boule  indifferently  (Antiq. 
xiv.  9,  3  and  4,  with  xx.  1,  2;  War  ii.  15,  6). 
3.  According  to  Jewish  authorities,  the  san- 
hedrin met  in  the  lishkath  hapgasith  or  cham- 
ber of  the  gazith,  which  probably  denoted  a 
chamber  by  the  gj-mnasium.  According  to 
the  Mishna,  it  is  true,  the  lishhith  haggazith 
was  situated  at  the  east  corner  of  the  court 
of  the  temi)le.  But  gazith  means  hewn,  es- 
pecially hewn  stone  (Ex.  xx.  25;  1  Kin.  vi. 
36  et  pas.);  and  as  the  chambers  of  the  tem- 
ple were  largely  constructed  in  this  manner, 
the  name  gazith  could  not  distinguish  one 
from  another.  Now  the  council  house  stood 
near  or  adjoined  the  xystos  or  gymnasium  ; 
but  xystos  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of  gazith, 
and  is  one  of  the  words  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  to  translate  gazith  into  Greek  (1 
Chron.  xxii.  2  ;  Amos  v.  11).  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  xystos  was 
called  the  gazith  by  one  who  chanced  to 
be  speaking  Hebrew,  and  that  the  name 
lishkath  haggmifh  meant  the  hall  by  the  xys- 
tos (cp.  Schiirer,  Stud.  n.  Krit.,  1878).  Sim- 
ilar twin  names  are  (hristos,  Messiah  ;  Peter, 
Cephas  ;  The  i)avement,  Gabbatha  ;  Place  of 
a  skull,  Golgotha;  Field  of  blood.  Aceldama 
(John  i.  41,  42  ;  xix.  13.  17;  Acts  i.  19).  This 
evidence  is  perliaps  sufficient  to  override  the 
fact  that  the  chamber  of  the  gazith  is  stated 


Counselor  151 


in  the  ]\Iishna,  as  already  mentioned,  to  have 
l)een  within  the  court  of  the  temple. 

Coun'sel-or. 

The  seven  counselors  of  Artaxcrxes  (Ezra) 
vii.  14)  were  probably  the  seven  princes  of 
Media  and  Persia  who  saw  the  king's  face 
and  sat  first  in  the  kingdom,  and  from  whom 
the  king  sought  advice  (Esth.  i.  14).  These 
princes  were  perhaps  the  heads  of  the  seven 
chief  families  of  Persia  (Herod,  iii.  84). 

Court. 

An  enclosed  but  uncovered  area  either  con- 
nected with  a  private  house  and  often  con- 
taining a  well  (2  Sam.  xvii.  18 ;  Neh.  viii.  16) ; 
or  in  a  palace  (l  Kin.  vii.  8,  9,  12  ;  Jer.  xxxii. 
2),  in  front  of  the  royal  apartments  (Esth.  iv. 
11 ;  v.  1 ;  vi.  4)  and  sometimes  containing  a 
garden  (i.  5) ;  or  around  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  (Ex.  xxvii.  9;  xl.  8;  1  Kin.  vi.  36). 
As  the  area  about  the  temple  was  divided 
(2  Kin.  xxi.  5),  the  word  is  generally  used  in 
the  plural  (Ps.  Ixv.  4  ;  Ixxxiv.  2). 

Cov'e-nant. 

An  agreement  between  two  or  more  per- 
sons. Various  covenants  between  man  and 
man  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  they 
are  no  longer  important  (Gen.  xxi.  27,  32 ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  3;  xxiii.  18;  1  Kin.  xx.  34).  It 
is  otherwise  with  those  in  which  God  conde- 
scended to  be  a  covenanting  party.  His  cov-" 
enant  with  man  is  a  free  promise  on  his  part, 
generally  based  upon  the  fulfillment  of  certain 
conditions  by  man.  He  made  a  promise  of 
continued  life  and  favor  to  man  on  condition 
of  obedience,  coupled  with  a  penalty  for  dis- 
obedience (Gen.  ii.  16,  17).  He  established  a 
covenant  with  Noah,  that  Noah  should  be 
saved  when  the  old  world  perished  (vi.  18), 
and  that  there  should  be  no  other  great 
deluge,  the  rainbow  being  the  token  of  the 
covenant  (ix.  12,  15,  16)  ;  with  Abraham  and 
his  posterity,  of  which  circumcision  was  to 
be  the  sign,  to  be  their  God  and  to  give 
them  the  land  of  Canaan  for  an  inheritance 
(xiii.  17;  xv.  18;  xvii.  2,  4,  7,  11,  13,  14, 
19;  2  Kin.  xiii.  23;  1  Chron.  xvi.  15-18;  Ps. 
cv.  9-11  ;  Acts  vii.  8;  Rom.  iv.  13,  17)  ;  with 
the  Israelites  as  a  nation,  to  continue  to  be 
their  God  and  to  grant  national  protection, 
of  which  a  sign  was  to  be  the  Sabbath  (Ex. 
xxxi.  16),  and  the  keeping  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments its  condition  (Deut.  iv.  13,  23). 
This  covenant  was  made  at  Horeb  (Deut.  v.  2 ; 
xxix.  1)  and  was  renewed  with  the  next 
generation  on  the  plains  of  Moab  (Deut. 
xxix.  1).  There  was  a  covenant  with  the 
Levites  (Mai.  ii.  4,  8),  and  one  specially  with 
Phinehas  to  give  him  and  his  descendants 
an  everlasting  priesthood  (Num.  xxv.  12, 13). 
There  was  a  covenant  with  David  that  his 
posterity  should  forever  occupy  his  throne 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.  20-28,  34  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  vn.  1-29 
and  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-27;  2  Chron.  vn.  18; 
Jer.  xxxiii.  21).  In  contrast  with  the  cov- 
enant at  Sinai,  there  was  to  be  a  new  cov- 
enant, also  with  the  Israelites,  which  was  to 


Crane 

be  of  a  more  spiritual  clianicUr  tlian  its 
predecessors  (.Ter.  xxxi.  31  ;il;  llih.  viii.  8- 
11),  administered  by  tiie  Spirit  (.loliii  vii.  39; 
Acts  ii.  .32,  .33;  2  Cor.  iii.  6-9),  basid  on  faith 
(Gal.  iv.  21-31),  and  designed  for  all  nations 
(Mat.  xxviii.  19,  20,  Acts  x.  44-47).  Of  this 
Christ  is  the  Mediator  (Hcli.  viii.  6-13;  i.\.  1; 
X.  15-17;  xii.  24).  Willi  reference  to  it  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  would,  perhaps, 
better  have  been  ciilled  the  (JId  and  New 
Covenants. 

The  two  tablets  of  stone  on  whicli  were 
engraved  the  ten  commandments,  which  were 
the  fundamental  law  of  (lod's  covenant  with 
Israel,  were  called  the  tables  of  the  covenant 
(Deut.  ix.  11),  and  the  ark,  in  which  these 
tables  were  deposited,  was  designated  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  (Num.  x.  33).  The  l)ook  of 
the  covenant  consisted  of  the  ten  connnand- 
ments  with  the  accompanying  ordinances, 
contained  in  Ex.  xx. -xxiii.,  which  were 
written  by  Moses  in  a  book,  formally  accepted 
by  the  Israelites,  and  ratified  as  a  covenant 
between  the  Lord  and  his  people  (Ex.  xxiv. 
3-8) ;  see  Theocracy.  Later  the  term  is 
used  as  synonymous  with  the  book  of  the 
law  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  2  with  xxii.  8,  11)  and  in- 
cluded Deuteronomy  (Deut.  xxxi.  9,  26 ;  2 
Kin.  xiv.  6  with  Deut.  xxiv.  16). 

Cow. 

Cows  were  early  domesticated.  Egypt, 
Philistia,  and  Palestine,  afforded  excellent 
pasturage,  and  cows  were  kept  in  these  lands 
(Gen.  xli.  2;  Dent.  vii.  13;  1  Sam.  vi.  7). 
Cows  were  herded  by  Abraham  and  his  de- 
scendants (Gen.  xii.  16;  xxxii.  15).  Their 
milk  served  for  food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  They 
found  use  in  concluding  a  covenant  ((ien. 
XV.  9),  in  the  ceremony  attending  the  pro- 
fession of  innocence  of  a  death  caused  by  an 
undiscoverable  murderer  (Deut.  xxi.  3),  for 
a  peace  oflering  (Lev.  iii.  1).  for  a  sin  oflering 
for  uncleanness  ari.sing  from  contact  with  the 
dead  (Num.  xix.  2;  Heb.  ix.  13),  and  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  for  a  burnt  ottering  (1  Sam. 
vi.  14). 

Coz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Coz'bi  [mendacious]. 

A  daughter  of  Zur,  prince  of  Midian.  In 
the  idolatrous  rites  to  which  the  Midianitcs 
seduced  Israel  the  woman  was  ])ublicly  taken 
by  a  prince  of  the  Sinieonites.  Roth  were 
thru.st  through  by  Phinehas,  son  of  the  high 
priest,  and  shortly  afterwards  her  father  also 
was  slain  (Num.  xxv.  6-8.  14. 1.5. 18;  xxxi.t*). 

Co-ze'ba,  in  A.  V.  Chozeba  [deceitful]. 

A  village  in  .Judah,  peopled  diietty  by  de- 
scendants of  Shelah  (1  Chron.  iv.  22).  It  is 
generally  believed  to  be  the  siime  as  Achzib 
and  Chezib.  Conder,  however,  locates  it  at 
Kueiziba,  Similesnorth-northeast  of  Hebron, 
at  the  head  of  Pilate's  aciueduct  to  Jerusalem. 

Crane.  , •  ,     ,  ■  ,  i 

Hebrew  'Agiir,a  migratory  bird  wbicli  has 
a  note  like  a  chatter  (Is.  xxxviii.  II:  Jer. 


Creation 


152 


Creation 


viii.  7).  The  criiiio  is  the  type  of  a  family 
(if  loim-k'ijm'd  wadiiiK  birds.  It  is  a  larse 
and  eii'-raiit  l)ird,  breedinii  in  the  north  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  niigrating  soutliward 
at  the  approach  of  winter.  On  these  flights 
cnznes  go  in  large  flocks  of  wedge-shaped 
form  or  in  long  lines.     See  Swallow  2. 

Cre-a'tion. 

The  act  or  operation  of  God  whereby  he 
calls  into  existence  what  did  not  before  ex- 
ist. The  verb  always  has  God  for  its  subject, 
and  the  result  is  an  entirely  new  thing.  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  (Gen.  i.  1), 
aquatic  and  aerial  life  (til),  man  (27),  the  stars 
(Is.  xl.  2(j),  the  wind  (Amos  iv.  13).  He  creates 
the  clean  heart  (Ps.  li.  10).  Jehovah  com- 
manded and  the  heavens,  with  all  their  hosts, 
angels,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  the  waters 
that  be  above  the  heavens,  were  created  (Ps. 
cxlviii.  5).  He  spake  and  it  was  done.  Upon 
him  all  living  creatures  depend  ;  his  hand 
provides  for  them,  his  look  preserves  them, 
the  hiding  of  his  face  destroys  them,  and  his 
creative  breath  renews  animate  life  on  earth 
(Ps.  civ.  27-30).  ( tod  created  the  worlds  by 
the  Word,  who  is  the  Son  (John  i.  3  ;  Eph. 
iii.  9;  Col.  i.  1« ;  Heb.  i.  2). 

The  designation  creation  is  used  specially 
for  the  original  formation  of  the  universe  by 
God.  In  Genesis  a  general  account  of  the 
creation  of  the  universe  is  fir.st  given  (i.  1- 
ii.  3),  which  is  followed  by  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  formation  of  man  and  his  sur- 
roundings (ii.  4-23).  The  general  account 
describes  six  successive  acts,  or  sometimes 
groups  of  logically  related  acts  and  ])rocesses, 
which  were  willed  by  God  on  as  many  days ; 
see  Day  '■>.  All  facts  at  present  available 
indicate  that  i)etween  the  successive  days 
long  periods  of  time  intervened.  The  omis- 
sion of  the  definite  article  in  the  enumeration, 
one  day  and  day  second,  instead  of  the  first 
day,  the  second  day,  etc.,  is  favorable  to  this 
view.  And  tiie  parallel  tradition,  as  pro- 
served  by  the  Hal>ylonians,  expressly  refers 
to  intervals  between  the  successive  acts  of 
creation  and  assigns  to  them  long  duration. 

The  earliest  extant  form  of  the  Babylonian 
account  is  found  as  the  introduction  to  the 
myth  of  the  sun-god  Marduk's  conflict  with 
Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  represented  as  a  she- 
dragon  who  lias  attein)tted  to  reduce  the  or- 
dered universe  to  cliaos.  The  tablet  was  in- 
•scrihcd  about  (i.")()  li.  c,  hut  the  tale  itself 
can  be  traced  much  farther  back.  It  stiites 
that— 

At  tlie  time  wlien  on  high  the  heaven  announced 

not, 
Below  earth  named  not  a  name, 
[ThiU  is  to  say:  VVlicn  lieaven  and  earth  did 

not  exist] 
Then  primeviil  ocean,  their  generator,  [and] 
Muniiiiu  Tiiiin.'it  lllie  watery  deep],  the  bearer 

<if  th.'ir  |,.liilily, 
United  their  waters  as  one  ; 
When  no  (ii'ld  liad  t)een  formed,  no  reed  was  to 

l)e  si'i'ii. 


At  a  time  when  none  of  the  gods  had  been 

brought  into  existence, 
Wlien  a  name  had  not  been  named,  destiny  not 

determined, 

Then  were  made  the  gods 

The  gods  Lahmu  and  Lahamu  were  brought 

into  existence 

And  grew  np 

Anshar  [the  host  of  heaven]  and  Kisbar  [the 

host  of  earth]  were  made 

Many  days  passed  by 

God  Anu  [sky] 

Here  the  tablet  is  broken  off,  but  this  part 
of  the  tale  has  also  been  related  by  Damas- 
cius.  He  says:  "The  Babylonians  assumed 
two  principles  of  the  universe,  Tanthe  and 
Apason  [i.  e.  Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  and 
Apsu  the  primeval  ocean]  ;  making  Apason 
the  husband  of  Tauthe  and  naming  her  the 
mother  of  the  gods.  Of  these  two  there  was 
born  an  only-begotten  son,  Moymis.  From 
these  same  another  generation  proceeded, 
Lache  and  Lachos.  Then  also  from  the  same 
[original  pair]  a  third  generation,  Kissare 
and  Assoros ;  from  whom  sprang  Anos 
[heaven],  Illinos  [earth's  surface,  with  the 
atmosphere],  and  Aos  [the  waters  of  earth] ; 
and  of  Aos  and  Dauke  Belos  [the  sun  of 
spring]  was  born,  the  fabricator  of  the 
world.'"  In  these  narratives  of  creation  the 
Babylonians  fail  to  give  God  glory  ;  but  apart 
'from  this  radical  defect,  these  traditions  of 
theirs  preserve  fundamentally  the  same  ac- 
count of  the  development  of  the  world  as  the 
Hebrew  prophet  does.  Stripped  of  poly- 
theistic phraseology,  the  Babylonian  tradi- 
tion taught  that  the  primeval  universe  was  a 
chaotic  watery  mass  (cp.  Gen.  i.  2).  Out  of 
this  mass  there  proceeded  not  only  IMoymis 
and  Lache  and  Lachos  or  Lahmu  and  Laha- 
mu, who  are  doubtless  natural  objects  or 
forces,  but  have  not  been  identified  as,  yet, 
but  also  by  a  series  of  generations,  to  use 
Damascius'  figure  (cp.  Gen.  ii.  4),  the  com- 
l)r(!hensive  heavens  and  the  comprehensive 
earth  ((;p.  Gen.  i.  (j-8),  then  sky  and  dry  land 
and  sea  (cp.  Gen.  i.  9,  10),  and  then  the  sun 
(cp.  Gen.  i.  14).  How  natural  objects,  like 
the  sky  and  the  planets,  came  to  be  spoken 
of  as  gods  is  exjilaiued  in  the  paragraph 
devoted  to  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  religion 
in  the  article  on  Assykia. 

Before  the  Ivel'oi-niatiou  scholars  did  not 
interi)ret  the  day  of  (ien.  i.  as  a  period  of 
twenty-four  hours  (Augustine,  de  civ.  del, 
xi.  ()).  Only  during  the  last  400  years  has 
the  narrative  been  thought  to  mean  that 
(!od  created  the  universe  in  one  week  of 
seven  consecutive  days  of  twenty-four  hours 
each.  At  length  geology  and  astronomy  be- 
gan to  speak  against  this  new  interpretation. 
Geologists  and  ast  ronomers  alike  became  con- 
vinced that  myriads  of  years  liad  been  re- 
([uiri'd  to  j)roduce  the  solar  system  and  bring 
about  the  changes  which  the  earth  itself  had 
undergone.  When  it  became  apparent  that 
the  geological  claim  for  extended  time  rested 
on  substantial  grounds,  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers 


Creeping  Thing 


153 


Crispus 


adopted  the  result  and  publicly  declared  in 
18(M  that  "  the  writings  of  Moses  do  not  fix 
the  antiquity  of  the  globe."  Afterwards,  in 
his  Evidences  of  Ckristinniti/,  published  in  1813, 
lie  explained  that  many  ages  may  have 
elapsed  between  the  first  act  of  creation  de- 
scribed in  Gen.  i.  1,  and  the  otiiers  com- 
mencing with  verse  2.  But  was  not  a  long 
period  involved  in  the  work  of  the  six  days 
themselves?  In  1857  Hugh  Miller  in  liis 
Tesfiiiiony  of  the  Rods  interpreted  the  six 
days,  as  Cuvier  of  Paris  had  already  inter- 
preted them  in  1798  in  the  preliminary  dis- 
course to  his  Ossements  Fosniles,  as  being  six 
geological  ages ;  and  traced  the  correspond- 
ence between  the  successive  stages  of  crea- 
tion as  told  in  Gen.  i.  and  as  written  in  the 
rocks.  So  geology,  in  speaking  of  the  car- 
boniferous age,  the  age  of  fishes,  the  age  of 
mammals,  has  named  the  dominating  feature, 
but  not  denied  it  a  humble  origin  in  an 
earlier  age. 

The  Hebrew  narrative  is  marked  by  a 
symmeti'y  and  grouping,  which  may  be 
plausibly  explained  as  intentional  arrange- 
ment. The  chronological  order  has  been 
observed  in  the  main  at  least,  but  it  remains 
to  be  discovered  whether  it  has  been  followed 
in  every  detail.  At  any  rate  the  works  of 
the  six  days  were  more  than  six  acts;  God 
spake,  to  use  a  significant  biblical  term, 
eight  times  (vers.  3,  6,  9,  11,  14,  20,  24,  26), 
and  on  the  third  day  the  command  went 
forth  for  both  dry  land  and  vegetation,  on 
the  fifth  day  for  fish  and  for  fowl,  and  on 
the  sixth  day  for  beast  and  for  man.  More- 
over, the  six  days  form  two  interrelated 
groups :  the  first  day  saw  light,  and  the 
fourth  day,  the  first  of  the  second  group, 
saw  the  luminaries  ;  on  the  second  day  the 
waters  were  divided  and  the  sky  appeared, 
and  on  the  second  day  of  the  other  group 
fish  were  divinely  willed  in  the  waters  and 
fowl  to  fly  in  the  expanse  of  the  sky;  on 
the  third  day  dry  land  and  vegetation  were 
decreed,  and  on  the  corresponding  day  of  the 
second  group  land  animals,  including  man, 
were  made,  and  vegetation  was  granted  them 
for  food.  The  several  works  of  creation 
have  been  logically  distributed  into  six 
groups.  Hence  the  fiat  of  the  Almighty 
which  called  the  dry  land  into  being  is  not 
recorded  alone,  but  with  it  is  the  command 
for  vegetation.  God  contemplated  the  land 
as  clothed  with  verdure.  The  two  acts  of  the 
divine  will  are  in  reality  and  in  purpose  one, 
even  though  plant  life  possibly  did  not  re- 
spond to  the  divine  decree  until  the  sun 
appeared.  Yet,  truly,  vegetation  of  some 
form  probably  existed  on  the  earth  before 
the  planet  Mercury  at  least  was  flung  from 
the  whirling,  contracting  mass,  and  the  sun, 
as  man  knows  it,  had  been  formed. 

Creep 'ing  Thing. 

Any  animal  which  cree])s  (Gen.  i-  24,  25), 
whether  a  laud  or  a  water  reptile  (vi.  7;  Ps. 


civ.  25),  and  whether  crawling  on  tlie  belly 
or  creeping  on  four  or  more  feet  (Lev.  xi.  41. 

42). 

Cres'cens  [growing,  increasing]. 

A  (.'hristian,  who  was  for  a  time  at  Rome 
while  Paul  was  a  i)risoner  there,  and  tlien 
departed  to  (ialatia  or  (iaul  (2  Tim.  iv    10 

li.  v.). 

Crete. 

A  large  island  in  the  MediterraiH'an.  lying 
southeast  of  Greece,  and  now  widely  known 
as  Candia.  The  Turks  retain  the  old  nanu' 
in  the  modified  form,  Kiridi.  It  is  about  KiO 
miles  long  by  6  to  35  broad.  It  is  traveised 
from  east  to  west  by  a  chain  of  niounliiins. 
of  which  mount  Ida.  near  the  center.  ish0(i5 
feet  high.  Honur  speaks  of  its  fair  land, 
its  countless  men  of  different  races,  and  its 
hundred  cities  (II.  ii.  049;  Odys.  xix.  174  . 
The  half-mythic  legislator.  ]\Iiiuis,  lived  in 
Crete,  and  the  fabulous  ^linotiiur  was  feigned 
to  dwell  there  too.  Crete  was  concpiered  l)y 
the  Eomans,  tiH-tJti  B.  c.  JIany  Jews  settled 
in  the  island  (Acts  ii.  11 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  xv.  19- 
23,  Gortyna  being  in  Crete).  Christianity 
was  early  introduced;  and  Titns  was  left 
there  to  arrange  the  afl'airs  of  the  churches 
and  to  counteract  Judaizing  doctrine  iTit. 
i.  5,  10,  14).  Paul  sailed  along  its  whole 
southern  coast  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  ( .Acts 
xxvii.  7,  12,  13,  21 ).  The  Cretans  were  famous 
bowmen  ;  but  their  moral  reputation  was  bad. 
their  unchastity  and  untruthfulness  were 
proverbial  (Tit.  i.  12,  and  K.  V.  note).  In 
A.  D.  823  the  island  was  conquered  by  the 
Saracens,  w-hobuilt  a  fort  called  Khandax,  the 
Great  Fortress,  now  corrupted  into  Candia, 
which,  properly  speaking,  is  the  name  of  the 
capital  only.  The  Greek  emperor  took  the 
island  from  the  Saracens  in  9(il.  From  1201 
to  1665  the  Venetians  held  it.  Then  the 
Turks  regained  po.ssession.  It  secured  au- 
tonomy in  1897. 

Crib.    See  Manger. 

Crick'et. 

The  rendering  in  the  text  of  the  R.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  Hargol,  which  belongs  with  grass- 
hoppers and  locusts,  and  which  does  not 
creep  but  leaps,  is  winged,  and  can  be  eaten 
(Lev.  xi.  22).  The  chief  leaping  insects  be- 
long to  three  families  of  Orthopteta,  viz.  the 
grasshoppers,  the  locusts,  and  the  cricket.s. 
The  harijol  almost  certainly  belongs  to  one  of 
the  three,  though  to  which  of  tliem  cannot 
now  be  determined.  The  crickets  have  long 
antenniB  like  the  grasshoppers,  but  the  wing- 
cases  lie  flat  on  the  body  instead  of  meeting 
over  it  like  a  roof.  Among  the  few  known 
species  are  the  house  cricket  (GryUiis  tlomea- 
ticus)  and  the  field  cricket  (G.  cam  pent  rix). 
The  A.  V.  renders  harrjol  beetle,  but  the  most 
typical  species  of  the  Coleopteia,  or  beetle 
order,  are  not  leaping  insects. 

Cris'pus  [curled]. 

The  ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Cor- 


Crocodile 


154 


Crown 


iiith.  Aft<T  listi'iiiiijr  to  raul's  reasonings, 
he  witli  all  his  liouschold  believed  in  Jesus 
(Acts  xviii.  ^),  and  was  one  of  the  few  per- 
sons whom  I'aiil  jjersonally  baptized  (1  Cor. 
i.  14). 
Croc'o-dile.      See   Leviathan   and   Liz- 

AKI). 

Cross. 

Tliis  word  does  not  occur  in  the  O.  T.,  hut 
cruciiixion  was  common  among  various  na- 
tions of  antiquity  ;  see  Crucifixion,  tooss 
is  used  in  a  figurative  sense  by  Jesus  (Mat. 
X.  38 ;  xvi.  24).  From  the  narrative  of  the 
crucifixion  it  is  evident  that  the  cross  was  of 
wood  (Col.  ii.  14),  and  was  heavy,  but  still 
not  too  much  so  to  be  borne  by  a  strong  man 
(Mat.  xxvii.  32;  Mark  xv.  21;  Luke  xxiii. 
2ti;  John  xix.  17),  and  can  scarcely,  there- 
fore, have  been  one  of  the  massive  structures 
which  some  painters  depict.  It  was  raised 
from  tiie  earth  either  before  or  after  the  vic- 
tim liad  been  allixed  to  it ;  probably,  in  most 
ca.ses,  before.  Crosses  are  of  three  leading 
types:  one,  generally  called  the  St.  Andrew's 
cro.ss,  like  the  letter  X  ;  another  like  the  let- 
ter T  ;  and  the  third  of  the  dagger  form,  f, 
with  which  we  are  so  familiar.  The 
cross  of  Clirist  was,  probably,  as  artists 
believe,  of  the  last-named  type,  which 
more  easily  than  the  others  allowed  the 
name,  title,  or  crime  of  the  victim  to 
be  affixed  to  the  upper  part  (Mat.  xxvii. 
37 ;  Mark  xv.  20  ;  Luke  xxiii.  38 ;  John 
xix.  19).  Up  to  tiie  death  of  Christ,  and 
even  after,  the  cross  was  evidently  as 
much  a  name  of  horror  and  loathing  as 
is  the  gallows  now  (John  xix.  31  :  1  Cor. 
i.  23 ;  Gal.  iii.  13  ;  Phil.  ii.  8  ;  Heb.  xii. 
2 ;  xiii.  13),  so  that  to  bear  the  cross 
meant  to  incur  great  rcjiroach  and  ob- 
lo(|iiy  ;  but  after  the  crucifixion  the  more 
zealous  followers  of  Jesus  regarded  the 
cross  with  wholly  altered  feelings.  Paul 
gloried  in  tlie  cross  of  (lirist  (Gal.  vi. 
14),  by  which  he  meant  the  atonement 
resulting  from  liis  crucifixion  (Eph.  ii. 
Ifi;  Col.  i.  20). 

The  pre-Christian  cross  of  one  form 
or  another  was  in  use  as  a  sacred  sym- 
l)ol  among  tht;  Chaldeans,  the  Phieni- 
cians,  the  ICgyptians,  and  many  other 
oriental  nations.  The  Spaniards  in  the  IGth 
century  found  it  also  among  the  Indians  of 
Mexic(»  and  Peru.  Hut  its  symbolic,  teaching 
was  quite  difTerent  from  that  which  we  now 
associate  witli  the  cross. 

In  the  fourth  century  Rufinus,  writing 
fifty  years  alter  the  rei)Uted  event,  relates 
that  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantino,  was 
instnicled  in  a  vision  to  repair  to  Jerusalem 
and  seek  for  the  se|nil(li(  r  of  Christ.  While 
Iherol  A.I).  :;2.'>)slii-foinid  three  crosses.  These, 
werc^  shown  to  a  sick  woman.  At  the  sight 
of  the  third  she  left  her  couch  cured  (Hist. 
ecil.  i  7.Si.  Helena  gave  jiart  of  this  cross 
to  ih.'  riiy  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  the  other 


part  to  the  emperor,  who  placed  it  within  his 
statue,  regarding  it  as  the  palladium  of  the 
empire.  Eusebius,  however,  who  flourished 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  Helena,  and  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  imperial  family,  knew  nothing  of 
the  story,  which  meets  with  no  acceptance 
from  modern  scholars.  It  is  believed  that  the 
practice  was  to  burn,  instead  of  to  bury,  the 
crosses  on  which  real  or  alleged  criminals  had 
been  crucified. 

Crown. 

1.  An  ornamental  headdress  worn  as  a 
badge  of  authority  or  dignity.  Especially 
(1)  The  royal  crown.  It  was  generally  a 
circlet  of  gold  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  and  was  often 
studded  with  gems  (2  Sam.  xii.  30  ;  Zech.  ix. 
16).  Sometimes  several  crowns  were  com- 
bined or  intertwined  (vi.  11  ;  1  Mac.  xi.  13). 
The  crown  which  David  took  at  Kabbah 
from  the  Ammonites  probably  belonged  to 
the  idol  Malcam  (2  Sam.  xii.  30,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin). Its  weight  was  a  talent  of  gold,  and 
in  it  were  precious  stones.  The  ordinary 
headdress  of  the  Persian  king  (Esth.  i.  11  ; 
vi.  8)  was  a  stifi"  cap,  probably  of  felt  or  of 
cloth,  encircled  by  a  blue  and  white  band. 


'ruwus  (if  Efiypt  and  Assyria  and  the  Common 
Katliated  Diadem. 

which  was  the  diadem  proper.  The  royal 
crown  of  Assyria  was  a  conical  cap,  sometimes 
tapering  in  a  compound  curve,  but  more  fre- 
quently .shajjod  like  the  modern  Turkish  fez, 
only  higher  and  ending  in  a  round  blunt 
point.  It  was  adorned  with  bands  of  wrought 
gold  and  Jewels.  The  king  is  also  represented 
wearing  a  simple  fillet,  and  jtis  probable  that 
this  was  a  common  custom,  the  crown  royal 
being  reserved  for  state  occasions.  In  Egypt 
there  were  two  royal  crowns.  The  one  for 
Upper  Egypt  was  a  high  round  white  cap 
tai)ering  to  a  knob;  the  crown  for  Lower 
Egypt  was  a  flat-topped  red  cap,  rising  in  a 
high  point  at  the  back  and  having  a  projec- 


Crucifixion 


155 


Cubit 


tiou  with  a  curli'd  end  springing  diagonally 
toward  the  front.  When  the  two  kingdoms 
were  united  under  one  sovereign,  he  wore 
the  two  crowns  combined,  the  crown  of 
Lower  Egypt  being  superimposed  upon  that 
of  Upper  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  king  is  also 
frequently  depicted  with  a  band  or  diadem. 
The  royal  headdress,  of  whatever  shape,  is 
nearly  always  surrounded  by  the  Uraeus,  the 
sacred  serpent  of  the  Egyptians,  symbolizing 
power  over  life  and  death.  See  also  illustra- 
tions under  Pharaoh.  The  radiated  diadem 
was  a  form  of  crown  familiar  to  the  Greeks 
and  Komans  and  to  the  peoples  under  their 
influence.  A  crown  or  garland  of  some 
thorny  plant  was  placed  by  the  Komau 
soldiers  around  the  temples  of  Jesus,  with 
the  twofold  intention  of  torturing  him  and 
mocking  his  kingly  claims  (Mat.  xxvii.  29). 
(2)  The  high  priest's  crown.  It  consisted 
of  a  golden  jdate  (Lev.  viii.  9),  inscribed 
with  the  legend  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord," 
and  fastened  on  a  lace  of  blue  to  the  fore- 
front of  the  miter  (Ex.  xxviii.  36,  37;  xsix. 
6).  (3)  The  crown  of  victory  (2  Tim.  ii.  5; 
iv.  8:  Heb.  ii.  9).  It  might  consist  merely 
of  a  wreath  of  leaves  or  be  made  of  metal. 

2.  Anything  resembling  a  crown,  as  the 
border  or  moulding  round  about  the  ark,  the 
table,  and  the  altar  (Ex.  xxv.  11,  24,  25; 
XXX.  3,  4). 

Cru-ci-fix'ion. 

The  act  or  operation  of  fixing  a  victim  to 
a  cross  for  the  purpose  of  capital  punish- 
ment. This  was  done  either  by  tying  his 
hands  and  feet  to  it,  or  in  the  more  cruel 
way  of  fixing  them  to  it  by  nails  driven 
through  their  tleshy  portions.  This  method 
of  punishment  existed  in  many  ancient  na- 
tions. Alexander  the  Great  crucified  a  thou- 
sand Tyrians.  According  to  Josephus,  Cyrus 
introduced  into  his  edict  for  the  return  of  the 
slews  from  Babylon  a  threat  of  crucifying 
anyone  who  attempted  to  prevent  the  missive 
from  being  carried  into  execution  (Antiq.  xi. 
1,  3;  4,  6).  Darius  the  Persian  threatened 
this  death,  apparently,  to  those  who  refused 
obedience  to  his  decrees  (Ezra  vi.  11).  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  crucified  faithful  Jews  who 
would  not  abandon  their  religion  at  his  bid- 
ding (Ant.  xii.  .5,  4),  and  Alexander  Jaunseus 
(War  i.  4,  6)  and  the  Pharisees  crucified  their 
enemies  (War  i.  5,  3).  Among  the  Romans 
crucifixion  was  a  penalty  inflicted  only  on 
slaves,  or  on  freemen  who  had  committed  the 
most  heinous  crimes;  the  ordinary  Roman 
citizen  was  exempted  from  it  by  express  legal 
enactment.  The  preliminary  cruelties  of 
scourging  the  victim  (Mat.  xxvii.  26:  Mark 
XV.  15:  John  xix.  1),  and  then,  when  his 
body  was  lacerated,  compelling  him  to  bear 
his  'cross  (xix.  17),  were  not  rare  (cp.  the 
proverb.  Mat.  x.  38).  Thus  the  Roman  pro- 
curator Florus  (War  ii.  14,  9)  and  Titns,  at 
least  on  one  occasion,  had  those  scourged  first 
who  were  afterwards  to  be  crucified.     If  the 


victim  was  simply  tied  to  tlic  cross,  this  was 
no  injury  siitficienl  to  luoduce  death,  which 
did  not  take  place  till  thirst  and  hunger  liad 
done  their  work  ;  and  this  was  somclimes  the 
case  even  when  the  hands  and  feet  were 
])ierced  by  nails.  If  it  was  expedient  on  any 
ground  to  get  rid  of  the  victims  before  nat- 
ural death  had  released  them  from  their  tor- 
tures, the  end  was  sometimes  hastened  by 
breaking  their  legs,  as  was  done  in  the  case 
of  the  robbers  crucified  with  Jesus  (John 
xix.  31-33).  Many  .Jews  were  crucified  after 
Titus  took  Jerusalem  (Life  75).  Constantine 
abolished  punishment  by  crucifixion  in  the 
Roman  empire. 

Cruse. 

A  small  pot  or  jug  used  for  carrying  water 
during  a  journey  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  11  ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  6)  and  for  holding  oil  (1  Kin.  xvii.  12; 
Judith  X.  5)  ;  a  flask,  such  as  were  made  of 
alabaster  and  used  for  holding  ointment 
(Mat.  xxvi.  7,  R.  V.).  For  cruse  of  honey  (1 
Kin.  xiv.  3),  a  different  word  in  Hebrew, 
the  margin  substitutes  bottle;  ami  the  cruse 
of  salt  (2  Kin.  ii.  20)  was  rather  a  dish. 

Crys'tal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Z'kukith,  in  A.  V.  of  Job  xxviii.  17.  The  R. 
V.  makes  it  glass,  since  crystal  occurs  in  the 
next  verse.  The  corresponding  word  in 
vSyriac  is  used  for  glass  in  Rev.  iv.  6. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gabhh,  ice 
and  crystal,  another  reputed  product  of  cold 
(Job  xxviii.  18;  in  A.  Y.  pearl). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kerah  (Ezek.  i.  22;  cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  10).  The 
R.  V.  has  ice  on  the  margin,  which  is  an  es- 
tablished meaning  of  the  word  (Job  vi.  16 ; 
xxxviii.  29;  Ps.  cxlvii.  17). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Kntstallos 
(Rev.  iv.  6  and  xxii.  1).  It  is  either  ice  or 
rock-crystal,  which  is  quartz,  transparent,  and 
when  pure  colorless. 

Cub,  in  A.  V.  Cbub. 

A  peojile  mentioned  with  Ethiojiia,  Put, 
and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxx.  5,  R.  V.).  The  Seventy 
apparently  read  Lub,  i.  e.  Lil>ya. 

Cu'bit  [from  Latin  cnhitnm,  an  elbow,  a 
cubit]. 

A  measure  of  length  based  on  the  length 
of  the  forearm.  The  Rabylonian  cubit  was 
20.65  or  21.26  inches.  Tlie  royal  Rabylonian 
cubit  was  longer  than  the  common  one  by 
three  finger-breadths  (Herod,  i.  17f^).  The 
Egyptian  cubit  contained  .'^ix  liand-breadths 
or  "palms  (ii.  149).  The  royal  cubit  was  a 
palm  longer  and  was  equal  to  20.fil  inches, 
as  appears  from  measuring  .'Sticks  f'uiind  in 
the  tombs.  The  Hebrews  also  bad  two 
cubits,  the  common  and  i)(rhai)s  older  cubit 
(Deut.  iii.  11 ;  2  Chron.  iii.  3)  and  a  cubit 
which  was  a  hand-breadth  longer  than  the 
common  one  (Ezek.  xl.  5:  xliii.  13).  The 
table  of  Hebrew  lineal  measure  is  4  fingers-- 
1  hand-breadth  or  i)alni :  3  hand-breadths  = 
1  span  ;  2  spans  =  1  cubit  (Ex.  xxv.  10,  with 


Cuckoo 


156 


Cushan-rishathaim 


Aiituj.iii.C,  •">;  Misbua.Ciielim.  xvii.lJl.  It  is 
not  uulikel V  that  tlie  royal  Egyptian  cubitand 
the  ciiliit  oi"  Ezekifl  were  theoretu-ally  e(iual 
to  the  H;il)vh>nian  cubit;  so  that  thecoininou 
Ih-brew  i-uhit  was  17.70  or  18.22  inclies,  or, 
if  only  tlirec  fiufrers  shorter  than  the  long 
cubit,  18.;i(i  or  Irt.".)  iuclies. 

Cuck'oo,  tlic  A.  V.  has  Cuckow,  using  the 
obsolete  siiclling  [English,  from  the  voice  of 
the  bird].  „,    ,      i 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shahaph, 
emaciated  bird,  in  the  A.  V.  A  bird  cerenioni- 
allv  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  IH;  Deut.  xiv.  lo). 
The  cuckoo,  Caciihis  canorus,  is  a  well-known 
climbing  bird,  which,  coming  in  spring  from 
the  south,  on  its  annual  migration,  remains 
till  the  fall  of  the  year,  being  frequently 
heard,  but  rarely  seen.  The  K.  V..  following 
the  Septuagint  "translators,  renders  shahaph 
not  cuckoo  but  seainew. 

Cu'ctun-ber. 

The  correct  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Kisshii',  a  vegetable  which  the  Israelites  ob- 
tained while  they  were  slaves  in  Egypt,  and 
longed  for  when"  they  could  not  have  it  in 
the  wild. Tuess  iXum".  xi.  5).  It  is  Cucumis 
i-hate.  which  is  very  common  in  Egypt  and 
somi'wliat  sweeter  than  the  common  cucum- 
ber, CHcnmis  satiran.  The  cucumber  was  raised 
in  gardens  in  Palestine  (Is.  i.  8;  Baruch  vi. 
7(1).  and  both  the  species  mentioned  are  grown 
there  to-day. 

Ciun'min  [from  Hebrew  l-ammun,  Arabic 
kammuii.  (Jreek  knmiuon]. 

A  cultivated  i)lant  sown  broadcast  and, 
■when  ripe,  beaten  with  a  rod  to  detach  its 
seeds  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27).  It  was  one  of  the 
trifles  of  which  the  Pharisees  were  particular 
in  paying  tithes  (Mat.  xxiii.  2:}).  Cummin 
is  the  Ciimiiinm  cyminum  of  botanists,  a  fen- 
nel-like plant  bearing  umbels  of  small  white 
flowers.  It  was  cultivated  in  Palestine  for 
its  seeds,  which  were  eaten  as  a  spice  or  rel- 
ish with  food.  They  are  now  in  large  meas- 
uri;  superseded  by  caraway  seeds,  which  are 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste  and  more  nutri- 
tious. 

Cun.     See  Bkrothai. 

Cup. 

1.  A  .small  drinking  vessel  (2  Sam.  xii.  3), 
of  earthenware  or  metal  (Jer.  li.  7),  hebl  in 
the  liand  ((ien.  xi.  11),  and  used  for  water 
(Mark  ix.  11),  or  wineiPs.  Ixxv.  8;  Jer.  xxv. 
lo).     See  Basin. 

2.  Figuratively,  the  contents  of  the  cup, 
wlietluT  pleasant  or  bitter;  that  which  falls 
to  one's  lot  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Is.  li.  17;  Jer.  xvi. 
7  ;   Mat.  xxvi.  :5!)). 

Cup'bear-er. 

The  otlicial  who  poured  drink  into  the  cup 
and  gav(!  it  to  the  king  (Gen.  xl.  !)-l  1,  where 
the  Hebrew  word  is  n^ndered  butler;  Neb.  i. 
II  ;  li.  1,  2).  The  ollicc.  was  one  of  the  most 
dignilicd  in  an  oriental  kingdom,  and  re- 
quired moral  trustworthiness  in  its  occupant, 


lest  he  be  bribed  to  present  poisoned  wine  to 
the  king  (Autiq.  xvi.  8,  1).     It  said  much  for 


Assyrian  Cupbearer. 

the  character  of  Nehemiah  that  he,  a  stranger 
and  a  foreigner,  should  have  been  appointed 
to  such  an  office  at  the  Persian  court. 

Cush  [Hebrew  KAsh,  Old  Egyptian  Kash, 
Kefih,  and  Kish,  Ethiopia]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Ham  and  his  descendants  col- 
lectively. They  constituted  five  principal 
peoples,  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Eaamah,  Sab- 
teca,  and  were  located  in  central  and  south- 
ern Arabia,  except  Seba,  which  is  probablj^  to 
be  sought  on  the  neighboring  African  coast 
(Gen.  X.  6-8  ;  1  Cliron.  i.  8-10). 

2.  The  land  where  the  Oushites  dwelf  dur- 
ing any  period.  In  Gen.  ii.  13,  R.  V.,  the  term 
denotes  territory  in  the  same  great  basin  as 
the  countries  drained  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  In  most  or  all  other  passages  it 
designates  Ethiojjia  in  Africa  (2  Kin.  xix.  i) ; 
Esth.  i.  1;  Ezek.  xxix.  10).  Herodotus  de- 
S(^ribes  Asiatic  Ethiopians  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  who  were  ditferent  from  the  African 
Ethiopians  (vii.  70).     See  Eden  1. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  of  Ethiopian  de- 
scent (the  Seventy  read  Cushi),  who  was  a 
foe  to  David  (Ps.  vii.  title). 

Cu'shan  [a  name  formed  from  Tush]. 

A  country  or  its  inhabitants  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Midian.  and  hence  probably 
Arabia  as  occupied  by  Cushites  (Hab.  iii.  7; 
see  Cush).  A  reference  is  not  apparent  to 
(^ushan-rishathaim  (.Tudg.  iii.  .'")),  called 
Cnshaii  by  Joseplius  (.\nti().  v.  '.i.  2). 

Cu'shan-rish-a-tha'im,  in  A.  V.  Caushan- 
rishathaiin  [etymology  and  meaning  un- 
known ). 

A  king  of  Mesoiiotamia,  who  held  the 
Israelites  in  subjection  for  eight  years.  De- 
liverance was  achieved  under  the  leadership 


Cushi 


157 


Cyrene 


of  Othniel,    Caleb's  younger  brother  (Jiulg. 
iii.  5-11). 

Cu'shi  [an  Ethiopian]. 

1.  An  ancestor  of  that  Jehudi  who  lived 
in  Jeremiah's  time  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah  (Zeph. 
i.  1). 

3.  According  to  the  A.  V.  one  of  the  two 
men  who  carried  David  the  news  of  the  vic- 
tory over  his  rebellious  son  Absalom  ;  but  the 
Hebrew  has  "  the  Cushi,"  evidently  meaning, 
as  the  E.  V.  renders  it,  "the  Cushite,"  i.  e. 
the  Ethiopian.  The  actual  name  of  the  run- 
ner is  unknown  (2  Sara,  xviii.  21-23,  31,  32). 

Cush'ite. 

An  Ethiopian  (Num.  xii.  1,  R.  V.  and  mar- 
gin of  A.  V. ;  2.  Sam.  xviii.  21,  E.  V.). 

Cuth  and  Cu'thah  [of  doubtful  meaning]. 

A  city  of  Babylonia,  often  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Babylon  and  Borsippa,  and 
whose  tutelary  deity  was  Nergal.  Colonists 
were  brought  from  this  place,  among  others, 
to  Samaria  after  the  deportation  of  the  ten 
tribes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24,  30).  Its  site  is  now 
fixed  at  the  mounds  of  Tell  Ibrahim,  north- 
west of  Babylon. 

Cym'bal  [from  Greek  humhalon  (1  Cor. 
xiii.  1)]. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5 ;  1 
Cliron.  xvi.  5),  named  in  Hebrew  from  a  root 
signifying  to  tinkle  or  clang.  One  form  of 
the  name  is  in  the  dual  number,  which  im- 
plies that  the  instrument  is  of  two  distinct 


Eastern  Cymbals. 

parts.  This  undoubtedly  suggests  cymbals, 
as  the  Septuagint  renders  the  word,  which 
are  concave  plates  of  brass  (1  Chron.  xv.  19), 
one  form  of  them  being  nearly  flat,  another 
consisting  of  hollow  cones  designed  to  be 
clashed  together  for  their  sound.  See  Music. 
Cy'press  [from  Latin  cupressus,  cyparissus, 
Greek  knpiiriKsas]. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  Is.  xliv.  14 
of  the  Hebrew  word  Tirsah,  referring  to  the 
hardness  of  the  wood.  The  E.  V.  translates  it 
the  holm  tree. 

2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
T"ashshur  in  E.  V.  of  Is.  xli.  19  ;  Ix.  13.  The 
text  of  both  versions  has  box. 

3.  Eenderiug  of  £'ro.s/(,  margin  E.V.  SeeFiR. 
The  Cypress,  Cupressus  sempervireus,  is  the 
type  of  the  sub-order  Cupressese,  ranking  under 


the  order  Pinnceie  (Conifers).  About  ben  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Cupressus  arc  known.  The 
common  cyi)ress  is  an  evergreen  running 
into  two  well-marked  varieties,  one  a  tall 
tree  CO  feet  high  with  erect  closely  ap)iressed 
branches,  and  the  oHut  .smaller,  wiih  the 
branches  sjireading.  The  cypress  is  a  na- 
tive of  Persia  and  the  Levaiit.  It  is  exten- 
sively planted  in  cemeteries  of  the  East. 

Cy'prus. 

An  island  celebrated  in  the  earliest  af'S 
for  the  richness  of  its  mines  of  (topper.  It  is 
situated  in  tlie  northeastern  part  nf  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea,  about  11  miles  from  the  coa-^t 
of  ('ilicia,  CO  from  Syria,  and  238  from  I'oit 
Said  in  Egypt.  The  more  conii)act  part  of 
the  island  is  110  miles  in  length  by  30  to  '>0  or 
60  in  breadth  ;  besides  wliich  llicrc  runs  from 
its  northeastern  extremity  a  narrow  strip  of 
land,  40  miles  long  by  5  or  (i  broad,  project- 
ing from  the  rest  of  the  island  like  a  i>ow- 
sprit  from  a  ship.  The  area  of  Cyprus  is  about 
3584  square  miles.  The  island  is  mountainous, 
with  intermediate  valleys,  which  are  at  cer- 
tain sea.sons unhealthy.  The  moiintaitis  yield 
copper,  and  the  mines  were  at  one  time  fanned 
to  Herod  the  (treat  (Antiq.  xvi.  4.  5).  Its 
ancient  inhabitants  were  Kittim,  a  branch  of 
the  Greek  race  (Gen.  x.  4),  but  riuenicians 
from  the  coast  of  Syria  colonized  the  island. 
They  built  as  their  cajiital  the  town  of  Kition 
or  Citium.  Later  other  bodies  of  Greeks  rein- 
forced the  original  stock  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  90), 
so  that  to  this  day  about  three-fourths  of  the 
population  belong  to  that  race.  Cyjirus  was 
for  a  short  time  an  im])erial  Roman  jjrovince 
or  j)art  of  one  ;  but  in  the  year  27  B.  c.  Au- 
gustus handed  it  over  to  the  senate,  and 
henceforth  it  was  under  a  proiirietor  with 
the  title  of  proconsul.  Many  Jewish  com- 
munities existed  in  the  island  (1  Mac.  xv.  23  ; 
Acts  iv.  3(5).  There  were  Christians  con- 
nected with  it  before  Stephen's  martyrdom  ; 
and  during  the  persecution  whicli  followed 
some  of  them  returned  to  it,  preaching  the 
gospel  (Acts  xi.  19,  20).  It  was  visited  for 
missionary  juirposes,  first  by  Barnabas  and 
Paul  (Acts  xiii.  4),  and  afterwards  by  Barna- 
bas and  Mark  (xv.  39).  Paul  sailed  past  it 
at  least  twice  without  landing  (xxi.  3.  16; 
xxvii.  4).  Since  1.571  it  has  constituted  a 
portion  of  Turkey,  tliough  by  a  treaty,  dated 
June  4,  1878,  Great  Britain  administers  and 
holds  it  as  a  place  of  arms,  while  Russia  re- 
tains Batoum  and  Kars.     See  Kitti.m. 

Cy-re'ne. 

An  important  Greek  colonial  city  in  Nortli 
Africa,  beautifully  .situated  (m  a  tableland 
many  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and 
a  few  miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean. 
It  constituted  one  of  five  tireek  cities  called 
Pentapolis,  situated  in  Libya  Cyrenaica,  now 
Tripoli.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  founded 
by  Dorians  about  the  year  6.32  B.  c.  During 
the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  C,  many  Jews  became  resident  in 


Cyrenius 


108 


Dagon 


Cyrene  (con.  Apion  ii.  4;  Antiq.  xiv.  7,  2). 
Simon,  who  was  compelled  to  carry  the  cross 
of  Jesus,  seems  to  have  been  a  Cyrenian  Jew 
(Mat.  xxvii.  32).  Cyrenians  joined  with 
Libertines  and  others  in  foruiinfr  a  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi. !)).  Men  of  Cyrene  early 
became  converts  and  preachers  (xi.  20). 
Among  them  was  a  certain  Lucius,  a  jiromi- 
nent  man  in  the  church  at  Antioch  (xiii.  1). 
Extensive  ruins  of  Cyrene  still  exist,  now 
called  el-Krenna. 

Cy-re'ni-us.    See  Quirinius. 

Cy'rus  [Eiamite  and  Persian,  K'ur'ush]. 

A  king  twice  named  in  the  book  of  Isaiah 
as  autiiiited  of  (Jod  and  i)redestined  to  con- 
quer kings  and  fortified  places,  and  set  the 
Jews  free  from  captivity  (Is.  xliv.28;  xlv.  1- 
14).  Daniel,  referring  to  the  conquest  of 
Bal)yloiiia  by  the  Medesand  Persians,  records 
that  during  the  night  which  followed  a  great 
feast  Belshazzar,  the  king  of  the  Chaldeans, 
was  slain  and  Darius  the  Mede  received  the 
kingdom  (Dan.  v.  HO,  31).  Darius  was  pred- 
ecessor of  Cyrus,  or  his  regent,  in  Babylonia 
(vi.  28).  Ezra  relates  that  Cyrus,  king  of 
Persia,  in  the  iirst  year  of  his  reign  issued  a 
proclamation  pernnttiiig  the  Jews  to  return 
to  their  own  land  and  rebuild  the  temjile, 
for  the  use  of  which  he  restored  the  sacred 
vessels  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezra  i. 
1-11;  V.  13,  14;  vi.  3).  Many  of  the  Jews 
embraced  the  privilege  and  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem; but  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  sanc- 
tuary was  greatly  hindered  I)y  adversaries. 

According  to  Babylonian  inscrij)tions, writ- 
ten apiiroxiniately  at  the  time  of  the  capture 
of  the  city,  Cyrus  was  a  .son  of  Canihyses, 
grandson  of  Cyrus,  great-grandson  of  Teispes, 
all  of  whom  reigned  as  kings  of  Ansan,  a 
designation  which  api)ears  to  denote  eastern 
Elam  with  Susa  as  its  capital.  About  the 
year  SSO  B.C.,  the  sixth  year  of  Nabuna'id 
or  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  Istuvegu  or,  | 
in  (ireek,  Astyages,  king  of  tb(^  people  of 
Manda,  marched  against  Cyrus,  but  was  be- 
trayed by  liis  own  army  and  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  then  took  J>ba- 
tana  and  carried  its  sjjoil  to  his  own  city. 
In  the  month  of  Nisan,  .'")17  H.  C  ,  Cyrus,  now 
called  king  of  Persia,  led  the  Persian  army 
across  the  Tigris  mar  Arbela  and  carried  his 
conquest  into  the  western  country.  Accord- 
ing to  (ireek  authorities,  he  conquered  Lydia 
about  this  time,  taking  Sardis  and  making  a 
l>risoncr  of  Cnesus,  its  king.  In  539  R.  c, 
the  .seventeenth  year  of  Nabonidus,  in  the 
month  Tammuz,  Cyrus  met  the  Babylonians 
in  battle;  (»n  the  14th  day  he  took'sijjpara 
and  Nabonidus  lied.  Two  days  later,  on  the 
Kith,  rgbarii  or  ( i(»bryas,  governor  of  (in  tiuni, 
at  the  head  of  a  detaclnnent  of  Cyrus'  army, 
entered  Babylon  without  fighting."  Nabonidus 
was  afterwards  caiJtured  at  Babylon.  On  the 
3d  of  Marchesvan  Cyrus  himself  entered 
Bubylon,  ids  governor  Ugbaru  proclaimed 
peace  to  the   province,  governors   were  ap- 


pointed, and  an  order  issued  for  the  restora- 
tion of  many  captive  foreign  idols  to  their 
several  native  sanctuaries.  About  the  27th 
of  Adar  the  king's  wife  died.  A  public 
mourning  for  her  was  observed  for  a  week, 
followed  by  religious  services  conducted  by 
Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cambyses  in  529  B.  c.  So  far  the 
inscriptions.  According  to  Herodotus  (i.  190, 
191),  Cyrus  captured  Babylon  by  turning  the 
waters  of  the  Eujjhrates  temporarily  into  a 
lake  excavated  for  the  purpose,  and  then  en- 
tering from  the  nearly  dry  bed  of  the  river 
by  the  gates  which  had  been  left  open  on  the 
night  of  a  festival  while  the  inhabitants  were 
engaged  in  revelry.  The  account  given  by 
the  Babylonian  priest,  Berosus,  who  lived 
about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  as 
follows:  "In  the  17th  year  of  Nabonidus, 
Cyrus  came  out  of  Persia  with  a  great  army, 
and,  having  conquered  all  the  rest  of  Asia, 
came  hastily  to  Babylonia.  When  Nabonidus 
perceived  that  he  was  advancing  to  attack 
him,  he  assembled  his  forces  and  opposed 
him ;  but  he  was  defeated  and  fled  with  a 
few  of  his  attendants  and  shut  himself  in 
the  city  of  Borsippa  [the  twin  of  Babylon]. 
Whereupon  C.yrus  took  Babylon ;  and  he 
gave  orders  that  the  outer  walls  should  be 
demolished,  because  the  city  had  proved  very 
troublesome  to  him  and  dithcult  to  take.  He 
then  marched  to  Borsippa  to  besiege  Nabo- 
nidus :  but  as  Nabonidus  delivered  himself 
into  his  hands  without  holding  out  the  place, 
he  was  at  first  kindly  treated  by  Cyrus,  who 
sent  him  out  of  Babylonia  but  gave  him  a 
habitation  in  Carmania,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  and  died  "  (contra  Apion. 
i.  20). 


D. 


Dab'a-reh.     See  Daberath. 

Dab'be-sheth,  in  A.  V.  Dabbashetli  [hump 
of  a  camel]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(.losh.  xix.  11).  Conder  locates  it  at  Dabsheh, 
13  miles  N.  E.  of  Acre.     Improbable. 

Dab'e-ratli,  in  A.  Y.  once  Dabareb  errone- 
ously (.losli.  xxi.  28)  [probably  pasture  land]. 

A  city  within  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Gershonites 
(Josh.  xix.  12  ;  x.xi.  28  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  72;  War  ii. 
21,  3;  Life  &2).  It  has  been  identified  as  the 
village  of  Deburieh  at  the  base  of  mount 
Tabor,  on  the  northwestern  side  of  the  hill. 

Da'gon  [the  name  probably  has  no  refer- 
ence to  either  tish  or  grain]. 
^  The  national  god  of  the  Philistines.  At 
Gaza,  at  Beth-dagon.  and  especially  at  Ash- 
dod,  he  had  a  temple  (Judg.  xvi.21,  23  ;  1 
Sam.  V.  1-7  ;  1  Chnm.  x.  10).  Jonathan 
Maccabanis,  after  defeating  the  Philistines, 
drove  them  into  the  temple  of  Dagon  in 
Ashdod,  and  set  fire  both  to  the  city  and  the 
temple  (1   Mac.  x.  84;  xi.  4).     Dagon  was 


Dalaiah 


159 


Damascus 


worshiped  to  some  extent  in  Phoenicia  and 
also  in  Assyria.  The  idol  is  considered  to 
have  had  the  head,  arms,  and  upper  parts  of 
human  form  (1  Sam.  v.  4),  while  the  lower 
parts  tapered  away  into  the  tail  of  a  fish. 
Diodorus  Siculus  (ii.  4)  mentions  an  idol, 
called  Dercetus.  of  similar  form,  as  having 
existed  at  Ashkelon,  another  Philistine  town. 
It  is  questionable  whether  the  image  of  a 
man  with  the  extremities  of  a  tish,  which 
was  found  at  Khorsabad,  represents  Dagou. 

Da-la'iah.     See  Delaiah. 

Da'leth. 

The  fourth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  D  has  the  same  origin, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fourth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  two  Hebrew  letters,  daleth  and  resh 
(r),  are  somewhat  similar  now,  and  at  certain 
stages  of  their  development  were  distinguish- 
able only  when  carefully  written  and  on 
close  scrutiny.  In  the  Siloam  inscription,  for 
example,  they  are  written  ^  and  ^  and 
on  Hebrew  coins  CJ  and  Q.  This  similarity 
caused  constant  difficulty  to  readers  and  copy- 
ists, and  frequently  misled  them  as  to  the 
true  spelling  of  words,  especially  of  obscure 
names  where  no  guide  to  the  original  form 
existed. 

Dal-ma-nu'tha. 

A  place  situated  probably  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  in  the  vicinity  of 
Magdala  (Mark  viii.  10 ;  cp.  Mat.  xv.  39). 

Dal-ma'ti-a. 

A  region  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  with  the  small  but  numerous  adja- 
cent islands.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Julian 
continued  as  the  Uinaric  Alps,  a  part  of  the 
giant  range  separating  Italy  from  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany.  The  mountain 
tribes  were  subdued  in  A.  D.  D  by  the  Eomans 
under  Augustus  Cuesar  and  Tiberius,  the 
future  emperor,  and  the  province  of  Dalmatia 
was  erected.  It  was  regarded  as  part  of 
Illyricum,  which  constituted  the  limit  of 
Paul's  missionary  journeys  in  that  direction 
(Rom.  XV.  19).  '  His  associate  Titus,  after 
being  for  a  time  with  Paul  in  the  Italian 
capital,  departed  to  Dalmatia,  perhaps  to 
plant  the  gospel  among  its  wild  inhabitants 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Dal'phon. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Dam'a-ris. 

A  woman  converted  through  Paul's  preach- 
ing at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Dam-a-scene'. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Damascus  (2  Cor. 
xi.  32). 

Da-mas'cus. 

A  city  of  Syria,  on  a  plateau  watered  by 
the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12). 


The  tahlehmd  is  about  2200  fret  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
Antililianus  chain  of  mount^iins,  and  cont^iins 
about  r)Ol)  s(|uare  miles.  Where  watered  by 
channels  from  the  rivei-s,  it  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  .so  that  the  city  is  embosomed  in 
gardens  and  orchards,  in  refreshing  contrast 
to  the  neighboring  desert.  Three  great  trade 
routes  center  at  Damascus;  one  leads  south- 
westward  to  the  Mediterranean  seacoast  and 
Egypt,  another  runs  south  to  .\rabia.  and  the 
third  cro.s.ses  the  desert  to  Bagdad.  The  city 
is  very  ancient.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  l.">).  In  the 
days  of  David,  Damascus  was  one  of  several 
petty  states  of  southern  Syria.  It  was  cap- 
tured and  garrisoned  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
5,  6 ;  1  Chron.  xviii.  .5,  6).  After  he  smote 
the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Zobah,  a  man  called 
Rezon,  a  former  subject  of  the  king  of  Zobah, 
collected  a  band  of  men,  seized  Damascus, 
and  founded  the  Syrian  kingdom,  which 
henceforth  was  so  often  in  conflict  with 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xi.  23,  24).  Damascus  was  the 
capital  of  Hezion,  Tabrinnnon,  and  the  Hen- 
hadads  (1  Kin.  xv.  is,  20;  xx.  31;  2  Kin. 
viii.  7),  of  llazael  (1  Kin.  xix.  17;  2  Kin. 
viii.  8-15),  and  of  Rezin  (xvi.  o).  Tabrimmon 
and  the  first  Benhadad  were  in  league  with 
the  king  of  Israel  (1  Kin.  xv.  IS  ;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  2).  Ahab  renewed  the  covenant,  obtain- 
ing the  right  to  establish  streets  of  liaziiars  in 
Damascus  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  At  this  period 
Damascus  took  a  leading  part  among  the 
western  nations  in  resistance  to  Assyria.  In 
alliance  with  kings  of  the  seacoast  and  Ahab 
of  Israel  it  met  Shalmaneser  at  Karkar  is 
854  B.  c,  but  was  defeated.  In  841  its  king 
Hazael  was  also  defeated  by  Shalmaneser.  It 
was  the  residence  of  Naanian.  ca]itain  of  the 
army  under  the  second  Benhadad  (2  Kin.  v. 
1,  12).  When  Rezin  of  Damascus  and  IVkah 
of  Israel  planned  to  as,sault  Jeru.salem,  Ahaz 
of  Judah  called  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  captured  Damascus.  carrie<l  the 
inhabitants  captive  to  Kir.  and  killed  Rezin 
(2  Kin.  xvi.  5-9;  Is.  vii.  1-viii.  <i :  x.  9).  This 
destruction  is  referred  to  by  .\mos  (i.  3-5). 
But  Danutscus  soon  regained  its  prosperity 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  From  the  .\ssyrians  Da- 
mascus passed  to  tlie  Babyhmians.  from  them 
to  the  Persians,  and  then  to  the  Macedonian 
Greeks.  It  was  one  of  the  ten  cities  origin- 
ally forming  the  Decapolis.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Roman  general  Metelius, and  in  the  year 
63  B.  c.  I)ecame  a  Roman  i)rovince.  .>iany 
Jews  dwelt  in  Dama.scus.  and  supported  sev- 
eral synagogues  (Acts  ix.  2;  War  ii.  20,2). 
Near  Damascus  Saul  of  Tarsu.s,  when  on  his 
way  to  persecute  the  Christians  of  the  city, 
was  smitten  to  the  earth  and  heard  the  heav- 
enly voice  (Acts  ix.  2,  3.  10;  xxii.  (i,  Ki,  11. 
12;  xxvi.  12) ;  and  from  the  walla  he  was  let 
down,  now  himself  a  Christian,  to  escape  the 
fury  of  the  Jews  (Acts  ix.  24,  25;  cp.  xxvi. 
20;  Gal.  i.  17).  The  traditional  .street  chilled 
Straight  is  about  two  miles  long,  and  ruiia 


Dan 


IGO 


Dance 


from  northeast  to  southwest,  aliiiost  through 
the  center  of  the  eity.  It  is  a  ])oor  street  now, 
hut  in  the  time  of  I'aul  it  was  a  mafrniticent 
thoroutjhfare,  tlankeil  with  Corintliian  col- 
umns. At  its  eastern  end  is  the  east  gate  of 
the  city.     The  huge  gateway,  oti  feet  high 


East  (jatc  ul  Uaniuacus. 
Thenmall  gate  on  the  iiorlli  of  the  clospd  Roman  arch- 
way IfadH  to  tile  iiortlierii  Koinan  side  ante,  and  is  the 
present  entrance  to  the  city.     A  minaret  rises  above 
the  gate. 

and  20  feet  wide,  and  the  two  smaller  side 
gates  were  hnilt  by  the  Komans,  probably  as 
early  as  the  time  of  I'aul.  Of  these  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  archways  have  long  been 
built  uji  with  masonry,  leaving  only  the 
small  northern  side  gate  open.  In  Paul's 
time  the  city  was  in  the  hands  of  Aretas, 
king  of  Arabia  I'etnea,  but  it  soon  reverted 
t<i  the  Jvomans  (2  Cor.  xi.  32).  In  A.  n.  634 
Damascus  was  invested  and  in  635  captured 
by  tlie  .\rabs  under  Omar.  In  1300  it  was 
plundered  by  the  Tartars,  and  in  1400  by 
Timur  the  'hirlar.  Since  loKi  it  has  been 
held  by  the  Turks.  In  July,  1H60,  6000 
oriental  Christians  were  massiicred  by  a  Mo- 
haiimifdan  mob  composed  of  Druses  and 
Hiili.nin,  assisted  by  Turkish  soldiers. 
Dan  [a  judge]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jacob  by  Rilhah  (Gen.  xxx. 
5.  6).  He  had  «ine  .son,  Hushiin  ((ien.  xlvi. 
23)  or  .Sliuham  (Num.  xxvi.  42).  The  future 
destiny  of  his  descendants  was  thus  pndicted 
by  .lacnli:  "l)an  shall  .judge  his  jieojile,  as 
tjue  of  the  tribes  of  Israel.  Dan  hhall  be  a 
wrpent  in  tlie  way,  an  adder  in  the  )tath, 
thai  bilelh  the  horses  heels,  so  that  his  rider 
fallclh  backward"  (Oen.  xli.\.  It;.  17,  11.  V.); 
meaning  that  his  tribe  would  contend  with 
the  foes  of  Israel  as  earnestly  and  craftily  as 
would  any  of  the  tribes.  Speaking  on  the 
sjime  subject  Moses  compared  Dan  to  a  lion's 
wlielp  that  leapeth  forth  from  JJa.shan  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  22). 

2.  The  tribe  to  which  Dan  gave  origin,  and 


the  territorvJn  Canaan  which  it  obtained  by 
allotment  (Num.  i.  12,  38.  39).  Its  assigned 
territory  contained,  among  other  towns, 
Zorah,  Ajalon,  Ekrou,  Eltekeh,  and  ended 
opposite  Japho — i.  e.  Joppa  (Josh.  xix.  40-46; 
xxi.  5.  23;  cp.  Judg.  \:  17).  The  Dauites, 
however,  did  not  possess  themselves  of  all 
this  region,  but  were  restricted  by  the  Amor- 
ites  to  the  hill  country  (Judg.  i.  34,  35). 
Cramped  for  room,  they  sent  spies  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Palestine  to  look  for  a  new 
location,  who  found  what  they  desired  in  the 
town  of  Laish,  occupied  by  foreigners.  The 
Dauites  sent  an  expedition,  seized  the  place, 
slew  its  inhabitants,  and  rebuilt  it  under  the 
new  name  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  47  ;  Judg.  xviii. 
1-31 ).  Aholiab  and  Samson  were  Danites  (Ex. 
xxxi.  6 ;  Judg.  xiii.  2,  24). 

3.  A  town  in  the  extreme  north  of  Pales- 
tine, the  phrase  "from  Dan  to  Beersheba  " 
or  "from  Beersheba  to  Dan"  denoting  the 
land  in  its  entire  extent  from  north  to  south 
(Judg.  XX.  1;  1  Chron.  xxi.  2).  The  town 
was  originally  called  Laish,  Hon,  or  Leshem. 
perhaps  place  of  lions  (Lesham  from  layish,  as 
Etani  from  'ai/it).  The  name  Dan  was  given  to 
it  after  its  capture  by  the  Danites  (Josh.  xix. 
47  ;  Judg.  xviii.).  Abraham  pursued  Chedor- 
laomer  as  far  as  Dan  (Gen.  xiv.  14) ;  thought 
by  some  to  be  Dan-jaan  (q.  v.).  But  Dan- 
jaan  may  be  Laish,  that  is  Dan  ;  if  so,  the 
familiar  name  Dan  has  supplanted  the  older 
designation  in  Genesis  (cp.  Deut.  xxxiv.  1) 
At  Dan  Jeroboam  fixed  one  of  his  golden 
calves  (1  Kin.  xii.  29,  30;  2  Kin.  x.  29  ;  Amos 
viii.  14).  Benhadad  destroyed  the  town  with 
other  places  in  its  vicinity  (1  Kin.  xv.  20 ;  2 
Chron.  xvi.  4) ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  (Ezek. 
sxvii.  19).  Dan  was  in  a  fertile  valley  by 
Beth-rehob  (Judg.  xviii.  9,  28),  near  Lebanon, 
at  the  sources  of  the  lesser  Jordan  (Antiq.  v. 
3,  1 ;  viii.  8,  4),  near  the  marshes  of  the 
waters  of  Merom  (War  iv.  1,  1),  and  four 
Roman  miles  west  of  Paneas  (Onom).  The.se 
statements  indicate  Tell  el-Kadi,  which  sig- 
nifies mound  of  the  judge,  and  thus  pre- 
serves, though  perhajis  accidentally,  the  sense 
of  the  old  name  Dan.  At  the  base  of  this 
mound  are  two  spring.s,  whose  waters  pres- 
ently unite  and  form  the  river  Leddan,  the 
shortest  but  most  abundant  in  water  of  the 
three  streams  which  How  together  a  few  miles 
below  and  form  the  Jordan. 

Dance. 

On  ioyous  occasions  of  a  secular  or  semi- 
secular  character  dancing,  accompanied  by 
music,  was  practiced  among  the  Hebrews  liy 
woineti,  (^itlier  singly  or  in  groups,  especially 
in  welcoming  a  victor  homo  (Judg.  xi.  34;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  6,7;  xxix.5;  cp.  Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13i. 
Children,  apparently  of  both  sexes,  took  part 
in  dances  (Job  xxi.  il ;  Mat.  xi.  17  ;  Luke  vii. 
32).  Men  probably  engaged  in  damu's  among 
themselves,  as  thev  did  in  Lgyjit  ( Ps.  xxx. 
11:  Laui.  V.  15;  Ecc.  iii.  4;  Luke  xv.  25). 
Only  on  one  occasion  do  we  find  a  Jewish 


Daniel 


161 


Daniel 


princess  dancing  publicly  in  an  assembly  of 
men  after  the  Eoman  manner ;  acting  a  mVtli- 
ological  story  with  the  face  masked,  but  with 
the  body  clothed  so  as  to  exhibit  tlie  beauty 
of  the  figure  (Mat.  xiv.  (! ;  j\[ark  vi.  22). 
Dancing  as  part  of  a  religious  ceremonj^  or 
as  an  act  of  worship  seems  to  have  been  com- 
mon among  the  Hebrews.  It  was  practiced 
chiefly  by  women  (Ex.  xv.  20;  Judg.  xxi.  21, 


the  first  year  of  Cyrus  (21).  In  Nebucliad- 
nezzar's  second  year,  6(»:j  h.  c,  doulitless  to- 
wards its  close  (cp.  .")  and  iHi,  Daniel  inter- 
preted the  king's  dream  of  the  great  image 
(ii.  1-46).  This  success  led  to  the  jirophet's 
being  made  ruler  over  the  province  of  Baby- 
lon, and  head  over  its  wise  men  (Ki^H).  lie 
afterwards  interpreted  the  vision  wliich  re- 
vealed   the   approaching   madness  of  Nebu- 


Two  Steps  in  an  Ancient  Egyptian  Dance, 

Followed  by  a  revolution  of  the  body  in  two  movemenls  without  uncla,spiug  the  hands. 


23).  but  occasionally  by  men,  as  in  the  well- 
known  instance  of  David's  dancing  before  the 
ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  14-23;  1  Chron.  xv.  29;  Ps. 
cxlix.  3;  cl.  4).  Dancing  before  images  was 
common  among  idolaters  (Ex.  xxxii.  19;  1 
Kin.  xviii,  26). 

Dan'iel  [God  is  my  judge]. 

1.  Son  of  David  and  Abigail,  born  at  He- 
bron (1  Chron.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Chileab 
in  2  Sam.  iii.  3. 

2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Ezra  viii.  2  ;  Neh.  x.  6). 
Chronologically  he  is  the  third  of  the  name 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 

3.  The  celebrated  Jewish  prophet  at  the 
Babylonian  court.  He  sprang  from  princely 
family  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Dan.  i.  3-7). 
When  a  youth,  he  was  carried  off  with  other 
captives  by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  his  first 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  third  or,  reckon- 
ing accession  year  as  first  year,  tlie  fourth 
of  Jehoiakim,  605  B.  c.  (i.  1;  Jer.  xxv.  1). 
At  Babylon  the  boj^  was  selected  with  other 
young  captives  of  good  birth  and  parts  to  be 
trained  for  the  state  service.  He  and  three 
companionsobtained  leave  from  the  master  of 
the  eunuchs,  under  whose  charge  they  were, 
to  substitute  simple  food  for  the  viands  as- 
signed them  by  the  king  and  which  were 
liable  to  be  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law  and 
defiled  by  heathen  rites  (Dan.  i.  S).  The  four 
young  exiles  all  became  proficient  in  Baby- 
lonian learning,  while  the  grace  of  God  ena- 
))led  them  to  manifest  uncompromising  priq- 
ciple,  even  when  it  brought  them  face  to 
face  with  deatli.  The  period  of  tutelage 
ended  in  the  third  year  (5i,  when  they  were 
given  service  at  court ;  and  Daniel  continued 
in  it  with  varying  prominence  until  538  B.  C, 

11 


chadnezzar  (iv.).  About  this  time  Ezekiel 
cited  Daniel  as  a  notable  example  of  right- 
eousness and  wisdom  (Ezek.  xiv.  II;  xxviii. 
3).  In  the  first  year  of  Belsliazzar  Daniel 
himself  had  a  vision  and  saw,  under  tlie 
figure  of  animals,  four  successive  empires 
reaching  to  the  time  when  the  ancient  of 
days  should  sit,  and  one  like  a  stm  of  man 
come  with  tiie  clouds  of  heaven  to  set  up  a 
spiritual  kingdom  which  should  endure  eter- 
nally (vii.).  The  scene  of  the  vision  of  the 
third  year  of  Belshazzar  was  at  Shushan 
(viii.  2),  the  Elamite  capital,  and  residence 
of  the  already  renowned  Cyrus,  king  of  Per- 
sia (viii.  20;  and  see  CvKis).  Tlie  i>roplii't 
himself  was  probably  at  Babylon  (cp.  Ezek. 
viii.  1-3).  In  this  vision  he  sjiw  a  ram  tram- 
pled by  a  goat,  and  from  the  head  fif  the  lat- 
ter, when  its  power  was  in  turn  broken,  four 
horns  appearing,  from  <uie  of  which  a  little 
horn  sprang  and  wrought  jiroudly,  especially 
toward  the  glorious  land  and  its  .sanctuary ; 
whereby  were  symbolized  the  Medo-Persian 
and  Macedonian  emi>ires,  the  division  of  the 
latter  into  four  kingdoms,  the  ri.se  of  a  fierce 
king  and  his  desecration  of  the  siincluary 
(viii.).  On  the  fall  of  the  Babylonian  empire, 
Darius,  in  behalf  of  the  conciueror,  ajijiointed 
120  satrapsover  the  new  kingdom,  with  tlin-e 
presidents  over  them,  Daniel  being  one  of 
the  three  (vi.  1,  2;  see  Cvurs).  Jealousy  of 
Daniel  on  account  of  liis  ability  and  emi- 
nence led  to  a  plot  against  him,  and  he  wa.s 
cast  into  the  den  of  lions  i.3-23 ;  1  Mae.  ii.  <iO). 
In  the  first  year  of  Darius,  Daniel  concluded 
from  the  statements  of  .Icremiah  (  xxv.  11.  12  ; 
xxix.  10)  that  the  cajitivity  was  approaciiing 
its  close  (Dan.  ix.  1,  2).  He  huml)led  him- 
self, confessed  the  .sins  of  the  nation  and 
prayed.  In  consequence  there  was  revealed 
to  him  the  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks 


Daniel 


162 


Daniel 


tix.  24)  In  the  third  year  of  Cyrus,  king  of 
Persia,  he  iiad  a  vision  of  tlie  final  conflict 
between  tiie  powers  of  the  world  and  tlie 
kinjjdoni  of  God  ( x.-xii.  I.  As  Daniel  prophe- 
sieii  at  the  l)efj;inning  of  the  dynasty  of  Nebii- 
cliadnezzar,  and  at  its  end,  and  in  tlie  reigns 
of  Darius  the  Mede  and  Cyrus  the  Persian 
(vi.  2?)),  he  must  liave  lived  to  an  advanced 
age.  The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are 
unknown.  Daniel  is  referred  to  in  Ezek. 
xiv.  1-4;  xxviii.  3;  2  Esdras  xii.  11;  I  Mac. 
ii.  60;  Mat.  xxiv.  15;  Mark  xiii.  14;  Heb. 
xi.  :». 

The  hook  of  Daniel  is  a  book  of  the  O.  T. 
which  in  (be  .Si'ptuagint and  English  versions 
follows  EzL-kiel,  i)ut  in  the  llelirew  canon  is 
placed  in  tlie  tliird  division.  It  was  not  put 
witii  the  prophets  because  its  writer,  although 
called  a  prophet  (.Mat.  xxiv.  1.');  Antiq.  x. 
1.0,  4  and  ti),  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  them 
(Anli<|.  X.  U,  7),  and  although  he  was  mar- 
veloiisly  gifted  by  the  Spirit  of  prophecy,  was 
not  regarded  as  otiicially  a  prophet.  He  had 
the  dimniii  propheticmn,  but  not  the  miums 
proiihfticHiii ;  the  proi)lu'tic  gift,  not  the  pro- 
phetic vocation.  He  was  otiicially  a  states- 
man, and  his  life  was  passed  in  the  business 
of  the  state.  He  does  not  u.se  the  common 
prophetic  declaration,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord," 
and  he  does  not  exhort  his  contemporaries, 
as  it  was  the  function  of  the  prophets  to  do. 
The  greater  part  of  the  book  is  in  Hebrew  ; 
but  a  portion  which  relates  almost  entirely 
to  the  life  of  the  .lews  in  a  foreign  land  and 
to  the  deeds  of  foreign  kings  and  to  prophe- 
cies concerning  foreign  empires,  beginning 
with  the  middle  of  verse  4,  chap,  ii.,  and  ex- 
tending to  chap,  vii.,  verse  'IS,  is  in  Aramaic, 
the  commercial  and  di|)loiTiatic  language  of 
the  time  (cp.  similar  pheuonu'uon  in  Ezra). 
Tiu!  hook  may  be  divided  into  three  siictions: 

1.  Introduction,  tiie  prejiaration  of  Daniel 
and  his  three  companions  for  their  work(i.), 

2.  \Vitn<!ss  borne  by  (rod  through  the  four, 
at  a  foreitin  court  and  largely  to  foreigners, 
of  his  omiiij)otent  and  omniscient  control  of 
the  jiowers  of  tiie  world  in  their  develop- 
ment and  in  their  relation  to  the  kingdom 
of  (lod  lii.-vii.).  This  section  is  written 
in  .\ramai<-,.  It  includes  Xtlmchadnezzar's 
dreain  of  the  image  made  of  four  metals  and 
its  destru(;tion  (ii.);  the  attempt  against 
Daniel's  three  companions  and  their  deliver- 
ance from  the  liery  furnace  (iii.)  ;  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's dream  of  tiie  tree  hewn  down  (iv.)  ; 
the  writing  on  the  wall  at  Helshazzar's  feast 
(v.)  ;  the  iilot  to  destroy  Daniel,  and  his  de- 
liverance from  the  lions'  ilen  (vi.i;  Daniel's 
vision  of  the  four  beasts  and  the  being  like 
unto  a  son  of  man  (vii.i.  This  last  is  jilaced 
out  of  chronological  order  that  it  may  form 
the  transition  to  .'5.  :{.  Supjilementary  "vi.sions 
of  Daniel,  having  the  fortunes  of  (rod's  i)eo- 
ple  specially  in  view  (  viii.-xii.),  comprising 
three  visions:  (1)  (,'oneerniiig  the  cessation 
of  sacrifice,  desolation  of  the  sanctuary,  oji- 
position  to  the  iirince  of  princes  ( viii. ;  cp.  i;5, 


25).  (2)  In  view  of  the  near  completion  of 
the  predicted  seventy  years  of  exile,  Daniel 
prepared  for  the  great  event  by  confessing 
national  sins  and  supplicating  forgiveness. 
From  i)rophecies  gone  before,  it  might  be 
supposed  that  the  kingdom  of  Messiah  would 
be  established  immediately  at  the  expiration 
of  the  captivity ;  but  in  a  vision  Daniel  is 
informed  that  70  weeks  must  elapse  after  the 
decree  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  is  issued  before 
reconciliation  is  made  and  everlasting  right- 
eousness brought  in  (Dan.  ix.).  (3)  He  is  fur- 
ther informed  by  a  vision  in  the  third  year 
of  the  founder  of  the  Persian  empire  in  re- 
gard to  the  overthrow  of  that  empire,  the 
persecution  of  God's  people  that  shall  ensue, 
and  the  final  relief  of  the  saints  and  the 
resurrection  to  glory  (x.-xii.). 

The  prophecy  of  the  image,  composed  of 
four  metals,  broken  by  the  stone  lii.  31- 
45),  and  that  of  the  four  beasts  replaced 
by  a  being  like  unto  a  son  of  man  (vii.),  de- 
pict four  worldly  powers  yielding  place  to 
the  kingdom  of  God.  The  fourth  empire  is 
clearly  the  Roman  ;  for  1.  The  second  em- 
pire, the  Medo-Persian,  cannot  be  divided 
into  two,  since  the  Median  kingdom  in  its 
separate  existence  was  never  an  empire  of 
world-wide  sway.  Historically,  Media  and 
Persia  were  one  empire  in  the  days  of  Median 
supremacy.  There  was  a  change  of  dynasty, 
a  Persian  prince  obtained  the  throne  of 
Media,  and  then  the  Medo-Persian  career  of 
universal  conquest  began.  2.  Daniel  speaks 
of  the  Medo-Persian  empire  as  one  (v.  28; 
vi.  8;  viii.  20).  3.  To  divide  the  Medo-Per- 
sian empire  into  two  empires  requires  the 
identification  of  the  leopard  with  Persia 
instead  of  Greece.  But  the  leopard  has  four 
heads  (vii.  6 1.  Persia  was  not  broken  into 
four  parts,  but  the  Macedonian  empire  was 
(viii.  21,  22;  xi.  2-4).  4.  The  Roman  empire 
was  already  within  the  prophet's  view.  On 
the  common  interpretation,  the  Romans  are 
referred  to  in  xi.  30 ;  and  Antiochus  the 
Great  in  xi.  10''-20,  who  was  overwhelmingly 
defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Magnesia  in  lOO 
B.  c.  (sec  Antiochus).  It  may  be  added 
that  in  the  visions  a  horn  represents  a  king 
and  a  kingdom  (vii.  7,  24),  be  it  Media,  Per- 
sia, or  Macedonia  (viii.  20-22) ;  and  a  little 
horn  signifies  the  rise  of  a  new  king  or 
power,  it  may  be  among  the  successors  of 
Alexander  (viii.  9,  23)  or  in  the  midst  of  the 
Roman  empire  (vii.  8,  24).  A  horn  does  not 
always  represent  one  and  the  same  king,  and 
no  more  does  a  little  horn  stand  for  the  same 
individual. 

The  i)rophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks  also 
concerns  the  sufl'erings  of  the  kingdom  of 
(io(l  (ix.  24-27).  The  prophetic  era  from 
which  the  weeks  are  reckoned  is  a  decree, 
either  of  God  or  of  an  ejirthly  king,  for  re- 
storing and  building  Jerusalem  (25).  The 
anointed  one,  tiie  prince  (25),  and  theanointed 
one  (2())  are  interj)reted,  with  more  or  le.ss 
soundness  of  reasoning,  as  referring  to  one 


Daniel 


163 


Daniel 


person  or  two  persons,  and  as  bein,tr  Cyrus  or 
a  high  priest  or  the  line  of  high  priests  or 
Christ.  The  seven  weeks  and  sixty-two 
weeks  and  one  week,  amounting  in  all  to 
seventy  weeks  (24-27),  are  variously  distrib- 
uted. They  are  taken  successively,  so  as  to 
measure  a  period  of  490  years  ;  or  the  sixty- 
two  is  held  to  include  the  seven,  so  that  a 
period  of  434  years  only  is  covered  ;  or  the 
numbers  are  taken  in  the  reverse  order  from 
their  mention  in  verse  25,  and  a  significant 
period  of  seven  weeks  is  made  to  follow  the 
periods  of  sixty-two  weeks  and  one  week. 
The  theories  which  regard  the  decree  as  an 
edict  of  God  ai-e  mainly  two.  They  make 
the  era  either  the  beginning  of  the  exile,  60.5 
B.  c.  (cp.  Jer.  XXV.  11),  or  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  .587  B.  c.  (cp.  xxix.  10,  written 
soon  after  the  beginning  of  Jehoiachin's  cap- 
tivity, verse  2;  xxx.  18;  xxxi.  38).  Need  it 
be  added  that  the  year  4.50  B.  c.  has  also  been 
sought,  on  the  theory  that  the  seventy  years 
of  punishment  were  doubled  (Jer.  xvi.  18; 
but  see  Is.  xl.  2),  and  a  divine  decree  of  favor 
to  Zion  is  implied  at  their  close?  The  theo- 
ries which  date  the  era  from  the  decree  of 
an  earthly  monarch  are  four:  1.  The  edict 
of  Cyrus,  538  B.  c.  (Ezra  i.  2-4;  vi.  3-5;  cp. 
Is.  xliv.  28;  xlv.  1,  13),  under  the  provisions 
of  which  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  was 
begun  (Ezra  vi.  14, 15  ;  Hag.  i.  14,  15).  2.  The 
edict  of  Darius  (Ezra  vi.  6-12).  3.  The  edict 
of  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes,  4.57  B.  c. 
(vii.  7,  11-26) ;  which  granted  to  the  Jews 
absolute  authority  in  civil  and  religious  mat- 
ters (25,  26),  and  under  which  they  proceeded 
to  build  the  city  walls  (iv.  12).  The  work 
was  temporarily  interru|)ted  by  a  new  decree 
(iv.  21).  4.  The  edict  of  tiie  twentieth  year 
of  Artaxerxes,  444  B.  c,  which  included  per- 
mi.ssioa  to  restore  and  fortify  tiie  city  (Xeh. 
ii.  3,  .5,  8,  17,  18).  The  problem  thus  has 
three  factors,  to  each  of  which  several  inter- 
pretations are  given  :  the  decree,  the  anointed 
one,  and  the  weeks ;  and  these  factors  are 
susceptible  of  various  combinations.  Of  all 
these  combinations,  using  any  one  of  the  de- 
crees as  a  starting-point,  and  reckoning  for- 
ward either  sixty-two  or  sixty-nine  weeks 
of  seven  years  each,  and  expecting  either 
the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  or  that  of 
Christ  to  be  reached  by  this  measurement, 
only  one  combination  yields  a  result.  All 
others  require  an  invention  of  history  or 
involve  an  unusual  chronological  artifice  or 
end  in  an  unsolved  mystery  or  a.ssume  a 
gross  miscalculation  of  the  interval  by  the 
author.  The  one  combination  which  coin- 
cides with  known  history  throughout  starts 
with  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes  in  his  seventh 
year,  457  B.  C.  A  period  of  seven  weeks  or 
forty-nine  years  came  to  a  close  about  408 
B.  c,  and  the  reformation  under  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  was  conducted  during  this  period 
and  characterized  this  period  as  a  whole. 
When  this  reform  ceased  to  be  the  dominat- 
ing feature  of  God's  kingdom  is  unknown, 


but  Neheiniaii's  successor,  who  was  a  Persian 
and  naturally  not  a  niaintaincr  of  tlie  e.xelu- 
siveness  of  Jehovah's  religion,  was  in  ollice 
in  411  B.  c,  hi  lore  tlie  close  of  the  seventh 
week.  Then  follow  sixly-two  weeks  or  431 
years,  coming  down  thro'iigh  \.  i>.  26  to  the 
time  when  Jesus  l)egaii  his  jiublic  ministry, 
A.  D.  27,  probably  early  in  that  year.  After 
these  threescore  and  two  weeksan  anointed 
one  was  cut  oti'  (Dan.  ix.  26 1,  making,  it  may 
well  be,  the  reconciliation  for  iniquity  anil 
bringing  in  the  everlasting  rigliteou'sne.s.s, 
spoken  of  in  ver.se  24;  and  in  llie  midst  of 
this  last  week  one  caused  the  saeri (!(•<■  and  ol)- 
lation  to  cea.se,  not  by  fc.rliidding  tlieni,  but 
by  the  one  sacrifice  on  Calvary  that  rendered 
all  others  henceforth  unnecessary.  Neverthe- 
less, notwithstanding  the  coincidence  of  the 
I  prophecy  with  the  known  events  in  tlie  liis- 
l  tory  of  God's  kingdom,  and  the  signilicance 
I  of  this  correspondence,  yet  quite  probably 
the  seventy,  and  the  seven  separated  from  it 
at  the  beginning,  and  the  one  week  jinirked 
oflFfrom  it  at  the  end,  are  all  symbolical,  and 
measure  symbolically,  not  niatlieniatically, 
a  vast  period  in  the  history  of  (iod's  king- 
dom on  earth.  Other  num))ers  are  so  used 
in  the  book  of  Daniel.  The  syndxilism  of 
four  and  ten,  for  example,  even  when  the 
number  corresponds  with  ])ersons  or  events 
of  history,  probably  often  deti-rmined  the 
particular  number  of  historical  instances  to 
be  cited,  and  was  doubtless  felt  by  the 
prophet  as  he  recalled  the  dream  and  beheld 
the  visions. 

The  largeness  of  the  outlook  and  tlie  com- 
prehensiveness of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel 
are  realized  in  the  light  of  the  use  made  of 
this  book  by  the  men  of  the  Hible.  1.  Our 
Lord  chose  the  title  "son  of  man,"  by  which 
he  referred  to  liim.self  more  often  than  by 
any  other  title,  fnmi  Dan.  vii.  13,  14;  and 
thus  placed  that  aspect  of  his  mission  and 
kingdom,  which  this  title  denotes,  in  tlie 
forefront.  See  Sox  of  M.\n.  2.  Christ 
warned  men  that  the  abomination  of  deso- 
lation, spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  jirophet, 
should  yet  stand  in  the  lioly  jilace  (Mat. 
xxiv.  15;  Mark  xiii.  14  ;  Dan.  xi.  31  :  xii.  11 ; 
and  ix.  27,  noting  (ireek  text ;  cp.  2  Thes.  ii. 
1-12).  Evidently,  on  Christ's  explanation, 
the  content  of  the  prophecies  was  not  ex- 
hausted when  tlie  idolatrous  altar  was 
erected  on  Jehovah's  altar  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  i.  .54).  Either  in  some, 
if  not  all,  instances  the  proi)liecy  relates  to 
a  ditferent  event,  or  else  the  abomination 
of  desolation  is  a  concejition  embodying  an 
idea  which  will  come  to  manifestation  in 
concrete  form  whenever  the  idea  itself  is 
present  as  a  potent  principle  in  history. 
Likewise  the  apo.stles  understood  tliat  the 
little  horn  of  the  fourth  beast  (Dan.  vii.  24), 
and  the  king  that  speaketh  marvelous  things 
against  God  (xi.  3<>).  belong  to  the  future  and 
are  vet  to  be  revealed  (2  Thes.  ii.  4;  Kev. 
xiii.  5,  6).    Characteristic  features  of  the  con- 


Daniel 


164 


Daniel 


flict  between  the  world  and  God's  kingdom 
undoubtedly  belonjjed  to  the  bitter  struggle 
in  tiie  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  but  not 
to  that  time  only ;  and  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles saw  in  these  jirophecies  of  Daniel  an 
apocalypse  of  the  future.  These  revelations 
were  not  exhausted  by  the  events  of  the 
reign  of  Antiochus;  they  are  big  with  mean- 
ing for  the  latter  days  of  God's  kingdom. 
3.  The  beast  which  John  saw  coming  up  out 
of  the  sea  i  Kev.  xiii.  1)  is  a  composite  picture 
of  the  four  beasts  which  Daniel  saw  emerging 
from  the  sea  {Dan.  vii.  3-7).  Daniel  saw  a 
lion  with  eagle's  wings  [and  one  head],  a 
bear  [with  one  head],  a  leopard  with  four 
wings  and  four  heads,  and  finally  a  beast 
with  ten  horns  [and  one  head].  On  combin- 
ing these  four  beasts  as  one  animal,  the  beast 
that  John  saw  is  produced:  like  a  leopard, 
but  with  the  feet  of  a  bear  and  the  mouth 
of  a  lion,  having  ten  horns  and  seven  heads. 
Daniel  describes  four  kingdoms  of  this  world 
which  rise  successively,  and  are  as  fierce  and 
terrible  as  wild  beasts  in  their  antagonism 
to  the  kingdom  of  God.  John  does  not  view 
the  kingdoms  individually,  but  all  the  king- 
doms of  this  world  collectively.  He  gazes 
upon  them  as  one,  notwithstanding  external 
differences.  And  John  sees  the  dragon,  the 
tempter-serpent  of  Eden  (Rev.  xii.  .3,  9),  con- 
formed in  appearance  to  the  beast,  because 
the  dragon  is  the  animating  and  moulding 
spirit  in  the  kingdom  of  the  world.  To 
neither  Daniel  nor  John  are  the  world  pow- 
ers presented  in  their  political  aspect,  but 
solely  as  representatives  of  the  world  in  its 
antagonism  to  the  kingdom  of  God.  It  is 
not  the  fortunes  of  the  nations,  but  their 
relation  to  God's  kingdom,  tliat  is  the  prime 
object  of  the  prophecy.  This  fact  is  import- 
ant, and  furnishes  a  clue  to  the  revelation 
in  chapters  xi.  and  xii.  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 
It  suggests  that  in  these  chapters  also  the 
aim  is  not  to  unfold  political  history,  but  is 
nuiinly  to  sketch  apocalypticallj' great  move- 
ments of  the  world  in  relation  to  the  king- 
dom of  God.  The  enemies  of  Zion  came, 
and  had  always  come,  from  the  north  and 
south.  Developing  that  historical  circuni- 
stance  apocalyptically,  the  vision  pictures  a 
struggle  between  the  contending  world-i)ow- 
ers,  a  war  of  varying  fortunes;  the  gradual 
overthrow  of  the  king  of  the  south  and  the 
ultimate  triumph  of  the  king  of  the  north, 
and  his  final  mortal  conflict  with  the  king- 
dom of  (Jod.  Tiie  picture  is  a  companion 
piece  to  Ezek.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix  .  4.  Daniel 
speaks  of  the  time  of  the  end,  that  is  the 
final  time.  It  is  the  latter  time  of  the  indig- 
nation [of  God]  (Dan.  viii.  19:  cp.  xi.  36), 
when  judgment  is  being  executed  upon  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world  and  tht;  eternal  king- 
dom of  God  is  being  established  (cp.  x.  11), 
to  he  followed  by  the  consiinunation  (xii. 
l"-'}).  It  is  the  final  period  of  the  conflict 
between  the  powers  of  the  world  and  the 
kingdom    of  God,  ending   in   the  complete 


victory  of  the  kingdom  (xi.  40-xii.  4).  The 
apostles  also  speak  of  this  period,  calling  it 
the  last  hour,  the  last  time,  or  the  last  days; 
and  they  allude  to  it  as  already  begun  in 
their  day  and  not  ended,  and  destined  to 
witness  a  manifestation  of  antichrist  (2  Thes. 
ii.  2-4  ;  2  Tim.  iii.  1 ;  1  John  ii.  18 ;  Jude  18). 
These  meu  of  the  New  Testament  clearly 
saw  the  scope  and  meaning  of  Daniel's  proph- 
ecies concerning  the  final  time,  and  they  had 
a  sense  of  living  in  that  predicted  period. 

The  unity  of  the  book  of  Daniel  is  rarely 
questioned.  The  theory  has,  indeed,  been 
advanced,  and  has  its  advocates  at  present, 
that  the  Aramaic  section,  so  much  at  least  us 
is  comprised  in  chaps,  ii.-vi.,  is  an  inde- 
pendent composition,  penned  iu  Aramaic, 
and  written  one,  two,  or  three  centuries  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  But  gen- 
erally the  essential  integrity  of  the  book  is 
conceded ;  it  was  written  by  one  man.  In 
the  first  seven  chapters  Daniel  is  spoken  of 
in  the  third  person  and  sometimes  in  com- 
mendatory terms  (i.  19,  20  ;  ii.  14  ;  v.  11,  12  ; 
vi.  3  ;  cp.  Paul  of  himself,  2  Cor.  ii.  15  ;  x.  8  ; 
xi.  5,  23  seq.) ;  and  in  the  subsequent  chap- 
ters he  speaks  in  the  first  person.  Many 
critics  deny  that  the  book  was  composed  by 
Daniel  ;  and  their  denial  extends  to  those 
parts  in  which  the  first  person  is  used  as  well 
as  to  that  part  where  the  third  person  is  em- 
ployed. They  generally  date  its  publication 
about  168  or  167  E.  c,  at  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  contend  that  it  was  written 
to  support  the  faith  of  the  Jews  under  the 
dreadful  persecution  then  raging  under  An- 
tiochus Epiphanes.  The  chief  arguments 
against  the  genuineness  of  the  book  are  :  (1 ) 
Daniel  is  not  mentioned  among  the  worthies 
by  the  son  of  Sirach  in  the  book  of  Ecclesi- 
asticus  (xlix.),  about  200  B.  c,  although  he 
mentions  Ezekiel,  Nehemiah,  and  tire  minor 
prophets.  (2)  The  writer's  use  of  Greek 
words,  which  indicate  that  he  lived  in  the 
Grecian  period.  (3)  Historical  inaccuracies, 
which  show  that  he  was  not  an  eyewitness 
of  the  events  which  he  describes,  but  lived 
at  a  remote  period  from  them.  (4)  The 
prophecies  give  details  of  history  until  the 
death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  only. 

These  arguments  are  answered  as  follows: 

(1)  The  son  of  Sirach  neglects  to  mention 
Daniel,  it  is  tr\ie  ;  but  he  also  fails  to  mention 
Ezra  and  other  notable  meu,  like  Gideon, 
Samson,  and  Jehoshaphat. 

(2)  Th(^  Greek  words  are  confined  to  the 
names  of  musical  instruments  and  are  all 
found  in  one  vcu'se,  iii.  5.  The  Greek  origin 
of  at  least  two  of  the.se  names  is  freely 
granted  :  jj^sanfrin  for  the  Greek,  psaltenon, 
and  sHmpon''!/n  for  sumphoiiin.  But  does  this 
fact  militate  against  the  composition  of  the 
book  by  Daniel  in  Bal)yloii  about  530  B.  c.  ? 
By  no  means;  for  instruments  such  as  those 
described  were  in  use  in  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates valleys  in  Daniel's  day.  Moreover, 
there  is  no  question  that  at  that  time  and  in 


Daniel 


165 


Daric 


that  region  music  was  a  feature  in  triumphal 
processions  and  court  life.  Captives  from 
distant  lands  were  employed  to  play  on  their 
own  instruments  of  music.  Ashurbanipalso 
used  Ellamites.  Sennacherib  carried  otf  from 
Judah  singing  men  and  singing  women.  Of 
the  captive  Jews  the  songs  of  Zion  and  the 
music  of  the  harj)  were  demanded  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  1-3).  There  was  sufficient  inter- 
course also  between  the  empires  on  the  Tigris 
and  the  western  peoples  to  have  led  to  the 
introduction  both  of  the  Greek  instruments 
and  their  names.  Assyrian  kings  from  Sar- 
^on,  722  B.  c.  onward,  not  to  speak  of  earlier 
monarchs,  bad  led  off  prisoners  and  received 
tribute  from  Cyprus,  Ionia,  Lydia,  and  Cilicia, 
which  were  Greek  lands.  Nebuchadnezzar 
warred  against  the  cities  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  would  be  in  accordance  with  custom 
for  these  conquerors  to  introduce  Greek  in- 
struments and  Greek-speaking  musicians  to 
their  courts.  Finally,  the  language  of  the 
passage  in  question  is  Aramaic,  not  Baby- 
lonian. The  Aramseans  had  for  centuries 
heen  in  contact  with  the  west.  Their  language 
was  the  international  language  of  diplomacy 
(cp.  2  Kin.  xviii.  26),  and  they  were  the  inter- 
mediaries of  trade,  who  handled  the  goods 
of  Orient  and  Occident.  Their  language  ac- 
■quired  an  admixture  of  foreign  words  from 
these  sources.  The  writer  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  is  using  Aramaic,  and  doubtless  em- 
ploys the  names  which  were  current  among 
the  Arampeans  for  instruments  of  this  kind. 
It  is  for  those  who  base  an  argument  on 
these  words  against  the  genuineness  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  to  show  that  they  were  not 
current  Aramaic   before  the  sixth  century 

B.  C. 

(3)  The  asserted  historical  inaccuracies  are 
not  statements  which  are  disproved  by  his- 
tory, but  only  statements  which  have  seemed 
difficult  to  harmonize  with  the  meager  ac- 
counts of  secular  historians.  No  contradic- 
tion between  Daniel's  record  and  established 
history  has  been  proven.  The  asserted  his- 
torical inaccuracies  have,  moreover,  been 
steadily  diminishing  before  the  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  times  of  Cyrus.  The  ex- 
istence of  king  Belshazzar  was  scouted  :  but 
-now  the  records  contemporary  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon  have  made  him  a  well-known 
historical  character  ;  explained  why  he  raised 
Daniel  to  the  third  place  of  power  in  the 
kingdom  instead  of  the  second,  for  his  father 
and  he  already  occupied  the  two  higher 
places  of  authority;  and  have  made  clear 
■why  he  and  not  Nabonidus  is  mentioned  as 
king  at  Babvlon  on  the  night  of  the  capture 
of  the  city  (see  Belshazzar).  They  do  not 
vet  clear  up  the  reference  to  Darius  the 
Mede  receiving  the  kingdom,  but  they  show 
that  the  appointment  of  a  regent  for  Baby- 
lonia bv  Cvrus  was  in  accord  with  his  policy. 
The  allusions  to  Belshazzar  as  a  descendant 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  agree  with  a  custom  of 
tlie  time  (see  Belshazzab).     In  view  of  the 


revelations  of  the  cuneiforni  iiiscrii)(i()ns.  it 
is  bold  to  assert  tliat  there  an;  liisluricai  in- 
accuratnes  in  the  book  of  Duiiii-i. 

(4)  The  i)ropli(>cics  do,  indeed,  give  his- 
torical details  until  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Epi|)hanes  (viii.).  But  are  the  propliecies 
not  definite  for  the  times  after  Aiitioclius? 
The  fourth  kingdom  dcscrilu'd  in  chap.  ii. 
and  vii.  can  be  none  other  than  tlie  Roman 
empire  (see  above),  wliicli  succeeded  to  uni- 
versal empire  at  a  time  subse(|uent  to  .\nti- 
ochus,  and  in  its  later  d(!velo])inent  is  accu- 
rately described  in  the  book  of  Daniel  (cp. 
Antiq.  x.  11,  7). 

The  Aramaic  of  the  book  of  Daniel  lias 
been  proven,  by  recently  discovered  docu- 
ments, to  be  an  Aramaic  current  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c,  at 
least  in  the  west. 

The  prophecy  of  Daniel  is  quoted  by  Christ 
as  genuine  and  certain  of  fultilnicnt  (Mat. 
xxiv.  lo).  Josepluis  l)elievfd  tiiat  the  j)ro])li- 
ecies  of  Daniel  were  in  existence  l>efore  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  (Jreat,  330  n.  c.  (.\nti(j. 
xi.  8,  5),  yea,  before  the  days  of  Artaxerxe.s 
(contra  Apion.  i.  8).  The  deliverance  of 
Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  .\bednego  from  the 
fiery  furnace  and  of  Daniel  from  the  lions' 
den  are  cited  in  1  Mac.  ii.  .")3,  60  ;  cp.  also  i.  ol 
with  Dan.  ix.  27;  xi.  31. 
Dan-ja'an. 

A  place  l)etween  Gilead  (or  even  between 
the  land  of  the  Hittites  toward  Kadesli)  and 
Zidon   (2  Sam.   xxiv.  6i.     Tlie  ruin  Danian. 
on  the  coast  midway  between  .\cre  and  Tyre, 
can  scarcely  be  its  site,  for  the  takers  of  the 
census  who' left  Dan-jaan  did  not  reach  Tyre 
until   they   had   passed    Zidon.     It    may  be 
identical  "with    Dan,    the   conventional    ex- 
treme north  of  the  country  (cp.  the  connec- 
tion of  each  with  Zidon,  Judg.  xviii.  28).  The 
ancient  versions  indicate  that  Dan-jaan  is  a 
corruption  for  Dan-jaar,  and  that  Dan  is  de- 
scribed as  being  in  the  forest. 
Dan'nali  [a  low  place,  low  ground]. 
A    village  in  the    hill    country  of  .Tudah 
(Josh.  XV.  49).     Tlie  situation   of  the  other 
towns  of  this  group  suggests  a  place  much 
farther  south  than  Idhua,  8  miles  west  by 
north  of  Hebron. 
Da'ra.    See  Darda. 
Dar'da  [perhaps,  jiearl  of  wi.sdora]. 
A  son  of  Mahol,  family  of  Zenih.  tribe  of 
Judah,  who   was   celebrated    for  wi.sdom  (1 
Kin.  iv.  31).     In  1  Chrou.  ii.  6  the  name  ap- 
pears as  Dara. 
Dar'ic. 

A  gold  coin  current  in  Persia,  worth  about 
five  dollars,  which  had  on  one  side  a  king 

'   with  a  bow  and  a  javelin,  while  on  the  other 

''■  was  a  somewhat  square  figure;  si-e  .Mo.vey. 
The  chronicler  reckons  the  value  of  the  gold 

'  contributed  by  the  princes  in  David's  reign  for 
the  temple  in  darics  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7),  not 
because  darics  circulated  in  Israel  as  early  as 

I  David's  reign,  but  because  at  the  time  of 


Darius 


166 


Darius 


writiii<j  the  daric  was  familiar  to  his  readers 
and  a  common  standard.    The  daric'  was  cur- 
rent in  the   I'ersian  period  (E/ra  ii.  69;  viii. 
27;    Neh.    vii.   70,  71,  72;    in  A.  V.  dram). 
Tlie  first  issue  was  wont  to  be  attributed  to 
Darius  Hystaspis  (cp.  Herod,  iv.  IfiU);    but 
Prof.  Sayce  argues  that  daric  really  conies 
from   the   Babylonian    darikii,  a  weight  or 
measure    which,    like   the    English    pound, 
commencing  as  a  weight  became  afterwards 
a  coin.     Dariku  figures  in  a  contract  in  the 
12th   year  of  Nabonidus,  five   years   before 
Cyrus'  conquest  of  Babylon,  and  long  before 
Darius   was   elected   to   the    throne    (Sayce, 
£^ra,   etc.,  p.  38).     Silver  darics  were    also 
coined,  which  were  worth  about  a  shekel. 
Da-ri'us  [from  Zend  dura,  king]. 
1.  A  king  descri))ed  as  Darius  the  Mede, 
son  of  Ahasuerus  (Dan.  v.  31  ;  ix.  1).     When 
about  62  years  old  he  was  made  king  over 
the  realm  of  the  Chaldeans  after  the  capture 
of  Babylon  by  the  army  of  Cyrus,  and  he 
reigned  a  part  of  one  year  at  least  (v.  31 ; 
x\.  1)  before  Cyrus  (vi.  28).     He  set  120  .satraps 
over  the  kingdom  (vi.  1).     The  satraps  were 
subject  to  three  presidents,  of  whom  Daniel 
was  one  (2).     Presidents  and  satra])s  were  at 
the  court  of  Darius  (6),  and  he  had  authority 
to  write  unto  all  peoples,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages that  dwell  in  all  the  earth  or  land 
(2.5).     He  was  inveigled  into  issuing  the  fool- 
ish decree,  for  violating  which    Daniel  was 
cast  into  the  lion's  den   (vi.   1-27).     In  his 
first  year  Daniel  saw  the  vision  of  the  seventy 
weeks  (ix.  1-27).    He  has  not  been  identified 
with  certainty,  but  was  probably  sovereign 
of  the  Babylonian  empire  ad   interim  until 
Cyrus,  who  was  pressing  his  contjuests,  was 
ready  to  assume  the  duties  of  king  of  Baby- 
lon.     Josephus   says   that    he   was    son    of 
Astyages,  but  was  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
another  name  ( Antiq.  x.  11, 4).  Perhaps,  then, 
he  was  Cyaxeres,  son  and  successor  of  Astya- 
ges and   father-in-law  and  uncle  of  Cyrus 
(Xenophon,  Cyropaed.   1.  5;  viii.  7);  or  pos- 
sibly  Ugbaru,   governor  of  Gutium,   ap]iar- 
ently  a  jirovince  in  western  Media  or  on  its 
borders,  who  led  the   detachment  of  Cyrus' 
army  which  cai)tured  Babylon,  held  the  city 
for  at  least  four  months  until  Cyrus  arrived, 
and  is  sjioken  of  in  thisconncclion  in  a  cunei- 
form inscription  as  Cyrus'  governor. 

2.  A  king  of  Per.sia  who  in  point  of  time 
followed  after  Cyrus  (Ezra  iv.  .5).  When  he 
came  to  the  throne,  the  building  of  the 
tcnii)le  had  been  suspended  owing  to  com- 
jilaints  from  the  jealous  neighboring  tribes; 
but  Darius,  on  being  aiq.lied  to,  cau.sed  a 
.search  to  be  made  at  Achmetha,  the  Median 
<a|)ital,  where  the  edict  of  Cyrus  permitting 
the  work  to  be  undertaken  was  found  (Ezra 
vi.  1-12).  The  erection  of  the  .sacred  edifice 
accordingly  recommenced  in  his  second  year, 
sixlh  month,  and  twenty-fourth  day  (Ezra 
Jv.  21:  Hag.  i.  15;  ii.  IH),  and  on  the  third 
day  of  the  twelfth  month  of  his  sixth  regnal 
year  was  completed  (Ezra  vi.  15).    The  jiroplj- 


ets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophesied  during 
the  reign  of  this  monarch    (Hag.  i.  1 ;  ii.  1, 
10,  18;  Zech.  i.  1,  7;  vii.  1),  who  was  with- 
out doubt  the  Darius  Hystaspis  of  the  classi- 
cal writers,  the  Dara  Gustasp  of  Zend  writ- 
ings.    He  was  son  of  Hystaspes,  which  Latin 
writers  denoted  by  using  the  genitive  case 
Hystaspis.     Through  his  father  he  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  Achfemenides,  which  was 
already  represented  on  the  throne  by  Cyrus 
and  Cambyses  ;  but  he  was  not  in  the  line  of 
succession.    The  leading  events  of  his  life  are 
detailed  in  an  inscription  of  Darius'  own  on 
a  rock  at  Behistun,  about  60  miles  southwest 
of  Hamadan.     It  is  in  three  languages,  Per- 
sian, Babylonian,  and  Amardian  or  Elamite. 
According  to  it,  eight  of  his  ancestors  were 
kings.    Cambyses,  Cyrus'  son,  put  his  brother 
Bardes,    called    by    Herodotus    Smerdis,    to 
death,  and  some  time  afterwards  committed 
suicide.  Then  a  Magiau  Gomates  or  Gaumata 
started  uj),  pretending  to  be  Bardes,  who  he 
alleged  had  not  really  been  slain.   According 
to  Herodotus  (iii.  67-79),  with  whose  narra- 
tive the  less  detailed  record  (m   the  stone 
essentially  agrees,  evidence  of  the  fraud  was 
discovered  and  a  conspiracy  formed  against 
Gomates  by  seven  men  of  rank,  one  of  whom 
was  Darius    Hystaspis.     In  521  b.  c.  they 
slew  the  Magian  and  saluted  Darius  king. 
Elam    rose   against   the   new   monarch,    but 
was  temporarily  subdued.    Babylon  followed 
under  a  leader  called  Nidintabel  and  stood 
a  siege  of  two  years  (520-519  B.  c).     When 
it  became  known  that  Darius  was  detained 
at  Babylon,  in  conducting  the  siege,  a  general 
revolt  of  the  provinces  constituting  the  em- 
pire took  place ;  in  fact,  the  empire  fell  to 
pieces.     Darius  says:  "  While  I  was  in  Baby- 
lon  these  provinces    rebelled    against    me: 
Persia,    Susiana,   Media,   Assyria,  Armenia, 
Parthia,  Margiana,  Sattagydia,  and  the  Saci- 
ans."     But  he  and  his  lieutenants  subdued 
them  all,  generally  ending  by  impaling  the 
rebel  leader.     Babylon,  in  514  B.  c,  revolted 
anew  under  Arahu  or  Aracus,  an  Armenian  ; 
but  the  rebellion  was  put  down,  its  leader  and 
his  chief  adherents  being  impaled.  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  this  time  thrown  down,  and 
a  great  step  taken  to  that  utter  destruction 
which   the   prophets   foresaw.     Darius    now 
ruled   over  an   emi)ire   extending   ea.stward 
into   India  and   westward    to    the   Grecian 
Archipelago.      He   administered    it,    on   the 
whole,  wi,sely  and  well.     After  an  unsuccess- 
ful campaign  against  the  Scythians  near  the 
river   Don,   in  what  is   now   Eussia,  and   a 
quarrel  with  the  Greeks,  in  which   his  gen- 
orals  Datis  and  Artai)hernes  were  defeated  in 
490  1?.  c.  at  Marathon,  Darius  died  at  the  age 
of  73  (Ctesias)  in  486  B.  c,  after  a  reign  of 
36  years. 

3.  The  last  king  of  Persia,  wlu)  reigned 
from  336  to  3.30  b.  c.  His  true  name  was 
Codonuuinus.  He  was  defeated  bv  Alexander 
the  Great  (1  Mac.  i.  1 ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  3),  first 
at  Issus  in  333,  when  he  fled  into  Persia,  and 


Darken 


167 


David 


again  at  Arbela  in  Sol.  He  died  about  four 
months  later  at  the  liands  of  liis  servants, 
with  Alexander  in  hot  pursuit  of  him. 

Dar'kon  [scatterinfr] . 

Founder  of  a  family,  ])art  of  the  children 
of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii.  56 ;  Nch. 
vii.  58). 

Date. 

The  fruit  of  the  date  palm  or  Phcenix  dacti/- 
Ufera  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  5,  A.  V..  margin),  from 
which  honey  was  made  (War  iv.  8,  3).  The 
text  and  the  R.  V.,  like  the  Hebrew  original, 
use  the  general  name  honey,  without  sjiecify- 
ing  the  kind. 

Da'than. 

A  son  of  Eliab,  a  Reubenite,  who  with 
Abiram,  his  brother,  and  On,  a  man  of  the 
same  tribe,  were  prominent  leaders  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  the  Levite.  Their  griev- 
ance was  ditt'ereut  from  his.  They  thought 
that  the  leadership  of  Israel  should  have 
gone  to  the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  for 
Reuben  was  Jacob's  eldest  son.  Then,  again, 
they  comjilained  that  Moses  had  taken  them 
from  a  country  where  there  was  i)lenty, 
under  the  promise  of  leading  them  into  a 
land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  while  in 
fact  all  that  he  had  done  was  to  march  them 
up  and  down  amid  naked  rocks  and  barren 
sands  (Num.  xvi.  1-35.  cp.  13, 14  ;  xxvi.  7-11 ; 
Dent.  xi.  6 ;  Ps.  cvi.  17). 

Dath'e-ma. 

A  fortress  in  Gilead,  into  which  the  faith- 
ful Israelites  fled  for  safety  in  the  time  of 
Judas  iMaccabasus  (1  Mac.  v.  ft).  They  were 
relieved  by  Judas  and  his  brother  Jonathan. 
It  cannot  be  identified  with  certaintj'. 

Daugh'ter. 

Besides  corresponding  to  the  several  senses 
in  which  son  is  used,  especially  for  child  or 
remoter  female  descendant  or  as  an  expres- 
sion of  tender  sympathy  for  a  woman  (Gen. 
XXX.  21 ;  Ex.  ii.  1  ;  Luke"  xiii.  l(j ;  Mat.  ix.  22), 
daughter  denotes  a  female  inhabitant  of  a 
country  or  town  (Gen.  xxiv.  3 ;  Judg.  xxi. 
21),  a  female  worshiper  of  a  god  (Mai.  ii.  11 ; 
Is.  xliii.  6),  the  suburb  of  a  city  (Num.  xxi. 
25,  margin),  the  collective  body  of  the  citi- 
zens of  a  town  or  country  (Ps.  ix.  14  ;  cxxxvii. 
8  ;  Lam.  iv.  21 ;  Zech."  ii.  10).  See  Heir, 
Marriage,  Sl.we. 

Da'vid  [beloved]. 

Son  of  Jesse  and  second  king  of  Israel.  His 
life  falls  into  several  distinct  periods. 

I.  His  youth,  which  was  passed  at  P>ethlc- 
hem  of  Judah.  He  was  the  youngest  of  eight 
brothers  (1  Sam.  xvi.  10,  11 ;  xvii.  12-14).  In 
the  registry  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ( 1  Chron.  ii. 
13-15)  only  seven  of  these  sons  of  Jesse  are 
named,  probably  because  one  died  without 
issue.  David's  mother  was  tenderly  remem- 
bered for  her  godliness  (Ps.  Ixxxvi.  IG  ;  cxvi. 
16).  His  ancestral  history  was  picturesque, 
inspiring,  and  generally  praiseworthy,  but  yet 
at  times  tainted  bv  sin  (Gen.  xxxvii.  26,  27; 
xxxviii.  13-29 ;  xliii.  8,  9  ;  xliv.  18-34 ;  Num. 


i.  7;  Josh.  ii.  1--J1  ;  Ruih.  iv.  17-2t.'i.  In 
person  lie  was  ruddy  and  ))eantiful  to  look 
uiKin  (1  Sam.  xvi.  12).  As  youngest  son,  he 
was  charged  with  the  care  of  his  fallu-r's 
sheep,  and  lie  displayed  his  ridelily  and 
courage  in  this  occujiation  by  slaying  i)otli  a 
lion  and  a  liear  which  ^ittackcd  the  flock 
(11  ;  xvii.  31  3(i).  He  jtosses-sed  musical  gifts 
of  high  order,  at  tliis  jicriod  i)laying  skillfully 
on  the  harp  and  later  composing  iis;iiins. 
When  king  .Saul  had  l>een  rejected  by  God, 
the  ])ro]ih(t  Samuel  was  sent  to  Pethlehem 
and  directed  to  anoint  David  as  Saul's  suc- 
cessor. There  was  no  luiblic  jiroclamation  of 
David,  lest  the  hostility  of  Saul  should  be 
aroused.  At  most,  the  act  was  jierfonncd  in 
the  i)resence  of  the  ciders  of  the  town,  and, 
so  far  as  apjiears,  no  word  concerning  the 
purpose  of  the  anointing  was  spoken  to  the 
audience  (xvi.  4,  5,  13),  though  Jesse  and 
David  were  doubth'ss  informed.  It  was  a 
crisis  in  David's  history.  The  Sjiirit  of  the 
Lord  came  mightily  ujum  him.  Still  he  did 
not  despise  his  humble,  daily  work. 

II.  His  service  under  Saul.  .Saul,  forsaken 
by  God.  distressed  by  an  evil  sjiirit.  and  sub- 
ject to  melancholy  and  insanity,  was  advised 
by  his  attendants  to  attach  a  harjier  to  his 
person  to  soothe  him  l)y  nnisic  when  dis- 
turbed ;  and  one  recommended  David  as  a 
cunning  musician,  a  man  of  valor  and  ready 
for  war  l)y  reason  of  age,  skill,  and  courage, 
even  though  perhai)s  not  as  yet  experienced 
in  b;ittle,  discreet,  comely,  jiious  (xvi.  14-lH). 
Saul  summoned  him.  was  benefited  by  his 
music  and  pleased  with  his  character,  asked 
Jesse  that  he  might  remain,  and  appointed 
liim  one  of  his  ariuorhearers  (19-23;  cp.  2 
Sam.  xviii.  15).  The  service  thus  begun  jiroved 
a  school  for  David.  He  learned  war  and  gov- 
ernment, had  intercourse  with  able  men, 
and  saw  the  dark  and  bright  side  of  court 
life.  David  did  not,  however,  as  yet  remain 
continuously  with  Saul.  The  king's  condi- 
tion evidently  imjirovcd,  and  David  returned 
frequently  to  Bethlehem  to  have  an  oversight 
over  his  iVither's  sheep  1 1  Sam.  xvii.  15).  Wiiile 
he  was  on  a  visit  home  the  Philistines  in- 
vaded Judah  and  encamped  about  15  miles 
west  of  Bethlehem.  Saul  led  forth  the  army  of 
Israel  to  meet  them.  The  three  eldest  broth- 
ers of  David  were  witli  the  army,  and  alter 
they  had  been  absent  from  home  about  six 
weeks,  their  father  sent  David  to  inquire 
about  their  welfare.  (ioliath's  challenge 
stirred  Iiis  spirit.  He  felt  certain  that  (iod 
through  him  would  remove  the  rci)n>ach  from 
Israel,  and  he  asked  who  the  Philistine  was 
that  defied  the  armies  of  the  living  God.  His 
words  were  reported  to  Saul,  who  perceiving 
the  spirit  by  which  the  young  man  was  ani- 
mated intrusted  the  sinule  combat  to  him. 
David  put  off  the  armor  with  which  .Saul 
had  armed  him,  urging  that  he  had  not 
proved  it.  He  showed  true  genius.  Goliath 
was  rendered  slow  of  motion  by  weight  of 
armor;  the  kind  of  weapon  he  carried  oi)lige<l 


David 


168 


David 


him  to  figlit  at  close  quarters;  aud  liu  \va>i 
vuluerable  only  iu  the  face,  which  under  the 
circumstances  was  out  of  reach.  David  ap- 
proached him,  rinhaiiipered  in  movement  hy 
any  armor,  witli  a  slini;,  in  tlie  use  of  which 
he  was  proficient,  with  live  stones  that  could 
be  hurled  from  a  distance,  with  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  righteousness  of  his  cause  aud 
with  implicit  confidence  iu  God.  The  taunts 
between  the  two  chani])ions  are  characteristic 
of  ancient  battle.  Goliath  fell,  struck  by  a 
stone  from  David's  sling.  After  the  combat 
David,  on  his  way  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin 
where  Saul  lield  court  or  to  the  tabernacle  at 
Nob,  displayed  the  head  of  the  giant  at  Jeru- 
salem, apparently  iu  defiance  to  the  Jebusites, 
who  held  the  stronghold,  and  put  the  armor  in 
the  tent  which  he  thenceforth  occupied  (xvii. 
54).  The  sword  was  deposited  iu  the  taber- 
nacle (xsi.  [>).  When  David  had  gone  forth 
to  meet  Goliath  Saul,  amazed  at  his  spirit, 
asked  Abuer  whose  son  such  a  youth  could 
be ;  and  when  David  returned  triumphant 
the  king  put  the  same  question  to  him,  only 
to  receive  the  simple  answer,  "  I  am  the  son 
of  thj^  servant  .Tes.se  the  Bethlehemite."  This 
reply  formed  the  sum  and  substance  of  the 
interview  (xvii.  5.5-xviii.  1)  ;  David's  ance.s- 
tors  were  not  notable  for  heroic  achievement. 
The  question  of  tlie  king  had  also  reference 
to  the  rank  and  material  condition  of  the 
family,  for  Saul  liad  promised  to  accept  the 
victor  as  son-in-law  and  to  free  his  father's 
family  from  taxation  (xvii.  2.") ;  xviii.  IS).  He 
found  that  he  had  no  occasion  to  be  ashamed 
of  the  birth  of  his  son-in-law.  The  victory 
over  Goliath  was  a  second  crisis  iu  David's 
life.  The  valor,  modesty,  and  piety,  which 
he  displayed  won  for  him  the  disinterested 
and  enduring  love  of  .lonathan  (xviii.  1). 
Ue  was  no  longer  jjermitted  to  repair  period- 
ically to  his  father's  house,  but  he  remained 
continuously  at  court  (2).  The  ovation  M-hich 
he  received  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Saul, 
who  thenceforth  was  David's  enemy  (G-9). 
Saul  saw  that  Samuel's  prediction  of  the 
transfer  of  the  kingdom  from  him  to  one 
better  than  he  (xv.  17-29)  approached  fulfill- 
ment in  David,  and  he  attempted  to  prevent 
it.  He  endeavored  to  slay  David  with  liis 
spear  (xviii.  10,  11).  Failiiig  iu  thi.s,  he  re- 
duced David  in  military  rank  and  power 
(i:i).  He  gave  his  daughter,  whom  he  had 
jtromised  to  David  for  a  wife,  to  another 
(17-19).  ]!(•  endeavored  to  entrap  him  to 
death  through  liis  love  for  Michal  (20-27). 
As  David  grew  in  lavor  (29,  30)  Saul's  fejir 
increased,  and  he  no  hmger  concealed  his 
liurpose  to  slay  David  (xix.  1).  This  i>uri)osc 
was  never  alter  allowed  by  Saul's  adherents 
to  be  abandoned,  but  was  fostered  bv  a  i>arty 
at  court  (xxiv.  9 ;  Ps.  vii.  title).  Apjieased 
lor  a  time,  his  jealou.sy  soon  revived,  and  he 
again  allempted  tosmiti^  David  withhisspear 
(1  Sam.  xix.  l-ii).  Tiicu  |„.  would  have  ar- 
rested David,  who,  however,  escaped  through 
Miehals  deceit  (10-17).    David  wrote  Ps.  lix. 


at  this  time.  He  fled  to  Samuel  at  Kamah, 
whither  Saul  sent  to  seize  him  (18-24)  ;  fled 
next  to  Jonathan,  who  inquired  and  informed 
him  that  there  was  no  longer  safety  for  him 
at  court  (xx.). 

III.  The  fugitive  hero.  Without  confidence 
in  God  and  sunk  iu  despair  David  fled  from 
Saul.  Stopping  at  Nob,  without  faith,  he 
told  a  lie  (xxi.  1-9) ;  then  hurried  to  Gath 
and  sought  protection  of  Saul's  enemy  Achish. 
The  lords  of  the  Philistines,  however,  refused 
to  harbor  him  who  had  formerly  humiliated 
them,  and  they  seized  David  (14  ;  Ps.  Ivi. 
title).  He  feigned  madness  and  made  him- 
self despicable,  and  Achish  drove  him  away 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  title).  He  regained  his  faith  iu 
Jehovah  (Ps.  xxxiv.),  returned  to  Judah,  and 
abode  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1), 
but  placed  his  parents  iu  Moab  (3,  4).  A 
motley  company,  mostly  of  unemployed  and 
desperate  men,  numbering  400  at  first,  in- 
creasing eventually  to  600,  began  to  join  him. 
Among  these  were  Abiathar,  the  surviving 
priest  of  Nob,  who  brought  an  ephod  with 
him,  aud  the  prophet  Gad,  whom  David  had 
probably  met  at  Ramah  (5,  20;  xxiii.  6). 
David  thus  had  religious  aid  aud  companion- 
ship. From  Adullam  he  went  to  the  relief 
of  Keilah  and  deliTered  the  town  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines  (xxiii.  1-5).  On 
Saul's  preparing  to  attack  him  there,  he  fled 
to  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (14;  Ps.  Ixiii.), 
whither  Saul,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Ziphites,  pursued  him  until  compelled  to  de- 
sist by  an  incursion  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  14-29).  That  trouble  being  settled,  Saul 
sought  David  in  the  wilderness  near  En- 
gedi,  but  was  for  the  time  conquered  by  the 
kindness  of  David,  who  had  the  king  in  his 
power  iu  the  cave,  but  spared  his  life  (xxiv. ; 
Ps.  Ivii. ;  cxlii.).  David  aud  his  band  of 
armed  followers  protected  the  exposed  jirop- 
erty  of  the  Israelites  from  thieving  maraud- 
ers (1  Sam.  xxiii.  1 ;  xxv.  16,  21 ;  xxvii.  8), 
and  naturally  enough  expected  some  return 
in  gifts  of  food.  He  did  not  levy  tax  or 
demand  regular  contributions  of  provisions. 
Nabal's  scornful  rejection  of  his  request  in- 
censed him,  and  he  was  only  saved  from 
shedding  blood  in  his  fury  by  the  wisdom 
and  address  of  Nabal's  wife  (xxv.),  whom 
David  married  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band. David  again  came  iuto  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ziph,  and  the  Ziphites  again  in- 
fornied  Saul,  who  marched  against  David. 
David  showed  his  magnanimity  by  not  slay- 
ing the  sleeping  king,  but  merely  carrying 
away  from  his  side  liis  spear  and  cruse  of 
water  (xxvi.).  Despairing  of  always  escaping 
Saul,  David  left  Judah  and  obtained  permis- 
sion from  Achish  to  occupy  Ziklag,  a  frontier 
town  toward  the  soiilluru  desert.  Here  he 
remained  a  year  and  lour  mouths,  protecting 
the  Philistin«s  by  warring  with  the  desert 
tribes,  yet  sometimes  wasting  a  remote  vil- 
lage even  of  Philistia  (xxvii.).  When  the 
Philistines  went  to  Gilboa  to  war  with  Saul 


David 


169 


David 


David  was  prevented  from  accompanying 
them  by  the  lords  of  the  Philistines  (xxviii. 
1,  2  ;  xxix.).  Eeturning,  he  found  Ziklag  in 
ruins.  He  pursued  the  retreating  invaders 
and  recovered  the  spoil  (xxx.).  When  he 
heard  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  he 
mourned  the  fate  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  iu  an 
elegy  (2  Sam.  i.). 

IV.  King  of  Judah.  On  the  death  of  Saul 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  which  David  belonged, 
elected  him  king,  and  he  began  to  reign  in 
Hebron  (ii.  1-10),  being  then  about  thirty 
years  old  (v.  4).  The  rest  of  the  tribes,  under 
the  leadership  of  Abner,  one  of  the  ablest 
men  of  the  time,  set  up  Ish-bosheth,  Saul's 
son,  at  Mahanaim,  and  for  the  next  two  years 
civil  war  raged  between  his  partisans  and 
those  of  David.  It  ended  by  the  assassina- 
tion, sorely  against  David's  will,  both  of 
Abner  and  of  Ish-bosheth  (ii.  12-iv.  12). 
David's  reign  at  Hebron  continued  for  seven 
years  and  six  months.  He  had  already  sev- 
eral wives,  and  among  the  sons  born  to  him 
at  Hebron  were  Amnon,  Absalom,  and  Adoni- 
jah  (ii.  11 ;  iii.  1-5  ;  v.  .5). 

V.  King  of  all  Israel.  On  the  death  of 
Ish-bosheth,  David  was  elected  king  over  all 
the  tribes,  and  he  at  once  set  to  work  to  es- 
tablish the  kingdom  (v.  1-5).  Various  towns 
in  the  territory  of  Israel  were  garrisoned  by 
the  Philistines,  and  others  were  held  by  the 
Canaanites.  David  began  a  siege  of  the 
Jebusite  stronghold  at  Jerusalem.  It  was 
deemed  impregnable  by  its  inhabitants,  but 
David  took  it  by  storm.  He  wisely  made  it 
his  capital,  and  erected  a  palace  there  by  the 
skill  of  Tyrian  artificers.  The  new  capital 
stood  on  the  border  of  Judah  and  Israel.  Its 
situation  tended  to  allay  the  jealousy  between 
north  and  south.  Its  deliverance  from  the 
hands  of  the  Canaanites  opened  the  highway 
between  Judah  and  the  north,  facilitated  in- 
tercourse, and  tended  to  further  cement  the 
kingdom.  The  Philistines  twice  invaded  the 
land,  and  twice  suffered  defeat  near  Jerusalem 
(V.  17-25;  1  Chron.  xiv.  8-17).  The  king 
followed  up  the  second  victory  by  invading 
the  country  of  the  Philistines,  took  Gath,  and 
by  this  conquest  and  by  brief  campaigns  later 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  15-22)  so  completely  subjugated 
the  Philistines  that  these  hereditary  enemies 
ceased  to  trouble  Israel  for  centuries.  The 
kingdom  being  established,  David  turned  his 
attention  to  religious  affairs.  He  brought 
the  ark,  with  ceremony,  sacrifices,  and  re- 
joicing, from  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  xv.  9;  2 
Chron.  i.  4),  and  placed  it  within  a  tabernacle 
which  he  had  pitched  for  it  in  the  city  of 
David  (2  Sam.  vi.  1-23;  1  Chron.  xiii.  1-14; 
XV.  1-3).  Next  he  organized  the  worship  on 
a  magnificent  scale  (1  Chron.  xv. ;  xvi.),  and 
planned  a  splendid  temple  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-29; 
1  Chron.  xvii.  1-27;  xxii.  7-10).  Through 
the  divine  favor  he  now  became  very  pros- 
perous. To  insure  the  safety  of  the  nation, 
to  keep  it  from  idolatrous  contamination,  and 
to  avenge  insult  offered  to  it,  he  waged  war 


tvith  surrounding  nations,  and  subdued  the 
Moabites,  the  Arania-aus  of  Zobali  and  Da- 
mascus, the  Ammonites,  the  Kdoniite.s,  and 
the  Amalekites  (2  Sam.  viii.  1-lh  ;  x.  1-19; 
xii.  26-31),  thus  extending  his  kingdom  to 
the  limits  long  before  promised  to  Aliraham 
(Gen.  XV.  18).  It  was  during  the  Ammonite 
war  that  David  committed  liis  f;rcat  sin  in 
the  matter  of  Uriah  the  Ilittitc,  for  w  liich  God 
rebuked  him  through  Nathan  llie  jirophet, 
and  imposed  the  penalty  that  the  sword 
should  never  depart  from  his  house  (2  Sam. 
xi.  1-xii.  23).  David  sincerely  reiicnted  (Ps. 
Ii.).  The  chastisement  was  partly  direct  and 
partly  the  natural  fruit  of  his  exami)le  and 
transmitted  character.  The  child  died  (2  Sam. 
xii.  19).  Lawless  lust  and  lawless  vengeance 
were  manifested  in  his  own  family  (xiii.). 
Lawless  and  unfilial  anibiti<pn  triumiihed  for 
a  time  in  his  family  and  led  to  civil  war 
(xiv.-xix.).  The  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  and 
tribal  jealousy  fomented  by  Absalom  .showed 
itself  after  the  sui)pressiou  of  Absalom's  re- 
bellion once  more  in  the  revolt  of  Shcba 
(xx.).  David  solemnly  .'satisfied  justice,  ac- 
cording to  the  ideas  of  that  age,  in  avenging 
Saul's  bloody  violation  of  the  treaty  rights 
of  the  Gibeonites  (xxi.).  He  committed  a 
sin  of  pride  in  numbering  tlie  peojile,  and 
was  punished  by  a  pestilence  (xxiv.  ;  1  Chron. 
xxi.).  David  was  much  occupied  during  his 
reign  with  the  organization  of  internal  affairs 
and  with  the  preparation  of  material  for  the 
erection  of  the  temple.  He  closed  his  reign 
by  securing  the  succession  to  Solomon  (1  Kin. 
i.),  and  by  providing  that  the  guilt  of  some 
who  had  escaped  justice  in  his  day  should 
not  go  unpunished  (ii.  1-11).  He  died  in  his 
seventy-first  year,  after  having  reigned  forty 
(or,  more  precisely,  forty  and  a  half  i  years, 
seven  and  a  half  at  Hebron  and  thirty-three 
at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  ii.  11 ;  v.  4.  5;  1  Chron. 
xxix.  27). 

David  early  received  the  distinguished  des- 
ignation of  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  (2  Siim. 
xxiii.  1).  Ancient  Hebrew  tradition,  much 
of  which  was  uncjuestionably  current  about 
David's  own  time  and  siiortiy  after,  ascribed 
the  composition  of  psalms  to  him  bcitli  di- 
rectly and  indirectly.  His  fondness  for  music 
is  recorded  in  the  historical  books;  he  played 
skillfully  on  the  harp  (1  Siim.  xvi.  lb-23 ;  2 
Sam.  vi.  5),  and  he  arranged  the  service  of 
praise  for  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  vi.  31  ;  xvi. 

7,  41,  42  ;  XXV.  1).  He  comjwsed  a  lament 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  and  over  Abner,  and 
a  song  of  deliverance  and  last  woixls  (2  Siim. 
i.  17-27;  iii.  33,  34;  xxii.  1-.'>1  ;  xxiii.  1-7). 
His  musical  activity  is  referred  to  by  Amos 
(vi.  5),  Ezra  (iii.  10),  Nehemiali  (xii.  24,  M, 
45,  46),  and  the  son  of  Sirach  (Ecclus.  xlvii. 

8,  9).  Such  work  on  the  part  of  David  ac- 
corded with  the  times,  for  poetry  and  music 
had  long  been  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews  as 
well  as  bv  the  Egyptians  and  Habylonians 
(Num.  xxi.  14;  Judg.  v.).  Seventy-three 
psalms  are  designated  David's  in  their  He- 


David,  City  of 


170 


Deacon 


brew  titles ;  and  as  in  inany  cases  the  inten- 
tion is  to  indicate  that  lu!  is  tile  author  (cp.iii., 
vii.,  xxxiv.,  11.,  etc.),  it  is  possibly  always  the 
intention.  Lix.  and  i)erliaiis  vii.  are  assigned 
to  the  time  of  his  sojonni  at  Sanl's  court; 
xxxiv.,  Hi.,  liv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  Ixiii.,  and  cxlii.,  to 
the  ])eriod  of  distress  when  he  was  a  fugitive  ; 
and  iii.,  xviii.,  xxx.,  li.,  and  Ix.,  to  the  years 
of  varied  exiieriences  when  he  was  king. 

Tliough  at  times  David  committed  deep- 
dyed  sins,  for  which  the  early  and  compara- 
tively dark  period  of  the  church's  history  in 
which  he  lived  and  his  own  deep  penitence 
arc  his  only  defense,  yet  his  general  fidelity 
to  Jehovah  was  such  that  he  was  called  the 
man  after  (4od"s  own  heart  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14). 
Speaking  generally,  he  did  that  which  was 
right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  save  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  llittite  (1  Kin.  xv.  5). 
He  served  his  generation  hy  the  will  of  God, 
and  then  fell  on  sleep  (Acts  xiii.  30).  His 
influence  on  mankind  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. He,  rather  than  his  predecessor 
Saul,  was  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  mon- 
archy. His  psalms,  sung  throughout  Chris- 
tendom century  after  century,  revive  his 
si>iritual  influence.  He  was  an  important 
link  in  the  chain  of  ancestry  of  Him  who 
was  at  once  David's  son  and  David's  Lord 
(Mat.  xxii.  41-ir>i. 

Da'vid,  Cit'y  of. 

1.  The  Jebusite  stronghold  of  Ziou  cap- 
tured by  David's  men,  and  called  by  him 
the  city  of  David,  because  he  made  it  his 
royal  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  6-9 ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
n,  7l.  It  ))robably  stood  on  the  ridge,  south 
of  the  later  site  of  the  teuiple.  With  the 
growth  of  ])opulati(>n  its  bounds  were  ex- 
tended. The  ark  was  taken  thither  by 
David,  and  stayed  there  until  the  temple  w-as 
built  (2  Sam.'vi.  12,  l(i;  1  Kin.  viii.  1;  1 
Chron.  XV.  1-20  ;  2  Chron.  v.  2).  David  was 
buried  there  ( 1  Kin.  ii.  10).  Solomon's  queen, 
l'harar)h's  daughter,  dwelt  there  for  a  time  (1 
Kin.  iii.  1),  though  he  afterwards  erected  a 
liahice  for  himself  aiul  her  (vii.  1  ;  ix.  21;  2 
(liron.  viii.  11).  He  was  buried  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  xi.  43 :  2  Chron.  ix.  31),  as 
were  liehdboam  ( 1  Kin.  xiv.  31  ;  2  Chron. 
xii.  1(1)  and  many  other  kings  (1  Kin.  xv.  8, 
24  ;  xxii.  50  ;  2  Kiu.  viii.  24  ;  ix.  28  ;  xii.  21  ; 
xiv.  20;  XV.  7,  3.s ;  xvi.  20;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1  ; 
xvi.  14;  xxi.  1,  20;  xxiv.  KJ.  2.");  xxvii.  9). 
Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  was  also  interred 
there  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  ](j).  Hczekiah  l)r()Ught 
the  npiier  watercourse  of  (iihou  to  the  west 
side  of  tiie  city  of  David  (2  Chrou.  xxxii.  30; 
c|).  xxxiii.  14).  iMiUo  was  apjiarently  within 
its  limits  (2  Chnni.  xxxii.  5).  In  Nehcmiah's 
time  there  was  a  descent  from  the  city  of 
David  by  means  of  stairs  (Neh.  iii.  1'),  ](i  ; 
xii.  37).  It  was  forlilied  and  garrisoned  by 
the  Syrians  and  (Jri'cks  during  the  Maecabec 
wars.d  Mac.  i.  .53  ;  ii.  31  ;  vii.  32  ;  xiv.  3(),  37). 
See  Jkkisalkm. 

2.  Ik'thlehem,  the  birthi>lace  or  at  least  the 
honu^  of  David  (Luke  ii.  4). 


Day. 

1.  An  interval  of  time  comprising  the 
period  between  two  successive  risings  of  the 
sun  (Gen.  vii.  24  ;  Job  iii.  6).  The  Hebrews 
reckoned  it  from  evening  to  evening  (Lev. 
xxiii.  32 ;  Ex.  xii.  IS ;  War  iv.  9,  12).  This 
custom  was  probablj'  due  to  the  n.se  of  lunar 
months,  which  began  with  the  appearance  of 
the  new  moon.  The  exact  designation  of  the 
civil  day  accordingly  was  evening-morning  or 
night-day  (Dan.  viii.  14,  margin  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  23). 
But  although  the  evening  properly  introduced 
a  new  day,  it  was  often  reckoned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  natural  day  which,  strictly 
speaking,  it  followed — e.  g.  the  evening  which 
began  the  fifteenth  of  Nisan  is  designated  by 
the  expression  "'  the  fourteenth  day  at  even  " 
(Ex.  xii.  18 ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1 ;  see  also 
Lev.  xxiii.  32).  The  days  of  the  week  were 
numbered,  not  named.  The  only  exception 
was  the  seventh  day,  which  was  also  called 
Sabbath. 

2.  The  interval  between  dawn  and  dark- 
ness (Gen.  i.  5;  viii.  22).  It  was  divided  into 
morning,  noon,  and  evening  (Ps.  Iv.  17  ;  cp. 
Dan.  vi.  10)  ;  or  its  time  was  indicated  by 
reference  to  sunrise,  heat  of  the  day,  cool  of 
the  day,  sunset,  and  the  like.  After  the  ex- 
ile the  use  of  hours  became  common,  and  the 
day  from  sunrise  to  sunset  was  divided  into 
twelve  hours  (Mat.  xx.  1-12 ;  John  xi.  9)  ; 
the  sixth  hour  being  noon  (John  iv.  6  ;  Acts 
X.  9),  the  ninth  the  hour  of  prayer  (iii.  1  ; 
Antiq.  xiv.  4,  3). 

3.  Any  period  of  action  or  state  of  being 
(Zech.  xii.  3  seq.) ;  as  day  of  trouble  (Ps.  xx. 
1),  dav  of  his  wrath  (Job  xx.  28),  day  of  the 
Lord  "(Is.  ii.  12 ;  xiii.  6,  9 ;  in  the  N.  T.  spe- 
cially of  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  1  Cor. 
V.  5  ;  1  Thes.  v.  2  ;  2  Pet.  iii.  10).  So  also  in 
the  phrase  "in  the  day  that,"  which  is 
equivalent  to  ''when"  (Gen.  ii.  4,  17;  Lev. 
xiv.  2-20),  and  is  often  rendered  so  in  the 
English  versions  (Lev.  xiv.  57  ;  Num.  vi.  13  ; 
1  Sam.  XX.  19 ;  Ps.  xx.  9). 

Days'man. 

On(^  vv'lii)  has  set  a  day  for  hearing  a  cause; 
a  mediator  or  an  arl)itrator  (Job  ix.  33). 
Day'star.     See  Lucifer. 

Dea'con  L  Greek  (Jidkuuos:  in  classical 
writers  a  servant,  a  waiting  man,  a  messen- 
ger. It  is  used  in  this  sense  in  Mat.  xx. 
2b",  where  it  is  translated  minister,  and  is 
distinguished  from  donlos,  bond-servant  or 
slave,  occurring  in  the  next  verse ;  cp.  also 
Mat.  xxiii.  11 ;  Mark  ix.  35  ;  x.  43  ;  John  ii 
5,  9]. 

A  Christian  officer,  whose  sjiiritual  and 
moral  qualifications  are  laid  down  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  8.  It  is  justly  assumed  that  the  seven 
men  chosen  to  relieve  the  apostles  of  the 
secular  care  of  the  widows  and  other  poor 
people  in  the  early  church  were  deacons 
(Acts  vi.  l-() ;  cp.  the  words  ministration, 
dinkonia,  and  serve,  diakoneo,  in  vs.  1  and  2). 
Their  charge  of  the  needy  did   not  debar 


Deaconess 

them  from  the  privilege  of  speaking  publicly 
for  Christ,  for  Stephen  and  Philip  labored  also 
as  preachers  and  evangelists.  They  did  so, 
however,  in  the  exercise  of  a  personal  gift 
rather  than  of  an  official  duty.  A  i)lnrality 
of  deacons  existed  in  the  church  at  Philipj)!, 
and  shared  with  the  bishops  the  duties  of  the 
church  (Phil.  i.  1). 

Dea'con-ess. 

A  female  deacon  ;  like  Phoebe,  servant  or 
dinkovos  of  the  church  at  Conch rea?  (Eom. 
xvi.  1 ;  see  margin  of  R.  V.).  Deaconesses  are 
probably  referred  to  in  1  Tim.  iii.  11.  They 
existed  in  the  churches  of  Bithynia  as  early 
as  A.  D.  100,  for  Pliny,  in  his  celebrated  letter 
to  the  emperor  Trajan  regarding  the  Chris- 
tians, reports  having  examined  ''  two  old 
women"  of  the  Cliristian  community  "who 
were  called  ministers"  (mhiistrx). 

Dead  Sea. 

The  name  now  given  to  the  sheet  of  water 
called  in  the  Bible  the  salt  sea  (Gen.  xiv.  3; 
Num.  xxxiv.  12;  Deut.  iii.  17;  Josh.  iii.  16), 
the  sea  of  the  Arabah  or  Plain  (Deut.  iii.  17; 
Josh.  iii.  16),  and  the  east  or  eastern  sea 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  18;  Joel  ii.  20;  and  E.  V.  of 
Zech.  xiv.  8).  Josephus  calls  it  Asphaltitis 
(Antiq.  i.  9,  1).  It  was  named  the  Dead  Sea 
by  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era 
(Pausanias).  It  is  situated  in  the  deep  vol- 
canic rent  or  fi.ssure  which  runs  through 
Palestine  from  north  to  south  ;  and  is  fed 
chiefly  by  the  river  Jordan,  which  empties 
into  it  on  an  average  six  million  tons  of 
water  every  twenty-four  hours.  Its  surface 
was  ascertained  by  the  officers  of  the  ord- 
nance survey  to  be  1292  feet  lower  than  the 
ocean  level.  The  sea  is  like  a  long  rectangle 
with  the  angles  beveled  off;  but  its  regular- 
ity of  form  is  interrupted  by  a  projection 
into  its  southeastern  side  of  a  great  promon- 
tory or  peninsula  called  Lisan,  or  the  Tongue. 
The  length  of  the  sea  from  north  to  south  is 
on  an  average  about  47  English  miles,  but  it 
varies,  a  large  portion  of  the  southern  shore 
being  sometimes  dry  and  sometimes  covered 
with  water.  The  breadth  a  little  north  of 
En-gedi  is  9i  miles,  and  it  is  nearly  as  much 
everywhere  north  of  the  Lisan.  Ancient 
watermarks  indicate  that  the  area,  especially 
the  length,  was  formerly  much  larger  (War 
iv.  8,  4).  The  Lisan  is  about  9  miles  long 
from  north  to  south.  Its  banks  are  from 
40  to  60  feet  high  ;  while,  according  to  Tris- 
tram, its  highest  i)oint  is  about  300  feet  above 
the  water.  Lieut.  Lynch,  who  in  1848  led 
an  expedition  for  the  exploration  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Dead  Sea,  found  the  maximum 
depth  of  the  latter,  as  ascertained  by  sound- 
ing, to  be  1278  feet;  this  was  at  a  point 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Arnon.  Soundings 
farther  north  vield  1300  feet.  South  of 
the  Lisan,  on  the  contrary,  the  sea  is  quite 
shallow.  Except  on  the  north  side,  where 
the  Jordan  enters,  the  Dead  Sea  is  nearly 


171  Debir 


surrounded  by  a  rampart  of  cliffs,  which  in 
some  places  leave  a  narrow  beadi  between 
them  and  the  water,  while  in  others  lliey 
themselves  constitute  the  coastline.  These 
rise  in  successive  terraces,  which  also  exist 
along  the  lower  part  of  the  .Jordan  valley. 
On  the  western  side,  at  En-gedi,  the  height 
from  tlie  seashore  to  the  top  of  the  cliffs  is 
1950  feet;  a  little  farther  nortli,  at  Has  csh 
Shufk,  the  toj)  is  2r)I!t  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea,  i.e.  1227  al)ov(^  the  Mediterranean.  Far- 
ther northward  the  elevation  gra<lually  de- 
creases till  it  i-eaches  1400  feet  above  the  i)ead 
Sea.  These  western  cliffs  contain  deposits  of 
bitumen  in  both  liciuid  and  solid  state.  On 
the  eastern  side  tlie  ])reciiiitous  mountains  of 
Moab  rise  from  2500  to  3tK)0  feet  above  the 
shore. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able sheets  of  water  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
No  other  one  is  known  to  occujiy  so  deep  a 
hollow  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Its 
waters  are  mucli  Salter  than  those  of  the 
ocean,  for  wliile  in  tlie  latter  KKI  lbs.  of 
water  contain  (I  Iks.  of  sjilf,  in  the  former 
100  lbs.  of  water  contain  from  20  to  27.8 
lbs.  of  salt.  In  consequence  of  this,  eggs 
will  float  on  its  surface.  A  bather,  too,  finds 
himself  buoyant,  and  wiieii  he  comes  ashore 
there  is  a  greasy  deiM)sit  of  salt  upon  his 
skin,  which  tortures  him  if  there  happens  to 
be  a  scratch  on  his  body.  The  saltne.ss  of 
the  water  is  due  to  the  nature  of  tlie  soil, 
which  abounds  in  the  chlorides  of  sodium, 
magnesium,  and  calcium.  These  substances 
are  carried  into  the  sea  by  the  river  and  the 
brooks;  and  there  being  no  outlet,  the  salt 
remains  and  accumulates  year  by  year,  while 
the  water  with  which  it  comes  goes  otT  to  a 
large  extent  ill  vaimr,  evaporation  being  im- 
mense, since  the  air  comes  <lry  and  thirsty 
from  the  desert. 

The  Scripture  name.  Salt  Sea,  has  been 
superseded  bv  the  uaiiii^  Dead  Sea.  The  old 
belief,  however,  that  there  is  a  total  absence 
of  life  in  and  around  the  .sea  is  erroneous. 
Organic  life  scarcely  exists  in  its  wat.-is ; 
neither  shellfish  iior  corals  are  found.  Bub 
vegetation  dourishes  on  its  shores  at  the 
mouth  of  wadies  and  by  springs  of  fre>h 
water;  and  birds  frequent  its  strand  or  lly 
over  its  surface.  According  to  Lartet.  fipli 
are  found  in  small  uiiiubers  south  of  tlio 
Lisan.  As  a  svuibol  of  life  in  the  new  king- 
dom of  God,  Ezekiel  pictures  the  healing  "f 
the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  miilci- 
plicatiou  of  fish  till  the  .species  rival  in  num- 
ber those  of  the  Mediterraueau  (  Ezek.  xlvii. 
6-12). 

Deartli.     Sec  F.vmink. 

De'bir. 

1.  A  king  of  Eglon,  ally  of  Adoni-zedek  ; 
defeated,  captured,  and  executed  by  Josliua 
(Josh.  X.  3,  27).  ,  ,    ,  .. 

2.  A  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  yet 
in   the   Negeb   or  soutli   land.     It   Wivs  also 


Deborah 


172 


Decapolis 


callod  Kirjath-sepbcr,  wliich  niiiy  mean  cfty 
of  bddks  and  indicate  a  literary  people;  and 
Kirjatli-sannah,  eity  of  a  palm  tree  or  jier- 
liaj)s  i)oak  (Josh.  xv.  15.  lit,  4t<,  4!»).  In  the 
time  of  Joshua  it  was  inhabited  by  Anakim, 
had  a  kinj;,  and  was  head  of  other  towns. 
Joshua  captured  it  and  slew  its  inhabitants 
(Josh.  X.  ;5H,  .39;  xi.  21  ;  xii.  i:5) ;  but  it  was 
reoccupied  by  returned  fugitives,  and  had  to 
be  recaptured  by  Otbniel  (Josh.  xv.  15-17; 
Judg.  i.  11,  12).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  xxi.  13,  15 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  57, 
58).  The  most  probable  site  proposed  (better 
perhaps  than  Dilbeh,  4A  miles  southwest  of 
Hebron)  is  Dhaheriyeh,  nearly  12  miles 
southwest  of  Hebron,  on  a  flat  ridge,  with 
open,  rocky  ground  all  around.  It  is  west 
of  the  sites  of  Socoh,  Auab,  and  Eshtemoh 
(Josh.  XV.  48-50).  It  is  supplied  from  cis- 
terns. The  springs  mentioned  in  Judg.  i.  15 
are  not  distinctl.v  connected  with  Debir  and 
may  be  nearer  Hebron. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  near  the  valley  of  Arbor  (Josh.  xv. 
7).  The  name  is  perhaps  preserved  in  ed- 
Debr,  a  grotto  near  ed-Dumm,  i.  e.  Adum- 
mim,  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho. 

4.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Maha- 
Tiaim  (Josh.  xiii.  2B).  The  margin  of  E.  V. 
has  Lidehir.     Perhaps  Lodebar  (q.  v.). 

Deb'o-rali  [a  bee]. 

1.  Kebekah's  nurse,  who  accompanied  her 
from  Mesojjotamia  and  lived  until  Jacob's  re- 
turn from  Paddan-aram.  She  had  perhaps 
returned  to  her  kindred  in  Haran  after  the 
death  of  Eebekah  and  accompanied  Jacob 
back  to  Canaan,  or  she  had  gone  to  him  when 
be  was  sojourning  at  Shechem.  At  any  rate 
she  was  with  him  at  Bethel.  There  she  died 
at  the  age  of  about  155  years,  for  she  could 
not  have  lieen  much  younger  than  Isaac.  She 
was  buried  at  tli(!  foot  of  the  bill  on  which 
the  town  stood  and  under  an  oak,  called  in 
consequence  Allon-bacuth,  oak  of  weeping 
(Gen.  xxiv.  59  ;  xxxv.  8). 

2.  A  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Lapindoth. 
She  dwelt  under  a  i)alm  tree,  called  after  her 
name,  between  Kumah  an<l  I'.ethel,  in  mount 
Ephraim,  and  there  judged  the  Israelites. 
She  summoned  Harak  to  undertake  the  con- 
test with  Sisera,  and  accompanied  him  to  the 
rendezvous  of  his  army  (Judg.  iv.  4-14). 
Afterwards  she  composed  a  .song  of  triumph 
for  the  victory  (v.  1  31 ;  cp.  7). 

Debt'or. 

One  who  owes  another  numey.  To  foster 
the  spirit  of  brotherhood  and  inutual  help- 
fulnes.s,  the  Mosjiic  law  ordained  that  the 
creditor  release  Ids  brother  Israelite  from  all 
obligations  at  the  year  of  release,  which  re- 
curred every  .seven  years  (Deut.  xv.  14).  In 
the  intervening  years  custom  permitted  tlie 
seizure  and  enslavement  of  a  debtor,  his 
wife,  and  liis  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1  ;  Neh.  v. 
5,8;  Is.  1.   1;  Mat.  xviii.  25).     In  the  time 


of  Jesus,  ill  accordance  with  Eomaii  law,  im- 
pri.sonment  was  sometimes  inflicted  on  a 
debtor  (Mat.  v.  25;  xviii.  30;  Luke  xii.  58). 

De-cap'o-lis  [an  association  of  ten  cities]. 

A  district,  beginning  where  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  opens  into  the  Jordan  valley  and 
expanding  eastward,  which  was  dominated 
by  ten  associated  Greek  cities.  The  Greek 
population  had  come  in  the  wake  of  Alex- 
ander's conquest.  The  ten  cities  originally 
included  in  the  association  were  Scythopolis, 
i.  e.  Bethshean,  Hippos,  Damascus  ;  Gadara, 
Raphana,  Kanatha  ;  Pella,  Dion,  Gerasa.  and 
Philadelphia,  i.  e.  Rabbath  Ammon  (Pliny, 
His.  nat.  v.  16).  Other  towns  were  afterwards 
added.  Ptolemy  enumerates  eighteen.  Three 
roads  connect  Esdraelon  with  the  commercial 
highway  which  runs  between  Damascus  and 
Arabia  along  the  margin  of  the  desert.  The 
ten  towns  stood  on  these  three  roads  and 
on  the  highway.  The  district  is  called  De- 
capolita  regio  by  Pliny  (v.  ;5).  Multitudes 
from  Decapolis  followed  Jesus  at  an  early 
period  of  his  ministry  (Mat.  iv.  25).  The 
Gadarene  demoniac,  when  the  evil  spirit  was 
expelled,  published  his  deliverance  in  Decap- 


A/a/>  of  the  Region 

o/fAe 

Hecapo/is 


ohs  (Mark  v.  20).  Jesus  traveled  through 
its  midst  on  his  way  from  Tyre  and  Sidon  to 
the  sea  of  (ialilee,  approaching  the  lake  from 
the  eastern  side  (vii.  31). 


Dedan 


173 


Demetrius 


De'dan. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7),  but  also  re- 
lated to  Abraham  through  Keturah  (xxv.  3). 
They  were  an  important  commercial  people 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  15,  20;  xxxviii.  13)  of  Arabia 
(is.  xxi.  13),  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edom 
(Jer.  xxv.  23  ;  xlix.  8  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  13),  where 
caravan  routes  from  southern,  eastern,  and 
central  Arabia  converged.  The  name  prob- 
ably lingers  in  Daidan,  to  the  west  of  Taima 
and  southeast  of  Aila.  Formerly  two  distinct 
tribes  of  Dedanites  were  assumed  :  one  Sem- 
itic, living  near  Edom ;  the  other  Cushitic, 
dwelling  near  Raamah  (Gen.  x.  7),  which  was 
thought  to  have  been  situated  on  the  coast  of 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Raamah,  however,  is  better 
located  in  southwestern  Arabia  ;  and  then 
Dedan  was  one  people,  centered  near  Taima, 
aTid  neighbor  alike  to  the  Edomites  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Raamah. 

Ded-i-ca'tion,  Feast  of. 

An  annual  festival  instituted  by  Judas 
Maccabaeiis  in  165  b.  c.  to  celebrate  the  puri- 
fication and  renewal  of  the  temple,  exactly 
three  years  after  it  had  been  desecrated  by 
the  introduction  of  Greek  idolatry  and  other 
pollutions  by  order  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
( 1  Mac.  iv.  52-59  ;  cp.  i.  54,  .59).  The  festival, 
called  also  lights  (Antiq.  xii.  7,  7),  and  cele- 
brated much  after  the  manner  of  the  festival 
of  tabernacles  (2  Mac.  x.  (5,  7),  lasted  eight 
days,  beginning  on  the  25th  of  Chislev  (ap- 
proximately December),  and  fiilliug  conse- 
quently in  winter.  Jesus  was  present  at  least 
once  at  .lerusalem  daring  the  festival,  and  de- 
livered a  discourse  tothe  assembled  multitude 
(John  X.  22).   The  Jews  still  keep  the  festival. 

Deer. 

The  English  name  of  the  genus  Ceivus,  or 
of  the  family  Ceividie.  The  word  occurs  only 
in  A.  V.  in  the  name  fallow  deer,  but  the 
hart  is  frequently  mentioned.  Tristram 
enumerates  two  s])ecies  of  the  genus  Cerrtts 
as  still  occurring  in  Palestine,  the  roebuck 
(Cervus  capreolus)  and  the  fallow  deer  {Cer- 
vus  dama) ;  whilst  the  teeth  and  bones  of 
three  others,  the  red  deer  {Cervus  elaphus), 
the  reindeer  {Cervus  tarandus),  and  the  elk 
{Cervus  alces),  are  found  in  bone  breccia  in 
caves  in  the  Lebanon  mountains. 

De-grees'. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  fifteen 
Psalms,  cxx.-cxxxiv.  inclusive,  which  are 
called  Songs  of  Degrees.  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  iWIoth,  ascents  or  goings  up 
(Ezra  vii.  9),  steps  (Ex.  xx.  26;  1  Kin.  x. 
19).  A  Jewish  tradition  tells  that  the  fifteen 
Songs  of  Degrees  were  sung  as  an  ascent  was 
made  by  fifteen  steps  from  the  court  of  the 
women  to  that  of  the  men,  a  view  not  now 
generallv  entertained.  Gesenius  and  De- 
litzsch  held  that  they  were  so  called  because 
there  is  in  their  composition  a  certain  pro- 
gression, the  concluding  words  of  one  sen- 
tence being  often  the  commencement  of  the 
next,  as — 


I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  liills 
From  wlionci'  nimitli  mi/  help; 

My  lulj)  voiiuth  from  the  I.onl, 
Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 

But  the  repetition  is  the  exception  ratlierthan 
the  rule  in  these  psalms.  The  cumnion  i)|iin- 
ion  is  that  they  were  sung  by  tlii^  i)ilgrims 
during  tlie  ascent  to  Jernssilem.  Such  a  cu.s- 
tom  is,  however,  nowhere  nu-ntioned. 

De-ha'ites,  in  .\.  V.  De-ha'vltes. 

One  of  the  tribes  lirought  ov;'r  to  .Simaria 
from  the  Assyrian  emiiire  to  replace  the  ten 
tribes  carried  cai)tive  (Ezra  iv.  9).  liawlin- 
son  believes  tliat  they  were  Dai  or  Dahi,  a 
nomad  tribe  of  .\ryan  descent  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  (i.  125). 

De'ker,  in  A.  V.  Dekar  [i)erforation]. 

The  fill  her  of  Solomon's  purveyor,  Bcn- 
deker  (1  Kin.  iv.  9,  R.  V.). 

De-la'iah,  in  A.  V.  once  Dalaiab  (1  ("hron. 
iii.  24)  [Jehovah  hath  drawn  out,  ('.  e.  deliv- 
ered]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family, 
grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time  of 
David,  was  made  the  twenty-third  course  of 
the  priests  (1  Cliron.  xxiv.  18). 

2.  A  yuince,  son  of  Sliemaiali,  and  one  of 
those  who  urged  king  .lehoiakim  not  to  burn 
the  roll  containing  the  i)rophecies  of  Jero- 
miah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  25).  Perhaps  it  is  he 
or  his  grandson  who  is  incidentally  men- 
tioned later  (Neb.  vi.  10). 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Ezra  ii.  60  ;  Neh.  vii.  62). 

4.  A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

De-li'lah  [delicate,  wasted  with  longing  or 
desire]. 

The  Philistine  woman  from  the  valley  of 
Sorek  who  lured  Samson  to  his  ruin  (Judg. 
xvi.  4-lc<). 

De'los,  in  A.  V.  Delus. 

A  small  island  in  the  .Egean,  celebrated  as 
the  birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  The 
Roman  consul  Lucius  wrote  to  Delos  con- 
cerning a  pact  of  friendship  estahli.shed  be- 
tween the  Ronians  and  the  Jews  U  Mac.  xv. 
23).  It  was  at  that  time  the  center  of  au 
extensive  commerce. 

Del'uge.    See  Flood. 

De'mas. 

A  fellow  laborer  of  Paul,  who  sent  siiluta- 
tions  from  Rome  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon  (Col.  iv.  14;  Philemon  241.  After- 
wards he  deserted  the  apostle  from  unwilling- 
ness to  sutler,  and  went  to  Thessalonica  (2 
Tim.  iv.  10). 

De-me'trl-us  [belonging  to  Demetcr,  or 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  agriculture  and  rural 
life]. 

1.  Demetrius  I.,  surnamed  Soter.  king  of 
Syria  162-1.50  b.  C.  neidiew  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  He  ha<l  Wvn  kejit  as  a  liosUxge 
at  Rome  :  but  on  hearing  of  his  uncle's  death 
he  made  his  escape,  and  arriving  -sjifely  in 


Demon 


174 


Desert 


Aiitioch  inarlo  liiniself  master  of  the  king- 
dom, and  jiut  to  death  Lysias  and  the  young 
Eupator  a  Mac.  vii.  1-4).  In  war  with  him 
Judas  Maccaba-us  lost  his  life  (ix.  1-19).  In 
l.')-i  B.  c.  Alexander  Balas,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Roman  senate,  chiimed  the  throne. 
The  rivals  met  in  a  decisive  battle  in  150 
B.  c,  and  Demetrius  was  defeated  and  slain 
(X.  48-.50;  Antiq.  xiii.  2.  4). 

2.  Demetrius  II..  surnamed  Nicator,  son 
of  Demetrius  I.  In  148-7  B.  c.  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  Balas, 
and  with  the  aid  of  Ptolemy  VI.  defeated 
him.  Alexander  lied  into  .\rahia,  where  he 
was  murdered,  and  Demetrius  became  king 
of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi.  15-1!)).  But  Alexander's 
general  Tryphon  almost  immediately  pro- 
claimed Alexander's  voung  son  Antiochus 
king  (39,  40).  The  struggle  lasted  until  138 
B.  c,  when  Demetrius,  during  a  plundering 
expedition  in  Persia,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
king  Arsaces  and  kept  in  bonds  for  ten  years. 
Before  his  departure  on  this  expedition  he 
gave  the  Jews  their  independence.  Although 
they  fell  under  the  ])ower  of  the  Syrians 
again,  this  event  was  of  national  importance, 
and  they  dated  their  independence  from  it 
(1  Mac.  xiii.  36-42  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9).  Deme- 
trius regained  liberty  and  the  throne  in  128 
B.  c.  An  Egyptian  ])retender,  supported  by 
Ptolemy  VII.,  took  the  held  against  him. 
Demetrius  was  defeated  near  Damascus,  fled 
to  Ptolemais,  and  took  ship  to  Tyre,  where 
he  was  murdered  when  about  to  land  (Antiq. 
xiii.  9,  3). 

3.  A  silversmith  at  Ephesus,  who  made  for 
sale  silver  models  of  the  celebrated  temple 
of  Diana.  Believing  his  craft  to  l)e  in  danger 
from  Christianity,  he  excited  his  fellow  work- 
men against  Paul,  and  stirred  up  the  riot  in 
which  the  mob  cried  for  two  hours,  "Great 
is  Diana  of  the  Ejjhesiaus"  (Acts  xix.  24-41). 

4.  An  a])proved  Christian,  commended  by 
John  also  (3  John  12). 

De'mon  [among  the  Greeks,  (1)  a  god  or 
deity  in  general  ;  (2)  one's  genius;  (3)  one's 
fortune;  (1)  tlie  soul  of  some  man  belonging 
to  the  golden  age,  now  acting  as  a  tutelary 
divinity;  a  god  ol'  inferior  rank]. 

An  evil  spirit  (Luke  viii.  29;  x.  17-20). 
The  designation  js  api)lied  esi)ecially  to  the 
gods  of  the  heathen  (Dent,  xxxii.  17;  Ps. 
cvi.  37;  and  margin  of  1  Cor.  x.  20,  and  cp. 
Rev.  ix.  20;  all  P.  V.),  and  to  inferior  evil 
8i)irits,  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  xii.  24-27 ; 
Luke  iv.  'S.i;  Jas.  ii.  19;  Rev.  xvi.  14;  all 
martrin  of  R.  V.I  ;  see  Dkmdxi.vc. 

The  .Jews  held  various  notions  on  the  sub- 
ject;  such  a^,  the  demons  were  tlu^  spirits 
of  tlie  vvickiMl  dead  (War  vii.  Ct,  3),  and  could 
he  exorcised  by  means  of  roots  and  the  name 
of  .Siiloiiioii  r.Vntiq.  viii.  2,  5t,  or  driven  away 
by  fiiiiii-i  fiDMi  tlie  roasting  heart  and  liver 
of  a  lisli  (T.,1).  vi.  7,  Ki,  17). 

De-mo'nl-ac  [possessed  by  a  demon]. 

.\  person    possessed  and   ruled   li\-  ;i  demon 


(Mat.  iv.  24,  R.  V.  margin).  The  inhabitation 
of  such  a  being  in  some  cases  aflfected  the 
person  physically,  and  produced  certain  ordi 
nary  diseases.  Thus  one  possessed  boy  is  de- 
scribed as  having  a  deaf  and  dumb  spirit  and 
as  being  affected  at  intervals  with  morbid 
symptoms  resembling  those  of  epilepsy  (Mark 
ix.  14-29;  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  15,  18;  Luke  ix. 
37-42).  Hence  the  opinion  of  many  is  that 
possession  was  simply  a  Jewish  hypothesis  to 
account  for  bodily  and  mental  diseases  and 
for  the  visible  effects  on  body  and  will  of  en- 
slavement to  sin.  But  this  view  takes  no 
note  of  the  fact  that  the  demons  speak  (Mark 
i.  23,  24;  iii.  11,  12;  v.  7);  that  they  pos- 
sessed at  times  knowledge  beyond  that  of 
men  ;  as,  for  example,  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ  (Mark  i.  24)  ;  that  they  recognized 
their  own  distinct  individuality  independent 
of  Jesus  and  independent  of  the  person  pos- 
sessed (Mat.  viii.  31) ;  that  the  distant  herd 
of  swine  became  frenzied  when  the  demons 
were  cast  out  of  the  demoni&c  of  Gadara  and 
allowed  to  enter  into  them  (Mat.  viii.  30)  ; 
that  Jesus  apparently  recognized  them  as 
actually  existing  beings,  and  instructed  his 
disciples,  saying:  "This  kind  can  come  out 
by  nothing,  save  by  praye^'XMark  ix.  29, 
R.  V.) ;  and  that  later,  when  the  disciples  re- 
ported that  even  the  demons  were  subject  unto 
them  in  his  name,  Jesus  replied  :  "  I  beheld 
Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven.  .  .  . 
Notwithstanding  in  this  rejoice  not,  that  the 
spirits  are  subject  unto  you;  but  rather  re- 
joice, that  your  names  are  written  in  heaven  " 
(Luke  X.  17-20).  Man  was  himself  respon- 
sible for  his  hideous  visitor.  Probably  not 
until  a  person  was  degraded  and  weakened  by 
sin,  personal  or  inherited,  might  he  be  taken 
captive  bv  a  demon  (1  Sam.  xvi.  14;  with 
xiii.  8-14;'  xv.  10-31). 

Dep'u-ty. 

One  empowered  to  act  for  another,  gener- 
ally of  higher  rank  than  himself;  as  a  re- 
gent ruling  in  place  of  a  king  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
47) ;  an  official  invested  with  the  powers  and 
rank  of  a  Roman  consul  (Acts  xiii.  7  ;  xviii. 
12 ;  xix.  38,  A.  V.) ;  see  Proconsul. 

Der'be. 

A  city  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lycaonia, 
in  Asia  Minor.  Paul  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead  at  Lystra,  on  his  first  missionary  jour- 
nej'.  On  reviving,  he  went  to  Derbe  (Acts 
xiv.  (),  20).  On  his  second  journey  he  again 
passed  through  it,  and  either  there  or  at 
Lystra  made  the  acquaintance  of  Timothy 
(xvi.  1).  (Jaius  was  a  native  of  Derbe  (xx.  4). 
The  ruins  of  a  town  on  lake  Ak  Gul  near 
Divle  have  been  sui)i)osed  to  mark  the  site 
of  Derbe;  but  Prof.  Ramsey  believes  with 
Prof.  Sterrctt  that  the  site  is  Zosta,  47  miles 
southsoutheast  of  Icoiiiuni,  on  the  road  which 
ran  from  Cilicia  Tracheia  through  Larunda 
to  leoiiiuni. 

Des'ert. 

1.   \  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Midhar  and 


Deuel 

the  Greek  Eremos,  an  unenclosed,  unculti- 
vated plain,  where  wild  beasts  roam  at  will 
(Job  xxiv.  5) ;  often  terrible  in  its  solitude 
and  desolateness  (Dout.  xxxii.  10 ;  and  A.  V. 
of  Is.  xxi.  1),  yet  also  capable  of  aflbrdiug 
])asturage  (Ex.  iii.  1,  A.  V.).  The  words  are 
usually  rendered  wilderness  (Gen.  xvi.  7; 
xxi.  20;  1  Sam.  xvii.  28;  xxv.  21;  Mat.  iii. 
1 ;  Mark  i.  13  ;  Luke  xv.  4). 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"rnbnh,  arid 
region  (Is.  xxxv.  1,  6;  li.  3).  With  the  defi- 
nite article  the  word  specially  denotes  the 
plain  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  8;  2  Sam.  ii.  29),  and  is  rendered  in 
the  E.  V.  as  a  proper  name,  Arabah. 

3.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Y'^shimon,  a 
waste,  a  desolation  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  40;  cvi.  14; 
Is.  xliii.  19,  20).  When  the  definite  article 
is  prefixed  it  is  rendered  as  a  proper  name, 
Jesliimou  (Num.  xxi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin 
of  E.  v.). 

4.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  HTaboth, 
waste,  desolate  places  (Is.  xlviii.  21).  In  Ps. 
cii.  6 ;  P^zek.  xiii.  4  the  E.  V.  translates 
it  waste  places. 

De-u'el  [invocation  of  God]. 

A  Gadite,  the  father  of  Eliasaph  (Num.  i. 
14;  vii.  42;  x.  20).  Called  in  ii.  14  Eeuel, 
which  means  "friend  of  God."  It  is  uncer- 
tain which  of  these  two  forms  is  correct. 
The  Samaritan  text  has  Deuel  everywhere, 
whereas  the  Septuagint  and  the  Syriac  trans- 
lators read  Eeuel ;  see  Daleth. 

Deu-ter-on'o-my  [repetition  of  the  law]. 

The  name,  derived  from  the  Septuagint,  of 
the  fifth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  Greek 
word,  of  which  Deuteronomy  is  the  English 
form,  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  to  translate 
the  expression  "  copy  of  this  law  "  in  chapter 
xvii.  18.  But  this  book  is  not  merely  the 
repetition  or  copy  of  laws  already  given.  It 
is  a  rehearsal  under  peculiar  circumstances 
and  for  a  special  purpose.  In  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, and  Numbers,  the  legislation  is  repre- 
sented as  in  process  of  enactment,  the  occasion 
or  the  time  when  the  successive  installments 
were  received  is  commonly  stated,  and  each 
body  of  statutes  is  severally  declared  to  pro- 
ceed from  God.  In  Deuteronomy,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  law  is  represented,  not  as 
l)eing  enacted,  but  as  being  rehearsed  and 
expounded.  Thirty  and  eight  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  greater  part  of  the  old  leg- 
islation was  given.  The  new  generation,  on 
the  eve  of  taking  possession  of  Canaan,  is 
summoned  to  hear  the  law  of  the  nation,  to 
be  instructed  in  tlie  aiiplicatioii  of  its  jirin- 
ciples  to  the  new  circumstances  which 
await  them,  to  have  their  apprehension  of 
its  sjiirituality  quickened,  aud  then  to  renew 
intelligently  the  covenant  made  witli  their 
fathers.  lusteatl  of  the  Lord  speaking  unto 
Moses,  it  is  now  Moses  at  the  command  of 
God  .speaking  to  the  people  (i.  1-4;  v.  1; 
xxix.  1).  The  book  consists  first  and  mainly 
of  an  address  delivered  in  three  installments, 


175 


Deuteronomy- 


committed  to  writing,  and  solemnly  ratified 
as  a  covenant  (i.-xxx.).  /'Yr.s7  Add'rt'.ss.  i.  (i- 
iv.  40  ;  with  siiiiplcmentary  statement,  41-49  : 
Eehearsal  of  the  history  of  tlie  i)e(>|)le  since 
the  covenant  was  made  with  (lie  preceding 
generation  at  Sinai  as  a  nu)tive  for  obedience 
to  Jehovah's  laws.  The  speaker  is  declared 
to  be  Moses  (i.  1,  3,  5,  9,  1."),  10,  19,  etc.) :  the 
date  is  the  40th  year.  11th  month,  1st  day  ; 
after  the  smiting  of  Silion  and  ()g,  and  after 
the  sin  in  the  matter  of  Peor  (i.  3,  4  ;  iv.  3) : 
the  place  is  beyond  Jordan  in  the  land  of 
Moab  (i.  5.  cp.  Num.  xxxiii.  48;  xxxv.  1),  in 
the  wilderness,  in  the  Arahah  (i.  1,  cj).  Num. 
xxiii.  28;  xxiv.  1).  The  ]>lirase  "beyond 
Jordan"  or  "other  side  of  .Ionian"  was 
ambiguous  and  required  precise  definition. 
To  Abraham  and  the  Canaanites  it  meant  the 
country  east  of  the  river ;  and  as  an  estab- 
lished geographical  term  it  meant  the  .same 
to  Abraham's  descendants.  They  had  arrived 
there ;  but  they  still  called  the  place  where 
they  were  by  the  old  inherited  designation 
"  tlu!  other  side  of  Jordan."  just  as  they 
called  the  neighboring  bliifls  Abarim  or 
"mountains  of  the  other  side."  And  the 
people  felt,  too,  that  they  were  on  the  other 
side  of  Jordan,  outside  of  the  promised  land. 
But  with  the  river  in  front  of  them  the 
phrase  was  ambiguous,  hence  its  rejieated 
elucidation  by  .some  ex])ression  like  "  in  the 
land  of  Moab."  Second  Address,  v.-xxvi. : 
Eehearsal  of  statutes  which  concerned  the 
people,  with  emphasis  on  the  spirituality  of 
the  laws  and  urgent  insistence  u\Km  their 
observance.  These  statutes  are  generally 
either  substantive  laws,  that  is,  rights  and 
duties  (the  procedure  not  being  rehearsed), 
or  else  laws  which  natural  depravity  might 
lead  men  to  ignore  and  where  the  ajipeal 
must  be  to  religious  motives  :  such  as.  asylum 
for  the  unintentional  murderer,  banishment 
of  idolatry,  and  consideration  for  the  weaker 
members  and  dependent  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. The  speaker  is  Moses  (v.  1,  5.  22) ; 
the  date  is  at  the  end  of  the  forty  years,  on 
the  eve  of  crossing  the  Jordan,  after  Balaam's 
prophecy  (viii.  2 ;  ix.  1 ;  xi.  31 ;  xxiii.  4). 
Third  Address,  xxvii.,  xxviii. :  Conclusion  of 
the  preceding,  (1)  Provision  for  writing  the 
law  on  plastered  stones  on  mount  Ebal,  (2) 
Blessings  and  curses  annexed  to  obedience 
and  disobedience  respectively.  This  great 
address  is  closely  followed  by  a  brief  address 
(xxix.,  XXX.)  at  the  ratification  of  the  coven- 
ant as  thus  proclaimed  (xxix.  1 ;  xxx.  1). 
This  covenant,  like  the  words  of  the  former 
one  made  at  Horeb,  was  recorded  in  a  book 
(xxix.  20,  21,  27;  xxx.  10;  cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  4-8). 
The  place  and  date  are  alluded  to  in  Dcut. 
xxix.  1,  5,  7,  8. 

After  delivering  the  address  which  forms 
the  body  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  Moses 
publicly  appointed  Joshua  to  be  his  successor 
and  gave  a  formal  charge  to  him  (xxxi.  1-8). 
Moses  delivered  the  written  law  to  the  priests 
with  a  charge  regarding  its  public  reading 


Deuteronomy 


176 


Deuteronomy 


(9-13).  He  repaired  with  Joshua  to  the  tab- 
ernacle that  Joshua  might  be  charged  by  Je- 
hovah, and  was  there  instructed  to  prepare  a 
song  for  the  people  (14-23).  He  i)repared 
and  wrote  the  song  (2'2),  charg(>d  the  Levites 
who  bore  the  ark  to  put  the  completed  book, 
which  contained  law  and  song,  beside  the 
ark  for  a  witness  (24-29),  ordered  an  assembly 
called  to  hear  and  learn  the  song  (28),  and 
repeated  it  publicly  (30-xxxii.  47).  Moses' 
farewell  (48-xxxiii.  29)  and  death  (xxxiv.). 

The  distinctive  feature  of  Deuteronomy  is 
the  evident  preparation  for  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  1.  It  atTects  the  language.  For  ex- 
an)j)le,  the  people  are  about  to  live  a  settled 
life  ;  hence  the  camp  which  figures  so  largely, 
though  of  course  not  exclusively,  in  the 
former  legislation  disappears  from  Deuter- 
onomy, except  where  reference  is  made  to 
future  war  or  to  the  encampment  at  Shittim 
where  they  then  are.  The  speaker  mentions 
liouses,  towns,  city  gates.  2.  It  leads  to 
minor  modifications  of  existing  laws  to  adapt 
tluMu  to  the  new  mode  of  life.  For  example, 
the  law  which  required  animals  that  were 
slain  for  food  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  is  changed  to  permit  the  people  to 
elay  for  food  in  the  town  where  they  reside 
xii.  1."),  21  ;  Lev.  xvii.  3,  4) ;  and  for  the  same 
reason  the  firstling  of  aniiiuils  ni'cd  no  longer 
be  oli'ered  to  God  ou  the  eighth  day,  but  the 
sacrifice  may  be  postponed  until  the  owner 
comes  up  from  his  distant  home  to  the  sanc- 
tuary at  the  annual  feasts  (  Deut.  xv.  20  with 
Ex.  xxii.  .30) ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  Hebrew 
buiulnian  who  wishes  to  remain  attached  to 
the  household  of  his  master,  rather  than 
claim  his  legal  freedom,  the  ceremony  at  the 
door-post  suftices,  and  there  is  no  longer  in- 
sistence upon  appearance  before  God  (Deut. 
XV.  17  with  Ex.  xxi.  (J).  3.  It  leads  to  the 
at  ti'iupt  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  de- 
pfudirnt  cla.sses,  the  Levites,  widows,  or- 
l)lKins,  straiig(^rs,  and  to  protitct  them  from 
tin-  evils  wliich  evidently  threatened  to  be- 
fall them  in  tlie  future,  in  view  of  the  si)irit 
of  self-seeking  and  inditlerence  to  otiiers  that 
had  been  manifested  by  the  people  time  and 
again  during  the  sojourn  in  tlie  wilderness. 
4.  It  leads  to  insistence  upon  one  altar  for 
the  nation  in  the  jilace  where  Jehovah  shall 
record  his  name.  The  unity  of  the  altar  was 
intended  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  laiKso 
into  idolatry,  by  preventing  the  peo])l(!  fi-oni 
Worshiping  at  the  numerous  local  sanctuaries 
of  the  Canaanites;  to  render  the  worship  of 
Jehovah  a  grander  spectacle  and  of  greater 
pomp  than  the  rites  of  the  idols  of  the 
("anaanites  by  uniting  th(!  nunil)ers  and  the 
wealth  of  the  IIel)rews;  and  to  give  strength 
to  the  communal  feeling  and  aid  in  binding 
the  nation  together.  The  spirit  of  jealousy 
l)(!tween  individuals  and  Ix-tween  tribes,  the 
popular  |)roneness  to  idolatry,  and  the  will- 
ingness of  large  sections  of  the  people,  to 
separate  from  their  bnllinn  and  settle  in 
attractive  pastoral   regions  had  already  be- 


come manifest.  The  old  law  of  the  one 
altar  is  emphatically  insisted  upon  at  this 
crisis.  It  was  essential  to  the  unity  of  the 
nation  and  continuance  of  the  theocracy. 
See  Altar. 

It  has  been  urged  that  no  distinction  is 
made  in  Deuteronomy  between  priests  and 
Levites  such  as  appears  in  the  legislation  of 
Leviticus  and  Numbers.  The  priests  are  fre- 
quently called  "the  priests  the  Levites," 
and  the  passage  xviii.  1-8,  if  it  be  isolated, 
may  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  any  Levite 
might  become  a  priest.  But — 1.  The  tribe 
of  I^evi  is  indeed  assigned  priestly  functions 
(x.  (i;  xviii.  1-8;  xxxiii.  8,  9).  But  that  is 
correct,  for  the  tribe  as  a  whole  was  called 
to  holy  service,  especially  to  priestly  service. 
Even  when  the  distinction  between  the  priests 
and  the  lower  order  of  the  Levites  was  firmly 
established,  the  tribe  as  a  whole  is  spoken 
of  as  priestly  (1  Kin.  xii.  31 ;  Mai.  ii.  1-4; 
ill.  3 ;  cp.  Heb.  vii.  13).  2.  The  title  "  the 
priests  the  Levites  "  occurs  in  writings  which 
were  compo.sed  after  the  legislation  of  Le- 
viticus was,  as  everybody  admits,  in  full 
force.  It  is  used  by  Ezekiel  (xliii.  19 ;  xliv. 
15)  and  by  the  Chronicler  (2  Chron.xxiii.  18; 
XXX.  27).  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
Jeremiah  uses  the  expression  (xxxiii.  18,  21). 
3.  Deuteronomy  is  based  on  previous  priestly 
legislation,  for  it  presupposes  the  technical 
laws  of  the  ritual.  The  speaker  explicitly 
refers  to  former  laws  on  the  subject  of  which 
he  is  speaking,  and  these  laws  are  known 
only  from  the  books  of  Leviticus  and  Num- 
bers (Deut.  xviii.  1,  2  with  Num.  xviii.  20 ; 
Deut.  xxiv.  8,  9  with  Lev.  xiii.,  xiv. ;  Num. 
xii.),  or  he  makes  allusions  which  imply 
these  laws  (Deut.  xii.  15  with  Lev.  xvii.  3 
seq.).  4.  The  passage  Deut.  xviii.  1-8  may 
be  readily  interpreted  on  the  assumption  that 
the  laws  of  Leviticus  were  in  force.  Levi 
was  to  have  no  inheritance  with  Israel,  but 
was  to  enjov  certain  perquisites  (Lev.  vi.  17, 
18  ;  Num.  xviii.  20,  21,  24,  26).  The  speaker 
presses  this  law  with  earnestness.  The  priests 
the  Levites,  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi  have  no  in- 
heritance ;  they  shall  eat  the  oflerings  (ver.  1). 
The  dues  of  the  priests,  without  the  epithet 
"  the  Levites,"  are  next  spoken  of.  It  is  an 
urgent  matter.  The  people  must  not  defraud 
the  priests  of  their  income  (3,  4  with  Ex. 
xxix.  27,  28 ;  Lev.  vii.  34 ;  Num.  xviii.  11.  12, 
where  slight  changes  are  introduced).  Fi- 
nally, the  rights  of  the  Levites  at  the  sanctu- 
ary are  dwelt  upon.  If  a  Levite — not  neces- 
sarily a  Levite  of  lower  rank — come  from 
any  part  of  the  country  to  the  sanctuary, 
he  shall  minister  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
as  all  his  brethren  the  Levites  do,  which 
stand  Ixfore  the  Lord,  and  he  shall  fare  as 
they  do  ((>  8).  The  kind  of  service  which 
he  shall  perform  is  not  the  matter  at  issue. 
The  language  covers  both  priestly  service 
and  the  labors  rendered  by  the  lower  order 
of  the  Levites  (5,  xvii.  12 ;  and  1  Sam.  ii.  11, 
18;  iii.  1;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  6;  xxix.  4,  5,  11). 


Devil 


177 


Diamond 


The  point  insisted  upon  is  that  all  Levites 
siiall  receive  full  recojiuition  at  the  sanctuary 
and  be  accorded  their  prerogatives.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  if  the  Levite  be  a  priest, 
he  shall  serve  and  fare  like  his  brethren  the 
priests;  if  he  be  not  a  priest,  he  shall  enjoy 
the  privileges  that  belong  to  his  brethren 
who  are  Levites  but  not  priests.  Those  in 
power  shall  not  deprive  him  of  his  preroga- 
tives because  he  is  obscure  and  from  a  distant 
piirt  of  the  country.     See  Priest. 

Dev'il  [Greek  diabohs,  a  slanderer]. 

1.  An  evil  spirit  (Mark  i.  34  ;  Luke  iv.  33 ; 
-viii.  29).  A.  V.  and,  in  its  text,  R.  V.  do  not 
observe  the  distinction  made  in  the  Greek 
original  between  a  demon  and  the  devil. 
Demons  take  possession  of  wicked  men  and 
are  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  iv.  24  ;  xii.  24) ; 
see  Demoniac. 

2.  The  evil  one,  Satan,  the  greatest  of  all  the 
fallen  spirits  (Rev.  xii.  9  ;  Mat.  iv.  8-11 ;  xiii. 
38,  39  ;  XXV.  41 ;  cp.  Jude  6)  The  general 
opinion  is  that  the  sin  into  which  he  fell  was 
pride  (1  Tim.  iii.  6).  He  is  the  great  enemy 
of  God  and  man  (1  Pet.  v.  8  ;  1  John  iii.  8), 
who  tempted  Christ  and  incites  men  to  sin 
(Mat.  iv.  1 ;  John  xiii.  2;  Eph.  iv.  27).  He 
is  "that  old  serpent"  who  tempted  Eve 
(Wisdom  ii.  23,  24  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  3 ;  Rev.  xii.  9  ; 
XX.  2).  Perhaps  with  reference  to  this  trans- 
action he  is  called  a  murderer  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  a  liar,  and  the  father  of  lies 
(John  viii.  44  ;  cp.  1  John  iii.  8).  When  the 
good  seed  of  truth  is  sown  the  devil  either 
steals  it  away  (Luke  viii.  12)  or  sows  tares 
(Mat.  xiii.  38).  He  is  continually  going  about 
like  a  roaring  lion  seeking  whom  he  may  de- 
vour (1  Pet.  V.  8).  He  lays  snares  or  prac- 
tices wiles  to  injure  the  children  of  God 
(Eph.  vi.  11  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  26),  and  seduces  them 
by  his  subtilty  (2  Cor.  xi.  3)  :  but  the  tempted 
one  is  not  to  yield  to  him,  but  to  resist  him, 
and  he  will  flee  (Eph.  iv.  27;  James  iv.  7). 
He  had  power  to  produce  demoniacal  posses- 
sion (Acts  X.  38),  and  he  instigated  the  im- 
prisonment of  martyrs  (Rev.  ii.  10).  He  is  fi- 
nally to  be  cast  into  a  lake  of  everlasting 
fire  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels 
(Mat.  XXV.  41 ;  cp.  Jude  6).  Preeminently 
sinful,  unrighteous  men.  also  those  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  lying  and  murder,  are  fig- 
uratively called  children  of  the  devil  (John 
viii.  44  ;  1  John  iii.  8,  10).  Judas  was  even 
called  by  Jesus  a  devil  (John  vi.  70).  His 
works  Christ  came  to  destroy  (1  John  iii.  8). 
Jude  alludes  to  a  dispute  of  the  devil  with 
Michael  for  the  body  of  Moses  (9 ;  cp.  Rev. 
xii.  7).  Whence  the  apostle  drew  this  illus- 
tration is  unknown.  He  has  been  thought  to 
quote  an  authoritative  teaching  of  the  Jewish 
church,  or  a  familiar  interpretation  of  Zech. 
iii.,  according  to  which  the  high  priest  repre- 
sents Mosaism,  or  else  to  cite  a  moral  tale  cur- 
rent among  the  Jews. 

Dew. 

Moisture  condensed  from  the  atmosphere 

12 


upon  cold  bodies.  Used  in  Scripture  figura- 
tively for  whatever  comes  noiselessly  and 
even  invisibly,  but  proves  a  refreshment  and 
a  blessing,  as  dew  does  to  vegetation  (Deut. 
xxxii.  2 ;  Ps.  ex.  3 ;  Prov.  xix.  12  ;  Mic.  v 
7). 

Di'a-dem  [a  baud  or  fillet,  as  being  bound 
round]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
Saniph,  Sanoph,  and  Sannph,  something  bound 
round.  It  was  a  head  dress  for  man  and  woman 
(Job  xxix.  14,  margin  of  R.  V.  turban  :  Is. 
iii.  23,  in  A.  V.  hoods,  R.  V.  turbans).  A  royal 
diadem  of  this  type  was  worn  by  kings  (Is. 
Ixii.  3),  and  is  once  mentioned  as  worn  by 
the  high  priest  (Zech.  iii.  5),  where  it  is  trans- 
lated miter,  but  on  the  margin  of  E.  V.  tur- 
ban or  diadem. 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Mis- 
nepheth,  a  name  applied  specially  to  the  miter 
of  the  Jewish  high  priest  (Ezek.  xxi.  26  in 
A.  v.),  and  regularly  translated  so. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
S^phirah,  circlet,  crown  (Is.  xxviii.  5). 

Di'al. 

An  instrument  consisting  of  a  surface  which 
is  graduated  into  hour  lines,  and  furnished 
with  a  projecting  gnomon  to.  cast  a  shadow 
as  the  sun  advances  in  his  daily  course,  and 
thus  point  out  the  hours.  The  dial  of  Ahaz 
(2  Kin.  XX.  11  ;  Is.  xxxviii.  8)  may  have  been 
such  an  instrument,  with  either  flat  or  con- 
cave dial  and  with  graduated  lines  called 
steps  or  degrees,  which  Ahaz  had  introduced 


Ancient  Dial. 

from  Babylonia,  where  the  sun  dial  was  in 
use  before  the  time  of  Herodotus  (Herod,  ii. 
109),  and  at  least  as  early  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Less  likely  it  was  a  flight  of  steps 
at  the  palace  of  Ahaz,  so  designed  and  ar- 
ranged that  the  shadow  of  an  obelisk  near 
by  passed  over  the  steps  and  thus  indicated 
the  time  of  day.  The  recession  of  the  shadow- 
on  the  dial  of  Ahaz  has  been  variously  ex- 
plained as  caused  by  a  miraculous  reversion 
of  the  earth's  motion,  or  by  a  backward 
movement  of  the  sun,  or  by  refraction  of  the 
sun's  rays,  or  by  a  solar  eclipse.  Unquestion- 
ably the  recorded  eflfect  could  have  been  pro- 
duced by  either  of  the  two  latter  as  well  as 
by  the  former  causes. 

Di'a-mond. 

A  mineral  of  unequalcd  hardness  and  lus- 


Diana 


178 


Dinah 


ter,  transparent  or  tninsluccnt,  and  capable 
of  taking;  a  splendid  polish.  It  is  simply 
carbon,  crystallized  by  the  chemistry  of  na- 
ture, which  that  of  art  has  not  yet  been  able 
to  imitate.  Diamonds  have  lonj;  been  known 
to  exist  in  India  and  the  island  of  Borneo. 
Diamond  is  the  rendering  of — 

1.  The  Hebrew  1  «/("/(>»i,  a  precious  stone 
(E/.ek.  xxviii.  1.3),  one  of  those  in  the  breast- 
plate of  the  high  jiriest  (Ex.  xxviii.  Ifi,  in 
K.  V.  margin  sardonyx;  xsxix.  11). 

2.  The  Hebrew  Shamir,  a  hard  stone  used 
to  point  graving  instruments  (Jer.  xvii.  1) ; 
elsewhere  rendered  adamant  (Ezek.  iii.  9; 
Zech.  vii.  12). 

Di-a'na. 

The  l\oman  goddess  of  the  moon,  and  of 
field  and  woods,  and  of  all  forms  of  life  and 
activity  which  were  supposed  to  be  influ- 
enced by  the  moon.  She  corresponded  to  the 
Mreek  Artemis,  who  was  twin  sister  of 
.\poll().  favorite  child  of  Zeus,  and  huntress 
of  the  sky.  She  was  the  ideal  of  chastity 
and  virginity,  and  is  generally  represented 
as  a  tall  and  beautiful  nuiiden,with  a  (juiver 
on  her  slKHildt-r  and  a  bow  or  a  javelin  in  her 
right  iiand.  and  as  cTigaged  in  hunting  deer. 
The  Asiatic-  .\rtcmis,  Diana  of  Ei)hesus,  was 
a  union  of  the  Greek  Artemis  with  the  lusty 
Semitic  moon-goddess,  Ashtoreth.  Her  image 


Coin  showing  Temple  of  Diana. 


was  supposed  to  liavc  fallen  from  heaven 
(Acts  xix.  :{")),  and  it  may  have  been  origi- 
nally a  meteoric  stone.  Ancient  authorities, 
liowever,  state  that  it  was  of  wood,  though 
they  <liirer  as  to  the  kind.  Its  form  is  known 
from  ancient  coins  as  tlie  rude  figure  of  a 
woman  with  crowned  head,  many  breasts,  and 
extended  arms  supported  by  props.  Her 
priniilivr  shrine  near  tlic  sea,  at  the  mouth 
oC  tlic  (ayster,  hecanie  eventually  an  impos- 
ing temple  (.see  Ei'iiKsus).  Demetrius  the 
silversmilh  and  his  fellow-craftsmen  made 
sil\<  r  models  of  it  i  .\cls  xix.  21 ). 

Dlblah,  in  A.  V.  Diblath  [a  rounded  mass, 
cakrl. 

A  place  in  Palestine  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
wilderness (  Ezek.  vi.  11  ;  cji.  Num.  xxxiii.  Ki ; 
.Fcr.  xlviii.  22).  (irave  objections  lie  against 
till'  proposed  emendation  of  the  text  toKil)lah. 

Dib'la-im  [twin  balls  or  cak«s]. 

A  parent  in  law  to  Hosea,  if  the  traTisac- 
tion  was  real  and  not  typical  (Hos.  i.  :i). 

Dib'lath.     Sec  DiiM.Mi. 


Di'bon  [a  wasting  away,  a  consumption]. 

1.  A  town  north  of  the  Arnon,  wrested 
from  Moab  by  the  Amorites,  taken  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  30;  xxxii.  3),  rebuilt 
by  the  (Jadites  (xxxii.  34),  and  hence  called 
liibon-gad  (xxxiii.  45,  4()),  afterwards  given 
over  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii.  9,  17). 
It  reverted  to  the  Moabites  (Moabite  Stone 
21,  28  ;  Is.  XV.  2  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  18,  22).  It  still 
exists,  as  a  heap  of  ruins,  retaining  its  old 
name  Dhiban,  3  miles  north  of  the  Arnon, 
sliglitly  eastward  from  the  Eoman  road. 
Tristram  describes  it  as  a  twin  city  covering 
the  tojjs  and  slopes  of  two  adjacent  knolls, 
and  sun-ounded  by  a  wall.  There  are  cav- 
erns, cisterns,  vaulted  underground  store- 
houses, rude  semi-circular  arches,  and  cy- 
clojjean  buildings  of  basalt  like  those  of 
Bashan.  It  was  among  the  ruins  of  Dibon 
that  Mr.  Klein,  in  1868,  found  the  Moabite 
Stone  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  village  in  the  territory  of  Judah 
(Neh.  xi.  25).  Probably  the  same  as  Di- 
monah  (q.  v.). 

Di'bon-gad.     See  Dibon. 

Dib'ri. 

A  Danite,  ancestor  of  him  who  was  stoned 
to  death  in  the  days  of  Moses  for  blasphem- 
ing the  Name  (Lev.  xxiv.  11-14). 

Did'y-mus  [a  twin]  ;  .see  Thomas. 

Dik'lah  [a  palm  tree] . 

A  people  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
27  :  1  Chron.  i.  21),  and  who  doubtless  dwelt 
in  .\rabia  and,  as  the  name  suggests,  in  a 
region  abounding  in  iialni  trees. 

Dil'e-an,  in  E.  R.  V.  Dilan  [cucumber 
field]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.losli.  xv. 
38).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Dill.     See  Anise. 

Dim'nah.     See  Kimmon. 

Di'mon  [probably  a  variant  of  Dibon]. 

.\  place  in  Moab  (Ls.  xv.  9) ;  apparently 
Dibon,  by  a  common  permutation  of  the 
labials.  Jenmie  states  tliat  in  his  day  both 
names  were  common  for  the  town.  The  form 
with  m  is  chosen  by  the  jirophet  for  its  as- 
sonance with  <1am,  l)lood,  u.sed  in  the  same 
verse.  The  waters  of  Dibon  are  best  re- 
garded as  the  Arnon,  as  the  waters  of  Me- 
giddoare  the  Kislion  (.ludg.  v.  19). 

Di-mo'nali. 

A  town  in  the  .southern  i)art  of  Judah, 
near  Edom  (Josh.  xv.  22),  probably  tlie  same 
as  Dibon  (Neh.  xi.  25). 

Di'nah  [judgment  or.  i)erhaps,  judged]. 

A  daughter  of  Jacob  by  his  wife  Leah 
(Gen.  XXX.  21).  Going  out  apiuirently  un- 
I)rotected  to  see  the  Canaanite  daughters  of 
the  land,  .she  was  either  led  astray  or  out- 
raged by  Shechem,  the  son  of  llamor  the 
Hivite.  The  young  i)rince  afterwards  wi.shed 
to  take  her  in  honorable  marriage,  iind  her 
brothers  apparently  consented,  on  condition 


Dinaites 


179 


Dispersion 


that theHivites should  becircumcised.  These 
acquiesced  iu  the  stipulation,  and  carried  it 
out ;  but  an  attack  on  their  town  was  sud- 
denly made  by  Simeou  and  Levi,  two  of 
Dinah's  full  brothers,  who  slew  all  the  males 
in  the  place,  Hanior  and  Shechem  among  the 
rest  (xxxiv.  1-29).  Jacob  took  no  part  in  the 
treacherous  and  cruel  deed,  regarded  it  as 
inexpedient  (.SO),  and  denounced  it  with  hor- 
ror on  his  deathbed  (xlix.  5-7).  By  this  act 
of  his  sons,  however,  the  conquered  district 
fell  to  him  as  head  of  the  tribe,  and  he  be- 
queathed it,  not  to  those  who  were  answer- 
able for  the  abhorred  deed,  but  to  Joseph 
(xlviii.  22). 

Di'na-ites. 

One  of  the  foreign  tribes  brought  over  to 
Samaria  to  replace  the  ten  tribes  carried  into 
captivity  (Ezra  iv.  9).  Probably  the  Arme- 
nian people  who  were  known  to  the  Assyr- 
ians as  Dayani. 

Din'ha-bah. 

The  city  of  Bela,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  32;  1  Chron.  i.  43).  Several  towns  of 
this  name  are  known,  but  none  in  Edom. 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Dannaia,  a  town  ex- 
isting in  his  day  in  Moab,  a  little  south  of 
the  Arnon. 

Dinner.     See  Meals. 

Di-o-ny'si-us  [belonging  to  Dionusos  or 
Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine]. 

A  member  of  the  Athenian  supreme  court 
of  Areopagus,  who  was  converted  through 
the  preaching  of  Paul  on  Mars  Hill,  where 
the  court  held  its  sittings  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Di-ot're-phes  [nurtured  by  Zeus]. 

A  member  of  the  church  of  which  Gains, 
to  whom  John  sent  his  third  epistle,  was  a 
member.  He  loved  to  have  thei)rceminence 
in  the  church  to  wiiich  he  belonged,  refused 
to  receive  the  apostle  John  or  the  brethren 
who  went  forth  for  the  sake  of  the  Name, 
and  excommunicated  those  who  entertained 
them  (3  Jolm  9,  10). 

Di'phath.     See  Eiphath. 

Dis-ci'ple. 

A  pupil  or  scholar  (Mat.  x.  24)  ;  especially 
the  follower  of  a  public  teacher,  like  John 
the  Baptist  (ix.  14).  A  person  taught  of  God 
(Is.  viii.  16).  It  is  u.sed  of  all  of  whatever 
age  who  in  faith  received  tbe  divine  Master's 
instructions  (Mat.  x.  42;  Luke  xiv.  26,  27, 
33  :  John  iv.  1 ;  vi.  66),  and  especially  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (Mat.  v.  1  ;  viii.  25 ;  x.  1  ; 
xii.  1,  etc.). 

Dis-eas'es. 

Disease  arises  from  the  violation  of  ])hysi- 
cal  or  mental  laws.  The  observance  of  tliese 
laws  is  often  a  moral  act,  and  their  trans- 
gression is  sin  (Prov.  ii.  17-22;  xxiii.  29- 
32) ;  so  that  disease  is  in  certain  cases  the 
punishment  imposed  by  the  Creator  for  sin. 
God,  moreover,  sometimes  smites  a  sinner 
with  disease  where  no  natural  cause  can  be 
traced  (Ex.  ix.  8  seq. ;  Num.  xi.  33  ;  xii.  9-11  ; 


Deut.  xxviii.  21,  22,  35,  60;  2  Sam.  xxi.  1; 
xxiv.  15;  2  Kin.  V.  27).  From  the  connection 
between  sin  and  various  diseases,  the  latter 
are  sometimes  attributed  to  Salan,  who  se- 
duced the  race  to  its  fall  into  sin  and  wlio  is 
still  the  great  tempter  to  sin  (Luke  xiii.  16)  ; 
but  the  inference  is  not  legitimate  that  every 
sick  ])erson  is  a  sinner  or  tliat  Salan  is  the 
immediate  cause  of  our  maladies  (Job  iii.- 
xlii.  ;  John  ix.  1-3).  The  chief  forms  of 
human  disease  are  mentioned,  such  as  fever 
(Deut.  xxviii.  22  ;  Mat.  viii.  14  ;  John  iv. 
52 ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1.5,  5),  cutaneous  disease 
(Lev.  xiii.  6-8,  30,  39).  dy.sentery  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  15,  18  ;  Acts  xxviii.  8,  E.  V.),  ophthalmia 
(Eev.  iii.  18;  Tobit  ii.  10;  vi.  8;  xi.  13), 
boils  (Ex.  ix.  9  ;  1  Sam.  v.  6),  paralysis  (1 
Mac.  ix.  55 ;  Mat.  viii.  6  ;  ix.  2  ;  Acts  ix.  33). 

Di'shan  [probably  jiygarg]. 

A  Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21.  28)  under 
a  chief  (30). 

Di'shon  [pygarg,  antelope]. 

A  Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21,  26;  1 
Chron.  i.  38),  organized  under  a  chief  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  30),  and  descended  through  Anah 
from  Zibeon  (24,  25).  Many  interjjreters, 
however,  discover  two  persons  of  this  name  : 
one  in  vs.  20,  26,  30,  the  other  in  25. 

Dis-per'sion. 

The  body  of  Israelites  scattered  abroad 
in  other  lands  than  their  own,  the  diasjjora 
(Jer.  XXV.  34,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  E.  V.  ; 
John  vii.  35;  Jas.  i.  1).  Dispersion  was 
threatened  as  a  penalty  if  the  people  de- 
parted from  the  Mo.saic  law  (Lev.  xxvi.  33- 
37:  Deut.  iv.  27,  28;  xxviii.  64-68).  The 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  and  that  of  the 
two  largely  helped  to  fulfill  these  prophecies , 
for  the  mass  of  the  ten  tribes  were  never  re- 
stored to  their  own  land,  and  of  the  two  a 
very  large  number  chose  to  remain  in  the 
region  to  which  they  had  been  taken  rather 
than  return  to  their  own  country.  A  very 
considerable  immigration  of  Jews  took  jilace 
into  the  cities  and  towns  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  empire,  and  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Egypt,  Syria,  etc.,  into  which  it  was  after- 
wards divided  ;  and  later  when  the  Eonum 
empire  established  its  sway  over  tliese  and 
other  regions,  colonies  of  Jews  sought  a 
settlement  in  all  the  important  places. 
Agrippa,  in  a  letter  to  Caligula  preserved  by 
Philo,  says  :  "  Jerusiilem  is  the  ca])ital  not 
alone  of  Juda-a  but,  by  means  of  colonies, 
of  most  other  lands  al.so.  These  colonies 
have  been  sent  out  at  fitting  ojjportunities 
into  the  neighboring  countries  of  Kgyi't, 
Phoenicia.  Syria,  Cnele-syria,  and  the  farther 
removed  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  as  far  as  Bithynia  and  the  most  re- 
mote corners  of  Pontus.  In  the  same  man- 
ner also  into  Euntiie :  Thessjily.  Hd'otia, 
Macedon,  .Etolia,  Attica,  Argos,  Corinth,  and 
the  most  and  finest  i)arts  of  the  Peloi)on- 
nesus.  And  not  only  is  the  mainland  full  of 
Israelitish  communities,   but  also  the    most 


Divination 


180 


Dodo 


iiiil)ort:int  islands:  Eiibrpu,  Cyjirus,  Crete. 
And  1  say  nutliin;;  of  the  conntries  lievoud 
the  Eujilirates,  for  all  of  tlieni,  with  luiiui- 
portant  excei>tioiis  ,Biil>.vloi>  <'"'<1  the  satrap- 
ies tliat  include  the  fertile  districts  lying 
around  it,  have  Jewish  inhabitants."  Thus 
the  Disjxrsion,  with  synajioKUe  and  doctrine, 
was  found  in  all  iiarts  of  the  known  world 
(Acts  ii.  5-11 ;  1  Tet.  i.  1 ;  War  ii.  16,  4  ;  vii. 
3,  3). 

Div-i-na'tion. 

The  attempt  to  read  tlie  future  and  utter 
sootlisayiuf;  either  l)v  a  kiud  of  inspiration 
or  divine  afflatus  (Acts  xvi.  16),  or  else  by 
means  of  signs.  In  the  latter  sense,  it  in- 
cludes augury  or  foretelling  the  future  by 
means  of  natural  signs,  such  as  the  flight  of 
birds,  the  disposition  of  the  entrails  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21) ;  hydromancy  or  foretelling  from  the 


lUjniiin  Divinatiiin. 

appearance  of  water  poured  into  a  vessel  or 
of  objects  dropped  into  the  water  (Gen.  xliv. 
;")) ;  sorcery,  in  its  original  sen.se  of  foret^illing 
by  casting  lots  (Ezek.  xxi.  21)  ;  and  also  as- 
trology or  the  determination  of  the  supposed 
induence  of  the  stars  on  the  destiny  of  a 
person  (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13).  The  Hebrews  also 
included  in  divination  necromancy  or  fore- 
U^lling  the  future  by  calling  up  the  .spirits  of 
the  dead  and  conversing  with  them  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  H).  The  diviner  sometimes  pro- 
nounced blessing  or  cur.sing  (Num.  xxii.  6)  : 
not,  however,  as  the  magical  sjjcHs  of  a  sor- 
cerer, but  as  prophecy  revealed  by  the  divine 
afflatus  or  familiar  spirit  or  the  sign  (12,  13). 

Di-vin'er. 

.\  soothsayer :  a  practicer  of  divination. 
'I'hey  were  numerous  among  heathen  nations 
(Dent.  .<viii.  il-12;  1  Sam.  vi.  2  ;  Is.  xix.  3  ; 
Ezek.  xxi.  21  ;  Dan.  ii.  2;  Acts  xvi.  16),  and 
also  at  various  times  among  the  Israelites, 
who  were  informed  of  the  diviner's  impos- 
ture, warned  against  placing  reliance  in  him, 
and  threatened  with  punishment  for  the  sin 
of  consulting  bim  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  xx.  6,  27; 
Dcut,  xviii.  10;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  8;  Is.  ii.  6; 
ill.  2,  K.  V. ;  Jer.  xxvii.  9  ;  xxix.  8  :  Ezek. 
xiii.  23 ;  xxii.  28  ;  Mic.  iii.  6,  7,  11  ;  Zech.  x.  2). 


He  practiced   his  art  for  hire  (Num.  xxii.  7, 
17,  18  ;  Acts  xvi.  16). 

Di-vorce',  Di-vorce'ment. 

Annulment  of  the  bonds  of  matrimony. 
Under  the  law  of  Moses  a  man  could  divorce 
his  wife  if  he  found  some  unseemly  thing 
in  her.  She  might  then  be  married  to  an- 
other man.  If  her  second  husband  also  di- 
vorced her,  the  first  one  was  not  allowed  to 
take  her  again.  The  process  of  divorce,  when 
once  resolved  upon,  was  easy.  All  the  hus- 
band had  to  do  was  to  give  his  partner  a  bill 
of  divorcement,  and  send  her  away  (Deut. 
xxiv.  1-4  ;  cp.  Is.  1.  1  ;  Jer.  iii.  8).  Our  Lord 
explained  that  this  enactment  was  framed 
only  on  account  of  the  Israelites'  hardness 
of  heart.  He  added  that  the  original  and 
just  law,  that  of  nature,  is  that  a  man  cleave 
to  his  wife  and  they  twain  become  one  flesh, 
marriage  being  a  permanent  compact ;  and 
that  a  wife  should  not  be  divorced  except 
for  fornication,  including  what  is  now  tech- 
nically called  adultery.  If  a  man  puts  away 
his  wife  on  other  grounds  and  marries  an- 
other, he  commits  adultery.  If  anyone  mar- 
ries a  divorced  woman,  he  also  has  com- 
mitted the  same  sin  (Mat.  v.  31,  32  ;  xix. 
3-9  ;  Mark  x.  2-12;  Luke  xvi.  18;  cp.  1  Cor. 
vii.  10-17).  Protestants  almost  universally 
teach  that  willful,  final  desertion  annuls  the 
marriage  bond  (cp.  1  Cor.  vii.  15)  and  a  second 
marriage  may  be  contracted  by  the  deserted 
one. 

Di'-za-hab,  in  A.  V.  Diz'a-hab  [abounding 
in  gold]. 

A  place  cited  to  indicate  the  locality  and 
circumstances  connected  with  the  delivery 
of  the  farewell  addresses  of  Moses  (Deut.  i. 
1).  Dhahab  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf 
of  Akaba,  75  miles  south  of  Ezion-geber,  has 
similarity  of  name  in  its  favor,  but  that  is 
all.  It  lies  remote  from  the  route  of  the 
Israelites.  Perhaps  Di-zahab  was  a  district 
in  Edom  identical  with  Me-zahab  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
39 ;  cp.  Septuagint  of  Num.  xxi.  14,  which 
has  Zahab  in.stead  of  Vaheb  of  R.  V.). 

Do'dai.     See  Dodo  2. 

Dod'a-nim  [a  plural  word,  Dodanites]. 

A  tribe  related  to  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4). 
Against  identifying  them  with  the  Dardan- 
ians  or  Trojans  is  the  ditference  in  the  name ; 
while  the  situation  of  Dodona,  a  place  in 
Epirus,  in  (}reece,  the  .seat  of  a  celebrated 
oracle,  is  against  locating  them  there.  The 
Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  version  in 
Gen.  X.  4,  and  the  common  Hebrew  text  it- 
self in  1  Chron.  i.  7,  have  Rodauim  (q.  v.). 

Dod-a-va'hu,  in  A.  V.  Dod'a-vah  [perhaps 
love  of  Jehovah]. 

A  man  from  Mare-shah,  father  of  that 
Eliezer  who  prophesied  the  destruction  of 
Jehoshaphat's  ships  (2  Chron.  xx.  37). 

Do'do  [loving]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  ancestor  of  the 
judge  Tola  (Judg.  x.  1). 


Doe 


181 


Dorcas 


2.  An  Ahohite,  and  the  father  of  Ek\azar, 
one  of  David's  three  mighty  men  of  the  first 
rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  in  E.  V.,  following  the 
present  Hebrew  text,  Dodai ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
12).  David  appointed  Dodai  [or  probably 
his  son]  as  military  commander  over  the  course 
of  the  second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  4). 

3.  A  man  of  Bethlehem,  father  of  Elhanan, 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  24 ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  26). 

Doe. 

A  female  deer  or  antelope.  In  Prov.  v.  19, 
E.  v.,  it  is  the  female  ibex  or  wild  goat  of 
Sinai  {Capra  bedeu),  in  Hebrew  Ya'Hah;  see 
Wild  Goat. 

Do'eg  [timid]. 

An  Edomite,  the  chief  of  Saul's  herdmen. 
He  was  at  Nob  at  the  tabernacle,  detained 
before  the  Lord  on  account  of  a  vow  or  un- 
clean ness  or  signs  of  leprosy  (Lev.  xiv.  4, 
11,  21),  or  was  perhaps  in  sanctuary  for  some 
crime  (cp.  1  Kin.  i.  ,50),  when  David,  a  fugi- 
tive from  Saul's  court,  arrived  at  Nob  and 
obtained  food  and  a  sword  from  Ahimelech, 
who  did  not  know  that  he  was  fleeing  from 
the  king  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7;  Ps.  lii.  title).  Doeg 
subsequently  told  Saul  what  had  occurred, 
which  so  excited  the  king  that  he  summoned 
Ahimelech  and  fellow  priests  and  demanded 
an  explanation.  Not  considering  it  satisfac- 
tory, he  ordered  the  guard  to  kill  the  priests. 
They  would  not.  The  king  then  bade  Doeg 
do  the  deed.  He  did  so,  slaying  eighty-five 
men.  He  subsequently  fell  upon  the  village, 
massacred  the  women  and  children,  and  de- 
stroyed even  the  cattle  (1  Sam.  xxii.  7-23). 

Dog. 

The  dog  of  Palestine  is  the  same  variety 
as  the  pariah  or  ownerless  dog  of  India. 
During  the  earlier  period  of  Bible  history  it 
is  described  as  prowling  about  the  streets  and 
suburbs  of  cities  (Ps.  lix.  6,  14),  feeding  on 
what  was  thrown  out  to  it  (Ex.  xxii.  31), 
licking  up  blood  when  it  was  shed  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  38;  Ps.  Ixviii.  23),  or  devouring  dead 
bodies  (1  Kin.  xiv.  11  ;  xvi.  4;  2  Kin.  ix.  3.", 
36)  ;  nay,  even  sometimes  congregating  in 
packs,  to  surround  and  attack  human  beings 
(Ps.  xxii.  16,  20).  It  was  early  trained  sufii- 
ciently  to  aid  the  shepherd  in  protecting  the 
flock  against  beasts  of  prey  and  thieves  (Job 
XXX.  1).  It  was  at  length  sometimes  domes- 
ticated, accompanied  its  master  from  place  to 
place  (Tobit  v.  16 ;  xi.  4),  and  was  in  the 
bouse  with  him  and  picked  up  the  crumbs 
from  under  his  table  (Mark  vii.  28).  More- 
over, they  licked  the  sores  of  beggars  at  the 
rich  man's  gate  (Luke  xvi.  21).  The  dog 
was  also  widely  used  by  the  ancients  for 
hunting.  But  the  great  mass  of  dogs  ran 
wild.  On  account  of  their  food  and  habits, 
they  were  deemed  unclean  ;  and  to  call  one 
a  dog  was  a  gross  insult  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43;  2 
Kin.  viii.  13).  The  term  dog  is  applied  in  a 
figurative  sense  to  those  who  are  incapable 
of  appreciating  what  is  high  or  holy  (Mat. 


vii.  6),  who  introduce  false  doctrines  with 
cynical  effrontery  (Phil.  iii.  2),  who,  like  a 
dog  returning  to  its  vomit,  go  back  to  sins 
which  nominally  they  had  renounced  forever 
(2  Pet.  ii.  22  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxvi.  11),  or  who  are 
so  vile  as  to  submit  to  lust  like  dogs  (Deut. 
xxiii.  18).  The  later  .Tews  were  accustomed 
to  call  the  heathen  dogs  because  ceremonially 
unclean  ;  and  even  Jesus  once  employed  the 
term  in  order  to  express  his  doctrine  of 
grace  the  more  vividly  (Mat.  xv.  26  ;  Mark 
vii.  27). 

Dok,  in  A.  V.  Do'cus  [watchtower]. 

A  little  stronghold  near  Jericho,  built  by 
Ptolemy  (1  Mac.  xvi.  ].">).  .son-in-law  of  Simon 
Maccabffius  (11,  12).  Into  this  castle  lie  re- 
ceived Simon  and  two  of  his  sons,  and  then 
treacherously  slew  them  (16).  The  murder 
was  avenged  l)y  John  Hyrcanus,  a  third  son 
of  Simon.  He  besieged  Dok,  and  after  a 
time  Ptolemy  fled  beyond  Jordan  (Autiq. 
xiii.  7,  4 ;  8.  1).  The  name  seems  to  remain 
in  'Ain  Duk,  a  copious  sjiring  about  four 
miles  northwest  of  Jericho.  A  road  leads  by 
it  from  the  Jordan  valley  into  the  hill  coun- 
try. Above  the  spring  are  traces  of  ancient 
fortifications. 

Doph'kah. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  route  to 
Sinai  between  the  Eed  Sea  and  Eephidim 
(Num.  xxxiii.  12, 13).  Seetzen  locates  it  at  a 
place  called  Tobbacha,  but  the  identification 
has  not  been  generally  accepted. 

Dor  [habitation]. 

A  town  in  the  west  of  Palestine  (Josh.  xi. 
2),  on  the  seacoast  (1  Alac.  xv.  11),  9  Roman 
miles  north  of  (^sesarea  (Onomast).  It  was 
in  Asher  ;  but  it  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Man- 
asseh  (.Tosh.  xvii.  11;  cp.  xix.  26;  1  Chron. 
vii.  29),  which,  however,  failed  to  expel  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  1.  27).  It  was 
the  chief  town  of  one  of  Solomon's  tax  dis- 
tricts (1  Kin.  iv.  11).  In  Maccabee  times  it 
was  called  Dora.  In  217  B.  c.  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  Antiochus  III.  (the  Great), 
and  about  138  by  Antiochus  VII.  (1  Mac.  xv. 
11-14).  Subsequently  it  was  taken  by  a  cer- 
tain Zoilus,  on  whose  death  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Alexander  .Tannseus.  In  64  B.  c. 
Ponipey  granted  it  autonomy.  In  56  B.  c.  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Gabinius  (Autiq.  xvi.  .5,  3). 
Early  in  the  Christian  er;i  it  fell  into  decay. 
Remains  of  it  exist  near  Khurbet  Tantura, 
on  the  coast,  between  7  and  8  miles  north 
of  Csesarea.  The  old  town  stood  on  a  low 
ridge.  The  ruins  consist  of  a  mound  with  a 
tower,  the  foundations  of  which  antedate  cru- 
sading times,  a  harbor  with  the  entrance  cut 
through  the  rock,  various  buildings,  rock- 
hewn  tombs,  a  tank,  and  a  causeway. 

Dor'cas  [gazelle,  the  Greek  rendering  of 
the  Aramaic  tfbitha,  gazelle]. 

A  woman  whose  Animaic  name  wasTabitha, 
resident  at  Joppa.  She  made  garments,  which 
she  gave  to  the  poor.  When  she  died  Peter 
was    sent  for.    After  prayer,   he   bade   her 


Dothan 


182 


Dragon 


arise,  aud  her  life  returned.  Tlie  fame 
tiiereof  spread,  and  nuiny  believed  on  the 
Lord  (Acts  ix.  ;>(J-13).  Dorcas  societies  are 
named  from  lier. 

Do'than  [possibly  wells]. 

A  town  not  far  from  Sheeheni  and  Samaria, 
hard  hv  a  caravan  route  (Uen.  .\x.Kvii.  14, 17, 
■2.'. ;  2  Kin.  vi.  1.3),  near  the  i)lain  of  Esdraelon 
and  a  pass  into  the  hill  country  of  .ludah 
(Judith  iii.  10;  iv.  (>,  7).  Josejjh  was  cast 
into  a  pit  in  the  vicinity,  whence  he  was 
taken  out  and  sold  to  the  Midianites  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  17-'2><).  Elisha  was  once  besieged  in 
the  town  by  the  Syrians:  but  tile  soldiers  of 
the  beleafiuering  army  were  miraculously 
struck  with  blindness,  led  to  Samaria,  had 
their  vision  restored,  and  were  finally  sent 
home  without  molestati(m  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-23). 
Its  site  is  the  ruin  Tell  Dothan,  near  a  well 
<U  miles  north,  slightly  ea.st,  of  Samaria. 

Dove. 

A  bird  (Ps.  Iv.  fi)  having  fine  eyes  (Song  i. 
1.');  V.  12),  a  jdaintive  voice  (Is.  xxxviii.  14), 
a  gentle,  affectionate  disposition  (Song  ii.  14  ; 
V.  2  ;  vi.  9),  hut  not  much  .sagacity  (Hos.  vii. 
11).  It  is  timid,  and  when  frightened  trem- 
bles (Hos.  vii.  11).  When  wild  it  sometimes 
frequents  valleys  (Ezek.  vii.  ItJ),  making  its 
nest  in  the  side  of  holes  or  fissures  (Jer. 
xlviii.28).  When  domesticated  it  files  when 
alarmed  to  windows  or  cotes  (Is.  Ix.  8;  cp. 
Gen.  viii.  8-12).  Jesus  refers  to  it  as  pro- 
verbially harmless  (Mat.  x.  Ifi).  It  wasbought 
and  sold  witliin  the  temi>le  courts  (Mat.  xxi. 
12;  .Mark  xi.  15;  John  ii.  11),  for  it  was  used 
in  sacrifice  (Luke  ii.  24).  The  dove  is  a 
symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Luke  iii.  22). 

Dove  is  but  another  name  for  pigeon,  though 
in  i)oi)ular  usage  it  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  smaller  species.  It  is  frequently  trans- 
lated i)igeon  in  the  English  versions  (Gen. 
XV.  9;  Lev.  i.  14;  v.  7,  11 ;  xii.  6,  8;  xiv.  22, 
30;  XV.  14,  29;  Num.  vi.  10). 

The  doves  constitute  a  family  of  birds 
(Oolicnhiilie),  of  which  Tristram  enumerates 
four  si>ecies  as  occurring  in  Palestine:  the 
ringdove  or  wood  pigeon  (Columba  pnlHmhna), 
the  stockdove  {Columha  rnios),  the  rock  dove 
{('oinmha  /n'm),and  the  ash-rumix'd  rock  dove 
(('i)lHmba  nrhimpe.ri).  The  ringdcjve  visits 
Palestine  in  immense  fiocks  in  spring  and 
autumn  during  its  annual  migrations;  indi- 
viduals also  remain  all  the  winter.  The 
stockrlove  is  found  chiefly  east  of  the  .Tordau. 
or  in  file  valley  of  that  river.  The  rock  dove 
is  abundant  on  the  coast  and  in  the  highlands 
west  of  {ho  Jordan.  The  ash-rumi)ed  rock 
dove  is  exceedingly  aliuudant  in  the  interior 
of  tin;  country  and  in  the  .Ionian  valley, 
taking  refuge  in  caves  and  fi.ssures.  it  is  the 
species  described  in  ,ler.  .xlviii.  2H. 
Dove's  Dung. 

A  substance  which  ro.se  to  famine  jirices 
during  tht;  siege  of  Sanuiria  by  Henhadad 
(2  Kin.  vi.  2.">).  Dutig  was  also  eaten  during 
the  siege  of  Jeru.salem  (War  v.  13,  7).     Pos- 


sibly, ho.vever,  dove's  dung  was  the  name  of 
some  herb,  as  the  Arabs  call  a  species  of  soap 
plant  sparrow's  duug. 

Dow'ry. 

Among  the  Israelites  and  neighboring  na- 
tions a  bridegroom  or  his  father  paid  a  dowry 
to  the  bride's  lather  to  induce  him  to  give 
her  in  marriage  (Gen.  xxix.  15-20;  xxxiv. 
12  ;  Ex.  xxii.  17  ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  25).  The  lowest 
legal  amount  .seems  to  have  been  fifty  shekels 
(Dent.  xxii.  29;  Ex.  xxii.  15,  16).  Occasion- 
ally the  bride's  father  gave  his  daughter  a 
wedding  present  (Josh.  xv.  19;  1  Kin.  ix.  Kii. 

Drag'on  [from  Greek  dral-on,  a  serpent,  a 
dragon]. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  dragon  is 
often  used  to  translate  Tannin,  a  long  animal. 
The  word  tannin  denotes  a  land  serpent  (Ex. 
vii.  9  ;  cp.  iv.  3,  4  ;  Ps.  xci.  13  ;  aud  doubtless 
Deut.  xxxii.  33),  great  sea  animals  (plural, 
Gen.  i.  21,  in  A.  V.  whales,  in  E.  V.  sea  mon- 
sters; Ps.  Ixxiv.  13;  cxWiii.  7),  and  the 
crocodile  of  the  rivers  of  EgjT)t  (Ezek.  xxix. 
3).  The  last  is  described  as  having  jaws, 
and  scales  to  which  fish  could  stick  (4),  and 
feet  with  which  it  disturbed  the  waters 
(xxxii.  2),  as  lying  in  the  sea  and  in  the 
branches  of  the  Nile  (xxix.  3;  xxxii.  2),  as 
swimming  (6),  and  as  taken  with  great  hooks 
(xxix.  4 ;  Herod,  ii.  70)  and  with  nets 
(xxxii.  3).  It  is  used  as  a  symbol  for  Egypt 
(Is.  Ii.  9;  and  probably  xxvii.  1). 

The  R.  V.  recognizes  that  the  word  Tan. 
rendered  dragon  in  A.  V.  of  Job  xxx.  29;  Ps. 
xliv.  19;  Is.  xiii.22;  xxxiv.  13;  xxxv.7;  xliii. 
20;  Jer.  ix.  11  ;  x.  22  ;  xiv.  6  ;  xlix.  33  ;  Ii.  37  ; 
Mic.  i.  3,  8,  and  sea  monster  in  Lam.  iv.  3, 
should  be  translated  jackal ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ezek. 
xxix.  3  ;  xxxii.  2  should  be  emended  to  read 
dragon,  where  A.  V.  has  once  properly  dra^gon 
and  once  whale. 

The  dragon  of  New  Testament  imagerj'  is 
the  oldser])ent,  the  devil  (Rev.  xii.  9;  xx.2), 
who  is  symbolically  ])ortrayed  as  in  color  red 
and  having  seven  heads,  ten  horns,  an  enor- 
mous tail,  and  a  huge  mouth,  from  which  he 
was  able  to  cast  forth  water  like  a  river  after 
those  whom  he  would  destroy  (xii.  3,  4,  15; 
xvi.  13).  He  was  hurled  from  the  heavens 
to  the  earth,  where  he  ]>ersecuted  the  church, 
but  was  finally  chained  and  imprisoned  in 
the  abyss  (xii.  7-17  ;  xx.  2,  3).  In  certain 
features  the  dragon  bears  resemblance  to  the 
beast  of  chap.  xiii.  This  beast  is  a  combina- 
tion of  Daniel's  four  beasts,  and  rejiresents 
the  combined  powers  of  earth  in  oi)position 
to  the  kingdom  oi'  God  (Dan.  vii.).  The  pic- 
ture of  the  dragon  was  conformed  to  that  of 
the  beast,  because  the  dragon,  that  old  ser- 
pent, is  the  aMiniatiiig  and  moulding  spirit 
in  the  kingdom  of  this  world,  and  when  he 
was  portrayed  in  chap,  xii.,  features  of  the 
vvorld-])ower  familiarized  by  Daniel  were 
combined  with  the  distinguishing  feature 
furnished  by  the  serpent  of  Genesis  iii. 


Dragon's  Well 


183 


Dulcimer 


Drag'on's  Well,  in  A.  V.  Dragon  Well. 

A  well  at  Jerusalem,  apparently  between 
the  Valley  Gate  ami  Dung  Gate  (Neh.  ii.  13; 
cp.  iii.  13,  14). 

Dream. 

Ideas  present  to  the  mind  during  sleep. 
They  may  be  classified  as — 1.  Vain  dreams 
(Job  XX.  8;  Ps.  Ixxiii.  20;  Is.  xxix.  8).  2. 
Dreams  employed  by  God  for  the  purposes 
of  his  kingdom.  In  producing  them  God 
works  according  to  the  laws  of  mind,  and 
perhaps  always  employs  secondary  causes. 
They  are  (a)  Intended  to  aflect  the  spiritual 
life  of  individuals.  That  to  the  Midianite  dis- 
couraged the  enemy,  and  encouraged  Gideon, 
who  providentially  heard  it  (Judg.  vii.  13). 
Perhaps  such  was  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife 
(Mat.  xxvii.  19).  Many  such  providential 
dreams  have  been  sent  in  modern  times. 
John  Newton,  concerned  about  his  soul's  sal- 
vation, had  a  dream  which  made  the  way  of 
salvation  clear  to  him.  (6)  Directive  and 
prophetic  dreams,  used  when  revelation  was 
incomj)lete.  They  seem  to  have  carried  with 
them  credentials  of  their  divine  origin.  Di- 
vine communications  were  made  in  dreams 
to.  Abimelech  (Gen.  xx.  3),  to  Jacob  (xxviii. 
12;  xxxi.  10),  to  Laban  (xxxi.  24),  to  Joseph 
(xxxvii.  5,  9,  10.  20),  to  Pharaoh's  butler  and 
baker  (xl.  .'5),  to  Pharaoh  (xli.  7,  15,  2.'5,  26), 
to  Solomon  (1  Kin.  iii.  5),  to  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Dan.  ii.  1,  4,  30;  iv.  1  seq.),  to  Daniel 
(vii.  1  seq.),  to  Joseph  the  betrothed  husband 
of  Mary  (Mat.  i.  20),  to  the  Magi  (ii.  12). 
The  power  of  accurately  interpreting  pro- 
phetic dreams  was  granted  to  certain  favored 
people,  as  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  16)  and  to 
Daniel  (Dan.  ii.  25-28,  47).  Dreams  ofiered 
as  revelations  to  the  church  were  subjected 
to  tests  to  determine  their  character.  If  they 
inculcated  immoral  conduct,  they  were  by 
that  very  fact  proclaimed  false  ;  and  any  man 
who  sought  by  their  means  to  lead  Israel  from 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  to  be  put  to  death 
(Deut.  xiii.  1-5 ;  cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  25-32 ;  xxix. 
8  ;  Zech.  x.  2).     See  Visions. 

Dress.     See  Clothing. 

Drink. 

The  usual  beverage  of  the  Hebrews  was 
water  (Gen.  xxi.  14;  Ex.  xxiii.  25;  1  Sam. 
xxv.  11;  1  Kin.  xiii.  8;  2  Kin.  vi.  22), 
though  they  also  frequently  used  milk  (Judg. 
V.  2.5),  sour  wine  (Num.  vi.  3;  Ruth  ii.  14), 
ordinary  wine  (Gen.  xiv.  18 ;  xxvii.  25 ; 
Josh.  ix.  4  ;  Judg.  xix.  19  ;  Neh.  v.  15),  and 
more  rarely  strong  drink  (Lev.  x.  9). 

Drink  Of 'fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Drom'e-da-ry  [from  Latin  dromedarius, 
running  camel]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Eel-esh, 
quickly  running  thing,  in  the  A.  V.  of  1  Kin. 
iv.  28  ;  but  in  Mic.  i.  13,  swift  beast,  and  in 
Esth.  viii.  10,  a  mule.  The  E.  V.  every- 
where translates  it  swift  steed. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Eamrnak 


T 


(Estli.  viii.  10)  ill  the  text  of  the  A.  \'.,  and 
on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  The  text  of  the 
R.  V.  translates  it  steed.  Geseniu.s  under- 
stands it  to  mean  a  mare. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Belei;  a 
sort  of  camel,  swift  and  capable  of  carrying 
merchandise  (Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  ii.  23).  In  Ara- 
bic the  word  denotes  a  young  camel  of  jm 
age  suitable  for  riding  and  bearing  burdens. 
The  R.  V.  accordingly  renders  it  in  the  mar- 
gin young  camels. 

The  dromedary  is  a  variety  of  the  Arabian 
or  one-humped  camel  {Cumelus  dromedarius), 
bred  for  speed  and  endurance.  It  can  travel 
about  125  miles  a  day.  The  two-humped 
Baclrian  camel  (C.  hacir'mnus)  can  also  be  im- 
proved into  a  dromedary. 

Drop'sy. 

A  disease  marked  by  an  unnatural  accumu- 
lation of  watery  liquid  in  any  cavity  of  the 
body  or  in  the  tissues  (Luke  xiv.  2). 

Dru-sil'la. 

The  youngest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  by  his  wife  Cypros.  Before  the  death  of 
her  father  in  x.  d.  44,  and  when  not  yet  six 
years  old,  she  was  promised  in  marriage  to  a 
certain  Epiphanes,  sou  of  Antiocbus  (not,  of 
course,  the  persecuting  king  of  that  name). 
The  bridegroom  promised  to  accejit  Judaism  ; 
but,  on  further  reflection,  he  refused,  and 
the  proposed  alliance  fell  through.  .Vziziis. 
king  of  Emesa,  was  next  applied  to,  the 
condition  offered  being  the  same  as  in  the 
former  case.  He  had  no  scruples,  and  Dru- 
silla  became  his  wife.  She  was  possessed  of 
great  beauty,  and  was  in  consequence  some- 
what persecuted  by  her  eldest  sister  Bernice, 
who  was  plain  in  appearance.  Felix,  pro- 
curator of  Judsea,  conceived  a  sinful  passion 
for  Drusilla,  to  which  she  responded  all  the 
more  readily  that  Bernice's  petty  tyranny 
over  her  made  her  unhappy.  In  defiance  of 
Jewish  law,  she  left  her  legitimate  husband, 
and  married  Felix,  a  foreigner  and  an  idola- 
ter. They  had  a  son  called  Agrippa,  who 
grew  up  to  manhood  and  married,  but  who 
perished,  however,  in  an  eruption  of  mount 
Vesuvius  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4  ;  xx.  7 ,  1  and  2). 
One  can  well  understand  that  when  Paul, 
then  a  prisoner,  reasoned  before  Felix  and 
Drusilla  of  righteousness,  temperance,  and 
judgment  to  come,  P\dix  trenililed  (Acts 
xxiv.  24,  25). 

Dul'ci-mer. 

The  rendering  of  Aramaic  Siimphoneyah, 
Sumphoneya',  or  to  follow  the  best  attested 
traditional  pronunciation,  Sumpon'i/ah  or  Sum- 
pon'na'  (Dan.  iii.  5,  10,  15),  probably  meaning 
bagpipe,  as  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  makes  it. 
The  real  dulcimer  is  quite  a  different  instru- 
ment. In  its  earliest  and  simplest  form  it  con- 
sisted of  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  on  which  were 
fastened  two  converging  strips  of  the  same 
material,  which  were  crossed  by  strings  played 
by  small  hammers.  Afterwards  pegs  for  reg- 
ulating the  tension  of  the  strings  were  super- 


Dumah 


184 


Earring 


aildrd,  and  tlie  (lat  i)iece  of  wood  gave  place 
to  a  resonance  box. 
Du'mali  [silence]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  Its  territory  was 
l)rol>ably  the  region  called  Doumaitha  by 
I'tiilcmy,  and  Domata  by  Pliny,  on  the  con- 
Hues  of  the  Syrian  and  Arabian  deserts.  The 
town  is  now  called  Doomat  el-jeudel,  meaning 
Dnmah  of  the  stones,  and  is  situated  in  the 
district  el-Jaiif,  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Arabian  i)eninsiila. 

2.  A  symbolic  designation  of  Edom,  chosen 
on  account  of  its  assonance  with  Edom  and  in 
allusion  to  the  desolation  in  store  (Is.  xxi.  11). 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52).  Its  site  is  the  ruin  Domeh,  10 
miles  southwest  of  Hebron. 

Dung. 

Dung  was  used  for  manuring  plants  (Luke 
xiii.  8  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  A  dunghill,  with 
straw  trodden  in  it  by  the  cattle,  is  referred 
to  (Is.  XXV.  10).  In  the  East  dried  cowdung 
is  constantly  used  for  fuel  (Ezek.  iv.  12,  15). 
Beggars  often  lay  on  dunghills  and  ash  heaps 
(1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Lam.  iv.  5).  As  a  punishment, 
the  house  of  a  man  was  sometimes  made  a 
dunghill  (Dan.  ii.  5),  that  is,  probably,  was 
converted  into  a  privy  (2  Kin.  x.  27).  Dung, 
as  refuse,  was  swept  away  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10  ; 
Phil.  iii.  f^). 

Dung  Gate.   See  Jekusalem  II.  3. 

Du'ra. 

\  ])lain  in  the  province  of  Babylon  where 
Nebuchadnezzar's  golden  image  was  set  up 
(Dan.  iii.  1).  Several  localities  in  Babylon 
were  called  Duru,  which  means  a  wall  or 
fortilicatidn. 

Dys'en-ter-y. 

A  di.sease  characterized  by  inflammation 
and  ulceration  of  the  lower  part  of  the  in- 
testines, with  hemorrhage  from  the  bowels. 
It  is  so  constantly  attended  by  fever  that  it 
is  often  called  fever  and  dysentery.  Publius, 
chief  man  of  the  island  of  Melita  while  Paul 
was  thcn^  suflTered  from  this  complaint,  but 
was  miraculou.sly  cured  by  the  apostle  (Acts 
xxviii.  7.  8,  R.  V.;  in  A.  V.  bloody  flux). 


E. 


Ea'gle. 

A  bird  of  jtrey  (Job  ix.  2(> ;  xxxix.  30 ;  Hab. 
i.  8),  large  (Ezek.  xvii.  3,  7),  swift  of  flight 
(2  Sam.  i.  23),  seeing  at  a  great  distance,  and 
which  builds  its  nest  on  lofty  rocks  (Job 
xxxix.  27-2!>;  Jer.  xlix.  KJ).  It  was  cur- 
rently believed  to  bestow  great  care  ujion  its 
young  whiU;  training  them  to  act  for  them- 
selves, stirring  up  the  nest  and  forcing  tiieni 
out,  hovering  over  them  and  under  them 
when  tliey  made  their  first  weak  attempts  to 
fly  (Deut.  xxxii.  11  ;  Ex.  xix.  4,  5).  Sir 
Humpiirey  Davy  relates  witnessing  a  pair 
of  golden  eagles  similarly  engaged  above  the 
crags  of  Ben  Nevis.     There  is  also  probably 


an  allusion  to  an  ancient  popular  belief  that 
the  eagle,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period, 
moults  and  renews  its  youth  (Ps.  ciii.  5).  The 
story  was  that  the  eagle,  on  reaching  old  age, 
flew  upward  toward  the  sun  until  its  feathers 
were  singed  and  it  fell  into  the  sea.  Thence 
it  emerged  in  the  strength  of  youth.  The 
allusion  may,  however,  be  to  the  great  age  to 
which  the  eagle  lives  and  retains  the  vigor 
of  youth.  As  a  carnivorous  bird,  feeding  on 
reptiles  and  occasionally  on  carrion,  it  was 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13).  The  Hebrews,  like 
the  Arabs,  applied  the  name  which  they  used 
for  eagle  to  birds  that  eat  carrion,  probably, 
like  the  Greek  and  Eomau  naturalists  Aris- 
totle and  Pliny,  including  certain  larger  va- 
rieties of  the  vulture  among  the  eagles  (Mat. 
xxiv.  28  ;  cp.  Prov.  sxx.  17).  In  alluding  to 
the  baldness  of  the  eagle  (Mic.  i.  16),  the 
prophet,  if  he  does  not  refer  to  moulting, 
which  is  an  inconspicuous  pi-ocess  in  the 
eagle,  has  some  vulture  in  mind,  whose  head 
is  bald  and  neck  but  scantily  feathered. 

Tristram  enumerates  eight  species  of  the 
eagle  subfamily  as  occurring  in  Palestine. 
Seven  are  of  the  typical  genus  Aquila,  viz.  : 
Aquila  chrysaetus,  the  golden  eagle  ;  A.heliaca, 
the  imperial  eagle ;  A.  danga,  the  greater 
spotted  eagle ;  ^1.  rapax,  the  tawny  eagle ; 
A.  pennata,  the  booted  eagle ;  A.  nipalensis, 
the  steppe  eagle ;  A.  Bonelli,  Bonelli's  eagle, 
and  Circaetus  gallicus,  the  short-toed  eagle. 
With  the  exception  of  the  booted  eagle,  the 
others  are  not  uncommon.  By  far  the  most 
abundant  of  all  is  the  short-toed  eagle.  It 
feeds  on  reptiles.  It  is  numerous  in  summer 
and  autumn.  In  winter  it  occurs  more  spar- 
ingly, many  apparently  migrating  southward. 

Ear 'nest. 

Part  payment  in  advance  of  a  wage,  a  sura 
of  money,  or  anything  else  promised,  this 
being  intended  as  a  pledge  or  guarantee  to 
the  recipient  that  the  bargain,  contract,  or 
promise  will  in  due  time  be  carried  out. 
Black.stone  says  that  the  prepayment  of  a 
penny  in  England  will  legally  "bind  a  con- 
tract, and  the  handing  over  the  smallest 
quantity  of  goods  ordered  will  bind  the  en- 
gagement for  the  remainder.  The  earnest, 
as  a  rule,  is  the  same  in  kind  as  the  ultimate 
payment,  of  which  it  is  the  pledge.  The  Spirit 
in  the  hearts  of  Christians  is  the  earnest  of 
their  Inheritance  (2  Cor.  i.  22:  v.  5-  Eph  i 
13,  14). 

Ear'ring. 

Earrings  were  worn  by  the  Israelites,  men, 
women,  and  children  (Ex.  xxxii.  2),  espe- 
cially by  the  women  (Ezek.  xvi.  12;  Judith 
X.  4).  They  were  also  worn  by  theMidiaTi- 
ites  (Num.  xxxi.  50),  Assyrians,  Egyptians, 
and  other  j.eoples.  The  custom  was  innocent 
in  iLself.  But  the  earring  sometimes  served 
as  an  amulet  (cp.  Is.  iii.  2(i :  in  R.  V.  amulet). 
As  u.sed  in  idolatrous  worshij),  they  were 
worn  ))y  the  men  and  women  of  Jacob's 
household,  until  he  ordered  the  strange  gods 


Earth 


185 


Ebal 


to  be  put  away  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  They  were 
made  of  gold  (Ex.  xxxii.  2;  cp.  Prov.  xxv. 
12)  or  other  precious  metal.  It  is  often  not 
clear  from  the  narrative  whether  earrings 
or  nose-rings  are  intended  (Gen.  xxiv.  22,  30; 
Ex.  xxxv.  22). 

Earth. 

1.  The  world  in  which  we  dwell  as  distin- 
guished from  the  heavens  overhead  (Gen.  i.  1). 

2.  The  dry  land,  as  distinguished  from  the 
sea  (Gen.  1.  10) ;  the  habitable  world  (Gen.  i. 
28;  x.  25;  xviii.  18).  It  is  frequently  de- 
scribed in  poetry.  Hannah  spoke  of  the 
earth  .standing  on  pillars,  on  which  it  had 
been  placed  by  God  (1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Job.  ix.  6 ; 
Ps.  Ixxv.  3).  The  psalmist  speaks  of  the  in- 
habited earth  as  founded  upon  the  seas  and 
established  on  the  floods  (xxiv.  2  ;  cxxxvi.  6  : 
cp.  Ex.  XX.  4).  Others  speak  literally  or  fig- 
uratively of  the  foundations  of  the  earth  (Ps. 
cii.  25;  civ.  5-9;  Prov.  iii.  19;  viii.  29;  Is. 
xlviii.  13). 

3.  Vegetable  soil  (Gen.  xxvii.  28 ;  Ex.  xx. 
24  ;  Ps.  civ.  14). 

4.  The  inhabitants  of  the  world  or  of  any 
region  in  it  (Gen.  xi.  1  ;  Ps.  xcviii.  9). 

Earth'quake. 

The  quaking  of  the  earth  ;  a  vibratory  or 
undulatory  movement  extending  superficially 
over  a  wide  area,  and  downward,  it  is  be- 
lieved, from  a  mile  or  two  to  more  than  thirty 
miles.  The  vibrations  are,  perhaps,  produced 
by  contractions  of  portions  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Earthquakesand  volcanoesare  connected,  and 
are  confined  to  particular  regions  constituting 
continuous  lines.  One  of  these  lines  passes 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  gulf  of 
Akaba,  along  the  valleys  of  the  Orontes  and 
the  Jordan.  In  severe  earthquakes,  at  the 
point  where  the  force  is  greatest,  the  hills 
move  to  and  fro  (Jer.  iv.  24)  and  the  founda- 
tions of  the  mountains,  as  it  were,  tremble 
(Ps.  xviii.  7) ;  clefts  appear  in  the  earth's 
crust  (Zech.  xiv.  4,  5)  and  chasms,  into  which 
men  may  fall,  open  and  close  (Num.  xvi.  31- 
.33) ;  buildings  are  shaken  down  and  their 
inhabitants  often  buried  in  the  ruins;  and 
if  the  sea  is  near,  it  may  leave  its  bed  for  a 
few  minutes  nearly  dry,  and  then  bring  in  a 
wave  upon  the  land  which  will  sweep  over  it 
with  destructive  efl'ect.  Judiea  was  visited 
by  a  severe  earthquake  in  the  days  of  Uzziah 
and  Jeroboam  II.  (Amos  i.  1;  Zech.  xiv.  5; 
Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Another  notable  earth- 
quake occurred  in  the  seventh  year  of  Herod 
the  Great,  which  destroyed  much  cattle  and 
upwards  of  10,000  lives  (Antiq.  xv.  5,  2).  An 
earthquake,  accompanied  with  darkness,  sig- 
nalized the  death  of  Christ  (Mat.  xxvii.  45. 
51-54),  and  another  heralded  his  resurrection 
(xxviii.  2).  One  occurred  in  Macedonia  when 
Paul  and  Silas  were  in  the  jail  at  Philippi 
(Acts  xvi.  2fci). 

East. 

The  direction  toward  the  sunrise  (as  is  de- 
uoted  by  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  em- 


ploj-ed  in  Josh.  xi.  .3;  xii.  3,  etc.  ;  Mat.  ii.  1). 
Tlie  Hebrews  faced  the  jioint  of  the  rising 
sun  when  tliey  determined  direction  ;  hence 
the  east  was  the  front  (as  is  denoted  by  the 
Hebrew  word  in  Gen.  ii.  8). 

East,  Children  of  the,  or  Men  of,  or  Peo- 
ple of. 

A  general  designation  of  the  tribes  occujiy- 
ing  the  east  country,  who  inhabited  tlie  re- 
gion bordering  on  Annnon  and  Moal)  (Kzek. 
xxv.  4,  10),  dwelt  as  far  north  as  a  district 
where  people  of  Haran  pastured  their  flocks 
(Gen.  xxix.  1,  4),  and  extended  far  southward 
into  Arabia. 

East  Country. 

The  region  lying  east  of  Palestine  (Zech. 
viii.  7),  especially  the  Arabian  and  Syrian 
de.serts  ((4cn.  xxv.  1-7). 

East  Sea  or  Eastern  Sea.     See  Dead  Sea. 

East  Wind. 

A  wind  blowing,  broadly  speaking,  from 
the  east.  In  Egyjit  it  blasts  the  ears  of  corn 
(Gen.  xli.  23,  27),  and  in  Palestine  the  vines 
and  vegetation  generally  (Ezek.  xvii.  7-10; 
xix.  10-12).  The  east  wind  in  these  lands  is 
hot  and  sultry,  and  deleterious  to  vegetation, 
because  it  has  been  blowing  over  the  Arabian 
or  Syro-Arabian  desert  (Hos.  xiii.  15).  Doubt- 
less this  same  wind  is  meant  in  Jon.  iv.  8, 
although  the  Ninevites  themselves  would  not 
have  called  it  an  east  wind. 

East'er. 

Originally  the  spring  festival  in  honor  of 
Eastra  or  Ostara,  the  Teutonic  goddess  of 
light  and  spring.  As  early  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury the  name  was  transferred  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  the  Christian  festival  designed  to 
celebrate  the  resurrection  of  Christ.     In  the 

A.  V.  it  occurs  once,  viz.,  in  Acts  xii.  4,  but 
is  a  mistranslation.  The  original  is  pascha, 
the  ordinary  Greek  word  for  passover.     The 

B.  V.  properly  employs  the  word  passover. 

E'bal. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  a  descendant  of 
Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23;  1  Chron. 
i.  40). 

2.  The  same  as  Obal  (1  Chron.  i.  22  with 
Gen.  X.  2b). 

3.  A  mountain  .separated  only  by  a  narrow 
valley  from  mount  Gerizim  (Dent,  xxvii.  12- 
14),  west  of  the  western  highway  and  near  the 
oaks  of  Moreh  (xi.  .30,  K.  V.),  which  were  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.6,  R.  V. ;  xxxv.  4).  When 
the  Israelites  passed  the  Jordan  they  were  to 
set  up  great  stones  plastered,  on  which  the 
words  of  the  law  were  to  be  written.  An  altar 
also  was  to  be  built  (Deut.  xxvii.  1-8).  Kep- 
resentatives  of  six  tribes,  those  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  Asher,  Zebulun,  Dan,  and  Naphtali, 
were  to  stand  on  mount  Ebal,  and  pronounce 
curses  on  those  who  were  guilty  of  certain 
heinous  sins.  The  representatives  of  the  re- 
maining si.x  tribes  standing  on  mount  Geri- 
zim were  to  pronounce  blessings  (Deut.  xi. 
29;  xxvii.  9-26).     These  directions  were  car- 


Ebed 


186 


Ecclesiastes 


riid  (lilt  1)}' Joshua  (Josh.  viii.  30  35).  Mount 
i;i);il  lies  on  tlio  northern  side  of  N:il)lus, 
tlic  ancient  Sheehem,  wliilst  mount  (Jerizini 
lies  on  its  southern  side  (Anti(|.  iv.  b.  44). 
Both  are  west  of  the  road  from  the  south  to 
tiie  north,  and  the  branch  road  to  Samaria 
and  En-<;annimi)asses  between  them.  El)al 
rises  3077  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  stee]), 
rocky,  and  barren.  In  some  places  a  fi^vv 
stunU'd  olive  trees  may  be  discovered  on  its 
lower  part,  and  prickly  pear  above  ;  in  others 
it  is  destitute  of  vegetation.  It  is  now  called 
Jeliel  Kslamiyeh. 
E'bed  [servant]. 

1.  FathvT  of  (Jaal  (Jndg.  ix.  28,  30). 

2.  A  chief  of  th(!  father's  bouse  of  Adin, 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  fifty  males 
under  the  leadership  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  (>). 

E'bed-me'lech  [slave  of  the  king]. 

.\n  Ethioiiian,  a  eunuch  of  the  palace,  who 
heard  that  .Jeremiah  had  been  cast  into  a 
dungeon  where  he  would  i)r()bably  have  soon 
died  of  bungi'r,  and,  having  obtained  the 
king's  permission,  drew  him  out  by  cords  let 
down,  and  rags  to  protect  the  proi)het's  arm- 
pits against  their  sharpness  (,7er.  xxxviii.  7- 
13).  Jeremiah  was  subsequently  commissioned 
to  inform  him  that,  on  account  of  the  service 
be  had  rendered,  he  should  be  preserved 
when  .lerusalem  was  taken  (xxxis.  15-18). 

Eb-en-e'zer  [stone  of  helj)]. 

A  commemorative  stone  set  up  by  Samnel, 
evidently  in  Benjamin,  between  Mizpah  and 
Shell,  where  the  Lord  discomfited  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  10,  12).  Twenty  years  pre- 
viously the  Israelites  them.selves  had  been 
defeated  at  this  place  by  the  Philistines  and 
liad  lost  the  ark  (iv.  1 ;  where  the  jilace  is 
mentioned  by  its  later  name). 

E'ber,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Heber  (1  Chron.  v. 
13;  viii.  22;  Luke  iii.  35)  [other  side,  region 
beyond]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shem  through  Arpach- 
shad  (Gen.  x.  22.  24);  and  progenitor  of  a 
group  of  iicoples  (X.  21  I,  embracing  the  lie- 
brews  (xi.  l(i-2()),  the  .Joktanide  Arabs  (x.25- 
.'Wi,  and  certain  .\ram<eaii  tribes  desceiidi^d 
from  Nahor  (xi.  29;  xxii.  20-24).  The  name 
is  |iut  for  these  peoples  collectively  (Num. 
xxiv.  21).  Originally  Eber  belonged  to  the 
region  beyond  or  east  of  the  lMi])hrates,  jier- 
ha|is  also  of  the  Tigris,  witii  respe(^t  to  the 
later  Hebrews  (cp.  .Josh.  xxiv.  2,  3,  11,  15i, 
and  to  the,  Joktanide^  .\rabs,  and  not  un- 
likely with  res[iect  to  his  descendants,  the 
aiicestfii-s  of  .\braliam  and  Xahor,  in  Ur 
ideii.  xi.  "^.S). 

2.  A  jiriest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amok  in  tlu!  days  of  the  high  priest  .loiakim 
(Neb.  xii.  20). 

:{.  A  (Jadite,  lu-ad  of  a  father's  house  in 
Ciilead  in  Baslian  (1  (Miron.  v.  13). 

4  and  5.  Two  Benjamites,  a  son  of  Elpaal 
and  a  sou  of  Sliashak  (1  Chron.  viii.  12  and 
22.  25). 

E'bez.     See  Ahkz. 


E-bi'a-sapb.     See  Abiasaph. 

Eb'on-y. 

Wood  of  various  species  of  the  genus  Dios- 
pyroH,  which  constitutes  the  type  of  the 
Ebenaceie  (Ebenads).  The  inner  wood  is 
black,  very  hard,  and  heavy.  Ebony  is  used 
for  inlaying  and  ornamental  turnery.  The 
men  of  Dedan  traded  with  it  in  the  markets 
of  Tyre,  having  obtained  it  apparently  from 
India  or  Ceylon  (Ezek.  xxvii.  15).  The  Greeks 
recognized  two  kinds  of  ebony,  one  varie- 
gated, from  India,  and  the  other  black,  from 
Ethiopia. 

E'bron,  in  A.  V.  Hebron. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  28).  Perhaps  identical  with  Ab- 
don. 

E-bro'nab.    See  Abronah. 

Ec-bat'a-na.     See  Achmetha. 

Ec-cle-si-as'tes  [Greek  elcMesinste.t,  one 
who  sits  and  speaks  in  an  assembly  or  church, 
a  preacher]. 

The  name  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint 
and  apiilied  to  the  O.  T.  book  called  in  He- 
brew Kohelelh.  The  meaning  of  KoheJeth  is 
disjiuted.  It  is  etymologically  related  to  the 
word  which  means  congregation.  The  Eng- 
lish versions  follow  the  Greek  and  Latin  ver- 
sions in  rendering  it  "the  preacher"  (i.  1). 
The  preacher  is  distinctly  represented  as  Sol- 
omon, "son  of  David,  king  at  Jerusalem" 
(i.  1),  excelling  all  his  predecessors  in  Jeru- 
salem in  wisdom  and  wealth  (i.  16:  ii.  7,  9). 
The  book  may  be  regarded  either  as  a  writing 
of  Solomon  himself  in  his  old  age  or  as  words 
which,  though  not  actually  uttered  by  Sol- 
omon, accurately  sum  up  his  com])leted  expe- 
rience, are  spoken  from  the  standpoint  of  his 
finished  course,  teach  the  great  lesson  of  his 
life  as  he  himself  learned  it,  and  express  the 
sentiments  which  he  might  rightly  be  suj)- 
posed  to  entertain  as  he  looked  at  life  in  the 
retrospect.  The  meaning  of  i.  12,  13  is, 
according  to  Hel)rew  grammar,  either:  "As 
for  nie.  during  my  reign  [which  still  contin- 
ues] I  have  apiilied  my  heart  to  seek  wisdom 
and  have  discovered  that  all  is  vanity,"  or 
"  When  I  was  king  [as  I  am  not  now]  I  ap- 
plied my  heart  to  seek  wisdom  and  discovered 
that  all  is  vanity."  Tlu^  latter  exi)lanation 
is  (lout)tless  the  correct  one  ;  for  the  language 
smacks  everywhere  of  the  vocabulary  and 
grammar  of  the  later  postexilic  Hebrew 
scri|itures  and  of  the  .\raniaic  ])ortions  of 
naniil  and  Iv/.ra.  The  liook  recounts  the 
feelings,  ex])eriences,  and  observations  which 
would  be  unavoidable  to  the  wi.se  man  situ- 
ated as  was  Solomon. 

Tile  message  concerns  solely  the  ])resent 
]\i\'.  on  eartii.  The  (|uestion  is  rai.sed  whether 
any  real  profit  accrues  to  man  from  toil  (i.  3). 
The  method  of  investigation  is  that  of  the 
sage  (i.  13).  By  observation  and  experience 
the  iireacher  finds  that  man's  one  source  of 
satisfaction   lies   in   himself,    in   the  normal 


Ed 


187 


Eden 


and  healthy  exercise  of  his  powers  of  mind 
and  body  in  harmony  with  tlie  jiliysieal  and 
nioial  hiws  of  the  universe  in  vvhieli  he  is 
phiced  (ii.  24;  iii.  12,  13,  22;  v.  IH;  ix.  7-10). 
Vain  are  wisdom  (i.  12-18)  and  j)leasnre 
(ii.  1-11 1.  Still  they  have  valne;  hence  the 
l)reacher  compares  wisdom  and  folly  lii.  12- 
2.3).  He  concludes  that  the  homely  rewards 
of  labor  excel  (24;  cp.  v.  12).  The  conclu- 
sion is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  man's 
activities  are  bound  to  the  staKes  of  his 
Krowth.  There  is  a  time  fixed  and  unaltera- 
ble for  the  exercise  of  each  power  of  mind 
and  body,  and  everything  is  beautiful  in  its 
season  (iii.  1-11).  And  other  joy  is  often 
rendered  impossiljle  by  injustice  and  o])pres- 
sion  (l(i-iv.  '.i).  Formalism  and  dishonesty 
are  unwise  ;  and  wealth  is  often  injurious, 
and  is  less  desirable  than  health  (v.  1-vi.  9). 
The  preacher  speaks  of  the  value  of  a  good 
name  and  the  means  of  obtaining  it  (vii.  1- 
10);  and  of  the  value  of  wisdom  as  a  safe- 
guard (11-22),  and  in  dealing  with  kings 
(viii.  1-9);  and  he  insists  on  the  general 
truth  that  godliness  is  the  best  policy  (10-1.5). 
Death  comes  alike  to  all  ;  let  man  find 
jileasure,  then,  in  the  common,  humble  joys 
of  life.  They  are  his  portion  (ix.  2-10). 
After  sundry  other  shrewd  observations,  the 
preacher  is  led  again  to  his  main  theme;  ex- 
horts young  men  to  rejtiice  in  their  powers, 
but  to  use  them  mindful  of  being  under 
moral  government,  makes  his  great  appeal 
to  youth  to  remember  God,  and  sums  up  the 
matter  in  the  pithy  sentence:  Fear  God,  and 
keep  his  commandments;  for  this  is  the 
whole  duty  of  man.  For  God  will  bring 
every  work  into  judgment  [even  now,  what- 
ever the  Judge  may  do  in  the  world  to 
come]  (xi.  9-xii.  14). 

In  his  argument  the  writer  appeals  to 
man's  relation  to  God  in  so  far  only  as  God 
is  known  in  nature  and  experience.  His 
referejices  to  God  are  thus  in  accordance 
with  the  methods  of  that  philosophical  school 
to  which  he  belonged  (see  Wisdom),  and  are 
indispensable  in  a  complete  discussion  of  the 
means  of  adjusting  oneself  to  the  conditions 
wh\ch  one  learns  by  experience  to  be  im- 
posed upon  him  and  under  which  he  lives. 

The  startling  character  of  some  statements 
in  Ecclesiastes  led  certain  Jews  to  question 
its  right  to  its  place  among  inspired  books. 
At  last,  however,  its  right  to  remain  in  the 
canon  was  universally  accorded.  There  is  no 
direct  quotation  from  it  or  unequivocal  allu- 
sion to  it  in  the  N.  T. 

Ed  [a  witness]. 

A  word  inserted  in  the  A.  V.  and  the  E.  V. 
of  Josh.  xxii.  34.  It  or  a  similar  word  was 
doubtless  originally  in  the  Hebrew.  It  is 
found  in  some  manuscrijits  and  versions, 
though  it  may  be  an  insertion  in  them  as  it 
is  in  the  English  version.  It  is  needful  to  the 
full  meaning  of  the  passage,  which  tells  how 
the  two  and  a  half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan 
reared  au  altar  as  a  witness  that  they  were 


of  common  descent  and  religion  with  those 
west  of  the  river.  These  latter,  taking  the 
altar  to  be  tiie  commencement  of  ajiostasy 
from  Jehovah,  were  prejiaring  to  make  war 
ui)on  those  who  had  erected  it,  when  exi)la- 
nations  were  given  and  accepted  as  .satisfac- 
tory (Josh.  xxii.  1-34). 

E'dar.     See  Edek. 

E'den  [jileasantness  or,  perhajis,  ])lain]. 

1.  A  country  in  which  God  caused  trees  to 
g  V  ^^wv  th"  g'-iiund  and  in  this  manner 
planted  lor  .'  ".-::>  a  garden,  called  from  its 
situation  the  garden  of  Eden.  A  river  went 
out  of  the  country  of  Eden  to  water  the  giir- 
den,  and  being  f hence  jiarted,  became  four 
lieads,  called  Pishon,  (iihon,  Hiddekel,  and 
Euphrates.  Of  these  four  rivers,  the  Eu- 
phrates is  well  known.  Hiddekel  is^un(iues- 
tiouably  the  Tigris  ;  the  other  two  are  doubt- 
ful. The  Pishon  surrounded  or  meandered 
through  the  land  of  Haviiah.  where  there  is 
gold  ;  and  the  Gihon  surrounded  the  laud  of 
Cusb. 

The  main  theories  as  to  the  site  of  the 
garden  may  be  classed  in  two  groups :  I. 
Those  which,  while  proposing  to  identify  the 
four  streams  with  still  existing  rivers,  fail  to 
find  a  geographical  counterpart  of  the  one 
stream  divided  into  four.  The  site  is  by 
many  sought  in  Armenia.  The  sources  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  are  in  this  region. 
The  Pishon  is  supposed  to  be  either  the  Pha- 
sis,  in  modern  Persian  Fas,  or  the  Kur,  the 
large  triltutary  of  the  Araxes.  The  Gihon  is 
identified  with  the  Araxes,  in  Arabic  known 
as  Gaihnii  er-Rtin.  Objections  to  this  theory 
are,  (a)  the  ditficulty  in  explaining  the  one 
river;  (6)  the  absence  of  proof  that  the  land 
of  t'ush  ever  extended  to  this  region;  (c) 
Haviiah,  as  located  by  the  biblical  writei-s, 
did  not  lie  in  Armenia.  By  others  the  gar- 
den is  thought  of  as  situated  between  the 
Nile  and  India  or  between  India  and  the 
Oxus.  Haviiah  is  identified  with  a  portion 
of  India,  where  gold  was  obtained  ;  and  Cush 
with  either  Ethiopia,  which  is  called  Cush  in 
the  Scriptures,  or  tlie  plateau  of  central  Asia 
which  was  inhabited  by  ("ossa»ans.  The  (ii- 
hon,  the  river  of  (Jush.  is  hence  either  the 
Nile,  called  by  the  Ethiopians  (Icwou  or  (Icyon. 
or  the  Oxus.  The  same  objections,  mutatis 
miitnnitis.  lie  against  the  second  theory  as 
against  the  ftrst.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
identification  of  the  Gihon  with  the  Nile  is 
traceable  as  far  back  as  Jose])hus.  In  his 
case  it  probably  rests  on  a  misconceiitioii. 
The  only  land  of  Cush  in  the  geograjihical 
knowledge  of  the  later  Israelites  was  Ethio- 
pia ;  and  accordingly  Josephus  understood 
the  Nile  by  the  Gihon,  because  it  is  the 
great  river  of  the  laud  of  Cush.  II.  The- 
ories which  seek  an  exact  geographical  coun- 
terpart to  the  bil)lical  description  and  identify 
not  only  the  four  rivers,  but  also  the  one. 
Calvin  observed  that  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
are  actually  united  for  a  short  distance  as  one 


Eden 


188 


Edom 


stream,  which  then  divides  and  enters  into 
the  I'ersian  f<ulf  by  two  mouths;  and  ho  con- 
cluded tliat  the  district  watered  l)y  the  united 
streams  was  the  site  of  the  garden.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  this  particular  spot  was 
formerly  the  bed  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  But 
the  general  locality  indicated  has  much  in 
favor  of  its  being"  the  site  of  the  garden. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  thinks  that  the  river  of 
Eden  is  the  Euphrates.  Its  channel  being 
higher  than  the  Tigris,  its  su])erabundant 
waters  on  entering  the  alluvial  plain  north 
of  Babylon  flowed  from  its  hanks  and  found 
their  way  across  the  i)lain  to  the  Tigris.  The 
district  thus  watered  was  extremely  fertile. 
It  was  even  known  to  the  ancient  Babylonians 
as  the  garden  of  the  god  Duniash.  Here  the 
garden  of  Eden  is  to  be  sought.  The  word 
ediiiu  in  Assyrian  means  plain  ;  and  the  two 
river  bottoms  of  southern  Mesopotamia  and 
the  alluvial  lowland  form  a  plain,  and  were 
spoken  of  as  an  edinn.  A  descendant  of  Cush 
reignetl  in  the  Babylonian  plain  (Gen.  x.  8- 
10)  ;  and  Kashites.  that  is  Cushites,  who  were 
related  to  the  Elamites,  early  descended  upon 
Babylonia  and  for  a  time  held  the  political 
power.  Hence  the  huul  of  Cush  may  be  sat- 
isfactorily regarded  as  having  designated  at 
one  period  Babylonia  or  its  southern  portion. 
Uavilah  was  situated  northwest  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  according  to  Scripture  notices,  and 
may  be  assumed  to  have  extended  to  the  Eu- 
l)hrates  and  bordered  on  Babylonia.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  Pishon  may  reason- 
ably be  identified  with  the  Pallakopas  canal, 
which  was  probably  a  natural  channel  orig- 
inally ;  and  the  Gihon  with  a  great  Babylo- 
nian canal  which  branched  from  the  Eu- 
phrates eastward  at  Babylon,  and  on  which 
two  of  Nimrod  the  t'ushite's  cities,  Babylon 
and  Erech.  stood.  It  may  be  the  canal  near 
Babylon  whose  nanu;  was  Kahana  or  (Juliana, 
corresponding  to  (iihon.  This  scholarly  the- 
ory still  lacks  proof.  Its  weakness  at  i)resent 
lies  in  its  numerous  assumptions,  in  the  dif- 
ficulty of  showing  that  the  bounds  of  Havi- 
lah  ever  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
jthrates,  and  were  not  sei)arated  from  the 
river  by  the  land  of  Mesha,  and  of  establish- 
ing the  conjecture  that  the  country  near 
Babylon  to  the  east  was  designated  the  land 
of  Cush.  ({laser  offers  a  natural  exi)lanation 
of  the  language  employed  in  the  description. 
He  regards  the  four  heads,  which  are  imme- 
diately afterwards  called  rivei-s,  as  the  heads 
or  trii>utikries  of  the  river  of  Eden.  These 
four  aflluents  \niited  soniewlu're  below  the 
garden  or.  to  niodil'y  his  theory,  at  the  gar- 
den itself.  The  name  Pishon  he  finds  still 
lingering  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  wady 
Faishan  in  northern  central  .Xrabia,  which 
drains  tln'  rainfall  toward  the  I'lrNJan  (iulf. 
'J'his  region  produc'cd  gold  and  corresponds 
to  the  location  of  Havilah  as  indicated  by 
the  biblical  writers.  He  also  bilicvi'd  that 
be  found  the  name  Gihon  applied  to  the; 
wady  er-Kuuima,  whirii  drains  ilie  countrv 


about  Jebel  Shamar  toward  the  Euphrates, 
and  he  concluded  that  the  Cushites  occupied 
this  region  during  their  migration  from  the 
east  to  Africa,  and  caused  it  to  be  known  for 
a  long  time  as  the  land  of  Cush.  He  erred, 
however,  in  his  belief  that  he  had  found  the 
wady  er-Kumma  called  Gihon.  The  Arabian 
poet  whom  he  quotes  is  speaking  of  a  river 
of  Cilicia. 

The  site  of  the  garden  of  Eden  is  most  prob- 
ably to  be  sought  about  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  locality  is  east  of  Palestine,  as 
Gen.  ii.  8  may  mean.  The  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers  are  there.  Havilah  was  a  district  of 
northern  central  Arabia.  A  land  of  Cush 
corresponded  approximately  to  Elam,  where 
the  names  Kashshu  and  (Josssean  long  lin- 
gered. The  plain  of  Babylonia  could  be  and 
evidently  was  called  an  edhm,  as  Delitzsch 
has  shown.  Possibly  the  fact  that  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  was  called  a  river  may  also  have 
some  bearing  on  the  solution  of  the  problem. . 
The  garden  of  Eden  is  referred  to  in  Isa.  11. 
3;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  xxxi.  9,  16-18;  xxxvi. 
35;  Joel  ii.  3  ;  ep.  Gen.  xiii.  10. 

2.  A  region  in  Mesopotamia  ;  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Gozan,  Haran,  Eeseph,  Te- 
lassar  (2  Kin.  xix.  12;  Is.  xxxvii.  12),  and 
with  Haran  and  Canneh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23, 
24).  Apparently  the  locality  in  Amos  i.  5, 
on  the  margin  called  Beth-eden.  The  region 
is  mentioned  in  Assyrian  documents  by  the 
name  Bit-Adini,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  north  of  the  Belik  river. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  a  son  of  Joah  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  12;  xxxi.  1.5). 

E'der,  in  A.  V.  once  Edar  (Gen.  xxxv.  21) 
and  once  Ader  (1  Chron.  viii.  15)  [a  flock]. 

1.  A  tower,  beyond  which  Jacob  on  one 
occasion  spread  his  tent  (Gen.  xxxv.  21). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  Benjaraite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  15). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Mushi,  of  the  family  of 
Merari  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

E'dom  ;  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  four  times  Idumea 
[red].      .. 

1.  A  name  of  Esau,  given  in  memory  of  his 
having  sold  bis  birthright  for  red  pottage 
((ien.  XXV.  :>0;  xxxvi.  1,  8,  19). 

2.  The  Edomites  collectively  (Num.  xx.  18, 
20.  21  ;  Amos  i.  (>,  11 ;  ix.  12;"  Mai.  i.  4). 

3.  The  region  occujiied  by  the  descendants 
of  Edom,  /.  c.  Esau.  It  was  originally  called 
mount  Seir  (Gen.  xxxii.  3;  xxxvi.  2(),  21,  30; 
Num.  xxiv.  18).  At  the  time  of  the  sixteenth 
or  seventeenth  dynasty,  and  probably  as 
early  as  the  twelfth  dynasty  (for  these  dates, 
see  Adventures  of  Siuuliiti,  it  was  known  to 
the  Egyptians  as  Edima.  In  the  mind  of  the 
Israelites  Edom  as  the  name  of  the  country 
was  doubtless  associated  with  the  settlement 
of  their  kinsman  Edom  in  that  region.  It  is  a 
mountainous  and  extremely  rugged  country, 


Edomites 


189 


Eglaim 


about  100  miles  long,  extending  southward 
from  Moab  on  both  sides  of  tlie  Arabah,  or 
great  depression  connecting  the  southern  part 
of  the  Dead  Sea  with  the  gulf  of  Akaba  (Gen. 
xiv.  6 ;  Deut.  ii.  1,  12  ;  Josh.  xv.  1 ;  Judg.  xi. 
17,  lH;  1  Kin.  ix.  26).  The  summit  of  mount 
Heir  is  believed  to  rise  about  3500  feet  above 
the  adjacent  Arabah.  The  lower  part  of  the 
chain  is  of  red  Nubian  sandstone,  with  dykes 
of  red  granite  and  porphyry;  the  summit  is 
of  a  chalky  limestone,  jTobably  of  cretaceous 
age.  Edom  is  not  nearly  so  fertile  as  Pales- 
tine (cp.  Mai.  i.  2-4)  ;  but  in  the  time  of 
Moses  it  had  fields,  vineyards,  wells,  and  a 
highway  (Num.  xx.  17,  19).  The  Edomite 
capital  in  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
was  8ela,  believed  to  be  the  i)lace  afterwards 
called  Petra.  Other  important  towns  were 
Bozrah  and  Teman.  In  the  Greek  period 
the  name  was  modified  to  Idumaa  (q.  v.). 

The  wilderness  of  Edom  was  the  Arabah 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(2  Kin.  iii.  8,  20). 

E'dom-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Edom,  i.  e.  Esau  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  1-19),  and  others  incorporated  with 
them.  As  early  as  the  return  of  Jacob  from 
Mesopotamia  Esau  had  occupied  the  land  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxii.  3 ;  xxxvi.  6-8  ;  Deut.  ii. 
4,  5;  Josh.  xxiv.  4),  having  driven  out  the 
aboriginal  Horites  (cp.  Gen.  xiv.  6 ;  xxxvi. 
20-30 :  Deut.  ii.  12.  22).  The  Edomites  ap- 
pear to  have  been  first  ruled  by  tribal  chiefs 
called  dukes,  who  were  probably  like  Arab 
sheiks  (Gen.  xxxvi.  15-19,  40-43;  1  Chron. 
i.  51-54) ;  but  before  the  rise  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy  they  were  governed  by  kings  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  31-39  ;'l  Chron.  i.  43-51)".  When  the 
Israelites  were  approaching  Canaan,  they 
sought  permission  from  the  king  of  Edom  to 
pass  through  his  territory,  giving  assurance 
that  the  privilege  would  not  be  abused.  He  re- 
fused the  request,  and  was  prepared  to  fight 
if  the  Israelites  had  persisted  in  moving  for- 
ward. But  because  the  Edomites  were  de- 
scended from  Abraham,  the  Israelites  were 
forbidden  to  make  war  upon  them  and  com- 
manded to  pass  around  their  land  (Num.  xx. 
14-21).  Notwithstanding  this  hostility,  an 
Edomite  was  regarded  in  the  Mosaic  law  as 
a  brother  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  posterity 
of  the  former  were  allowed  in  the  third  gen- 
eration to  become  incorporated  with  the  He- 
brew people  (Deut.  xxiii.  7,  8).  while  it  was  not 
till  the  tenth  generation  that  the  descend- 
ants of  a  Moabite  or  an  Ammonite  could  ob- 
tain the  same  privilege  (3-6).  Saul  fought 
against  the  Edomites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47)  ;  and 
David  put  garrisons  in  Edom  after  conquer- 
ing the  country  (1  Chron.  xviii.  13:  Ps.  Ix., 
title ;  and  2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14,  where  the  word 
Syrians  is  doubtless  the  error  of  a  copyist 
who  misread  daleth  as  resh).  This  conquest 
had  been  predicted  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv. 
IbJ.  Joab,  David's  commander-in-chief,  re- 
mained in  Edom  for  six  months,  cutting  off 
every  male   (1  Kin.  xi.  15,  16)  ;  but  Hadad, 


one  of  the  royal  family,  escaped  with  some 
others  of  his  countrymen  to  Egypt,  and  be- 
came an  active  enemy  of  Solomon  (14-22). 
After  the  death  of  Ahab  of  Israel,  and  during 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah,  Edom- 
ites joined  with  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
in  invading  Judah  ;  but  a  misunderstanding 
arising,  they  were  attacked  and  destroyed  by 
their  allies  (2  Chron.  xx.  22-30).  Jehoshaphat 
reduced  the  country  to  its  former  subjection, 
and  put  it  under  a  deputy  (1  Kin.  xxii.  47)  ; 
and  the  Edomites  aided  Israel  and  Judah  in 
the  contest  with  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (2  Kin. 
iii.  4-27).  In  the  reign  of  Joram,  king  of 
Judah,  Jehoshaphat's  son  and  successor,  the 
Edomites  revolted.  Joram  vanquished  them 
in  tlie  field,  but  could  not  reduce  them  to 
subjection  (2  Kin.  viii.  20-22;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
8-10).  Aniaziah  was  more  successful.  He 
slew  10,000  Edomites  in  the  valley  of  Salt, 
took  Sela,  the  capital,  and  put  10,000  Edom- 
ites to  death  by  flinging  them  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7;  2  Chron.  xxv.  11, 
12).  lu  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  Judah  was 
attacked  by  Pekah  and  Eezin,  the  Edomites 
invaded  Judah,  and  carried  off  captives  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  17) ;  and  they  rejoiced  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  destroyed  Jerusalem  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  7).  The  prophets  foretold  the  calam- 
ities that  should  befall  Edom  for  its  in- 
veterate enmity  towards  Israel  (Ezek.  xxxv. 
5,  6),  but  announced  its  ultimate  incorpora- 
tion into  the  kingdom  of  God  (Jer.  xlix.  7- 
22  ;  Lam.  iv.  21,  22  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  12-14 ;  xxxv. 
15:  Joel  iii.  19;  Amos  ix.  12;  Obad.  1-21). 
When  the  cai)tivity  of  the  two  tribes  ren- 
dered the  territory  of  Judah  somewhat  desti- 
tute of  inhabitants,  the  Edomites  seized  on 
it  as  far  as  Hebron,  and  were  themselves  sup- 
planted in  mount  Seir  by  the  Nabathsean 
Arabs.  See  Nabaioth.  Judas  Maccabaeus 
retook  Hebron  and  the  other  towns  which 
the  Edomites  had  occupied  (1  Mac.  v.  65; 
Antiq.  xii.  8,  6).  John  Hyrcanus  compelled 
the  Edomites  to  submit  to  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision, and  incorporated  them  with  the  Jew- 
ish peojile  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1).  The  Herods 
were  Idunifeans,  i.  e.  Edomites.  Many  of 
the  Zealots  who  took  part  in  the  defense  of 
Jerusalem  against  the  Romans,  and  were 
almost  as  dangerous  to  their  fellow  citizens 
as  to  the  enemy,  were  also  Idumseans.  After 
this  the  tribe  isUttle  heard  of  again  in  history. 
Ed're-i  [strong]. 

1.  The  capital  city  of  Bashau  (Deut.  iii.  10 ; 
Josh.  xii.  4 ;  xiii.  12,  31).  There  the  Israelites 
fought  the  great  battle  with  Og,  whicli  de- 
prived him  of  his  dominions  and  his  life  (Num. 
xxi.  33-35  ;  Deut.  i.  4 ;  iii.  1,  10).  Edrei  has 
been  identified  with  the  modern  villa-e  of 
Der'at,  about  27  miles  east  of  Gadara. 

2.  A  fenced  city  of  IJaphtali  (Josh.  xix.  37). 

Eg'lali  [a  calf]. 

One   of    David's   wives,   and    mother    of 
Ithream  (2  Sam.  iii.  5;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 
Eg'la-im  [two  ponds]. 
A  Moabite  town  (Is.  xv.  8).    Eusebius  men- 


Eglath-shelishiyali 


190 


Egypt 


tions  a  village  Aigaleira,  8  Roman  miles  to 
the  smith  of  Areojxjlis;  cp.  also  the  town 
Ajialla  (Antiq.  xiv.  1,  4).  It  is  not  the  same 
as  Kii-cj;laiin. 

Eg'lath-she-li'sM-yah  [third  Ivirhithl. 
A   place  in  Moab  (Is.  xv.  5  and  .hr.  xlviii. 
34,  R.  v.).     Compare  the  dual  Eghiini. 

Eg'lon  [perhaps  vitulinc]. 

1.  A  kinir  of  Moah,  who  captured  Jericho, 
hrhl  it  for  eighteen  years,  and  exacted  tribute 
from  Israel.  He  was  assassinated  by  Ehud, 
the  hearer  of  the  tribute,  who  obtained  a 
private  interview  with  him  on  the  pretext 
of  bringing  secret  tidings  (.ludg.  iii.  ri-30). 

2.  A  town  in  the  lowland  and  assigned  to 
.Tudah  (.Tosh.  xv.  39).  Its  king  was  one  of 
the  five  allies  who  made  war  on  Gibeon,  but 
were  defeated,  captured,  and  executed,  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  X.  3-23,  34-37;  xii.  12).  Its 
site  is  'Ajlan,  1(J  miles  northeast  of  Gaza. 

E'gypt. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  facts  re- 
garding Egyjit  are  grouped  under  three  heads: 
the  country,  the  peoi)le,  and  the  sojourn  of 
the  Israelites. 

I.  The  Country.— 1.  Its  names.  The  coun- 
try was  designated  Aiguptos  by  the  Greeks 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  themselves,  however,  commonly 
called  their  native  land  Kam-t,  black,  naming 
it  from  the  color  of  the  .soil.  To  the  Canaan- 
ites  it  was  known  as  Misru,  which  probably 
means  the  fortified  land,  or  closed  land,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  fortifications  along 
its  Asiatic  frontier  at  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  or 
it  may  denote  simply  the  territory.  This 
latter  name  the  Hebrews  employed  almost 
exclusively,  though  they  used  it  in  the  dual 
form  Misraim,  the  two  Egypts,  viz.,  upper  or 
southern  and  lower  or  northern  ;  like  the 
Egyjitians  themselves,  considering  the  coun- 
try double. 

I.  2.  The  ierritori/  and  its  divisions.  In  an- 
cient times  Egypt  was  the  country  watered 
by  the  Nile  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  as 
far  as  the  first  cat^xract.  In  addition  it  in- 
cluded a  series  of  oases  in  the  western  desert, 
and  also  the  country  between  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arish, 
the  river  of  Egypt.  The  country  is  divided 
by  nature  inl(»  two  tracts— a  narrow  valley, 
running  from  south  to  north,  sunken  in  the 
midst  of  a  desert;  and  the  ]n-olongation  of 
the  valley  into  a  delta.  These  geographical 
divisions  formed  ]>oliti<al  l)oun(laries  also; 
Upper  IvL'vpt  was  coincident  with  the  valley, 
and  Lower  Egypt  with  the  delta.  The  lengih 
of  tiie  Nile  country  from  the  sea  ((*  the  first 
rataract  is  TmO  miles,  ami  its  breadth  from 
the  head  of  the  delta  to  the  cataract  varies 
from  1  I  to  32  miles.  The  area  of  this  tract 
is  about  11,342  scpiare  miles,  of  which  at  the 
time  of  the  French  occupation  (j!)21  square 
miles  were  cultivable.  Ancient  Egyjit  Wiis  a 
small  country,  scarcely  one-half  "again  as 
large  as  New  Jersey;  but,  at  the  same  time. 


in  proportion  to  its  width,  it  is  the  longest 
country  in  the  world.  It  may  be  compared 
to  New  Jersey  with  its  area  increased  by  one 
half,  elongated  so  as  to  extend  from  New 
York  to  Cincinnati,  or  from  New  York  to 
Wilmington,  N.  C.  It  is  nearly  twice  as  far 
from  Memphis  to  thecataract  (about460miles) 
as  from  Memphis  to  Jerusalem  (about  260),  and 
the  distance  is  greater  from  Memphis  to  the 
cataract  than  from  Memphis  to  Damascus 
(about  410  miles).  This  long,  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  the  first  cataract,  was 
originally  an  estuary  of  the  sea.  Herodotus 
came  to  this  conclusion  (ii.  10),  and  his  theory 
has  been  confirmed  by  geology.  "  The  Nile 
mud,"  says  Fraas,  "  rests  on  a  bed  of  sea  sand. 
The  whole  country  between  the  first  cataract 
and  the  Mediterranean  was  formerly  a  nar- 
row estuary."  In  the  strictest  sense,  Egypt, 
as  the  ancient  Greeks  said,  is  "  the  gift  of  the 
Nile."     See  Nile. 

I.  3.  The  adjacent  region.  Ancient  Egypt 
was  bounded  on  either  side  by  desert  land. 
The  waste  country  gradually  rises  from  the 
Sahara  in  the  west  toward  the  east,  and 
terminates  in  a  chain  of  mountains  which 
skirt  the  Red  Sea.  The  desert  region  on  the 
east  of  the  river,  extending  to  the  Red  Sea, 
and  containing  nearly  50,000  square  miles, 
about  equal  in  extent  to  Pennsylvania,  was 
considered  as  forming  geographically  part  of 
Arabia  (Herod,  ii.  8,  19),  perhaps  because  like 
the  Arabian  peninsula  in  character,  although 
it  was  separated  from  Arabia  by  the  Red  Sea 
and  was  politically  no  man's  land,  virtually 
uninhabited,  whose  scanty  resources  were 
worked  by  the  Egyptians.  The  mountains 
rise  to  a  height  of  6600  feet.  They  form  a 
broad  and  massive  range  of  crystalline  rock, 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  sending  forth  numerous  ramifications 
into  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  was  in 
these  nnnintains,  al  Hammaniat  on  the  cara- 
van route  between  Koser  and  Thebes,  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians'  quarried  the  hard, 
dark-colored  stone  which  they  used  for  sar- 
cophagi and  sphinxes;  and  at  >Tebel  Dukha, 
nearly  opposite  the  extremity  of  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  they  mined  copper  and  emerald. 
Extensive  masses  of  limestone  stretch  from 
the  mountains  to  the  Nile,  yielding  the  ala- 
baster with  which  the  ancient  Egyptians  em- 
bellished their  buildings.  The  desert  on  the 
west  of  the  Nile  was  assigned  to  Libya.  It 
presents  an  entirely  different  aspect  from 
the  region  east  of  the  river.  It  consists  of 
an  immense,  inonotnuous  and  stony  table- 
land, (!;")()  to  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Nile,  without  mountains  or  valleys  or  even 
isolated  hills  of  any  considerable  height,  and 
without  trace  of  crystalline  or  volcanic  for- 
mations. The  whole  of  this  stony  and  abso- 
lutely unwatered  plain  consists  of  limestone 
with  a  few  sand  hills  scattered  here  and 
there  over  it,  and  a  barrier  of  sandstone  pene- 
trating into  it  not  far  from  the  Ethiopian 
border.     The  utter  desolation  of  this  region 


Egypt 

is  relieved  at  five  points  only  v^rithin  the 
Egyptian  territory  by  oases,  mere  specks  in 
the  desert,  distant  by  a  journey  of  from  three 
to  five  days  from  each  otlier,  and  by  a, jour- 
ney of  from  three  to  sixteen  days  from  the 
Nile.     They    owe   their   fertility    to   subter- 


191  Egypt 


ing  to  the  Bible,  Misraim  was  the  son  of  Ham 
and  tlu!  brotlicr  of  Canaan,  I'ut.aiid  tbc  l^tli- 
ioj)ian  Cusli  ((Jen.  x.  (i).  This  (iescriiiti(»n  in- 
dicates an  Asiatic  orif^in  for  the  Efryptians, 
but  whether  tliey  were  descended  from  Ham 
or  incorporated  with  him  is  not  deteriuiiied. 


ranean  supplies  of  water,  which  are  believed 
to  be  connected  with  tlie  Nubian  Nile  or 
possibly  with  the  .Soudan.  The  combined 
population  is  about  35,000. 

Ancient  Egypt  was  thus  an  isolated  coun- 
trv— sea  on  tlie  north,  desert  and  sea  on  the 
east,  desert  cleft  only  for  nearly  1000  miles 
by  the  narrowest  and  least  productive  (lart  of 
tiie  Nile  valley  on  the  south,  and  the  silent, 
illimitable  desert  on  the  west. 

U.    The  People. — 1.   Their   ocif/iw.— Accord- 


Their  own  traditions  point  to  their  immigra- 
tion from  soutliern  Arabia.  The  type  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  is  Caucasian  ;  l)ut  at  the 
same  time  anatomy,  character,  and  language 


Egypt  192 

diflferentiate  him  from  the  Indo-European 
and  Semitic  peoples.  On  the  other  liand, 
many  of  the  domestic  utensils  employed  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  well  as  many  of 
their  customs,  are  said  to  be  similar  to  those 
of  the  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi 
and  Niger,  but  totally  ditiereut  from  those 
seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Eu- 
])hrates.  Not  improbably  Ilamitic  immigrants 
I'rom  Asia  conquered  an  aboriginal  race  al- 
ready settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

11."^  2.  Their  appearance.  The  Egyptian  was 
short  of  stature  and  slender  of  build.  The 
head  was  large  in  proportion,  and  covered  with 
black  or  brown  hair — smooth,  not  woolly. 
The  forehead  was  square,  but  receding,  the 
eyes  large,  the  cheeks  full,  the  mouth  wide, 
che  lips  tolerably  thick.  In  color  the  Egyp- 
tian was  dark,  but  not  black.  The  women, 
not  being  exposed  to  the  sun.  had  a  lighter 
complexion. 

II.  :j.  Their  language.  The  Egyptian  lan- 
guage is  difficult  to  classify.  Its  vocabulary 
connects  it  with  the  Turanian  tongues,  and 
its  graimnar  with  the  Semitic  languages.  Its 
mndern  descendant  is  the  Coptic,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  spoken  in  Lower  Egypt  until  the 
seventeenth  century.  Though  now  dead,  it 
is  known  by  translations  into  it  of  the  O.  T. 
and  N.  T.  Originally  a  kind  of  picture 
writing,  which  has  been  named  hieroglyphic 
or  sacred  writing,  was  used.  It  consisted 
chiefly  of  representations  of  objects  which 
occur  in  nature  and  art,  such  as  birds,  beasts, 
])lants.  and  implements,  together  with  math- 
ematical symbols.  These  delineations  are 
partly  ideographs — that  is,  the  picture  is  the 
word  or  idea,  and  they  i)artly  represent 
sounds  which  when  cond)iiU'd  yield  a  word. 
llieniglyiiliic  writing  was  used  down  to  the 
latest  times  ;  but  after  a  time  the  scribes 
began  to  dispense  with  the  details  of  the  pic- 
tures in  order  to  write  more  rapidly,  and  thus 
arose  the  hieratic  or  i)riestly  writing.  It  was 
employed  wherever  ornamentation  was  not 
an  object.  About  the  eighth  century  B.  c. 
the  demotic  or  popular  writing  came  into 
vogue.  It  was  u.sed  in  social  and  commercial 
intercourse  for  writing  tlu^  dialect  which  had 
develoi)ed  among  the  i>eoi)le,  and  was  a  cur- 
sive form  of  the  old  liieroglyi>hs.  When  the 
attention  of  the  nn)dern  world  was  dij-ected 
to  the  ancient  Egyi)tian  writings,  tliey  could 
not  be  road,  and  for  a  long  tinu^  no  key  could 
be  found.  I'lUtwhen  .\lexandria  surrendered 
to  the  Hritish  in  JSOl  tlu-re  fell  into  their 
hands  a  slab  of  black  l)asalt,  called  the 
Ho.setta  stone,  from  its  liaving  been  found 
by  the  French  near  the  Kosetta  branch  of 
the  Nile.  It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
On  this  stone  is  cut  a  decree  by  Ptolemy  V., 
about  1S);J  H.  c.  It  is  repeated  in  three  lan- 
giuiges  and  in  three  forms  of  writing — de- 
motic, hieroglyphic,  and  (ireek.  \  bilingual 
ins(rii>tion,(;reekaMd  liicroglypliic, was  found 
on  an  ol)elisk  on  the  island  of  I'liiUe  near  the 
tirst  cataract.     The  (ireek  of  these  texts  was. 


Egypt 


of  course,  easily  read,  being  a  known  lan- 
guage, and  the  hieroglyphs  were  deciphered 
by  comparison  with  it. 

"ll.  4.  Their  numbers.  The  population  of 
Egypt  was  greater  in  ancient  than  in  modern 
times.  Diodorus  Siculus.  contemporary  of 
Julius  Cajsar  and  Augustus,  states,  on  the 
authority  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  records, 
that  the  land  contained  in  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs  more  than  18,000  cities  and  villages  ; 
and  he  gives  the  ancient  population  of  the 
country  as  7,000,000.  In  the  days  of  Nero,  on 
the  basis  of  the  revenue  derived  from  the  poll 
tax,  it  was  estimated  at  7,500.000,  exclusive 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria  (War  ii.  16, 
4).  This  number  is  quite  reasonable  in  itself, 
for  the  country  could  support  from  8,000,000 
to  9,000,000  people.  According  to  the  census 
of  1882,  the  present  population  of  Egypt  proper 
is  6,811,448,  or  about  600  per  square  mile,  and 
is  therefore  denser  than  that  of  most  Euro- 
pean states. 

II.  5.  Their  history.  When  Egypt  passed  ■ 
from  the  prehistoric  to  the  historic  age  it 
seems  to  have  existed  as  a  number  of  small 
kingdoms.  These  were  afterwards  combined 
into  an  empire  by  Menes,  the  first  historical 
king.  Students  of  Egyptian  chronology  as- 
sign different  dates  to  the  commencement  of 
Menes*  reign.  These  vary  from  about  .'J700 
B.  c.  to  2700  B.  c.  Manetho,  a  priest  of  Seben- 
nytos  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
reckons  thirty  dynasties  from  the  accession 
of  Menes  to  the  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt  in 
345  B.  c.  These  are  now  generally  grouped 
into  three  periods :  those  of  the  Old,  the  Mid- 
dle, and  the  New  Empires.  To  the  Old  Em- 
pire are  assigned  the  first  seven  or  ten  dy- 
nasties. Its  great  feature  was  pyramid  build- 
ing, which  reached  its  height  under  the 
fourth  dynasty.  That  of  the  Middle  Empire 
was  the  conquest  of  at  least  Lower  Egypt  by 
the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  from  the 
northeast.  They  are  generally  supjiosed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Semitic  race,  but  may 
have  been  Hittites.  It  is  believed  that  it  was 
during  their  domination  that  Abraham  vis- 
ited Egypt  and  that  Joseph  was  prime  min- 
ister. At  this  i>eriod  a  great  economic  cliange 
took  place  in  Egypt.  In  the  Old  Empire  the 
nobility  and  governors  of  the  nomes  had 
l»osse.ssed  large  landed  estates ;  but  in  the 
New  Empire  royal  officials  are  in  the  place 
of  the  old  aristocracy,  and  the  crown  and 
the  great  tcin]iles  own  the  lauded  property. 
The  New  Emidre  began  with  the  eighteenth 
dynasty.  The  first  notable  event  in  it  was 
the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  when  they 
had  ruled  by  one  account  511,  by  another 
()25  years.  Afterwards,  under  native  rulers, 
Egypt  attained  to  high  prosjierity,  and  be- 
gan a  career  of  conquest  and  domination  in 
western  Asia,  Thothmes  III.  being  its  greatest 
warrior,  and  Kanieses  II.  not  much  inferior, 
Tiie  latter  was  jirobably  the  Pharaoh  who 
o|)]iresscd  the  Israelites,  and  his  son  Menep- 
tah  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.     Other  Pha- 


Egypt 


]93 


Egypt 


raohs  are  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. — Sbisliak, 
So,  Tirhakah,  Necho,  Hophra  ;  see  Puakaoii. 
Tirhakali  assisted  in  cheeking  the  advance 
of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  toward 
Egypt;  but  he  was  overthrown  by  Senna- 
cherib's successor  Esarhaddon.  The  Assyr- 
ians divided  Egypt  into  twenty  districts,  and 
appointed  a  governor  over  each.  Tirhakah 
stirred  up  revolt,  and  Egypt  was  reconquered 
by  Ashurbanipal,  who  plundered  and  de- 
stroyed Thebes  in  664  B.  c.  (Nab.  iii.  8-10). 
Psammeticus,  one  of  the  petty  rulers,  rose  in 
revolt,  and,  aided  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  re- 
stored Egypt  to  independence,  founding  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty.  In  525  B.  c.  Egypt 
was  conquered  by  Cambyses  and  became  a 
Perfsian  satrapy.  About  a  century  and  a  quar- 
ter later  Nephrites  succeeded  in  completely 
throwing  otf  the  Persian  yoke,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  twenty-ninth  dynasty ; 
but  in  345  B.  c.  Egypt  surrendered  to  Arta- 
xerxes,  and  again  l^ecame  a  Persian  satrapy. 
'In  332  B.  c.  it  welcomed  the  Macedonians  and 
Greeks,  led  by  Alexander  the  Great;  for  it 
saw  in  him  a  deliverer  from  the  Persian  yoke. 
After  his  death  it  was  ruled  by  the  Ptolemies. 
In  30  B.  C.  it  became  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  was  governed  by  prefects  until 
A.  D.  362.  Joseph,  Mary,  and  the  infant 
Jesus,  took  refuge  there  during  the  time  that 
Archelaus  ruled  Judsea.  In  a.  d.  619  Egypt 
was  conquered  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia,  who 
lost  it  again  permanently  in  628.  Between 
638  and  640  it  passed  to  the  Saracens,  and 
between  1163  and  1196  to  the  Turks. 


Bast,  personification  of  sexual  passion  (in 
Pi-beseth),  and  Anion,  a  god  who  animates 
nature.  Each  nome  or  district  had  its  spe- 
cial local  deity  or  deities,  to  whom  it  iiaid 
peculiar  honors.  Some  among  the  people 
were  henotheists  or  worshipers  of  one  god 
as  far  exalted  above  the  others  and  worthy 
of  all  adoration,  and  ))erhaps  some  were  even 
monotheists.  A  remarkably  clear  knowledge 
of  ethical  and  religious  truths  was  possessed 
from  very  early  times — truth  in  regard  to 
human  conduct,  sin,  justification,  immortal- 
ity, and  with  all  their  nature  worship  even 
in  regard  to  God. 

III.  The  Sujouni  of  (he  Israelites  in  Eyypt. 
1.  The  descent  into  Eiji/pt.  A  grievous  famine 
])revailcd  throughout  the  whole  known  world, 
or  at  least  throughout  that  large  part  of  it 
about  the  ea.stern  and  southeastern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  where  dwelt  a  com- 
plex of  nations  cut  off  socially  and,  so  far  as 
obtaining  sufficient  supjilies  for  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  economically  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Asia  Minor  and  the  rich  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (Gen.  xli.  54  ;  xlvii. 
13).  On  occasion  of  this  distress  Joseph,  who 
had  risen  to  authority  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh 
.second  only  to  that  of  the  king,  urged  his 
father  and  brethren  to  leave  Canaan  and 
settle  temporarily  in  Egypt  (xlv.  9-11  ;  xlvii. 
4, 29,  30 ;  xlviii.  21  ;  1.  24).  Accordingly  Jacob 
migrated  with  his  tribe.  It  consisted  of  the 
patriarch  himself,  his  six  sons  and  one  daugh- 
ter by  Leah  with  twenty-five  sons ;  his  two  sons 
by  Leah's  maid  with  thirteen  sons  and  one 


Migration  of  Asiatics  into  Egypt  during  the  Twelfth  Dynasty. 


II.  6.  Their  reli(jion.  The  religion  of  the 
Egyptians  was  a  sjiiritualized  nature  wor- 
ship, centering  about  veneration  of  the  sun 
and  of  the  river  Nile,  two  sources  of  life.  A 
vast  number  of  deities  were  adored.  They 
represented  the  forces  and  phenomena  of 
nature.  Ptah,  whose  name  occurs  in  Me- 
neptah,  was  chief.  He  represented  the  or- 
ganizing and  motive  power  developed  from 
moisture.  The  names  of  several  others  are 
found  in  the  O.  T.— Ra,  the  sun  god,  illumi- 
nator of  the  world  and  awakener  of  life  (in 
Eamses) ;  Thuni,  the  evening  sun,  the  posses- 
sor of  creative  power  and  the  dispenser  of 
the  welcome  evening  breezes  (in  Pithom) ; 
13 


daughter ;  his  two  sons  by  Rachel  with  twelve 
sons,  of  which  number  three  were  already  in 
Egypt ;  and  his  two  sons  by  Rachel's  maid 
with  five  sons  (xlvi.  8-25).  All  the  souls 
which  came  with  .Tacob  into  Egyi)t,  which 
came  out  of  his  loins  (even  though  perhaps 
some  were  yet  unborn,  cp.  Heb.  vii.  9,  10), 
were  sixty-six  souls  (Gen.  xlvi.  26).  All  the 
souls  of  the  house  of  Jacob  which  came  into 
Egypt  first  and  last,  including  the  head  of 
the  house  and  Joseph  with  his  two  sons  who 
were  born  in  Egypt,  were  seventy  souls  (ver. 
27).  This  is  also  the  enumeration  of  Ex.  1.  5 
(as  in  Gen.  xlvi.  15,  apparently  exclusive  of 
Jacob,  but  in  reality  inclusive  of  him)  and 


Egypt 


194 


Egypt 


Deut.  X.  22.  The  Septuagint,  however,  and 
Stephen  who  follows  the  Greek  version  (Acts 
vii.  14)  reckon  seventy-live.  This  result  is 
due  to  the  addition  in  Gen.  xlvi.  20  of  three 
grandsons  and  two  great-grandsons  of  Joseph, 
whose  names  are  obtained  from  Num.  xxvi. 
2il  and  35  seq.  The  numeriiuil  correspond- 
ences of  the  register,  a  total  of  seventy,  and 
the  descendants  of  each  maid  precisely  half 
tho.se  of  her  mistress  (Leah  ;52,  Zilpah  1(3, 
Hachel  14,  Bilhah  7),  suggest  design,  and  can 
scarcely  be  altogether  accidental.  A  com- 
parison with  Num.  xxvi.  leads  to  the  belief 
that  regard  was  had  to  the  subsequent  na- 
tional organization  in  constructing  this  table, 
and  that  its  design  was  to  include  those  de- 
scendants of  Jacob  from  whom  permanent 
tribal  divisions  sprang,  even  if  in  a  few  in- 
stances they  were  still  in  the  loins  of  the 
patriarch  when  he  led  his  tribe  into  Egypt. 
The  tribe  of  Israel  settled  in  Goshen,  and  re- 
mained in  and  about  this  fertile  region  until 
the  exodus  (Gen.  xlvii.  6,  11;  Ex.  viii.  22; 
ix.  26  ;  xii.  37). 

III.  2.  The  sojourn  as  embedded  in  fhe  na- 
tional conficionsness.  The  descent  of  Jacob 
and  his  family  into  Egypt,  their  subsequent 
increase  and  enslavement,  their  sufferings 
and  their  exodus  in  a  body,  were  recorded  in 
their  earliest  historical  document  (Gen.  xlvi. 
4,  28-34  ;  xlvii.  27 ;  Ex.  i.  9,  11,  15-22  ;  ii.  11 ; 
xii.  31-37;  xiii.  21).  The  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  and  to  a  less  degree  that  of  the  taber- 
nacles, bore  testimony  to  the  events,  and 
kept  the  knowledge  of  them  alive  among 
the  people.  Psalmists  pitched  their  songs 
of  redemption  and  their  hymns  in  celebration 
of  Jehovah's  might  to  its  key,  and  from  it 
prophets  drew  lessons.  The  standing  types 
of  the  grievous  oppres.sion  of  the  church  and 
of  God's  redemptive  power  and  love  are 
Israel's  bondage  of  old  in  Egyi)t  and  deliv- 
erance from  that  furnace  of  atHiction.  The 
tradition  is  not  peculiar  to  one  tribe,  as  though 
but  a  portion  of  the  Hel)rew  folk  had  en- 
dured Egy])tian  slavery;  it  is  not  exclusively 
Judaum,  but  it  is  Ephraiuiite  as  well.  The 
prophets  of  both  kingdoms  voice  it— Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Jeremiah,  among  the  hills  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  1(5;  Mic.  vi.  4  ;  vii.  15;  .Ter.  ii. 
6  ;  vii.  22),  and  Hosea  and  Amos  in  tlie  king- 
dom of  Samaria  (Hos.  ii.  15;  viii.  13;  ix.  :> ; 
xi.  1  ;  xii.  9,  13  ;  Amos  ii.  10  ;  iii.  I  ;  ix.  7).  The 
tradition  is  the  common  proi)crty  of  all 
Israel.  The  jjcople  as  a  whole  had  suffered 
Egyi)tian  bondage. 

111.3.  The  dnration  of  the  sojourn.  The 
biblical  data  are  stated  in  the  following 
terms:  "  He  said  unto  Abraham,  'Thy  seed 
•shall  be  a  stranger  in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs, 
and  shall  serve  them  ;  and  they  shall  alllict 
them  100  years  .  .  .  I)Ut  in  tin-  fourth  geneia- 
tion  they  shall  come  liitluM-  again  '  "  ((icn.  xv. 
13-l(i).  "The  sojourning  of  the  children  of 
Isnvel,  which  they  sojourned  in  Egypt,  was4.'!0 
years"  (Ex.  xii.  40,  Ii.  V.) ;  according  to  the 
Septuagint  and  Samaritan  Pentateuch  in  this 


passage,  the  sojourning  "  in  Egypt  and  in  the 
land  of  Canaan  was  430  years."  God  spake 
to  Abraham  "that  his  seed  should  sojourn  in 
a  strange  land ;  and  that  they  should  bring 
them  into  bondage,  and  entreat  them  evil 
400  years"  (Acts  vii.  6).  "The  law  came  430 
years  after"  the  covenant  (Gal.  iii.  17). 
These  statements  are  interpreted  to  mean  : 

(1)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  in  Egypt 
215  years.  For  the  Seventy,  either  to  re- 
move an  ambiguity  or  because  their  Hebrew 
manuscripts  differed  from  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  add  the  words  "  and  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan "  to  the  statement  in  Ex.  xii.  40.  Now 
from  the  date  of  the  covenant  with  Abram, 
shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Canaan,  to  the 
migration  of  his  descendants  into  Egypt  was 
about  215  years  (Gen.  xii.  4  ;  with  xxi.  5 ; 
XXV.  26;  xlvii.  9),  leaving  215  years  for  the 
sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 
This  statement  is  also  made  by  Josephus,  who 
says,  "The  Hebrews  left  Egypt  430  years 
after  our  forefather  Abraham  came  into  Ca- 
naan, but  215  years  only  after  Jacob  removed 
into  Egypt"  (Antiq.  ii.  15,  2).  In  this  state- 
ment he  is  following  the  Septuagint,  but  he 
nullifies  his  statement  by  saying  elsewhere, 
"400  years  did  they  spend  under  these 
labors"  (Antiq.  ii.  9,  1  ;  War  v.  9,  4;  mani- 
festly incorrect,  for  the  Israelites  were  not 
oppressed  for  400  years).  But  however  Jo- 
sephus may  vacillate.  Paul  dates  the  law  at 
Sinai  430  years  after  the  covenant  with 
Abram,  and  the  genealogies  give  four  gen- 
erations between  Jacob  and  the  exodus,  which 
mav  cover  215  years,  but  scarcelv  400  years 
(Ex.  vi.  l()-20). 

The  biblical  data  are  explained  to  mean 

(2)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  430  years  in 
Egypt.  (1)  The  natural  interpretation  of 
Gen.  XV.  13-16  requires  this,  {a)  The  state- 
ment is  not  that  the  Israelites  shoufd  be 
afflicted  400  years,  but  that  the  entire  so- 
journ as  strangers  in  a  land  not  theirs,  where 
they  shall  be  eventually  brought  into  bond- 
age, is  400  years.  (6)  The  event  is  not  to  take 
place  until  after  Abraham's  death  (ver.  15). 
(c)  The  four  generations  are  equivalent  to 
the  aforementioned  400  years.  In  this  pas- 
sage, generation  does  not  mean  each  succes- 
sion of  persons  from  a  common  ancestor,  as 
il  does  in  Ex.  xx.  5  ;  Job  xlii.  16,  but  the  age 
or  jxriod  of  a  body  of  contemjioraries,  and 
this  not  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  average 
lifetime  of  all  who  pass  the  age  of  infixncy, 
but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of  any 
generation,  and  this  is  determined"  by  the 
normal  span  of  life.  The  generation  lasts 
while  any  of  its  members  survive  (Ex.  i.  6; 
Num.  XX xii.  13 ;  Judg.  ii.  10 ;  Ecc.  i.  4).  The 
])eriod  of  a  generation's  activity  may  be 
jutlged  from  the  length  of  the  life  of  Isaac, 
ISO  years;  of  Jacob.  147  years;  of  Levi.  1.37; 
of  Kohath,  133;  of  Amram,  137  ;  of  Aaron, 
123;  of  Moses,  120  (Gen.  xxxv.  28;  xlvii.  28  ; 
Ex.  vi.  16,  18,  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  39;  Dent. 
xxxiv.  7).     Or  the  period  of  a  generation's 


Egypt 


195 


Egypt 


activity  may  be  estimated  from  the  record 
of  three  generations  between  the  birtli  of 
Abraham  and  the  descent  into  Egypt,  when 
Jacob  was  still  active,  a  period  of  290  years. 
A  generation  was  about  100  years.  But  are 
not  j  ust  four  generations  registered — namely, 
Levi  and  Kohath,  who  came  into  Egypt  with 
Jacob,  Amram,  Moses,  and  Moses'  sons?  A 
consecutive  genealogy  in  Levi,  Kohath.  and 
Amram  is  admitted  ;  but  was  Moses  the  son 
of  Amram  and  Jochcl)ed  (Ex.  vi.  20  ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  1-3)?  A  difficulty  arises  if  the  passage 
be  so  interpreted,  (a)  Amram  and  his  broth- 
ers gave  rise  to  the  Amramites,  Izharites, 
Hebronites,  and  Uzzielites ;  and  these  one 
year  after  the  exodus  amounted  to  8000 
males  ;  that  is,  the  grandfather  of  Moses  had 
8600  male  descendants  in  the  days  of  INIoses, 
of  whom  2750  were  between  the  ages  of  30 
and  50  (Num.  iii.  "27;  iv.  3G).  (6)  In  the 
parallel  genealogy  of  the  contemporaries  of 
Moses  Bezalel  is  seventh  from  Jacob  and 
Joshua  apparentlv  eleventh  (1  Chron.  ii.  18- 
20;  vii.  23-27).  The  language  of  Ex.  vi.  20 
does  not  necessarily,  nor  even  evidently,  mean 
that  Amram  and  Jochebed  were  the  imme- 
diate parents  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  In  Gen. 
xlvi.  18,  great-grandsons  of  Zilpah  are  men- 
tioned with  others  as  sons  which  she  bore  to 
Jacob.  In  Mat.  i.  8  Joram  is  said  to  beget  his 
great-great-grandson  Uzziah.  According  to 
Gen.  X.  15-18  Canaan  begat  nations.  Where 
the  birth  of  Moses  is  narrated  in  detail,  he  is 
not  said  to  be  the  child  of  Amram  and  Joch- 
ebed (Ex.  ii.).  The  reason  for  registering 
only  four  names  in  the  genealogy  of  Mosesand 
others  (Ex.  vi.  16-22)  is  that  the  first  three 
names  are  official  and  give  the  tribe,  family, 
and  father's  house  to  which  Moses  and  Aaron 
belonged.  The  three  names  properly  and  at 
once  classify  Moses  and  Aaron.  (2)  430  years 
for  the  sojourn  is  also  the  record  of  Ex.  xii. 
40.  The  statement  does  not  include  the  so- 
journ of  the  ])atriarchs  in  Canaan,  for  (n) 
Abraham  and  Isaac  were  not  sons  of  Israel, 
and  (6)  the  verse  in  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
etc.,  except  Septuagint  and  Samaritan,  makes 
no  reference  to  Canaan.  (3)  A  sojourn  of  430 
years  best  accounts  for  the  number  of  the 
children  of  Israel  at  the  exodus.  (4)  On  the 
interpretation  of  the  data  as  meaning  that 
the  sojourn  lasted  430  years  Paul's  statement 
in  Galatians  can  be  accounted  for.  It  is  not 
his  object  to  measure  the  exact  time  between 
the  covenant  and  the  law.  His  argument 
only  requires  him  to  prove  that  the  law  was 
given  long  after  the  covenant,  and  hence 
cannot  disannul  it.  He  proves  it  by  citing 
the  well-known  period  of  the  sojourn  which 
intervened  between  the  two  events ;  the 
largest  and  most  familiar  single  sum  of  years 
in  the  interval.  He  does  not  state  that  the 
law  came  exactly  430  years  after  the  cove- 
nant ;  but  he  rather  says  that  the  law  came, 
as  we  all  know,  430  years  after  the  covenant. 
It  is  inditi'erent  whether  he  has  the  Hebrew 
or  the  Greek  text  in  mind,  and  whether  his 


Galatian  readers  refer  to  the  Hebrew  or  to 
the  Greek  edition. 

III.  4.  The  multiplication  of  the  Israelites 
during  the  sojourn.  (1)  It  has  been  i)ointed 
out  (Keil)  that  if  from  the  seventy  souls  who 
went  down  into  Egyi)t  there  be  deducted  the 
patriarch  Jacob,  his  twelve  sons,  Dinah,  and 
Serah  daughter  of  Asher,  and  also  the  tlircc 
sons  of  Levi,  the  four  grandsons  of  .)  iidah  and 
Asher,  and  tliose  grandsons  of  Jacob  who  jirob- 
ably  died  without  male  offsjiring,  inasmuch  as 
their  descendants  are  not  nanu'd  anu)ng  the 
families  of  Israel  (see  Num.  .\xvi.),  there  will 
remain  forty-one  grandsons  of  Jacob  (besides 
the  Levites)  who  founded  families;  and  if, 
furthermore,  there  be  allowed  but  ten  gen- 
erations for  the  430  years;  nevertheless  the 
forty-one  men  would  increase  to  47.-<.22 1  males 
if  each  family  averaged  three  sons  and  three 
daughters  during  the  first  six  generations, 
and  two  sons  and  two  daughters  during  the 
last  four  generations.  These  with  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  ninth  generation  would  amount 
to  more  than  600,000  men  above  twenty  years 
of  age.  (2)  It  is  a  mistake  to  overlook  the 
fact  that  the  household  of  the  patriarch  in- 
cluded numerous  servants  (Gen.  xxx.  43 ; 
xxxii.  5;  xlv.  10),  Avho  were  cir<-umcised 
(Gen.  xvii.  12,  13)  and  enjoyed  full  religious 
privileges  (Ex.  xii.  44,  48,  49,  etc.),  and  with 
whom  intermarriage  was  no  degradation 
(Gen.  xvi.  1,  2;  xxx.  4,  9;  Num.  xii.  1;  1 
Chron.  ii.  34,  35). 

III.  5.  The  change  of  occupation  during  the 
sojourn.  When  the  Israelites  sellled  in  Go- 
shen they  were  a  comparatively  small  tribe, 
independent,  and  herdsmen.  But  after  Joseph 
and  the  men  of  that  generation  died,  a  new 
king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph  {Ex.  i.  6-8). 
He  saw  the  increasing  numbers  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and,  fearing  that  they  might  ally  them- 
selves with  the  enemies  of  Egypt,  took  meas- 
ures to  render  them  a  subject  peojile  and  to 
check  their  increase.  Tasknuisters  were 
placed  over  them,  and  rigorous  service  was 
exacted  from  them  in  the  form  of  agriculture, 
brickmaking,  and  building  (Ex.  i.  11,  14;  \. 
6-8),  while  they  still  provided  some  at  least 
of  their  own  support  by  herding  (ix.  4,  6  :  x. 
9,  24  ;  xii.  38). 

III.  6.  The  miracles  vrought  hi/  Mo.ies  at  the 
end  of  the  sojourn.  The  oiiiiression  of  the 
I.sraelites  lasted  eighty  years  or  more  (Ex. 
vii.  7:  cp.  ii.  2  se(|.).  At  length  their  cry 
came  up  unto  God.  and  he  sent  Moses  to 
deliver  them  (ii.  23  seq.).  The  humble  am- 
bassador of  heaven  was  provided  with  mir- 
acles as  liis  credentials.  They  were  miracles : 
that  is.  in  Scrijiture  parlance,  signs,  wonders, 
and  powei-s  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12,  43).  They  were 
wonderful,  unusual,  and  intended  to  enforce 
attention.  They  were  signs  Jiccrediting  Moses 
as  the  messenger  of  God  to  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
iv.  8. 9,  30,  31 ;  vi.  7)  and  to  Pharaoh  (iii.  20 ;  iv. 
21 :  vii.  3-5 ;  viii.  22, 23).  They  were  powers,  not 
natural  phenomena  :  for  (1)  design  is  appar- 
ent in  them,  and  not  the  blindness  of  nature. 


Egypt 


196 


They  form  an  orderly  series;  the  one  is  in 
logical  but  not  causal  relation  to  its  successor ; 
they  increase  in  severity,  aH'ording  Pharaoh 
sufficient  evidence  at  the  outset  of  the  di- 
vine authority  of  Moses,  without  inflicting 
unnecessary  suflering  upon  the  Egyptians ; 
and  when  he  refuses  to  let  the  Hebrews  go, 
they  become  more  intense,  and  bring  ever- 
increasing  pressure  upon  his  obdurate  heart 
until  he  finally  yields.  (2)  A  distinction  was 
made,  which  nature  does  not  make,  between 


,  aJ:t>u — ^. 

' 

-i- 

' 

r^^ 

^5f^ 

^. 

>*■  L.io/      V-^^^-^a 

1 

'^1 

\ 

f t^  a  i.y    .-i^N^ Jj] 

i 

m 

^^^(flOzi 

• 

j 

oi:L-/^7/ 

■/ 

/ 

V^             /  //         I 

7/ 

- — \-\ 

f\^      W  u       1 

1 

/ 

1 1\  1 

., '  xy  &A     1 

^ 

N       II 

N 

Brickmaking  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

the  people  of  God  and  the  Egyptians  (viii.  '22, 
2:5 ;  i.\.  4,  2;"),  2(i ;  x.  22,  2:J ;  xi, ".")-?  ;  and  cp.  ix. 
11  ;  X.  (i).  {'.i)  A  iR'stih'iice  might  have  slain  a 
great  number  of  the  Egyi)tians  in  oni'  night, 
iiut  the  tenth  ))lague  is  a  iiestilencc  with  a 
nictliod.  It  is  not  a  jiromiscuous  death,  the 
firstborn  in  t!  very  family  of  the  Kg>' pi  inns  dies. 

Tliese  signs,  wonders,  and  jiowers  beh)ng 
to  tlie  first  group  of  miracles  recorded  in 
Scripture.     See  iMlR.\ci,ES. 

III.  7.  The  ov(}aviZ(it'i<m  of  the  Israelites  at 
the  end  of  the  Sdjaiirn.  Tlu^  forefathers  of  the 
cliildren  of  Isiael  had  descendi'd  into  ICgyjit 
as  a  family  of  twelve  households,  and  bad 
settled  togetlier  in  (Joshcn.    As  is  quite  natu- 


Egypt 

ral  in  itself  and  as  appears  from  the  narrative, 
they  retained  their  organization  despite  their 
enslavement.  They  did  not  amalgamate  with 
the  master  race,  but  remained  a  distinct  peo- 
ple and  preserved  the  twelve  great  family 
divisions.  By  the  end  of  the  430  years  the 
families  of  the  twelve  sous  had  become  twejve 
tribes,  and  the  sons'  sons,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances the  sons'  remoter  descendants,  had 
grown  into  large  ftvmily  connections.  Accord- 
ingly, at  the  time  of  the  exodus  there  was  a 
people,  Israel,  divided  into  twelve 
tribes;  and  each  tribe  was  subdi- 
vided into  families  or  connections, 
which  derived  their  names  for  the 
most  part  from  the  grandsons  of 
Jacob  (Ex.  vi.  14  with  Gen.  xlvi. 
9,  and  Num.  xxvi.  with  Gen.  xlvi.), 
and  at  the  time  of  the  second  census 
numbered  57,  without  Levi ;  and 
each  familv  connection  into  fathers' 
houses  (Num.  i  2,  18,  20).  Au- 
thoritv  of  various  kinds  was  vested 
in  (1)  Princes  by  birth  (Ex.  xvi.  22), 
heads  of  the  tribes  or  family  con- 
nections (Num.  i.  4,  16).  (2)  Elders, 
who  were  probably  heads  of  tribes 
and  families,  and  aged  (Ex.  iv.  29 ; 
xii.  21 ;  xvii.  5-6).  (3)  Apparently 
also  in  priests  (Ex.  xix.  22,  24 ;  per- 
haps cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  5).  They  were 
probably  men  out  of  the  various 
tribes  who  were  performing  priest- 
ly functions  for  the  Israelites ;  as 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  .Jacob,  as  head 
of  the  family,  had  offered  sacrifice. 
(4)  The  Egyptians  had  imposed 
further  organization  on  the  Israel- 
ites by  setting  officers  (Ex.  v.  6,  10, 
19)  over  them  ;  Hebrews  (Ex.  v.  15, 
16),  who  had  undoubtedly  been  ap- 
pointed on  the  ground  of  their 
ability  to  direct.  Through  these 
various  representatives  Pharaoh 
and  Moses  communicated  their  will 
to  all  the  people  with  dispatch.  The 
children  of  Israel,  grouped  in  tribes, 
families,  and  fathers'  houses,  offi- 
cered and  accustomed  to  obedience, 
were  not  an  unwieldy  horde,  but  a 
multitude  with  the  organization  of 
an  army.  They  are  fittingly  called 
the  hosts  or  armies  of  the  Lord,  and  it  is  sig- 
niticantlv  said  that  thev  went  out  of  Egypt 
by  their  "hosts  (Ex.  xii.  41). 

III.  8.  The  Pharaohs  of  the  oppression  and 
exodus.  Ramses  II.  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  Menep- 
tah  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.*   This  opin- 


*  Tn  view  of  varioiis  references  in  the  tablets 
of  Tell  el-Amarna  to  the  Ilabiri  making  war  with 
the  inhat)itants  of  western  Palestine  in  the  days 
of  Amenophis  TV.,  and  the  similarity  of  this 
name  to  the  word  Hebrew,  and  tlie  essential 
asreemuut  of  tliis  date  with  the  date  of  the  ex- 
odus which  Usher  obtained  from  a  study  of  the 
hiblieal  data,  certain  recent  writers  are  inclined 


Egypt 


19: 


Ekron 


ion  is  based  ou  the  following  considerations : 
(1)  The  Israelites  had  not  obtained  possession 
of  Palestine  in  the  days  of  Amenophis  III. 
and  IV. ;  for  the  country,  whose  condition  at 
that  time  has  been  revealed  by  the  tablets 
found  at  Tell  el-Amarna,  was  broken  up  into 
petty  governments,  and  under  Egyptian  su- 
zerainty. Ramses  II.,  moreover,  and  Kamses 
III.,  both  of  whom  wari-ed  in  Palestine,  make 
no  mention  of  the  Israelites  as  being  in  the 
land ;  and  the  Hebrew  records  are  silent  as 
to  an  invasion  of  the  country  by  these  Egyp- 
tian monarchs.  (2)  In  Ex.  i.  11  it  is  noted 
that  the  children  of  Israel  built  for  Pharaoh 
store  cities,  Pithom  and  Kamses.   The  site  of 


Storehouse  for  Grain  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

Pithom  has  been  identified  and  the  ancient 
granaries  uncovered.  No  remains  have  been 
found  there  of  earlier  date  than  the  reign  of 
Ramses  II.,  and  his  name  is  inscribed  on  some 
of  the  stones.  Apparently  Pithom  was  built 
in  the  reign  of  Ramses  II.  It  was  Ramses 
II.  also  who  erected  a  new  town,  with  tem- 
ples and  shrines,  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortress  at  Zoan,  and  on  this  account  the 
place  was  called  Pa-Ramses,  the  city  of  Ram- 
ses. These  correspondences  with  the  Hebrew 
records  indicate  that  Ramses  II.  was  the  Pha- 
raoh of  the  oppression.  (3)  Meneptah,  a  son 
and  successor  of  Ramses  II.,  in  an  inscription 
in  which  he  records  his  repulse  of  the  Libyan 
invasion  of  his  fifth  year,  closes  with  describ- 
ing certain  consequences  of  this  victory.  He 
mentions  the  ravaging  of  Pa-Kanana  in  south- 
ern Palestine,  the  capture  of  Ashkelon  and 
Gezer  in  Philistia,  the  reduction  of  a  town 
near  Tyre,  the  spoiling  of  the  people  of  Is- 
rael, and  the  widowhood  of  Khar,  i.  e.  south- 
to  believe  that  Amen-hetep  II.,orThothmesIV., 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.  The  weighty 
objections  to  this  theory  are— 1.  Habiri  is  not 
the  natural  transliteration  of  'Ibri,  Hebrew,,  a 
word  which  begins  with  unpointed  aln  and 
short  i.  Habiri  is  rather  connected  etymolog- 
icallv  with  such  Hebrew  words  as  Heber  and 
Hnhrr.  and  hence  is  regarded  by  philologists  as 
rndstpnibalily  meaning  the  allies.  2.  Ramses  isa 
gooirraphical  desisnation  (Ex.  i.  11:  xii.  37),  and 
the  theory  in  question  is  unable  to  explain  how 
it  could  have  been  so  in  the  days  of  Amen-hetep 
II.  or  Thothmes  IV.,  years  before  the  first  Ramses 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt. 


ern  Palestine.  The  reference  to  the  people 
of  Israel  has  been  plausibly  exjdained  as 
noting  an  attack  on  the  children  of  Israel 
during  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  on  the 
borders  of  southern  Palestine.  See  Pii.\k.\()H. 
As  already  stated,  Kamses  HI.,  who  succeeded 
j\Ienei)tah  after  an  interval,  warred  in  Pales- 
tine, but  does  not  mention  the  Israelites  as 
being  in  the  country.  It  is  reasonable  to 
believe  that  the  Israelites  left  Egypt  at  the 
beginning  of  Menejtoh's  reign,  ))ut  had  not 
spent  their  forty  years  in  the  wilderness  and 
arrived  in  Canaan  by  the  reign  of  liamses 
III.     For  the  date  of  the  exodus,  see  Chko- 

NOL9CJY. 

E'hi.     See  Ahieam. 
E'hud  [union]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  descended  through  .Tediael 
(1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

2.  A  left  -  handed  Benjamite,  descended 
through  Gera.  He  assassinated  Eglon,  king 
of  Moab,  then  the  oppressor  of  I.srael,  at 
Jericho.  Fleeing  to  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim.  he  summoned  the  Israelites  by 
sound  of  trumpet,  put  himself  at  their  head, 
descended  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  seized 
the  ford  of  the  river,  and  slew  10.000  Moabites 
as  they  attempted  to  cross.  He  judged  Israel 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  kept  the 
people  true  to  Jehovah  (Judg.  iii.  15-iv.  1). 

E'ker  [one  transplanted,  a  man  of  foreign 
descent  settled  in  a  place]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Ram,  of  the 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

Ek'ron  [eradication]. 

The  most  northerly  of  the  five  chief  Philis- 
tine cities  (Josh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  16,  17). 
It  was  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  45,  46), 
and  afterwards  to  Dan  (xix.  43) ;  but  the 
boundary  line  of  Judah  ran  past  it  (xv.  11), 
and  it  was  taken  and  possessed  by  the  men 
of  that  tribe  (Judg.  i.  18).  After  a  time  it  was 
recovered  by  the  Philistines.  When  the  people 
first  of  Ashdod  and  then  of  Gath  became 
afraid  to  retain  the  ark  of  (iod.  they  sent  it 
to  Ekron.  whence  it  was  returned  to  Israel 
(1  Sam.  V.  10).  Ekron  was  apparently  taken 
by  the  Israelites  under  Samuel,  but  was  soon 
again  a  Philistine  city  (vii.  14  ;  xvii.  52).  Its 
tutelarv  god  was  Baal-zebub.  whom  Aliaziah, 
king  of  Israel,  sent  to  consult  (2  Kin.  i.  2- 
16).  Judgment  was  denounced  against  it 
and  the  other  Philistine  cities  by  the  prophets 
(Jer.  XXV.  20;  Amos  i.  8;  Zejih.  ii.  4  :  Zech. 
ix.  5,  7).  Alexander  Balas.  king  of  Syria, 
gave  Ekron  to  Jonathan  ilaccabanis  (I  Mac. 
X.  89).  It  still  existed  at  the  time  of  the 
Crusades.  It  is  believed  to  be  now  repre- 
sented by  the  village  of  'Akir,  situated  among 
fine  gardens,  6  miles  west  of  (iezer.  and  12 
northeast  from  Azotus.  No  visible  relics  of 
antiquity  have  been  found  at  the  place  ;  but 
Robinson  was  assured  by  the  Mohammedan 
sheik  of  the  place  that  in  digging  old  cis- 
terns the  stones  of  liandmills,  etc.,  are  occa- 
siouallv  brought  to  light. 


Ela 


198 


Elath 


E'la,  in  A.  V.  Elah  [terebinth  or  like  tree]. 

The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors 
(1  Kin.  iv.  Is). 

El'a-dali,  in  E.  V.  Eleadah  [God  hath 
adorned]. 

A  descendant  of  Kphraiiu  (1  Chron.  vii.20). 

E'lah  [a  large  evergreen  tree,  like  the  ilex 
or  terebinth]. 

1.  A  valley  near  Socoh  in  which  Saul  and  the 
Israelites  pitched,  confronting  the  Philistines, 
just  l)efon!  the  combat  between  David  and 
Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  I'J ;  xxi.  9).  Prob- 
ably the  wady  es-Sunt,  which  is  formed  by 
the  junction  of  three  other  valleys,  and  is 
about  14  or  15  miles  west  by  south  from  Beth- 
lehem. It  is  fertile  and  traver-sed  by  a  stream. 
Wady  es-Sunt  means  the  valley  of  the  acacia 
(Acacia  vera),  of  which  various  trees  exist  in 
the  valley. 

2.  A  duke  of  Edom,  named  from  his  habi- 
tation (Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1  Chron.  i.  52).  See 
Elath. 

3.  A  son  of  Caleb,  the  son'of  Jephunneh  (1 
Chron.  iv.  1.")). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purvey- 
ors.    See  Ela. 

6.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  He  reigned  part  of  two 
years.  As  he  was  drinking  himself  drunk  in 
the  house  of  his  steward,  in  Tirzah,  his  cap- 
ital, he  was  assassinated,  with  all  his  house, 
by  Ziinri,  wlio  commanded  half  his  chariots. 
This  fulfilled  the  proplu'cy  made  by  Jehu,  the 
son  of  Ilaiiani,  to  Baasha.  That  it  did  so  in 
no  wav  justified  the  murderous  deed  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  6,"  8-10). 

7.  The  father  of  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2 
Kin.  XV.  30;  xvii.  1;  xviii.  1). 

E'lam  [high]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Shem  or  the  inhabitants  of 
Elam,  as  being  Semites  or  becoming  incor- 
porated with  the  Semites  by  conquest  (Gen. 
X.  22;  1  Chron.  i.  17).  Elam  was  a  region 
beyond  the  Tigris,  east  of  Babylonia.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Assyria  and  Media, 
on  the  south  by  tlie  Persian  Gulf,  on  the  east 
and  .southeast  by  Persia.  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  Greek  Elumais,  the  Latin  Eli/- 
mais.  Its  capital  was  Shushan  or  Su.sa,  which 
gav(!  rise  to  the  name  Susiana,  though  some- 
times Elymais  and  Susiana  are  made  the 
names  of  adjacent  instead  of  identical  re- 
gions. Elam  was  the  seat  of  an  ancient  em- 
|)ire.  In  the  time  of  Abraliam,  Chedorlaomer, 
king  of  101am,  was  recognized  as  sovereign  by 
Babylonian  states,  and  laid  even  the  country 
on  the  Jordan  under  tril)Ut(^  ((ien.  xiv.  1-11). 
In  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  n.  c,  when 
Assyria  was  the  dominant  jtower  in  western 
A.sia,  Elam  was  its  doughty  o]>i)onent ;  but 
was  subjugated  after  repeated  campaigns  of 
the  Assyrians  under  Sargon,  Sennacherib, 
and  Ashurbanii>al.  Shuslian  was  at  length 
taken  about  <il.^>  r.  c.  Elanutes  rendered  mil- 
itary service  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  invasion 


of  Judali  (cp.  Is.  xxii.  6).  But  before  the 
close  of  the  century,  Elam  was  relieved  of 
the  Assyrian  yoke  through  the  capture  of 
Nineveh  by  the  Babylonians  and  the  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  When  Ezekiel  prophe- 
sied the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, he  mentioned  a  prior  slaughter  of  the 
Elamites,  perhaps  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek. 
xxxii.  24).  But  Elam,  joining  with  Media, 
was  ultimately  to  capture  Babylon  (Isa.  xxi. 
2;  cp.  9).  To  this  concjuest  and  restoration 
the  following  prophecies  regarding  Elam  seem 
to  refer  (Jer.  xlix.  34-39  ;Ezek.  xxxii.  24,  25). 
Elam  was  a  province  and  Shushan  a  capital 
of  the  Persian  empire  (Dan.  viii.  2;  Herodo- 
tus iii.  91 ;  iv.  83;  v.  49).  On  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  Elamites,  who  had 
long  before  been  forcibly  settled  in  Samaria, 
joined  with  others  in  attempting  to  prevent 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  iv.  9).  Elamites  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  which  was  notable  for 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9). 
Elam  or  Susiana,  now  Khuzistau,  is  a  prov- 
ince of  modern  Persia. 

2.  The  fifth  son  of  Meshelemiah,  a  Korah- 
ite  Levite,  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  3). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

4.  The  head  of  a  family  of  which  1254  in- 
dividuals returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  7  ;  Neh.  vii.  i2),  and  71  more 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  7).  Its  representative 
signed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  X.  14). 

5.  The  other  Elam,  of  whom  just  as  many 
descendants  returned  as  of  No.  4  (Ezra  ii.  31 ; 
Neh.  vii.  34). 

6.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42).    . 

El'a-sa,  in  A.  V.  Eleasa. 

A  place  at  which  Judas  Maccabgeus  once 
camped  (1  Mac.  ix.  5) ;  probably  the  ruins 
H'asa,  which  lie  midway  between  the  two 
Beth-horons. 

El'a-sah  [God  hath  made].  The  Hebrew 
name  is  sometimes  anglicized  as  Eleasah. 

1.  A  son  of  Shaphan.  He  and  Gemariah 
carried  a  letter  from  Jeremiah  in  Jerusalem 
to  the  exiles  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Pashur,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

E'lath  and  Eloth,  the  singular  or  plural 
being  used  indifferently;  also  Elah  and  El, 
other  forms  of  the  singular  [terebinth  or 
other  large  tree].  ;/ 

A  town  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  (Deut.  ii.  8 ; 
1  Kin.  ix.  20),  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  The  car- 
avan routes  between  southern  Arabia  and 
Egyi)t  and  Phcenicia  passed  its  gates,  mak- 
ing its  possession  valuable  to  an  exactor  of 
tribute.  It  was  taken  by  Cliedorlaomer  from 
the  Horites  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  In  it  dwelt  a  duke 
of  Edom  (xxxvi.  41),  and  it  constituted  the 


El-berith 


199 


Elder 


southern  limit  of  the  Edoniites  (Dent.  ii.  8). 
It  doubtless  fell  into  the  hands  of  David  (2 
Sam.  viii.  14  ;  cp.  1  Kin.  ix.  2ti ;  2  Chron.  viii. 
17).  After  a  time  it  reverted  to  the  Edomites. 
Uzziah  rebuilt  it  and  restored  it  to  Judah  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  22  ;  2  Chron.  xsvi.  2).  It  was  after- 
wards captured  by  the  Syrians  and  long  re- 
mained in  their  power  (2  Kin.  xvi.  (J).  Elath, 
called  in  the  Greek  and  Eoman  period  Aila 
and  yElana,  gave  the  name  iElanitic  to  the 
gulf  of  Akaba,  at  the  northeastern  corner  of 
which  it  was  situated.  It  was  long  the  sta- 
tion of  a  Roman  legion.  It  was  once  the  seat 
of  a  Christian  bishopric.  It  was  taken  and 
retaken  during  the  Crusades.  It  is  now 
called  Ailah  and  'Akaba,  and  consists  merely 
of  extensive  mounds  of  rubbish. 

El-be'rith.     See  Baai  -beeith. 

El-beth'-el  [God  of  Bethel]. 

The  name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which 
he  reared  at  Bethel,  after  his  return  from 
Mesopotamia.  It  commemorated  the  appear- 
ance of  God  to  him  there  in  a  dream  when 
he  was  fleeing  to  escape  the  consequences  of 
his  brother's  wrath  (Gen.  xxxv.  7 ;  cp.  xxviii. 
10  seq.).  The  sanctuary  was  named  after  the 
God  to  whoin  it  was  dedicated.     Cp.  El-el- 

OHE-ISRAEL. 

El'da-ah  [God  hath  called]. 

A  sou  or  tribe  descended  from  Midian  and 
related  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xxv.  4  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  33). 

El'dad  [God  hath  loved]. 

An  elder  and  officer  of  the  Israelites  who 
was  summoned  with  sixty-nine  others  to 
assist  Moses  in  bearing  the  burden  of  govern- 
ment. Eldad  and  Medad  for  some  reason 
failed  to  present  themselves  with  the  others 
at  the  tabernacle ;  nevertheless  they,  too, 
although  absent  in  the  camp,  were  filled  like 
the  others  with  the  divine  Spirit,  who  work- 
eth  when  and  w'here  he  will.  Joshua  was 
jealous  for  ]\Ioses'  honor,  which  he  feared 
would  sufler  because  they  had  received  the 
gift  without  the  intervention  of  Moses;  but 
Moses  rejoiced,  and  only  wished  that  the 
Lord  would  put  his  Spirit  upon  all  his  people 
(Num.  xi.  26-29). 

El'der. 

An  official  who.  so  far  as  can  be  judged, 
had  by  virtue  of  his  right  as  firstborn  suc- 
ceeded to  the  headship  of  a  father's  house, 
of  a  tribal  familv,  or  of  the  tribe  itself  (1 
Kin.  viii.  1-3;  Judg.  viii.  14.  16).  When  he 
was  the  head  and  representative  of  a  tribe  or 
of  the  larger  tribal  families  the  elder  was  an 
important  prince.  In  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature,  only  men  of  mature  age  came  into 
these  positions,  hence  the  designation  elder. 
Other  peoples  which  were  organized  on  the 
tribal  system  had  elders,  as  the  Midianites 
and  Moabites  (Num.  xxii.  4,  7).  The  title 
designates  high  officials  generally  in  Gen. 
1.  7.  They  exercised  authority  over  the 
people  (Deut.  xxvii.  1 ;  Ezra  x.  8),  and  rep- 


resented the  nation  in  affaii-s  of  state  (Ex. 
iii.  18;  Judg.  xi.  5-11 ;  1  Sam.  viii.  4),  in  i-x- 
teiiding  honor  to  a  distinguished  guest  (Ex. 
xviii.  12),  in  concluding  coviMiants  (2  Sam.  v. 
3),  and  in  reli<,M<ius  acts  (J^ev.  iv.  13-1.');  Josh, 
vii.  6).  A  body  of  seventy  elders  a.ssisted 
Moses  in  the  government  of  the  Israelites 
(Num.  xi.  16,  24).  "Each  town  had  its  elders, 
who  were  i)riihal)ly  tiie  heads  of  tiie  several 
family  connections  in  the  place  and  who 
administered  its  civil  and  religious  afl'airs 
(Deut.  xix.  12  ;  xxi.  2  ;  Kuth  iv.2-11  ;  1  Sam. 
xi.  3;  Ezra  x.  14).  These  functions  were  still 
performed  by  the  elders  at  the  time  of  the 
Roman  government  of  Juchva  (Mat.  xv.  2  ; 
xxi.  23;  xxvi.  3,  47).  Sec  Synagogie  and 
Sanhedein. 

In  the  churches  founded  by  the  ajiostles 
elder  or  presbyter  and  bishop  were  inter- 
changeable designations  (Acts  XX.  17  with  28, 
R.  V. ;  Titus  i.  5,  7),  though  not  strictly  synon- 
ymous. The  former  had  ])rimary  reference 
to  the  dignity  of  the  office,  the  latter  to  its 
duties.  The  distinction  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishop,  as  two  sejiarate  orders 
of  ministers,  dates  from  the  second  century. 
The  origin  of  the  office  of  elder  is  not  re- 
corded, but  elders  existed  i)ractically  from 
the  beginning.  In  A.  d.  44  they  already  ex- 
isted in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi. 
30)  ;  Paul  on  his  first  missionary  journey  ap- 
pointed elders  in  every  church  (xiv.  23),  and 
thev  held  office  in  churches  not  founded  by 
Paiil  (Jas.  V.  14;  1  Pet.  v.  1).  The  office  of 
elder  in  the  Christian  church  was  evidently 
suggested  by  the  office  of  elder  among  the 
Jews,  and  was  invested  with  similar  author- 
ity. Elders  were  associated  with  the  apos- 
tles in  the  government  of  the  church  (Acts 
XV.  2,  4,  6,  22.  23 ;  xvi.  4  ;  cp.  xxi.  18).  They 
were  the  bishops  or  overseers  of  the  local 
churches  (xx.  17,  28;  Tit.  i.  5),  having  the 
spiritual  care  of  the  congregation,  exercising 
rule  and  giving  instruction  (1  Tim.  iii.  5;  v. 
17;  Tit.  i.  9;  Jas.  v.  14;  1  Pet.  v.  1-4;  cp. 
Heb.  xiii.  17).  and  ordaining  to  office  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14).  There  were  several  bishops  (Phil, 
i.  1)  or  elders  (Acts  xi.  30)  in  a  local  church. 
There  is  no  intimation  of  any  division  of 
labor  among  them.  As  in  the  synagogue,  so 
in  the  Christian  church  of  apostolic  times, 
preaching  was  not  the  peculiar  function  of 
the  elders,  nor  was  it  restricted  to  them. 
They  were,  indeed,  the  regular  pastors  and 
teachers.  Aptness  to  teach  was  an  essential 
qualification  for  the  oflice  (1  Tim.  iii.  2  ;  Tit. 
i.  9).  But  any  man  who  possessed  the  gift 
of  prophecv  or  teaching  exhorted  (1  Cor.  xii. 
28-30:  xiv.' 24,  31). 

In  the  government  of  Reformed  churches 
the  teaching  elder  is  the  minister,  and  the 
ruling  elder  is  a  layman  who  is  an  elder. 
The  arrangement  is  convenient,  but  its  ex- 
istence in  apostolic  times  is  not  universally 
admitted.  Calvin  interpreted  1  Tim.  v.  17 
as  teaching  two  kinds  of  elders;  first,  those 
who  both  teach  ^nd  rule,  and  second,  those 


Eleau 


200 


Elhanan 


wlio  rulo  only.  Rut  there  is  a  wide  dissent 
from  tiiis  interitn^talion.  It  is  iirj^ed  that 
the  apostle  is  speakius  of  two  functions  of 
the  same  ofKce,  the  primitive  elder  having 
been,  it  is  contended,  hoth  teaeher  and  ruler. 
In  the  Apocalypse  the  elders  are  twenty- 
four  in  number,  po.ssibly  with  reference 
back  to  the  twelve  founders  of  tribes  under 
the  Jewish  economy,  and  the  twelve  apostles 
under  the  Christian  church  (Rev.  iv.  4,  10; 
V.  5,  (i,  8,  14  ;  vii.  11-13 ;  xi.  16  ;.  xix.  4). 

E'le-ad  [God  continueth]. 

A  descendant,  perhaps  son,  of  Ephraim. 
He  and  his  brother  were  killed  by  the  people 
of  Gatli  when  attempting  to  carry  away  the 
cattle  belonging  to  that  Philistine  town. 
Ephraim,  who  was  alive  at  the  time,  greatly 
mourned  his  loss  (1  Chrou.  vii.  20-22). 

E-le-a'dah.    See  Eladah. 

E-le-a'leh. 

A  town  rebuilt  by  the  Reubenites  (Num. 
xxxii.  3,  37).  Later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Moabites  (Is.  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  9  ;  Jer.  xlvii.  34). 
The  ruins,  now  called  el-'Al,  are  on  top  of 
a  hill  on  the  Roman  road,  scarcely  2  miles 
north  of  Heshbou.  Tristram  describes  them 
as  consisting  of  stone  heaps  with  a  single 
standing  column. 

E-le'a-sa.    See  Elasa. 
E-le-a'sah  [God  hath  made].     In  Hebrew 
it  is  the  same  word  as  Elasah. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerah- 
meel,  but  with  Egyptian  blood  in  bis  veins 
(1  Chron.  ii.  39). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1 
Chron.  viii.  37;  ix.  43). 

E-le-a'zar  [God  hath  helped].  Grecized 
as  Lazaros,  in  Latin  Lazarus. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  23  ;  Num. 
iii.  2)  and  father  of  Phinehas  (Ex.  vi.  25). 
With  his  brothers  and  his  father  he  was  con- 
secrated a  priest,  and  afterwards  acted  as 
such  (Ex.  xxviii.  1  ;  Num.  iii.  4  ;  xvi.  37-40; 
xix.  3).  He  was  not  allowed  to  mourn  when 
his  elder  brothers,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  were 
killed  for  ofTering  strange  (ire  (Lev.  x.  (j-20). 
He  then  became  chief  of  the  Levites,  and 
second  only  to  Aaron  in  priestly  authority 
(Num.  iii.  32).  Before  Aaron  died  on  mount 
Uor,  lOlcMizar,  who  had  been  directed  to  as- 
cend the  mountain  with  him,  was  invest(?d 
with  his  sacred  garments,  and  succeeded  him 
in  the  high-priesthood  (xx.  25-28  ;  Dent.  x.  (i). 
He  held  this  oliice  during  the  remainder  of 
iMos('s'  lil'e  and  the  leadership  of  .Joshua.  He 
took  a  ])r(iininent  jiart  in  distributing  Canaan 
by  lot  among  the  several  tribes  (Josh.  xiv.  1). 
He  was  buried  in  a  hill  belonging  to  his  son 
I'hinehas  in  mount  E{)hraim  (xxiv.  33),  and 
was  succeeded  by  I'hinehas  (Judg.  xx.  28;  1 
Chron.  vi.  4.  50). 

2.  A  Lcvite,  family  of  Mcrari,  house  of 
Mahli.  Dying  without  sons,  his  daughters 
were  taken  to  wife  by  their  cousins  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  21,  22;  xxiv.  28  ;  cp.  Num.  xxxvi.  6-9). 


3.  A  son  of  Abinadab.  He  was  consecrated 
by  the  men  of  Kirjath-jearim  to  keep  the 
ark  when  they  nobly  received  it  from  Beth- 
shemesh  after  its  restoration  by  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  1). 

4.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Dodo,  the  Ahohite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9;  1  Chron. 
xi.  12;  cp.  xxvii.  4  perhaps). 

5.  A  priest,  sou  of  Phinehas.  He  assisted 
the  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
33). 

6.  A  son  of  Parosh,  who  was  induced  by- 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
25). 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  acted  as  mu- 
sicians at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii. 
42). 

8.  Surnamed  Avaran,  of  priestly  descent,  a 
son  of  Mattathias  and  brother  of  Judas  the 
Maccabee  (1  Mac.  ii.  5).  In  the  battle  be- 
tween Judas  and  the  Syrians  at  Beth-zacha- 
rias,  he  boldly  ran  into  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy,  crept  under  an  elejihaut  whose  trap- 
pings indicated  that  it  carried  a  royal  rider, 
and  thrust  it  in  the  belly.  The  beast  in  its 
fall  crushed  Eleazar  to  death  (vi.  43-40). 

9.  An  ancestor,  perhaps  great-grandfather, 
of  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary  (Mat.  i.  15). 

El-e-lo'he-Is'ra-el  [God,  the  God  of  Israel]. 
The  name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which 
he  erected  near  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiii.  20). 

E'leph  [an  ox]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  sviii.  28). 
Site  unknown. 

El'e-phant. 

The  English  name  for  a  genus  of  animals 
containing  two  recentspecies — Elephasindlms, 
the  Indian,  and  Elephas  africanus,  the  Afri- 
can elephant,  with  several  others  now,  ex- 
tinct. Their  tusks  furnish  ivory  (1  Kin.  x. 
22,  A.  V.  margin).  The  elephant  was  used 
in  war  (1  Mac.  i.  17  ;  iii.  34),  each  beast  being 
in  charge  of  an  Indian  driver,  and  bearing 
on  its  back  a  tower  from  which  two,  three,  or 
four  soldiers  fought  (1  Mac.  vi.  37,  where 
thirty-two  is  an  obvious  error  ;  Livy  xxxvii. 
40).  The  entire  body  of  elephants  was  under 
a  master  (2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  Before  enteriTig 
battle,  it  was  customary  to  inflame  them  by 
the  sight  and  even  taste  of  wine  (1  Mac.  vi.  34 ; 
3  Mac.  V.  2). 

E-leu'the-rus  [free]. 

A  river  (1  Mac.  xi.  7;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  5) 
which  Hows  from  Lebanon  and  empties  into 
the  Mediterranean  sea  north  of  Trijioli  (  Pliny, 
Hist.  nat.  v.  17),  and  which  formed  the  bound- 
ary between  Palestine  and  Svria  (1  Mac.  xii. 
:3()";  Antic].  xv.  4,  1  ;  Strabo  xvi.  2,  12).  It  is 
now  called  Nahr  el-Kebir. 

El-ha'nan  [God  hath  been  gracious]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jairand  jierhaps  a  Bethleheni- 
ite,  who  slew  [the  brother  of]  Goliath  of  Gath 
(cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  19  with  1  ChroTi.  xx.  5).  The 
text  of  at  least  one  passage,  perhaps  of  both, 


Eli 


201 


Eliakim 


has  become  coriuipt.  The  letters  of  "  Beth- 
lehemite  Goliath,"  witli  the  juirticle  'eth  be- 
tween them,  which  stand  together  in  the  He- 
brew text  of  Samuel,  closely  resemble  those 
of  "  Lahmi  the  brother  of  Goliath." 

2.  A  Bethleheniite,  a  sou  of  Dodo,  and  one 
of  David's  thirty  heroes  of  the  second  rank 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  24 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  -JO). 

E'li,  I.  [my  God]. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  utterance  of  Jesus 
on  the  cross,  cpoken  in  Aramaic,  'Eli,  'Eli. 
lammah  sh'bnktav i ,  "My  God,  my  God,  why 
hast  thou  forsaken  me?"  (Mat.  xxvii.  4(i ;  vp. 
Ps.  xxii.  1).  In  Mark  xv.  34,  Eloi,  an  Aramaic, 
synonym  of  Eli  containing  a  difl'erent  word 
for  God,  is  used. 

E'li,  II.   [probablj^  elevation,  height]. 

A  high  priest  of  the  family  of  Ithamar  (1 
Sam.  i.  9 ;  1  Kin.  11.  27  with  1  Chron.  xxiv. 
3.  6).  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of 
Ithamar's  line  to  receive  the  otKce  (Autiq.  v. 
11,  5;  viii.  1,  3),  but  it  is  uncertain  which 
priest  of  the  other  line  he  succeeded.  Eli  was 
also  active  as  a  judge  of  Israel.  Being  deeiily 
pious,  he  had  an  essential  qualification  for  his 
exalted  offices.  But  there  was  one  serious 
defect  in  his  conduct:  he  did  not  deal  firmly 
with  his  two  sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas, 
when  their  behavior  in  the  priestly  office 
was  scandalous  (1  Sam,  ii.  23-25,  29;  iii.  13). 
Divine  judgment  was  therefore  denounced 
against  him  and  his  house  by  a  prophet.  Eli 
should  see  evil  befall  the  sanctuary,  his  de- 
scendants should  die  in  the  flower  of  their 
age,  his  two  sons  should  perish  in  one  day, 
and  a  faithful  priest  should  supersede  Eli's 
descendants,  from  whom  they  should  seek 
for  subordinate  priestly  appointments  that 
they  might  be  fed  ( ii.  27-36).  The  message 
was  confirmed  by  a  similar  revelation  to 
young  Samuel,  which  Eli  received  with  resig- 
nation I  iii.  11-181.  Soon  afterwards  Hophni 
and  Phinehas,  as  custodians  of  the  aik, 
carried  it  to  the  field  of  battle,  to  aid  the 
Israelites  against  the  Philistines.  Eli,  now 
98  years  old  and  blind,  being  anxious  for  the 
ark,  took  his  seat  by  the  wayside  to  watch. 
A  runner  arrived  from  the  scene  of  strife 
with  the  news  of  Israel's  defeat,  the  death 
of  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  and  the  capture  of 
the  ark  of  God.  On  hearing  that  the  ai-k  of 
God  had  been  taken  by  the  enemy  Eli  fell 
backward  from  the  seat  and,  being  stout, 
broke  his  neck  and  expired  (iv.  1-18).  He 
had  judged  Israel  forty  years.  Ahitub  suc- 
ceeded to  the  rank  of  high  priest  (xiv.  3i  ; 
but  with  the  death  of  Eli  the  office  lost  for  a 
long  time  its  importance,  for  the  ark  was  in 
captivity  and  seclusion,  and  the  tabernacle 
was  no  longer  the  place  of  Jehovah's  gracious 
presence.  Samuel  the  prophet  was  the  re- 
ligious leader  of  the  people.  The  judgment 
against  Eli's  posterity  was  executed  when 
Solomon  deposed  Eli's  descendant  Abiathar 
from  the  high  priesthood,  substituting  Zadok 
in  his  room  (1  Kin.  ii.  35). 


E-li'ab  [God  is  a  father]. 

1.  The  son  of  Helon.  and  the  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Zehulun  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i. 
9;  ii.  7;  vii.  24,  29;  x.  16). 

2.  A  Reubenite,  son  of  Pallu  and  father 
of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (Num.  xvi.  1,  12; 
xxvi.  8.  9). 

3.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  27,  28).     See  Elihu. 

4.  David's  eldest  brother.  He  was  so  tall 
and  had  so  kingly  a  countenance  that  on 
seeing  him  Samuel  exclaimed,  "  Surely  the 
Lord's  anointed  is  before  him."  But  judged 
by  the  heart  he  was  not  worthy  of  the  king- 
dom (1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7  ;  xvii.  1:5).  One  defect 
which  he  had  was  his  inability  to  a]>])reciate 
the  larger  soul  of  David,  his  youngest  brother 
(28,  29).  His  daughter  .\bihail  married  a  son 
of  David  (2  Chron.  xi.  18,  11.  V.). 

5.  A  Gadite,  of  the  heroic  type  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

6.  A  Levite,  musician  at  the  .sanctuary  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  20). 

E-li'a-da,  in  A.  V.  once  Eliadah  (1  Kin. 
xi.  23)  [God  has  known — i.  e.  kindly  re- 
garded]. 

1.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (2 
Sam.  v.  16;  1  Chron.  iii.  8).  Called  also 
Beeliada  (q.  v.). 

2.  Father  of  Eezon  of  Zobah  (1  Kin.  xi. 
23). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  Jehoshaphat's  chief 
captains  (2  Chron.  xvii.  17). 

E-li'ah.     See  Elijah  2  and  4. 

E-li'ah-ba  [God  hath  hidden]. 
A  Shaalbonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  32;  1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

E-li'a-kim  [God  hath  established]. 

1.  An  ancestor  of  Christ.  He  lived  before 
the  captivity,  and  was  descended  from  David 
through  Nathan  (Luke  iii.  30,  31). 

2.  Son  of  Hilkiah.  He  was  over  king 
Hezekiah's  household  ;  and  when  Jerusalem 
had  closed  its  gates  against  the  Assyrians,  ho 
was  one  of  three  representatives  of  the  king 
who  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  rabsliakeli 
of  Sennacherib  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26,  37;  Is. 
xxxvi.  3.  11,  22).  Next  they  were  disjiatched 
to  lay  the  answer  of  the  i-abshakeh  before 
Isaiah,  and  desire  him  to  obtain  divine  di- 
rection in  the  great  crisis  which  had  arisen 
(2  Kin.  xix.  2;  Is.  xxxvii.  2).  The  projdiet 
so  highly  commended  Eliakim,  and  made 
him  sucii  ])roniises  from  God,  as  to  suggest 
that  he  must  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  the 
Messiah  (Is.  xxii.  20  25). 

3.  One  of  Josiah's  sons,  made  king  by 
Pharaoh-necho,  who  changed  his  name  to 
Jehoiakim  (2  Kiu.  xxiii.  34 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
4). 

4.  One  of  the  priests  who  oflSciated  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  41). 

5.  A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Christ  (Mat.  i.  13). 


Eliam 


202 


Elijah 


E-li'am  [God  is  one  of  the  family]. 

Father  of  Bath-sheha  (2  .Sam.  xi.  3)  ;  by 
transpo-sitiou  of  the  coustitueut  parts  of  the 
name  called  Ammiel  (1  Chron.  iii.  5).  Per- 
haps he  was  Da\id's  mifthty  man  of  this 
name,  the  son  of  Ahithophel  {2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34). 

E-li'as.     See  Elljaii. 

E-li'a-saph  [(iod  hath  added]. 

1.  The  head  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  14  ;  ii.  14  ;  vii.  42). 

2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Lael,  and  prince  of 
the  Gershouites  during  the  wilderness  wan- 
dering (Num.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-sMb  [God  hath  restored]. 

1.  The  ancestor  Irom  whom  the  eleventh 
priestly  course  took  its  name  (1  Chron.  xxiv. 
12). 

2.  A  Levite  and  singer  whom  Ezra  induced 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

3  and  4.  Two  men,  a  son  of  Zattu  and  a 
son  of  Bani,  similarly  persuaded  by  Ezra 
(Ezra  X.  27,  36). 

5.  The  high  priest,  the  second  in  succession 
from  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10).  He  lived  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  and  with  the  priests  re- 
built the  sheepgate  of  Jeru.salem  (iii.  1,  20, 
21).  As  high  priest  he  could  assign  chambers 
in  the  temjjle  to  whomsoever  he  pleased  (Ezra 
X.  (i).  He  was  allied  by  marriage  with  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  and  his  grandson  was  son-in- 
law  of  Sanballat  (Neh.  xiii.  4,  28).  Not  being 
strict  in  regard  to  the  separation  of  Jew  and 
gentile,  he  even  assigned  a  chamber  of  the 
temple  to  Tobiah  (.")). 

(J.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  a  descendant  of  Zerub- 
babel  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-thah  [God  hath  come]. 

A  son  of  Henian,  and  a  musician  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 

E-li'dad  [(iod  hath  loved]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  at  the 
time  when  the  Israelites  were  encamped  at 
Shittim  on  the  eve  of  entering  tlic  ]ironiised 
land.  He  was  :ip])i)inted  a  nicinlicr  iif  the 
commission  to  divide  the  hind  among  the 
tribes  (Xuni.  xxxiv.  21). 

E-li'e-ho-e'nai,  in  A.  V  Elihoenai  [to  Je- 
hovali  are  my  eyes].     See  al.so  Eliokn.^i. 

1.  A  Korliite]>orter,  the  son  of  Meshelemiah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.."')).  A.  \.  has  substituted  the 
variant  form  Klioenai. 

2.  A  sou  of  Zciahiah.  He  with  200  fol- 
lowers accom])anic(l  I']/.ra  from  Babylon  i  I']zra 
viii.  4). 

E-li'el  [God  is  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kolialb,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  tiie  propiie(  (1  Cliron.  vi. 
34).     See  Vaauu. 

2.  A  Mahavite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  4(i). 

3.  Another  of  David's  heroes  (ver.  47). 

4.  One  of  the  Gadites  who  came  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  11). 


5.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Hebron.  He  lived  in 
David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  9,  11). 

(j.  A  Beujamite,  a  sou  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

7.  Another  Benjamite,  a  sou  of  Shashak 
(1  Chrou.  viii.  22). 

8.  A  chief  man  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

9.  An  overseer  of  the  tithes  and  offerings 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chrou.  xxxi.  13). 

E-li-e'nai  [probably,  to  Jehovah  are  my 
eyes].     Probably  a  contraction  of  Elihoenai. 

A  Benjamite,  a  sou  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

E-li-e'zer  [God  is  a  helper]. 

1.  A  man  of  Damascus,  the  steward  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  2;  cp.  xxiv.  2). 

2.  The  younger  sou  of  Moses  (Ex.  xviii.  4  ; 
1  Chron.  xxiii.  15.  17). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

4.  A  son  of  Zichri.  He  was  a  captain  over 
the  Keubeuites  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  10). 

5.  A  priest  who  blew  the  trumpet  before 
the  ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

6.  A  prophet,  son  of  Dodavah  of  Mai'eshah. 
He  predicted  the  shipwreck  of  Jehoshaphat's 
vessels  because  he  had  joined  with  Ahaziah, 
of  Ahab's  tVimily  (2  Chron.  xx.  37). 

7.  One  of  those  whom  Ezra  sent  for  Le- 
vites,  when  it  was  found  that  there  were  few 
of  them  among  the  returning  exiles  (Ezra 
viii.  16). 

8.  9,  and  10.  Three  men,  one  a  priest,  one 
a  Levite,  and  one  a  son  of  Harim,  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  18,  23,  31). 

11.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  be- 
tween the  time  of  David  and  the  captivity 
(Luke  iii.  29). 

E-li-ho-e'nai.     See  Eliehoenai. 

E-li-ho'repli  [God  is  a  reward]. 

One  of  S()h)mon's  scribes  (1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

E-li'hu  [he  is  God]. 

1.  An  Eiiliraimite,  son  of  Tohu  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  ap- 
parentlv  called  also  Eliab  and  Eliel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  27,  34). 

2.  David's  eldest  brother,  called  also  Eliab 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvi.  6  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  18). 
See  Jesse. 

3.  A  IManassite  captain  who  with  others 
joined  David  on  liis  way  to  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  20). 

4.  A  doorkeejjcr  during  David's  reign,  of 
the  family  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

.').  One  of  Job's  friends,  a  Buzite,  the  son 
of  Barachel  (Job  xxxii.-xxxvii.). 

E-li'jah;  in  A.  V.  twice  Eliah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27:  Ezra  x.  26) ;  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Elias, 
which  is  the  Hebrew  word  transliterated  into 
Greek  and  provided  with  a  Greek  termina- 
tion [my  God  is  Jehovah]. 

1.  One  of  the  greatest  of  the  prophets.  He 
was  a  Tishbite,  having  been  born  perhaps  at 


Elijah 


203 


Elijah 


Tishbeh  in  Galilee;  but  he  dwelt  in  (iilead 
(1  Kill.  xvii.  li  ;  see  Tishrite.  He  wore  a 
garment  of  skin  or  of  coarse  cauiel-liair. 
wliicli  was  sirt  about  his  loins  with  a  leather 
girdle  [2  Kin.  i.8;  1  Kin.  xix.  lo).  When 
Ahab,  influenced  by  his  wife  Jezebel  of  Tyre, 
had  given  liiniself  to  the  worsliip  of  the 
Tyrian  god  Baal,  Elijah  suddenly  appeared 
upon  the  scene.  He  jiresi-nted  himself  before 
the  erring  king,  and  predicted  a  drought  of 
indefinite  duration  as  a  penalty  for  the  re- 
jection of  Jehovah.  On  account  of  the 
famine  he  retired  first  to  the  brook  Cherith, 
where  he  was  providentially  fed  by  ravens; 
see  Ravex.  Wlien  the  brook  became  dry  he 
went  to  Zarephath  on  the  coast  of  the  Med- 
iterranean north  of  Tyre.  A  widow  trusted 
God  and  shared  her  last  cake  with  Elijah. 
God  saw  to  it  that  her  jar  of  meal  and  cruse 
of  oil  did  not  fail  until  the  famine  was 
ended;  and  when  her  son  died  he  was  re- 
stored to  life  at  the  prayer  of  the  prophet 
(1  Kin.  xvii.  1-24;  Luke  iv.  •21-2()).  After 
many  days,  in  the  third  year  (1  Kin.  xviii. 
1;  Luke  iv.  25;  Jas.  v.  17),  Elijah  was 
directed  to  show  himself  to  Ahab.  Then 
followed  the  scene  at  mount  Carmel.  The 
priests  of  Baal  endeavored  to  secure  evidence 
of  Baal's  divinity,  but  failed.  Then  Elijah 
gathered  the  people  about  an  ancient  altar 
of  the  Lord,  which  had  probably  been  erected 
by  pious  Israelites  of  the  north  whom  the  de- 
fection of  the  ten  tribes  prevented  from  wor- 
shiping at  .Terusa^vim.  It  had  been  thrown 
down.  Elijah  rejiaired  it,  taking  twelve 
stones  for  the  purpose,  thus  silently  testify- 
ing that  the  division  of  the  twelve  tribes 
into  two  kingdoms  was  at  variance  with  the 
divine  will.  To  obviate  every  possibility  of 
fraud,  he  made  the  people  drench  the  sacri- 
fice and  the  altar  with  water.  Then  he  cried 
to  the  Lord.  Fire  fell,  and  consumed  the 
sacrifice  and  destroyed  the  altar.  Jehovah 
had  attested  his  existence  and  his  power. 
Bail's  prophets,  proven  to  be  impostors,  were 
taken  down  to  the  brook  Kishon,  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  and  slain  at  Elijah's  bid- 
ding (1  Kin.  xviii.  1-40;  cp.  Deut.  xvii.  2-"); 
xiii.  13-l(i).  The  people  had  acknowledged 
Jehovah  and  obeyed  Jehovah's  prophet,  and 
the  token  of  God's  returning  favor  was  seen 
in  the  gathering  clouds  of  rain ;  and  the 
prophet,  to  do  honor  to  the  king  as  ruler  of 
a  realm  now  professedly  the  kingdom  of 
God,  girded  up  his  loins  and  ran  before  tlie 
chariot  of  Ahab  to  t'ne  gate  of  Jezreel  (41- 
46) ;  see  FoRERtrxNER.  But  Jezebel,  furious 
at  the  destruction  of  her  jirophets,  vowed  tlie 
death  of  Elijah,  who  fled  to  mount  Horeb. 
There,  like  Moses,  he  was  divinely  sustained 
for  forty  days  and  nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  18; 
xxxiv.  28;  Deut.  ix.  9,  18;  1  Kin.  xix.  8),  a 
foreshadowing  of  the  similar  incident  in  the 
life  of  Jesus  (Mat.  iv.  2;  Luke  iv.  2).  Elijah 
was  rebuked,  sent  back  to  duty,  and  told  to 
anoint  Hazael  to  be  king  of  Syria  and  Jehu 
to  be  king  of  Israel,  that  they  might  be  the 


scourge  of  God  to  idolatrous  Israel,  and 
Elisha  to  be  prophet  to  chastise  by  words. 
Elijah  cast  his  mantle  upon  Elisha,  calling 
him  to  the  Work,  and  t  iit  m.-^tcd  to  him  the 
further  execution  of  the  commission  i]  Kin. 
xix.  l-21j.  When  Jezebel  had  Kaboth  ju- 
dicially murdered  in  order  to  obtain  liis 
vineyard  for  Ahab,  Elijah  met  llie  king  in 
the  coveted  plot  of  ground  and  denounced 
Jehovah's  vengeance  for  the  crime  (xxi. 
1-29).  The  death  of  Ahab  at  the  battle  of 
Ranioth-gilead  was  the  beginning  of  tlie 
judgment  whi(;h  Elijah  liad  uttered  aj^ainst 
the  royal  house  (xxii.  1— lOi.  Wlun  Ahab's 
son  and  successor  Ahaziah,  injured  by  a  fall 
from  a  window,  sent  messengers  to  the  idol 
tem]ile  at  Ekron  to  ask  whetlier  he  should 
recover  from  his  hurt,  Elijah  stopped  them 
and  turned  them  back  ;  and  twice  when  a 
captain  with  fifty  men  was  sent  apparently 
to  arrest  him,  he  called  fire  from  the  sky 
which  consumed  them.  The  third  captain 
begged  for  his  life,  and  Elijah  went  with 
him  to  the  king  (2  Kin.  i.  1-lii).  Finally  the 
jirophet  obtained  the  honor,  bestowed  liefore 
only  on  Enoch  (Gen.  v.  2-4),  of  being  trans- 
lated to  heaven  without  dying.  A  chariot 
and  horses  of  fire  ap]ieared  to  him  when  lie 
had  gone  with  his  attendant  Elisha  to  the 
east  of  the  Jordan,  and,  jiarting  them  asun- 
der, took  Elijah  up  in  a  whirlwind  to  heaven 
(2  Kin.  ii.  1-121.  The  event  seems  to  have 
occurred  just  before  Jehoram  of  Israel  as- 
cended the  throne  (2  Kin.  ii.  with  i.  18  and 
iii.  1)  and  during  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat 
of  Judah  (iii.  11);  yet  Elijah  wrote  a  docu- 
ment in  which  he  addressed  Jehoram  of 
Judah,  who  indeed  was  a  co-regent  with 
Jehoshaphat,  and  threatened  him  with  di- 
vine judgment,  not  only  for  sins  committed 
during  the  lifetime  of  Jehoshaphat,  but  for 
murder  which  he  committed  after  Jehosha- 
phat's  death  (2  Chron.  xxi.  12  ;  cp.  1"  with  4  ). 
If  Elijah  was  translated  at  tlie  time  indi- 
cated, he  prophesied  during  his  lifetime  con- 
cerning future  deeds  of  Jehoram,  just  as  he 
foretold  future  acts  of  Hazael  and  Jehu 
(1  Kin.  xix.  15-17).  Less  in  accordance 
with  the  language  of  iii.  11  is  the  explana- 
tion that  the  account  of  Elijah's  translation 
is  inserted  where  it  is  in  2  Kings  simjily  to 
complete  the  narrative  of  his  public  activity, 
and  that  Elijah  was  still  alive  when  Elisha 
was  with  the  army  of  Jehoshaphat  in  south- 
ern Judah,  and  was  living  when  Jehoram 
became  sole  king.  The  last  two  verses  of  the 
O.  T.  predict  that  God  will  send  Elijah  before 
the  coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day 
of  the  Lord  (Mai.  iv.  .5,  C).  The  N.  T.  ex- 
plains that  the  reference  is  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist, who  was  like  the  Tishbite  in  humble 
dress  and  appearance  Mat.  iii.  4  ;  Mark  i.  6), 
in  fidelitv  and  in  work  (Mat.  xi.  11-14; 
xvii.  10-12;  Mark  ix.  11-1.'5;  Luke  i.  17). 
There  are  those,  however,  who  contend 
that  while  John  appeared  in  the  spirit 
and    power    of    Elijah,    the    O.    T.    i>ro])het 


Elika 


204 


Elisha 


is  vet  to  come,  in  person,  before  tbe  second 
advent  of  Christ.  Elijali  iiiipeared  <in  the 
mount  of  Transfiguration  as  tlie  represen- 
tative of  the  (>.  T.  jirophecy  to  do  honor  to 
Jesus,  its  theme  (Mat.  xvii.  4;  Mark  ix.  4; 
Luke  ix.  30) ;  and  his  ascension,  to  which 
there  was  nothing  anahigous  in  tlie  history 
of  Jolin  the  Baptist,  doubtless  foreshadowed 
that  of  our  risen  Lord. 

The  miracles  which  were  wrought  during 
the  ministry  of  Elijah  belong  to  the  second 
of  the  four  miracle  periods  of  redemptive 
history,  the  period  of  the  life  and  death 
struggle  between  the  religion  of  Jehovah  and 
Baal  worship,  when  the  adherence  of  the  peo- 
ple of  northern  Israel  to  the  faith  of  their 
fathers  was  at  issue,  and  all  other  questions 
regarding  religious  observances  sank  to  minor 
importance.    See  Miracle. 

•2.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham,  resident 
at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii.  27,  R.  V.). 

3.  A  priest,  a  son  of  Harim.  He  married 
a  gentile  wife  (Ezra  x.  21). 

4.  An  Israelite  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26,  K.  V.). 

E-li'ka. 

A  Harodite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  25). 

E'lim  [stnmg  evergreen  trees ;  such  as  oaks, 
terebinths,  palms]. 

The  second  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  be- 
tween Marah  and  the  desert  of  Sin,  and  had 
twelve  springs  of  water  and  seventy  palm 
trees  (Ex.  xv.  27 ;  xvi.  1 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  9,  10). 
Two  valley.s,  wady  Ghuruiidel  and  wady 
Useit,  or  Waseit,  are  rivals  for  the  honor  of 
representing  the  ancient  Elim.  The  former 
has  more  water,  and  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  site.  Both  are  fringed  with  trees  and 
shrubs,  though  the  adjacent  ])arts  of  the 
desert  are  liare.  The  vegetation  consists  of 
palm  trees,  tamarisks,  and  acacias. 

E-lim'e-lecli  [(rod  is  king]. 

A  man  of  Bethlehem  of  Judah,  the  hus- 
band of  Naomi  (Ruth  i.  1,  5). 

E-li-o-e'nai  [my  eyes  (are  turned)  toward 
Jeliov;ili].  Tlic  Hebrew  form  is  a  legitimate 
variant  of  Elicboeiiai. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  3()). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vil.  H). 

3.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  3,  A.  V.).     See 

ELIEHr)|.;NAI. 

4  and  '•>.  Two  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  22,  27). 

().  .'\  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Sheca- 
niah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23,  24). 

E-li'phal  [God  has  judged]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of  Ur 
(1  Chron.  xi.  3.')).  Ai)parently  called  Eliph- 
elet,  the  son  of  Ahasbai  (2  .Sam.  xxiii.  34). 
See  I'll. 

E-liph'a-let.     See  Elumiklet. 


E-li'pliaz  [God  is  strong]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau,  by  Adah,  one  of  his  wives 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Temanite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job 
ii.  11 ;  iv.  1 ;  xv.  1 ;  xxii.  1  ;  xlii.  7,  9).  Prob- 
ably a  descendant  of  No.  1,  who  had  a  son 
Teman  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11). 

E-liph'e-leli,  in  R.  V.  E-lipli'e-le-liu  [God 
is  distinguished  (as  excellent)]. 

A  Levite,  a  singer  and  a  harper,  who  acted 
also  as  a  porter  when  David  brought  up  the 
ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18,  21). 

E-liph'e-let,  in  A.  V.  twice  Eliphalet  [God 
is  deliverance]. 

1.  A  son  born  to  David  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  iii.  6).  A  correct  Hebrew  alternate 
form  is  Elpalet  (1  Chron.  xiv.  5). 

2.  Another  son  of  David's,  born  also  at  Je- 
rusalem, probably  after  the  death  of  the 
former  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1  Chron.  iii.  8;  xiv.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Ahasbai,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  .Sam.  xxiii.  34).  Apparen-tly 
calledEliphal  in  1  Chron.  xi.  35. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  and  of  Saul 
(1  Chron.  viii.  39). 

5.  A  son  of  Adonikam.  He  returned  with 
Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  13). 

6.  A  son  of  Hashum.  Ezra  induced  him 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 

E-lis'a-beth  [God  is  an  oath,  i.  e.,  a  cov- 
enant maker]. 

A  godly  woman,  a  daughter  of  the  bouse 
of  Aaron,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Aaron's 
wife  (Ex.  vi.  23,  Elisheba).  She  became  the 
wife  of  the  jiriest  Zacharias  and  the  mother 
of  John  the  Baptist.  She  bore  him  when  .she 
was  of  advanced  years,  his  birth  and  missi(m 
having  been  communicated  beforehand  by  an 
angel  to  her  husband.  Though  of  diflerent 
tribes,  she  and  Mary  of  Nazareth  were  kins- 
women, and  Mary  visited  Elisabeth  at  a  vil- 
lage (probably  Jnttah)  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judfea.  Elisabeth,  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  welcomed  Mary  as  the  mother  of  the 
Lord  (Luke  i.  5-45). 

E-li'sha,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  El-i-se'us  which 
is  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification  of 
the  name  [God  is  salvation]. 

One  of  tlie  two  great  prophets  of  the  older 
period  of  Israelite  history  who  labored  in  the 
northern  kingdom.  He  was  the  son  of  Sha- 
phat,  dwelt  at  Abel-meholah  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  belonged  to  a  family  of  means; 
twelve  yoke  of  oxen  ])lowed  his  father's 
fields.  God  appointed  him  to  succeed  Elijah 
(1  Kin.  xix.  Ki,  19).  Elijah  found  him 
jilowing  and  cast  his  mantle  over  him. 
Elisha  uiidersTood  the  significance  of  the 
act;  went  home,  gave  a  farewell  feast  to  the 
people,  and  returned  to  be  the  follower  and 
assistant  of  Elijah  (19-21).  When  Elijah  went 
beyond  t  lie  .Jordan  to  be  translated  to  heaven, 
Elisiia  kept  by  him  ;  and  v.hen  told  to  ask  a 
jiarting  gift,  had  the  wisdom  to  petition  for 
a  double  i)ortion  of  Elijah's  spirit.   He  saw  the 


Elisha 


205 


Elizaphan 


fiery  chariot  bear  his  master  away,  and  tak- 
iiii;  the  mantle  which  liad  fallen  Irom  Elijah, 
srnick  the  Jordan  with  it,  which  divided 
and  permitted  him  to  cross  to  its  western 
side  (2  Kin.  11.  1-18).  His  subsequent  life 
was  marked  by  a  series  of  miracles,  some 
of  knowk^dge,  others  of  jjower,  expressly 
wrought  in  the  uame  of  the  Lord.  They 
belong  to  the  second  group  of  miracles  in 
redemptive  history.  They  occurred  at  a 
time  when  the  religion  of  .Iidiovah  was  en- 
gaged in  a  desperate  struggle  for  existence 
against  Baal  worship,  and,  like  the  miracles 
wrought  by  Elijah,  were  intended  to  accredit 
the  prophet  and  to  attest  Jehovah  to  be  tlie 
living  (xod.  The  miraculous  power  was  so 
much  under  Elisiui's  control  that  apparently 
he  could  exercise  it  at  discretion;  and  he 
used  it  largely,  as  did  Christ,  in  simple 
deeds  of  kindness.  In  the  name  of  the  Lord 
he  healed  with  salt  the  waters  of  the  spring 
at  Jericho  ( 19-'2-J).  He  pronounced  Jehovah's 
curse  on  lads  who  mocked  in  him  the  prophet 
of  the  Lord,  and  two  bears  presently  tore 
forty-two  of  them  (23-2.')).  He  foretold  the 
success  of  the  expedition  against  Moab  (iil. 
11-27),  secured  the  increase  of  a  widow's  oil 
(iv.  1-7),  predicted  to  a  Shunammite  woman 
the  birth  of  a  son,  and  at  his  prayer  that  sou 
was  restored  to  life  when  he  had  died  (8-37). 
He  named  an  antidote  to  a  poisonous  plant 
in  the  pot  in  which  food  was  being  cooked 
for  the  prophets  (38-41).  As  propliet  of  the 
Lord  he  fed  a  hundred  men  with  twenty 
barley  loaves  and  a  few  ears  of  corn  (42-44), 
told  Naaman  to  wash  in  the  Jordan  and  he 
would  be  healed  of  his  leprosy  (v.  1-19),  and 
foretold  its  transference  to  Gehazi  as  a  pun- 
ishment of  lying  and  covetousness  (20-27).  He 
made  an  iron  ax  head,  that  had  fallen  into 
the  river,  float  to  the  surface  (vl.  1-7).  He 
informed  the  king  of  Israel  of  the  movements 
and  intentions  of  his  Syrian  rival  (8-12).  At 
his  pi'ayer,  the  Lord  revealed  to  the  prophet's 
servant  horses  and  chariots  of  fire  surround- 
ing them  for  their  protection  (13-17),  and 
caused  blindness  to  fall  on  the  Syrian  emis- 
saries sent  to  arrest  them  (17-23).  He  inti- 
mated, without  being  told  it,  that  a  messen- 
ger from  the  king  of  Israel  was  at  the  door 
to  take  his  life  (vi.  32,  33).  He  predicted 
great  plenty  and  consequent  cheapness  of 
food  in  Samaria,  while  it  was  at  fiimine  prices 
during  a  siege;  adding,  however,  that  an  un- 
believing lord  who  discredited  the  prediction 
should  not  participate  in  the  boon,  and  he 
did  not,  for  he  was  trampled  to  death  in  a 
crowd  (vii.  1-20).  He  informed  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  of  his  approaching  death  (viii. 
7-15).  He  declared  the  destruction  of  Aliab 
and  his  whole  house,  and  sent  a  young 
prophet  to  anoint  Jehu  to  execute  the  threat- 
ened judgment  (ix.  1-x.  28).  He  predicted 
three  victories  over  the  Syrians  ixiii.  14-19). 
Finally,  after  his  death,  a  man  hastily  cast 
into  the  same  sepulcher  was  at  once  restored 
to  life  on  touching  the  prophet's  bones  (20,  21). 


E-li'shah. 

The  descendants  of  Javan  collectively,  wlio 
inhabited  the  country  of  Klishah  (Gen.  x.  4). 
This  country  was  maritime,  and  ex])orted 
blue  and  i)urple  dye  stiiUs  (Ezek.  xxvii.  7). 
It  has  been  variously  explained  as  Hellas, 
Elis,  yEolis,  Italy,  and  Cartilage,  riiilobigi- 
cal  objections  weigh  against  the  first  four; 
and  there  is  no  proof  that  Carthage  was  ever 
called  Elissa,  and  this  town  was  besides  in 
Africa.  Alisiiiya,  who.se  king  exchanged  cor- 
respondence with  the  I'liaraohs  of  the  eight- 
eenth Egyi)tian  dynasty,  has  been  sug- 
gested; a  country  liard  by  Cilicia.  This 
identification  commends  it.self. 

E-lisb'a-ma  [God  hath  heard]. 

1.  Son  of  Ammihud,  and  prince  rif  the 
Ephraimites  at  the  beginning  of  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10;  ii.  iSj,  and 
ancestor  of  Joshua  (1  Chron.  vii.  2(i). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  through 
Jerahmeel  and  Sheshan  (1  Chron.  ii.  34,  41). 

3.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  iii.  6).     See  Ei.ishi'a. 

4.  Another  son  of  David  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1 
Chron.  iii.  8). 

5.  A  prie.st,  one  of  those  sent  by  Jehosha- 
phat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

6.  A  prince  and  scribe  in  the  reign  of  king 
Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  20.  21),  and  i)rob- 
ably  identical  with  the  grandfather  of  Ishmael 
of  the  seed  royal  who  murdered  Gedaliah,  the 
governor  of  Judaea  under  the  Babylonians  (2 
Kin.  XXV.  25:  Jer.  xli.  1). 

E-lish'a-phat  [God  hath  judged]. 

One  of  the  captains  of  hundreds  who  sup- 
ported Jehoiada  in  the  revolt  against  Athaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

E-lish'e-ba  [God  is  an  oath]. 

Daughter  of  Amminadab,  and  sister  of 
Nahshon.  She  became  the  wife  of  Aaron, 
and  the  mother  of  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar, 
and  Ithamar  (Ex.  vi.  23). 

E-lish'u-a  [God  is  salvation]. 

A  .son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
V.  15;  1  Chron.  xiv.  5).  In  the  correspond- 
ing position  in  the  third  list  of  David's  sons 
(1  Chron.  iii.  Cy)  the  name  Elishama  aiijjcars. 
In  view  of  the  reading  of  the  other  cata- 
logues, and  since  the  name  Elishama  was 
borne  by  another  of  David's  sons,  mentioned 
farther  mi  in  all  three  lists,  it  is  reasonable 
to  believe  that  Eli.shama  in  1  Chron.  iii.  (i  is  a 
misreading  of  Elishua,  as  it  is  a  quite  intelli- 
gible one. 

E-li'ud  [perhaps  from  Hebrew  "Ih/'hud, 
God  (if  Judah  or  of  the  Jews,  a  name  which 
does  not  occur  in  the  O.  T.] 

Son  of  Achini.  and  fatlier  of  Eleazar,  in 
the  ancestry  of  Christ  (ilat.  i.  14,  15). 

E-liz'a-phan  or  Elzaphan,  the  forms  being 
interchangeable  in  Hebrew  [God  hath  con- 
cealed]. 

1.  Son  of  Uzziel,  and  chief  of  the  Koha- 


Elizur 


206 


Elul 


tliites  in  tlic  wilderness  (Ex.  vi.  18,  22  ;  Num. 
iii.  80i.  Ileassisted  in  removing  tln^  bodies  of 
Nadab  and  Abihu  from  the  canij)  (Lev.  x.  4). 

2.  Son  of  Paruach,  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Zebulun  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv. 
2.")). 

E-li'ziir  [God  is  a  rock]. 

The  i)rince  of  the  Keubenites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  10). 

Erka-nah  [God  hath  created]. 

1.  A  Ijevite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  division  of  Korah.  He  was  brother 
of  Assir  and  Abiasaph  (Ex.  vi.  24;  1  Chron. 
vi.  23  and  perhaps  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  links  in  one 
genealogy,  one  the  son  of  Joel,  the  second 
the  son  of  Mahath.  and  the  third  the  son  of 
Jeroham.  Like  the  preceding,  they  were  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Izhar,  Kor- 
hite  division  ;  but  they  were  descended  from 
Abiasaph  (1  Chron.  vi.  30,  son  of  Joel ;  2H,  35, 
of  Mahath  ;  27,  34,  and  1  Sam.  i.  1,  of  Jero- 
ham). The  last  of  the  three  belonged  to  the 
hill  country  of  Ephraim,  lived  at  Ramathaim 
of  the  Zo])liites,  was  the  busl)and  of  Hannah 
and  Peninnah,  and  the  father  of  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  i.  1;  ii.  11,  20). 

5.  Another  Korhite  who  had  dwelt  in  Ben- 
jamin, perhaps  because  the  Korhites  were 
doorkeepers  of  the  tabernacle  which  was 
pitched  in  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  ix.  19),  and 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  6). 

().  A  doiirkeei)er  for  the  ark  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  23). 

7.  A  high  dignitary  at  the  court  of  Ahaz, 
second  only  to  the  king  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

8.  A  Levite  who  dwelt  in  a  village  of  the 
Netophathites  (1  Chron.  ix.  Ki). 

Erkosh-ite. 

A  citizen  of  Elko.sh  (Xah.  i.  1).  The  tradi- 
tion that  Alku.sh,  two  days' journey  north  of 
Nineveh,  was  the  birtli  and  burial  i)lace  of 
N;ibum  is  late,  lieing  unknown  to  early  Ara- 
bian and  Syrian  wi-iters;  ami  the  contents 
of  the  book  of  Nahum  ari'  against  it.  A  cred- 
ible, but  unproven,  identilication  is  with  the 
town  Elcesi  or  Helcesa-i  in  Galilet!,  which  wa? 
jjoiiited  out  to  Jerome.  According  to  another 
traditiiin,  ju-escrvcd  by  Epii)hanius,  I'^lkosh 
lay  lo  tiic  south  of  IJcgai'ar,  in  Syriac  Bet 
(ial)re,  that  is,  Beit  Jibrin  in  the  l<i\vland  of 
Judah. 

El'la-sar. 

A  iilacc  in  or  near  Babylonia  (Gen.  xiv.  1, 
9).  Not  imiirobably  Lar.sa,  the  remains  of 
which  now  constitute  the  mounds  of  Sen- 
kereh,  to  the  southeast  of  Erech. 

Elm. 

An  ernincous  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  'K/iih  in  Hos.  iv.  13.  A.  V.  The  word 
is  iiroperly  translated  "oak  "  in  Gen.  xxxv.4 
and  .Fudg.  vi.  11,  Ii).  with  terebinth  on  the 
margin  of  It.  V. 

El-ma'dam,  in  A.  V.  Elmodam. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  before  the 
exile  (Luke  iii.  28). 


El'na-am  [tiod  is  pleasantness]. 
The  father  of  certain  valiant  men  in  David's 
army  (1  Chron.  xi.  4(i). 

Erna-than  [God  hath  given]. 

1.  The  father  of  Nehushta,  mother  of  king 
Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8).  He  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  probably  the  prince  El- 
nathan,  sou  of  Achbor  (Jer.  xxvi.  22  ;  xsxvi. 
12,  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  the  first  two 
chief  men,  and  the  third  a  man  of  under- 
standing, sent  for  by  Ezra  to  the  brook  Ahava 
(Ezra  viii.  16). 

E-lo'i  [Aramaic,  my  God].     See  Eli,  I. 
E'lon  [an  oak  or  terebinth]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  whose  daughter  Esau  married 
(Gen.  xxvi.  34;  xxxvi.  2). 

2.  A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  14  ;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

3.  A  Zebulonite  who  judged  Israel  for  ten 
years,  and  v^'as  buried  at  Aijalon,  in  Zebulun 
(Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

4.  A  village  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  43).  Not 
identified ;  for  Beit  Ello,  8  miles  northwest 
by  we.st  from  Bethel,  is  not  in  the  limits  of 
the  ancient  territory  of  Dau. 

Elon-beth-ha'nan  [Elou  of  Beth-hauan]. 

A  town  in  Dan,  to  judge  from  its  associates 
(1  Kin.  iv.  9),  perhaps  identical  with  Elon. 
Its  site  is  not  Beit  'Anan.  8h  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem.  This  place  is  in  Benjamin,  a 
different  tax  district  (18),  and  the  name  is 
differently  spelled. 

E'loth.     See  Elath. 

El'pa-al  [God  is-a  reward]. 

A  man  of  Benjamin,  son  of  Shaharaim,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  viii.  11, 
12,  18). 

El'pa-let,  in  R.  V.  Elpelet.    See  Eliphe- 

Ll'lT. 

El-pa'ran.     See  El.\th. 

El'te-keb  [perhaps,  God  is  a  dread]. 

A  town  of  Dan  assigned  to  the  Levites 
(Josh.  xix.  44  ;  xxi.  23).  and  mentioned  in 
the  records  of  Sennacherib  likewise  in  con- 
nection with  Timnah  and  Ekron.  In  701 
R.  c.  Sennacherib  destroyed  the  town,  and  in 
its  vicinity  the  decisive  battle  between  the 
Assyrians  and  Egyptians  was  fought.  Not 
identified:  certainly  not  Beit  Likia,  2  miles 
south  of  the  Nether  Beth-boron. 

El'te-kon  [dod  is  firmness]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  .59).     Exact  site  unknown. 

El'to-lad  [birth,  race]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  30),  assigned  to  the  Simeonitcs 
(xix.  4).  Called  in  1  Chron.  iv.  29  simply 
Tolad,  with  omission  of  what  is  either  the 
word  for  God  or  the  Arabic  article.  Exact 
site  unknown. 

E'lul. 

The  sixth  month  of  the  year  (Neh.  vi.  15  ; 
1    ]\Iac.  xiv.  27),  approximately  September' 


Eluzai 


207 


Emerald 


E-lu'zai  [perhaps,  God  is  my  strength]. 
One  (if  the  valiant  men  wlio  eaiueto  David 
to  Zikla.i;  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

El-y-ma'is.     See  Ei.am. 

El'y-mas  [apparently  from  Arabic  'alim, 
learned]. 

A  Jewish  impostor,  Bar-jesus  by  name, 
which  means  sou  of  Jesus  or  Joshua,  who 
pretended  to  learn  the  future  through  sor- 
cerJ^  Paul  encountered  him  in  Paphos,  a 
town  of  Cyprus,  during  his  tirst  missionary 
journey.  He  sought  to  turn  from  the  faith 
Sergius  Panlus,  the  Roman  deputy  or  i)ro- 
consul  of  the  island,  who  seemed  disposed  to 
accept  the  dt)ctrine  of  Paul  and  seek  for  bap- 
tism. The  apostle,  thei'efore,  severely  re- 
buked the  sorcerer  and  struck  him  with  tem- 
porary blindness,  the  miracle  removing  the 
last  doubt  which  the  proconsul  had  as  to  the 
claims  of  Christian  truth  on  his  acceptance 
(Acts  xiii.  6-12). 

El'za-toad  [God  hath  bestowed]. 

1.  One  of  the  valiant  Gadites  who  came  to 
David  (1  Chron.  xii.  12). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Obed-edom, 
and  a  doorkeeper  at  the  house  of  the  Lord 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

El'za-plian.     See  Elizaphan. 

Em-balm'. 

To  attempt  to  preserve  a  dead  body  from 
decay  by  the  use  of  sweet  spices.  The  He- 
brews seldom  embalmed  their  dead  (Gen.  1. 
2,  26;  cp.  2  Chron.  xvi.  14  ;  John  xix.  39),  but 
the  art  of  embalming  was  practiced  by  the 
Egyptians  from  very  early  times.  The  em- 
balmers  were  a  numerous  guild,  who  dwelt 
at  the  cemeteries.  They  were  divided  into 
three  classes — the  first  made  the  incision  in 
the  body,  the  second  handled  the  spices,  and 
the  third  conducted  the  religious  ceremonies 
when  the  body  was  placed  in  the  tomb.  By 
the  time  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Moses,  they  had  brought 
their  art  to  great  perfection.  The  brain  was 
drawn  through  the  nose  with  an  iron  hook 
and  replaced  with  spices.  The  entrails  were 
removed,  and  the  abdominal  cavity  was 
washed  out  by  the  injection  of  palm  wiue, 


Egyptian  Embalming. 

and  then  filled  with  bruised  myrrh,  cassia, 
cinnamon,  and  other  spices.    Next  the  whole 


body  wasiilnnged  in  natron  (}r,  more  exactly, 
subcarhcinate  of  soda,  and  left  in  it  for 
seventy  days.  Tlien  it  was  rolled  in  linen 
bandages  only  three  or  four  inches  wide,  but 
of  the  extraordinary  length  of  700  or  even 
1000  yards.  Gum  .\rabic  was  used  to  keep 
the  bandages  in  tlicir  jilacc,  and  tinally  the 
corjise,  now  muminilied,  was  jilaced  in  a 
case  of  wood  or  cartounage,  made  in  the  shape 
of  a  man,  and  carved  and  ])ainted  to  repre- 
sent the  deceased  person.  H  was  often  en- 
closed in  a  second  or  outer  case  of  wood 
or  in  a  stone  sarcojjhagus.  A  less  expensive 
method  required  no  incision  ;  the  intestines 
were  dissolved  by  an  injection  of  oil  of  cedar. 
In  the  case  of  the  ])oor,  the  al)(lonien  was 
merely  purged  and  ste(|ic<l  in  nati-o!i  (Herod, 
ii.  85-88,  fully  conlirmed  by  Egyiitian  records 
and  mummies).  According  to  the  Sicilian 
historian  Diodorus,  the  interment  of  a  rich 
man  cost  the  relatives  the  eeiuivalent  of  about 
.?;1200.  A  second-rate  <'mbalniment  cost  aliont 
$400,  and  there  was  a  much  chea])er  kind 
for  the  common  peo])le.  Embalming  ceased 
about  A.  D.  700.  Many  nuimmies  are  in  the 
British  and  other  nniseunis.  Occasionally 
one  is  unrolled,  l)ut  it  tends  to  fall  to  pieces 
when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Em-broid'ery. 

Ornamentation  by  raised  figures  of  needle- 
work, executed  with  colored  silks,  gold  or 
silver  thread,  or  any  similar  material  differ- 
ing from  that  of  the  original  cloth.  Bezaleel 
and  Aholiab  were  al)le  to  ]ira(tice,  anu)ng 
other  arts,  that  of  endiroidering  in  blue, 
purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxv.  35  ; 
xxxviii.  23).  The  screens  for  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  and  the  gate  of  the  court  (Ex. 
xxvi.  36;  xxvii.  16)  and  the  girdle  of  the 
high  priest  (xxviii.  39,  R.  V. ;  xxxix.  29)  were 
embroidered.  The  wealthy  often  wore  em- 
broidered garments  (Judg.  v.  30  ;  Ps.  xlv.  14). 

E'mek-ke'ziz,  in  A.  V.  valley  of  Keziz  [a 
vale  cut  off  or  vale  of  fissure]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  evidently  in  a  valley 
and  apparently  iu>ar  Jericho  aTid  Beth-hoglah 
(Josh,  xviii.  21).  Scarcely  to  be  connected 
with  wady  el-Kaziz,  a  branch  of  the  Kidron, 
which  seems  to  lie  too  far  west  and  south. 

Em'er-ald  [Greek  .'oiuiraadoy]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  A'ojyhek. 
It  was  the  first  stoiu-  in  the  second  row  of 
those  on  the  Jewish  high  i)riest's  breastjilate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  IS;  xxxix.  11).  The  Syrians 
imported  precious  stones  of  this  kind  into 
Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  16),  and  the  Tyrians  used 
tliem  for  ornaments  (xxviii.  13).  'J'lie  exact 
stone  intended  is  doubtful.  It  may  be  the 
carbuncle  (R.  V.  margin:  cp.  Septiiagint). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Sinnnimlos. 
meaning  a  precious  stone  of  a  light  green 
color.  The  name  was  jierhaps  applied  to  any 
green  crystallized  mineral.  It  was  used  for 
signets  (Ecclus.  xxxi).6)  :  a  rainbow  is  likened 
to  it  (Rev.  iv.  .3) ;  it  was  to  be  the  fourth 
foundation  in  the  New  Jerusalem  (xxi.  19 ; 


Emerods 


208 


En-gedi 


cji.  Tdhit  xiii.  Ifi).  The  oniorald  is  a  variety 
of  luivl,  distiiifiiiisticd  by  its  color,  wliicli  is 
brit;lit  fjrccii.  from  tyi)icai  l)oryl,  wliicli  is 
jKiU'  fivvfu.  passing  into  ligLt  blue,  yellow, 
or  white.  While  the  beryl  is  colored  by  iron, 
th"  emerald  is  colored  by  chromium.  An- 
ciently it  was  found  iu  Cyprus,  in  Egypt,  and 
in  the  mountains  of  Ethiopia. 

Em'e-rods  [a  corrupted  form  of  hemor- 
rhoids]. 

Piles;  external  or  internal  tumors  iu  the 
anal  region,  formed  of  dilated  blood  vessels 
(l)eut.  xxviii.'27).  They  were  inflicted  on 
the  Philistines  of  Ashdod  and  Ekron,  to  com- 
pel them  to  send  back  the  ark  which  they 
had  captured  (1  Sam.  v.  li ;  vi.  11). 

E'mim,  in  A.  V.  Emims,  a  double  plural. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  territory  after- 
wards occupied  by  the  Moabites.  They  were 
tall  as  the  Auakim,  and  were  once  a  nu- 
merous and  powej-ful  people  (Deut.  ii.  !)-ll). 
C'hedorlaomer  smote  them  iu  the  plain  of 
Kiriathaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 

Em-man'u-el.    See  Immanuel. 

Em'ma-us. 

1.  A  village  (!0  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  a 
distance  which  could  be  traversed  on  foot  be- 
tween the  hour  lor  supper  and  the  time  of  an 
evening  meeting  (Luke  xxiv.  1.3,  29,  :}3;  cp. 
Mark  xvi.  14:  John  xx.  19).  Vespasian  lo- 
cated 800  veterans  at  "  Eramaus  distant  sixty 
[ac(;ording  to  another  reading,  thirty]  fur- 
longs from  Jerusalem"  (War  vii.  (i,  6).  The 
Talmud  states  that  Moza  is  Colonia.  Kubei- 
beh,  meaning  the  little  dome,  7  miles  uorth- 
west  of  Jerusalem  on  the  Roman  road,  was 
pointed  out  to  the  Crusaders  as  the  site  of 
Emmans.  In  the  vicinity  was  the  towu  of 
Mozah  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Three  miles  to  the 
south  of  Kubeibeh  is  Kulouieh,  that  is  col- 
ony, whose  distance  irora  Jerusalem  is  4 
miles  or  more  acciuxling  to  the  road  followed. 
Probably.  therefor(\  the  site  of  Enunaus  is 
to  be  found  either  at  Kubiebeh  or  Kulouieh, 
or  in  the  intervening  country.  The  distance 
and  trailition  since  the  time  of  the  Crusaders 
point  to  Kubeibeh ;  the  Roman  colony  to 
which  iMumaus  was  assigned  may  have  left 
its  name  attached  to  a  village  in  the  .southern 
part  of  its  possessions.  Conder's  suggestion 
of  the  ruin  Khamaseh,  8  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem,  is  not  hapiiy.  Th(!  distance  suits, 
bill  tb(^  name  iUiv.s  not  readily  ;  for  only  rarely 
does  the  smooth  bri;athing,  which  api)ears  iu 
the  (ireek  form  of  Emmaus,  represent  the 
strong  guttural  h.  in  Arabic  h,  i.  e.  kh  (cp. 
Iluldali  and  Hernu)n). 

2.  A  walled  town  of  some  note  18  miles,  or 
1(10  stades,  westwanl  from  Jerusalem  by  a 
circuitous  Roman  road  (1  Mac.  iii.  40;  ix.  50; 
War  ii.  20,  4).     Now  'Amwas. 

Em'mor.    See  IIamou. 
E'na-im  [two  sjirings]. 
A  town  on  the  road  from  Adullam  to  Tim- 
nath  [Gen.  xxxviii.  It,  21,  in  A.  V.  open). 


E'nam  [place  of  fountains]. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  .'54);  probably  identical  with  Enaim. 

E'nan  [having  eyes,  seeing]. 

The  father  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Xaphtali  iu  the  days  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  15). 

En-camp'ment.     See  Camp. 

En-cliant'er. 

One  who  practices  any  form  of  enchant- 
ment. In  E.  V.  of  Daniel  (ii.  2)  it  is  the 
rendering  of  the  Aramaic  'Ashshaphim,  and 
denotes  conjurers  and  exorcists  who  used 
incantations  and  pronounced  spells  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  aid  of  evil  spirits  or 
of  freeing  the  supposed  victims  of  evil  spirits 
froiu  their  torments. 

En- chant 'ment. 

The  practice  of  magical  arts  or  the  utter- 
ance of  certain  words  whereby  the  aid  of 
evil  spirits  is  invoked,  in  order  to  produce 
supernatural  eflects  over  human  beings,  dan- 
gerous animals,  or  nature  generally.  En- 
chantment is  not  always  distinguished  from 
divination  in  the  English  versions  (Num. 
xxiii.  23  ;  xxiv.  1 ;  and  2  Kin.  xvii.  17,  where 
enchantment  is  rather  omen ;  and  A.  V.  of 
Jer.  xxvii.  9).  Under  enchantment  are  iJrop- 
ei-ly  included  magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  conjuration, 
exorcism  (Dan.  ii.  2,  in  A.  V.  astrologer),  sor- 
cery (Acts  viii.  9,  11  ;  xiii.  8,  10).  The  prac- 
ticing of  enchantments  was  forbidden  by  the 
Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xviii.  10).  Enchantments 
practiced  to  prevent  a  venomous  snake  from 
biting  (Eccles.  x.  11 ;  cp.  Ps.  Iviii.  5 ;  Jer.  viii. 
17)  belong,  of  course,  to  a  diflferent  category. 
They  require  neither  trickery  nor  the  invo- 
cation of  the  powers  of  evil. 

En'-dor.  [fountain  of  habitation]. 

A  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Jo.sh.  xvii.  11;  reference  to  En-dor  wanting 
in  Septuagint).  Sisera  and  his  king,  Jabin, 
perished  iu  its  vicinity  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  It 
was  the  residence  of  the  woman  with  a  fa- 
miliar spirit,  whom  king  Saul  consulted  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  7).  It  has  been  identified  as 
the  village  of  Endor  or  Endiir,  on  the  north- 
ern shoulder  of  Little  Hermon,  6  miles  S.  E. 
of  Nazareth.     See  Saul. 

En-eg'la-im  [fountain  of  two  calves]. 

A  place  on  the  Dead  Sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  10). 

En-gan'nim  [fountain  of  gardens]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  21),  assigned  to  the  Gershonite 
Levites  (xxi.  29).  It  seems  to  be  the  Ginaja 
of  Josephus  (Antiq.  xx.  6.  1;  War  iii.  3,  4). 
It  is  the  modern  Jen  in,  a  village  of  about 
3000  inhabitants,  on  the  southern  margin  of 
the  iilain  of  Jezreel,  .">  miles  northeast  of 
Dotliau  and  about  7  southwest  from  mount 
(;ill)(.a. 

En-ge'di  [fountain  of  a  kid]. 
A   fountain    and    town    originally  called 
Hazazon-tamar,  meaning  pruning  of  a  palm 


En-haddah 


209 


En-rimmon 


(2  (Ill-oil.  XX.  2),  in  the  wildornoss  on  tlio 
western  .shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  trilie 
of  Jiidali  (Josh.  XV.  G2).  A  dittieiilt  earavan 
route,  crowded  between  niouiitaiii  and  .sea, 
passed  the  spot.  In  the  time  of  Abraliani  it 
was  occupied  by  Aniorites,  who  were  smitten 
at  the  spot  by  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  7). 
David  took  refuge  in  the  strongholds  of  the 
vicinity  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  29).  In  one  of  the 
caves  where  he  was  hiding  he  cut  oil'  the 
skirt  of  Saul's  robe  (xxiv.  1-22).    The  foun- 


En-mish  pat  [fountain  of  .judgment]. 
Tlie  same  as  Ka(iesh-l)arnea  ((Jen.  xiv.  7). 

E'noch,  ill  A.  V.  once  Henocn  ( 1  (  Iiron.  i. ;{) 
[initialed,  dedicated].  The  same  name,  borne 
by  otliers,  is  rendered  Ih^iiocli  and  Ilanoch. 

1  and  2.  A  son  of  Cain,  and  the  city  which 
Cain  built  and  named  after  him  (Gen.  iv.  17, 
IS). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Jared,  and  progenitor 
of  Methuselah.      He  lived  365  years,   and 


Wilderness  of  En-gedi,  Dead  !^ea,  and  Mountains  of  Moah 


tain,  whicli  still  bears  the  name  of  'Ain  Jidy, 
is  a  co{)ious  hot  spring  of  fresh  water,  burst- 
ing forth  about  300  or  400  feet  above  the  base 
of  a  vast  cliff,  midway  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan  and  the  southern  point  of  the 
sea  (cp.  Ezek.  xlvii.  10).  The  hot  water 
created  an  oasis,  rich  with  senii-troi)ical  vege- 
tation and  celebrated  for  palms,  vineyards, 
and  bahsam  (Song  i.  14  ;  Antiq.  ix.  1,  2). 

En-had'dah  [fountain  of  vehemence]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
21).  Not  identified,  though  conjecturally 
near  En-gannim. 

En-hak'ko-re  [fountain  of  him  that  called]. 

A  s]n-ing  in  Lehi  which  burst  forth  when 
Samson  cried  to  the  Lord  (Judg.  xv.  18,  19). 
It  was  long  pointed  out. 

En-ha'zor  [fountain  of  the  village]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  37), 
mentioned  in  the  list  between  Kadesh  and 
Iron.  Its  site  has  not  been  positively  iden- 
tified. 

14 


walked  with  God.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the 
line  of  whom  it  is  not  said  that  he  died.  He 
was  not;  for  God  took  him  (Gen.  v.  18-24). 
He  was  translated,  and  did  not  see  death 
(Ecclus.  xliv.  16;  xlix.  14;  Heb.  xi.  5).  In 
Jude  14,  15  there  is  a  prophecy  of  Enoch's  in 
which  he  declares  God's  .just  .judgment  of 
the  unrighteous.  The  words  of  this  jirojyhecy 
are  found  in  the  pseudepigrai)}iical  Book  of 
Enoch,  which  is  an  extravagant  production, 
amplifying  the  antediluvian  history,  and 
even  rendering  it  incredible.  Jude  has  either 
made  a  citation  from  this  book  or  el.se  both 
he  and  the  author  of  the  book  quoted  an  old 
tradition.  The  X.  T.  writers  have  several 
times  quoted  uninspii-ed,  and  even  heathen, 
authors. 

E'nosh,  in  A.  V.Enos,  except  in  1  Chron.  i. 
1  [mail]. 

The  son  of  Seth  (Gen.  iv.  26;  v.  6-11;  1 
Chron.  i.  1 ;  Luke  iii.  38). 

En-rlm'moii  [fountain  of  Eimmou  or  of 
the  pomegranate]. 


En-rogel 


210 


Ephesians 


A  town  of  Judah,  inhabited  after  the  cap- 
tivity I  Nell.  xi.  -29),  and  apparently  consist- 
ins  of  the  ncijiliboriug  villages  of  Aiu  and 
Rinmion  '  see  each  ). 

En-ro'gel  [perhaps,  spy's  or  fuller's  spring]. 

A  fountain  just  outside  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  17),  near  the  valley  of  Hinnom  and  on 
the  boundary  line  between  .Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin (Josh.  XV.  7  ;  xviii.  Iti).  According  to 
Josephus,  it  was  in  the  king's  garden  (Antiq. 
vii.  14,4).  During  Absalom's  rebellion  Jona- 
than and  Ahimaaz  took  up  their  abode  there, 
to  be  able  to  collect  and  send  news  to  David 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Near  by  was  the  stone 
Zoheleth,  where  Adonijah  instituted  festiv- 
ities when  he  conspired  to  seize  the  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  i.  9).  The  traditional  situation  of 
the  fountain,  almost  universally  accepted,  is 
Bir  Eyub,  the  well  of  Job,  just  below  the 
junction  of  the  valleys  of  Hinnom  and  the 
Kidron,  south  of  Jerusalem.  This  is  a  well, 
125  feet  deep,  walled  half  way  down  and 
sunk  the  rest  of  the  distance  into  the  solid 
rock.  That  it  is  a  well  and  not  a  fountain  is 
scarcely  a  serious  ol)jection  to  the  traditional 
identification  (cp.  Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14).  The 
well  was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  copious 
streams  which  at  certain  seasons  are  liable  to 
gush  from  the  ground  at  this  spot.  The 
ideiititication  of  En-rogel  with  the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  in  the  side  of  Ophel  has  a  few 
advocates,  especially  Grove  and  Conder. 

En-she'mesh  [fountain  of  the  sun]. 

A  fountain  and  town  on  the  boundary  line 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  7; 
xviii.  17).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
'.\in  Hand,  a  little  east  of  Bethany,  on  the 
road  between  Jerussilem  and  Jericho,  and 
the  last  spring  until  the  Jordan  valley  is 
reached. 

En-tap'pu-ah.    See  Tappuah  2. 

E-psen'e-tus  [praiseworthy] . 

A  convert  biloiiging  to  Achaia,  and  the 
firstfruits  of  that  region  to  Christ.  Paul 
called  him  beloved  (Rom.  xvi.  5). 

Ep'a-phras. 

A  Christian  who,  coming  to  Paul  whilst 
he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  gave  a  highly 
favorable  account  of  the  Colossian  church, 
with  which  he  was  connected,  perhaps  as  its 
minister.  He  joined  the  apostle  in  sending 
it  salutations  (Col.  i.  7,  H;  iv.  12).  He  re- 
mained in  ]{ome,  and  was  in  some  .sense 
Paul's  fellovv-i)risoiier  in  Christ  (Philem.  2;5). 
See  ICi'Ai'iiuuDiTUs. 

E-paph-ro-dl'tus  [lovely,  charming]. 

A  Christian  whom  the  church  at  l'hilipi)i 
sent  with  a  present  to  the  ajiostle  Paul,  then 
a  ])risoncr  at  Rome.  .Soon  afterwards  he  be- 
c.iini^  s(rrious!y  ill.  It  grieved  him  that  the 
news  of  this  sickness  reached  Pliijippi,  and 
cri-ated  an.xiety  among  his  friends  there. 
On  this  account  Paul  sent  him  back  to 
Philii)pi  as  soon  a.s  his  health  ])ermitte(l 
(Phil.    ii.    2.V:J0;    iv.   18),    making    him    the 


bearer  of  the  Eiiistle  to  the  Philippians. 
Perhaps  Epaphroditus  and  Epaphras  were 
one  and  the  same  person,  but  there  is  a 
difficulty  in  accepting  this  view,  for  the 
former  seems  clearly  connected  with  the 
church  at  Philippi,  and  the  latter  with  that 
at  (JolosstE. 

E'phah,  I.  [darkness]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midianites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4 ;  1  Chron.  i.  33),  rich  in  camels  and  drom- 
edaries (Is.  Ix.  6).  They  lived  in  northeastern 
Arabia. 

2.  A  concubine  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jahdai  (1 
Chron.  ii.  47). 

E'phali,  II.  [perhaps  from  Egyptian  oiphi, 
an  old  measure]. 

A  measure  of  capacity  containing  ten  omers 
(Ex.  xvi.  36).  and  used  for  such  articles  as 
flour  (Judg.  vi.  19)  or  barley  (Ruth  ii.  17). 
It  was  equivalent  to  a  bath  or  one-tenth  of  a 
cor  (Ezek.  xlv.  11, 14),  and  contained  one' Attic 
metretes  or  seventy-two  sextaries  (Antiq.  viii. 
2, 9 ;  ix.  4,  5 ;  and  xv.  9, 2,  where  read  metretes 
for  medimnoi),  and,  if  reckoned  at  1952.17 
cubic  inches,  contained  a  trifle  more  than  3 
pecks,  5  quarts,  American  measure.  Dis- 
honest traders  sometimes  had  an  ephah  of 
insuflicient  capacity  and  used  it  for  fraud 
(Amos  viii.  5). 

E'phai  [fatigued]. 

A  Netophathite  whose  sons  came  with  others 
to  the  Babylonian  governor  of  Judtea  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  promised  protec- 
tion (Jer.  xl.  8).  All  were  subsequently  massa- 
cred by  Ishmael  (xli.  3). 

E'pher  [a  calf  or  mule]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midianites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4;  1  Chron.  i.  33).  Their  exact  location  has 
not  been  determined. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

3.  A  chief  man  in  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

E-phes-dam'miin  [end  or  coast  of  Dam- 
mim] . 

A  place  within  the  territory  of  Judah,  be- 
tween Socoh  and  Azekah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1). 
Called  Pas-dammim  in  1  Chron.  xi.  13,  a  form 
perhaps  due  to  corruption  of  the  text.  Com- 
monly identified  with  the  ruins  Damun,  about 
4  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Socoh. 

E-pbe'si-ans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

This  epistle  was  written  by  the  apostle 
Paul  when  he  was  a  prisoner  (iii.  1 ;  iv.  1 ;  vi. 
20),  probably  at  Rome  A.  D.  62,  though  some 
assign  it  to  the  Cicsarean  im])risonment  (Acts 
xxiv.  27).  It  is  addressed  to  the  .saints  which 
are  at  Ephcsus  and  the  faithful  in  Christ 
Jesus.  R.  V.  notes,  however,  that  some  very 
ancient  authorities  omit  the  words  "at  Ephc- 
sus." The  two  chief  N.  T.  manuscripts 
(Sinaitic  and  Vatican)  omit  them,  and  from 
very  early  times  a  diff"erence  of  opinion  ap- 
pears as  to  its  intended  readers,  though  the 


Ephesians 


>ll 


Ephesus 


tradition  of  the  church  called  it  "  to  the 
Ephesians."  The  most  probable  explanation 
is  that  it  was  a  circular  letter  intended  for 
all  the  churches  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and 
that,  since  Ephesus  was  the  chief  of  these, 
the  epistle  naturally  came  to  be  considered 
as  addressed  to  it.  Perhaps  the  address  was 
hlank,  and  copies  left  in  each  city  with  the 
blank  lilled.  Its  circular  character  seems  to 
be  confirmed  by  the  absence  from  it  of  local 
allusions  and  discussions.  It  is  a  doctrinal 
and  ethical  treatise  in  the  form  of  an  epistle. 
Like  that  to  the  Colossians,  it  was  sent  by 
Tychicus  (vi.  21),  and  the  similarity  of  lan- 
guage and  thought  shows  that  the  two  were 
written  at  the  same  time.  Compare  for  ex- 
ample 

Eph.  i.  ],  2  with  Col.  i.  ],  2 

"  i.  3,  20;  ii.  6;  ill.  10;  vi.  12  with  Col.  i.  .'> ;  iii. 

1-3 

"  i.  6  with  Col.  i.  14 

"  i.  7     "        "    i.  14 

"  i.  8     "        "   ii.  23 

•'  i.  9:  iii.  9;  vi.  19  with  Col.  i.  26;  ii.  2;  iv.  3 

"  i.  10  with  Col.  i.  20,  25 

"  i.  11     "        "    i.  12 

"  i.  17      "        "    i.  10 

"  i.19,20"        "  ii.  12 

"  i.  20     "        "  iii.  1 

'•  i.  22     "        "    i.  18 

"  i.23     "        "   ii.  9 

These  are  but  examples,  to  which  even  the 
reader  of  the  English  Bible  can  add  many 
more.  The  two  epistles  were  evidently  the 
product  of  the  apostle's  mind  acting  under 
the  same  circumstances.  And  Ephesians  seems 
to  have  been  written  just  after  Colossians.  In 
it  the  thought  is  carried  further.  The  theme 
of  Colossians  is  the  preeminence  of  Christ's 
person  and  work.  That  of  Ephesians  is  the 
establishment  of  the  church,  considered  as 
the  entire  number  of  the  redeemed.  The 
Ephesians,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  sum  up  all 
Paul's  previous  teaching  for  the  purpose  of 
stating  the  purpose  of  God  in  the  mission  of 
his  Son,  which  was  the  rcdemi)tion  of  his 
chosen  people  to  manifest  to  all  the  universe 
the  riches  of  his  grace.  Hence,  assuming 
.salvation  through  faith,  the  divinity  and 
finished  work  of  Jesus  and  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles,  it  advances  to  a  comidete  theodicy. 
In  chap.  i.  we  liave  what  may  be  called  the 
divine  side  of  the  church's  history,  which 
originated  in  God's  sovereign  and  eternal 
purpose  (3-6),  w'as  efi"ected  by  Christ's  work 
(7-12),  and  is  certified  by  the  sealing  of  the 
Spirit  (13,  14).  He  prays  that  they  may  un- 
derstand the  hope  of  Christ's  calling,  of  which 
the  risen  and  exalted  Saviour  is  the  first  fruit 
and  pledge  (15-23).  In  chap.  ii.  we  have  the 
human  side  of  the  history,  being  taught  that 
the  elect  are  delivered  out  of  sin  and  con- 
demnation by  unmerited  grace  (1-10).  and 
are  united,  Jew  and  gentile,  through  Christ 
into  one  spiritual  temple  (11-22).  In  chap, 
iii.  the  apostle  states  liis  own  position  as  the 
minister  to  the  church  of  this  divine  mys- 
tery (1-13),  and  prays  that  they  may  realize 


and  enjoy  what  God  has  prepared  for  them 
(14-21).  Chapters  iv.-vi.  are  an  extended 
exhortation  to  walk  wortliily  of  their  high 
calling  in  all  the  relations  of  the  i)resent  life. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  addres.sed  from 
the  East  to  the  West,  was  Paul's  comjilete 
statement  of  the  way  of  salvation.  The 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  addressed  from  th<? 
West  to  the  East,  was  his  comjilete  statement 
of  the  whole  i)ur])ose  of  God  in  human  his- 
tory. It  may  l)e  said  to  mark  the  climax  of 
his  theological  instruction.  c;.  t.  p. 

Before  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was 
written,  Paul  had  seen  a  new  s])iritual  com- 
munity arise  in  the  world,  composed  of 
persons  of  difl'erent  races ;  he  had  l)een 
teaching  tliat  this  community,  the  church, 
is  the  body  of  Christ  (Rom.  xii.  ."> ;  1  Cor. 
xii.  27;  Col.  i.  18;  ii.  lit);  and  lie  had  l)een 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  liarmony 
among  its  members  (Kom.  xii.  4-8;  1  Cor. 
xii.  12-30).  In  writing  at  this  time  to  the 
churches  in  the  province  of  .\sia,  whose 
membership  was  composed  of  the  most  di- 
verse racial  elements  and  among  whom  sjiec- 
ulative  theories  were  rife  which  tended  to 
subordinate  Christ,  it  was  natural  for  the 
apostle  to  give  prominence  to  the  conceiition 
of  Christ  as  the  head  of  the  body,  the 
church  (Eph.  i.  22,  23),  from  wluim  the 
whole  body  fitly  framed  and  knit  totrether 
through  that  whicli  every  joint  supiilieth, 
according  to  the  working  in  due  measure  of 
each  several  part,  maketh  the  increase  of  tin- 
body  unto  the  building  up  of  itself  in  love 
(iv.'ie,  R.  v.;  cp.  ii.  11-22).  And  not  only 
was  the  prominence  of  this  thf)Uglit  natural 
at  this  time  in  a  letter  from  Paul  to  Chris- 
tians in  the  province  of  Asia;  but  such  an 
expression  of  his  nuiture  thought  altout 
Christ  was  to  be  expected  under  these  con- 
ditions from  one  whose  deep  interest  in  the 
subject  is  witnessed  by  his  earlier  ei)istles. 

•J.  D.  D. 

Eph'e-sus  [acconling  to  tradition,  permis- 
sion]. 

A  city  of  Lydia  on  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cay- 
ster,  nearly  midway  between  Miletus  on  the 
south  and  Smyrna  on  the  north.  Situated 
at  the  junction  of  natural  trade  routes,  and 
near  a  far-famed  shrine  of  an  Asiatic  nature 
goddess,  whom  the  (Jreeks  identified  with 
Artemis,  its  growth  was  a.^sured.  In  the 
eleventh  century  B.  c.  the  town  was  .seized 
by  the  lonians,  a  section  of  the  (Jreek  race. 
Ephesus  became  one  of  the  twelve  cities  he- 
longing  to  their  confederation,  and  it.self  the 
capital  of  Ionia.  About  .">.')  B.  f.  the  city 
submitted  to  Crcesus.  king  of  Lydia.  whose 
capital  was  at  Sardis,  but  it  .soon  fell  under 
the  Persian  domination.  When  the  victories 
of  Alexander  the  Great  overthrew  the  Per- 
sian empire, Eiihesuscame  under  Macedonian- 
Greek  rule.  Hitherto  it  had  been  confined 
to  a  low,  alluvial  plain  liable  to  be  flooded. 
About  286  B.  c,   liowever,   Lysimachus  ex- 


Ephesus 


212 


Ephesus 


tended  it  to  an  adjacent  eminence  which  the 
water  could  not  reach.  By  this  cliange  of 
location  tlie  temple  of  Artemis  was  left  out- 
side tlu^  city  walls.  In  ISM)  B.  c.  the  lioniaus, 
after  defeating  Antioclius  the  Great  at  Mag- 
nesia, took  Ephesus  from  him,  and  gave  it 
to  Eumenes  II.,  king  of  Persjamos.  On  the 
death  of  Attains  III.  of  I'ergamos  in  1313 
B.  c.  it  reverted  to  them,  and  eventually  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Koman  province  of 
Asia.  In  a.  d.  29  the  city  was  much  dam- 
aged by  an  earthquake,  but  was  rebuilt  by 
the  emperor  Tiberius.  Many  .Tews  with 
Roman  citizenshij)  resided  at  Ephesus,  :ind 
maintained  a  synagogue  (Antiq.  xiv.  10,  11 


was  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia 
addressed  in  the  book  of  Eevelatiou  (Rev. 
i.  11;  ii.  1-7),  and  according  to  tradition 
the  apostle  John  spent  the  last  years  of  his 
life  in  the  city.  The  third  general  council 
of  the  church  was  held  at  Ephesus,  A.  D.  431, 
and  defin(>d  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of 
Christ  so  far  as  affirming  that  Christ  has  two 
natures  and  one  person  ;  and  in  449  a  synod 
was  convened,  the  so-called  Robber  Council, 
which  restored  Eutychus.  The  silting  up  of 
the  harbor  by  mud  brought  down  by  the 
Cayster  led  to  the  decay  of  the  city.  Among 
its  remains  are  the  ruins  of  the  wall  and  a 
gate,    the    stadion,    a   tine    theater,    Eomau 


Ruins  of  the  Stadion  at  Ephesus 


^^■'^SS- 


and  13;  Acts  xviii.  19;  xix.  17);  and  Paul, 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  toward  the  end  of 
his  second  missionary  journey,  ])aid  a  short 
visit  to  the  i)lacc,  i>i('H<'lied  in  the  synagogue, 
and  left  A(|uila  and  Priscilla  there,  who  con- 
tinued the  work  (Acts  -xviii.  19-21).  On  his 
third  .journey  he  labored  at  Ephesus  at  least 
two  years  and  three  months,  lesiving  the  city 
after  llu^  riot  which  was  stirred  up  by  Deme- 
trius, a  maker  of  small  silver  models  of  the 
temple,  who  found  his  craft  endangered  by  the 
preaching  of  the  apostle  (xix.  ]-41  ;  cp.  1 
Cor.  XV.  ;]2;  xvi.  s  ;  'i  Tim.  i.  IK).  Paul  left 
Timothy  behind  to  prevent  the  church  from 
being  corrupted  by  fal.se  doctrine  (1  Tim. 
i.  3).  Snbse(iuently,  returning  fnmi  Europe 
and  nnabli!  to  revisit  Ei)hesMs.  he  sum- 
mone<l  the  elders  of  the  church  to  him 
at  Miletus  (Acts  xx.  IC,  17).  Tvchicus 
was  afterwards  sent  to  E|)liesus  w'ith  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephcsians  ( Eph.  i.  1;  vi. 
.21;  2  Tim.  iv.  12).     The  church  at  Ephesus 


baths,  and  a  library.     The  site  of  the  great 
temple  is  a  swamp. 

An  earlier  Ionic  temple  was  set  on  fire  by 
Herostratos  in  356  B.  c.  and  destroyed  ;  but 
it  was  rebuilt  within  a  few  years.  The  new 
structure  was  a  magnificent  work  of  Ionic 
architecture,  four  times  as  large  as  the  Par- 
thenon at  Athens,  and  ranked  as  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  It  stood  on  a 
platform  about  42.")  feet  in  length  and  239A 
feet  in  width,  measured  from  the  lowest 
ste]..  A  llight  of  ten  stei>s  led  to  the  pave- 
ment of  th(!  jilatforin,  and  three  more  steps 
to  the  jiavement  of  the  temple.  The  temple 
itself  was  :M2i  feet  in  length  and  1G4  feet  in 
width.  It  consisted  of  two  rows  of  eight 
columns  each  in  front  and  rear,  and  two  rows 
of  twenty  columns  each  on  either  side  of  the 
sanctuary.  These  with  two  columns  at  each 
entrance  of  the  .sanctuary  made  one  hundred 
in  all.  Each  was  a  moiiolilh  of  marble  55 
feet  in  height,  and  the  eighteen  at  each  end 


Ephlal 


213 


Ephraim 


were  sculptured.  The  roof  was  covered  with 
large  white  marble  tiles.  Tlie  cella  or  inner 
.sanctuary,  which  these  columns  surrounded, 
was  70  feet  wide  and  105  long.  Its  internal 
ornamentation  was  of  surpassing  splendor, 
adorned  with  works  of  art  by  I'hidias  and 
Praxiteles,  Scopas,  Parrhasius,  and  Apelles. 
See  illustration  under  Diana.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Goths  about  a.  d.  2()0. 

The  theater  was  one  of  the  largest  known 
of  all  that  have  remained  to  modern  times. 
The  auditorium  was  semicircular,  49")  feet 
in  diameter,  and  the  orchestra  was  110.  The 
stage  was  22  feet  wide.  The  tlii'att'r  contained 
(1 J  rows  of  seats,  and  afforded  room  for  an 
audience  of  24,500  persons. 

Eph'lal  [judicious]. 

A  man  of  Judah  of  the  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chrou.  ii.  37). 

Eph'od  [a  covering]. 

1.  An  upper  garment  worn  by  the  Jewish 
high  priest.  It  was  one  of  six  sacred  vest- 
ments which  he  was  required  to  put  on  when 
about  to  conduct  the  worship  of  God  (Ex. 
xxviii.  4),  and  was  of  gold,  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  flue  twined  linen.  It  consisted 
of  two  shoulder  pieces  joined  bj''  the  two 
edges  (6,  7),  and  falling  over  the  front  and 
back  part  of  the  body.  There  was  a  hole  in 
the  top,  doubtless  for  the  head,  with  a  woven 
border  of  the  same  materials  around,  to  ren- 
der the  cloth  less  liable  to  tear  (8,  cp.  32).  On 
it,  so  as  to  stand  upon  the  shoulders  of  the 
priest  when  the  ephod  was  worn,  were  two 
onyx  stones,  each  having  engraved  upon  it  the 
namesof  six  tribes  (xxviii.  9;  xxxix.6,7).  In 
front,  to  rings  attached  underneath  close  to 
the  coupling,  the  breastplate  was  bound  with 
a  lace  of  blue,  so  that  the  breastplate  itself 
might  be  supported  (xxviii.  25,  27,  23  ;  xxxix. 
19-21).  David,  desiring  to  ask  counsel  of 
God  in  the  presence  of  the  high  priest,  had 
the  ephod  brought  near  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  9-12; 
XXX.  7,  8),  for  with  it  were  tlie  Uriui  and 
Thummim  (Ex.  xxviii.  30).  Au  ephod  might 
thus  readily  become  an  object  of  adoration 
or  be  used  in  the  worship  of  an  idol  (Judg, 
viii.  27;  xvii.  5).  The  robe  of  the  ephod  was 
a  garment  distinct  from  the  ephod,  was  blue, 
and  was  sleeveless,  fringed  at  the  bottom 
with  alternate  bells  of  gold  and  pomegran- 
ates of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  (Ex.  xxviii. 
31-35;  xxix.  5;  xxxix.  22-2(i). 

A  more  simple  ephod  of  linen,  probably 
without  the  ornamentation,  was  worn  by 
ordinary  priests.  The  eighty-five  whom  Doeg 
slewall  wore  the  linen  ei)hod  (ISam.  xxii.  18). 
Samuel,  also,  wore  an  ephod  while  he  \vas  a 
child  in  charge  of  Eli,  the  high  priest  (1  Sam. 
ii.  18).  David  wore  one  apparently  of  simple 
linen  (2  Sam.  vi.  14;  1  Chron.  xv.  27). 

2.  The  father  of  Hanniel,  prince  of  Manas- 
seh  in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

Eph'pha-tha. 

An  Aramaic  imperative  signifying  "be 
opened  "  (Mark  vii.  34). 


E'phra-im  [double  fruitfulness]. 

1.  The  younger. sim  of  Joseph  and  Asenath, 
daughter  of  Potijiherah,  i)riest  of  On.  11<- 
was  born  while  Joseidi  was  ])rime  minister 
of  Egyjit  (Gen.  xli.  45-52).  When  the  two 
sons  were  brought  to  .Jacob  on  his  sickbed, 
to  receive  their  grandfalher's  blessing.  .Jacob 
intentionally  laid  his  right  hand  (the  hand 
of  greater  honor)  on  the  head  of  K])hraim, 
the  younger  grandson,  and  his  left  on  that 
of  Manasseh,  the  elder.  IJeing  remonstraud 
with  liy  Joseph,  he  explained  that  both  should 
become  a  i)eoi)le,  but  Ephraim  should  lie 
the  greater  and  should  be  the  ancestor  of  a 
multitude  of  i)eo]iles  or  tril)al  families  ((ien. 
xlviii.  8-20).  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  though 
only  grandchildren  of  .lacob,  were  treated 
as  if  they  were  his  children,  and  their  de- 
scendants were  consequently  regarded  as  two 
tribes  instead  of  one.  Ephraim  had  the  .sor- 
row of  losing  two  of  his  sous,  who  were  slain 
while  making  a  raid  <m  the  cattle  of  the 
Philistines  (1  Chron.  vii.  20-22). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Ephraim  was  tlie 
progenitor  (Josh.  xvi.  4,  10;  Judg.  v.  14). 
The  growth  of  the  tribe  was  for  a  time  re- 
tarded by  the  death  of  several  of  bis  sons  in 
a  fray  against  the  Philistines  (1  Chrou.  vii. 
21-23).  At  the  fir.st  census  in  the  wilderness 
the  Ephraimites  numbered  40,500,  being  the 
lowest  in  numlxM-  of  the  tribes  excepting  only 
Manasseh  and  lienjannn  (Num.  i.  33).  They 
fell  off  during  the  wanderings,  and  at  tiie 
second  census  numbered  only  32,.500,  being 
now  the  lowest  of  all  the  tribes  except  Simeon 
(xxvi.  37) ;  still  the  double  tribe  of  Joseph 
was  the  largest  of  the  tribes,  and  numb(>red 
85,200  men,  besides  wcunen  atul  children  (:>4. 
37;  cp.  Dent,  xxxiii.  17).  When  Joshua  was 
the  leader  of  Israel,  the  tribe  rose  rapidly  in 
reputation,  for  he  was  himself  an  J'"]ihraimite 
(Josh.  xix.  50:  xxiv.  30).  The  tribe  was  al- 
lotted territory  west  of  the  Jordan.  Its 
southern  boundary  line  ran  from  the  Jordan 
at  Jericho  to  Bethel,  Jaiz,  Ataroth-addar, 
Uliper  Beth-horon,  Lower  Beth-lniron,  Gezer, 
and  the  sea  (Josh.  xvi.  1-3,  5).  The  north- 
ern line  ran  through  Michmethath,  near  She- 
chem,  eastward  to  Taauath-shiloh,  Janoah, 
Ataroth.  and  Naarah.  reached  Jericho  and  tlie 
Jordan  (6,  7),  and  ]pa.ssed  westwaril  from  Mich- 
methath to  En-tappuah,  the  river  Kanah  and 
the  Mediterranean  (8 ;  cp.  xvii.  7).  It  had  the 
territory  of  tlie  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  west 
of  tlie  Jordan,  on  the  north,  and  Benjamin 
on  the  south  ;  it  reached  tjie  Mediterranean 
on  the  west  and  to  the  Jordan  (m  the  east. 
Shechem  was  within  the  territory  of  Ephraim 
(Josh.  xxi.  20,  21  ;  1  Kin.  xii.  25  ;  1  Chrou.  vi. 
67).  The  Ephraimites  failed  to  expel  the 
Canaanites  from  (iezer,  which  was  within  the 
lot  of  Ephraim  ;  but,  either  alone  or  in  (-oii- 
junction  with  their  kindred  the  Manassites, 
they  captured  Bethel  (Judg.  i.  22-2(i,  29). 
They  acted  patriotically  in  the  fight  cele- 
brated in  song  by  Deborah  (v.  14).  They 
quarreled  with   Gideon,  who  was  a   Manas- 


Ephraim 


214 


site,  for  not  liaviuji  called  tbeui  to  aid  him 
in  expelling  the  Midianites  from  Canaan  (viii. 
l-:>).  They  resolutely  eneoiuitered  in  battle 
Je]ilithah.  "the  deliverer  of  Israel,  for  not 
havinsr  sununoned  them  to  assist  him  in  the 
Ammonite  war,  4-2,000  of  the  tribe  falling  in 
the  struggle  (xii.  l-(i).  Micah,  of  graven 
image  notoriety,  resided  in  mount  Ei>braim 
(xvii.  1);  and  "the  Levite,  the  ill-treatment 
of  whose  concubine  led  to  the  hostilities 
against  Benjamin,  sojourned  there  (xix.  1). 
Jeroboam  wiis  a  man  of  Ephraim,  and  after 
he  had  become  king  over  the  revolted  ten 
tribes,  he  rebuilt  Shechem  in  mount  Ephraim 
to  be  his  capital  (1  Kin.  xii.  25). 

The  hill  country  of  Ephraim,  or  mount 
Ephraim,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was  so 
much  of  the  central  range  of  Palestine  as 
was  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It 
did  not  include"  the  towns  of  Taanach,  Me- 
giddo,  Beth-sheau,  and  Abel-meholah,  on  the 
north  and  east  (1  Kin.  iv.  8,  12),  nor  Kirjath- 
jearim,  (4ibeah,  or  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
on  the  south  (Jiidg.  x  viii.  12.  V.i ;  xix.  16 ;  1  Sam. 
ix.  4  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  8,  18 :  2  Chron.  xv.  8).  If  it 
included  territory  north  of  Shechem  (1  C'hrou. 
vi.  •)(),  t)8,  with  1  Kin.  iv.  12),  it  was  thus 
bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  southern  bor- 
der of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  the  territory  of  Benjamin.  The 
term  did  not  properly  designate  any  part  of 
the  district  occupied  by  Benjamin.  Even 
,lu(lg.  iv.  5  and  2  Sam.  xx.  1,  21  do  not  neces- 
sarily imply  any  broader  use  of  the  term. 
I'.ut  after  tile  establishment  of  the  northern 
kingdom  with  its  shifting  southern  frontier, 
tile  southern  limits  of  the  hill  countrj-  of 
Ephraim  were  no  longer  clearly  defined. 

The  wood  of  Ejihraim,  in  which  the  battle 
took  place  between  the  forces  of  David  and 
tlioseof  the  rebel  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  6;  cp. 
xvii.  22,  24,  2(5,  27),  was  evidently  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  near  Maliaiiaini,  but  its  exact 
situation  is  unknown.  It  ])robably  took  its 
iiaim^  either  from  tlie  defeat  of  the  Ei)hraim- 
ites  in  the  tiim^  of  Jeplithah  (Judg.  xii.  1 
se(|.),  or  because  it  was  oiijiosite  to  the  ter- 
ritory and  iiiouutain  of  Eiiliraim. 

For  the  gate  of  Ephraim,  see  Jkrusalem 
II.,  :J. 

3.  The  ten  tribes  of  which  Ephraim  be- 
came the  head.  Used  in  this  sense  especially 
by  the  prophets  (Is.  vii.  2,  5,  9,  17;  ix.  9; 
xvii.  :{ ;  xxviii.  3;  llos.  iv.  17 ;  v.  3;  ix.  3-17). 

4.  A  city  to  which  Baal-hazor  was  adjacent 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  23),  probably  tlie  same  jilace  as 
Ephraim  near  to  tlie  wilderness  (John  xi.  54), 
and  Ai)luerema,  which  at  one  time  belonged 
to  Samaria  (1  Mac.  xi.  34).  The  lioinan  gen- 
eral Vespasian  took  Ephraim  and  lietliel  dur- 
ing his  advance  on  Jerusalem  (War  iv.  9,  9). 
Robinson  identifies  it  with  Ophrali  of  Ben- 
jamin, and  locates  it  at  the  modern  village 
of  Taiyibeli,  on  a  conical  hill  standing  on 
high  land  4  miles  east-northeast  of  Bethel. 
The  identification  has  met  general  accept- 


Epicureans 

E'phra-im-ite. 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (Judg. 
xii.  5).  More  frequently  Ephrathite,  as  iu 
the  original. 

E'phra-in.     See  Ephron  2. 

Eph'ra-thah,  in  A.  V.  Ephratah  [fniitful- 
ness,  fruitful  land].  A  shorter  form,  occasion- 
ally used  iu  the  Hebrew  text  and  preserved 
in  the  versions,  is  Ephrath. 

1.  The  original  name  of  Bethlehem  in 
Judaja  (Gen.  xxxv.  19;  xlviii.  7 ;  Ruth  iv. 
11).  It  is  sometimes  called  Bethlehem-eph- 
ratah  (Mic.  v.  2). 

2.  A  wife  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Hur  (1  Chron.  ii.  19,  50; 
iv.  4). 

3.  The  territory  of  Ephraim  (Ps.  cxxxii.  6 ; 
see  Ephrathite  2) ;  or  better,  Kiriath-jearim, 
which  belonged  to  Caleb-ephrathah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  50,  51),  and  where  the  ark  had  been  kejit 
for  a  long  time. 

Eph'rath-ite. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ephrath,  /.  e. 
Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12 ;  Ruth  i.  2). 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  one  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

E'phron  [vituline]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  resident  at  Hebron,  and  owner 
of  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  which  he  sold  to 
Abraham  (tjen.  xxiii.  8;  xxv.  9). 

2.  A  city  which  was  taken  from  Jeroboam 
by  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  19).  Abandoning  the 
Hebrew  text  for  the  traditional  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  synagogue,  A.  V.  and  the  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  have  Ephrain  [two  calves  or 
fawns],  an  Aramaic  dual.  Commonly  iden- 
tified with  the  town  of  Ephraim. 

3.  A  city  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Manasseh,  in  a  pass  on  the  road  be- 
tween Karnaim  and  Beth-shean.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  v.  46-52  ; 
2  Mac.  xii.  27,  29;  Antiq.  xii.  8,  5). 

4.  A  mountain  ridge  between  Nephtoah 
and  Kirjath-jeariin,  on  the  boundary  between 
Jndah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9). 

Ep-i-cu-re'ans. 

One  of  the  leading  philosophic  sects  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  It  derived  its  name  and 
its  existence  from  the  great  philosopher  Epi- 
curus. He  was  born  341  n.  c.  in  tlie  island 
of  Samos,  but  was  of  Athenian  di'scent,  and 
made  Athens  the  scene  of  his  lifework.  In 
306  K.  c.  he  founded  a  school  or  college  with 
a  garden  attached,  in  which  he  taught  for 
the  next  thirty-six  years,  till  his  death  in 
270  15.  t'.  He  is  said  to  have  written  about 
three  hundred  ])hilosoi)hic  books,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  lost.  In  physics  he,  like  De- 
mocritus,  attributes  all  nature  to  changes 
among  atoms  in  tliemselves  eternal.  He 
does  not  recognize  a  Creator  ;  liut,  with  cu- 
rious inconsistency,  finds  a  place  iu  his  sys- 
tem for  a  multitude  of  gods,  who,  however, 
supremely  liapi)y  iu  themselves,  take  no  part 
in  human  allairs.  With  regard  to  his  ethics, 
a   popular  niisconceptioii    prexails.      He  de- 


Epileptic 


215 


Erastus 


sires  that  pleasure  sliall  lie  pursued  and  pain 
avoided  ;  but  the  notion  that  by  pleasure  he 
meant  only  sensual  gratification  is  erroneous. 
He  included  under  the  term  the  i)k'asure  de- 
rived from  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  and 
the  moral  faculty.  Personally  he  was  so  pure 
that  some  thought  he  was  destitute  of  pas- 
sions. The  Epicureans  were  mostly  men  of  soft 
temperament,  the  very  opposite  of  the  Stoics, 
who  were  cast  in  an  iron  mould.  Both  phil- 
osophic sects  rejected  Paul's  doctrine  at 
Athens,  but  both  showed  their  tolerance  by 
taking  the  apostle  to  the  court  of  Areopagus 
to  have  his  teaching  examined,  in  jilace  ()f 
exciting  a  riot  against  him,  as  had  been  done 
at  various  places  where  he  had  jireached 
(Actsxvii.  18-20). 

Ep-i-lep'tic. 

A  ])erson  aflected  with  the  falling  sickness, 
a  disease  which  in  its  severe  form  is  charac- 
terized by  recurrent  attacks  of  loss  of  con- 
sciousness with  spasms  (Mat.  xvii.  15,  in  A.  V. 
lunatic  ;  Mark  ix.  18).  In  this  case  the  disease 
was  occasioned  by  demoniacal  possession. 

E-pis'tles. 

The  name  given  to  twenty-one  books  of  the 
N.  T.  The  earliest  of  them  antedate  the 
gospels,  Paul  having  written  his  epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  about  a.  d.  52.  They  are 
letters  which  were  wi'itten  by  the  apostles, 
or  which  received  apostolic  sanction ;  and 
they  are  addressed  to  particular  churches, 
and  deal  with  doctrinal  and  practical  ques- 
tions, or  to  individuals,  yet  contain  matter 
of  wide  import,  or  to  Christians  generally, 
and  not  to  any  one  person  or  church.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  1  John,  they  open,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  time,  with  the  name  or  title 
of  the  writer  and  that  of  the  person  or 
church  addressed,  and  then  follow  words  of 
greeting. 

The  epistles  are  classed  in  three  groups, 
but  the  groups  are  neither  exhaustive  nor 
mutually  exclusive.  1.  Pauline;  for  the 
first  thirteen  begin  with  the  statement 
that  the  letter  was  sent  by  Paul  or  by 
him  in  conjunction  with  other  Christian 
workers,  as  Sosthenes  (1  Cor.  i.  1),  Timothy 
(2  Cor.  i.  1;  Phil.  i.  1  ;  Col.  i.  1;  Philem.  1), 
or  Silvanus  and  Timothy  together  (1  Thes. 
i.  1  ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  Paul,  as  a  rule,  employed 
an  amanuensis  to  write  from  his  dictation 
(Kom.  xvi.22),  the  apostle  adding  the  saluta- 
tion in  his  own  hand,  which  he  says  was  the 
token  in  every  epistle  (1  Cor.  xvi.  21 ;  Col. 
iv.  18;  2  Thes!  iii.  IT).  In  the  case  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  however,  he  departed 
from  his  rule,  and  wrote  the  whole  letter 
with  his  own  hand  (Gal.  vi.  11).  2.  Within 
the  group  of  Pauline  epistles  are  three  known 
as  the  pastoral  epistles,  namely,  1  and  2 
Timothy  ajid  Titus.  They  are  addressed  to 
the  persons  whose  names  they  bear,  and 
contain  directions  for  the  training  and  gov- 
erning of  churches  and  the  proper  treatment 


of  individual  members.  3.  Five  epistles  are 
called  general  in  tlie  titles  pnlixed  to  them 
in  tlie  A.  V.  :  .lames,  1  and  2  I'eter,  1  .John, 
aud  Jude.  In  the  early  clnirch,  however, 
seven  were  classed  as  catholic;  2  aud  .'J  John 
being  included  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  ii.  2:j), 
although  these  two  are  simple  per.sonal  letter.s 
addressed  to  individuals.  The  word  catholic 
was  prohuhly  used  iu  its  sense  of  general,  to 
denote  an  encyclical  letter  to  the  church  at 
large  ;  and  the  elect  lady  and  (iaius,  to  whom 
2  and  3  .John  respectively  are  addressed, 
were  probably  understood  to  represent  the 
church  univ(!rsal. 

The  epistolary  form  was  not  a  mere  literary 
device,  cliosen  for  a  doctrinal  treatise.  Usu- 
ally at  least  the  epistles  were  written  in  the 
way  of  ordinary  corrcspondfucc-.  They  were 
prompted  by  personal  motives  and  were  due 
to  the  writer's  own  initiative  ( I'liilfinon,  2 
John) ;  or  they  were  penned  in  reply  to 
letters,  or  were  based  ou  information  other- 
wise obtained,  concerning  matters  requiring 
attention  in  anv  |>articular  church  (1  Cor.  i. 
11;  2  Cor.  vii.  .5-7;  1  Thes.  iii.  5,  Hi.  But 
they  are  adapted  to  all  persons  iu  like  cir- 
cumstances ;  Paul  re(inested  that  certain  of 
his  epistles  be  read  by  others  than  by  those 
only  to  whom  thiiv  were  acMrcsscd  (Col.  iv. 
16).  The  apostles  claimed  tliat  these  epis- 
tles are  the  word  of  God  (1  Thes.  ii.  115;  1 
Pet.  i.  12),  and  from  the  beginning  they 
ranked  with  the  other  Scriptures.  Peter  in 
A.  D.  63  spoke  of  Paul's  epistles  as  part  of 
the  Scriptures  (2  Pet.  iii.  1.5,  16),  and  Polycarp 
in  A.  D.  115  quoted  the  Psalms  aud  Ephesians 
side  by  side  as  equally  Scripture.    See  Caxov. 

The  titles  of  the  epistles  wen;  not  i)art  of 
the  original  composition.  l)ut  were  prefixed 
afterwards.  They  are  lacking  in  early  manu- 
scripts, and  are  no  part  of  .Scripture.  Most 
of  them  are  founded  on  the  first  verse  of  the 
epistle  ;  but  that  prefixed  to  the  Ki)istle  to  the 
Hebrews  is  not  derived  from  the  letter  itself, 
and  is  of  doubtful  accuracy.  Tlie  notices  ap- 
pended to  the  epistles  in  the  A.  V.  regarding 
the  place  where  the  letter  was  penned  were 
likewise  no  part  of  the  original  composition. 

Er  [awake,  on  the  watcii]. 

1.  A  .son  of  Judah  wiio  died  in  Canaan  by 
a  judgment  of  God  for  his  wickedness  ((Jen. 
xxxviii.  1-T;  xlvi.  12;   1  Cliron.  ii.  .'{). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jiidali,  of  the  family 
of  Shelah  (1  Chron.  iv.  21 ;. 

3.  Xn  ancestor  of  Christ,  about  midway  be- 
tween David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  28). 

E'ran  [watchful]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim  through  .Shuthe- 
lah,  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
XX vi.  36). 

E-ras'tus  [beloved]. 

A  Christian,  one  of  those  who  ministered 
to  Paul.  He  was  sent  with  Timothy  from 
Ephesus  into  Macedonia  just  before  the  riot 
at  the  former  place  (Acts  xix.  22).  Heis 
probably  the  person  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv. 


Erech 


216 


Esau 


20  as  having  abode  at  Corinth,  who  wa,s 
doubtless  tlicC'hristian  in  high  official  posi- 
tion, ehaniberlaiu  of  the  city  of  Corinth, 
who  joined  with  I'aul  in  sending  salutations 
to  the  Koman  converts  (Rom.  xvi.  23). 
E'rech  [Assyrian  Uriik  and  Arku]. 
A  city  of  Sliinar  or  Lower  Babylonia,  one 
of  tliose  constituting  ]iart  of  Ninirod's  king- 
dom (Gen.  X.  10).  It  is  now  represented  by 
the  mounds  of  Warka,  a  considerable  dis- 
tance south  of  Babylon,  on  a  marshy  region, 
east  of  the  Euphrates.  The  extreme  an- 
tiquity of  the  city  has  been  established  V)y 
the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  Archeyites  were 
settled  in  Samaria  by  Asnapper  (Ezra  iv.  9). 
E'ri  [watching]. 

A  son  of  Gad  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  16 ;  Num.  xxyi.  16). 
E-sa'ias.    See  Isaiah. 
E-sar-had'don  [Ashur  hath  given  broth- 
ers]. 

The  favorite,  though  not  the  eldest,  son  ot 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.    The  partiality 
so  annoyed  two  other  brothers,  Adrammelech 
and   Nergalsharezer,  that  they  assassinated 
their   father,   escaping   afterwards  into   Ar- 
menia (2  Kin.  xix.  36,  37:  2  Chron.   xxxii. 
21  ;  Is.  xxxyii.  37,  38).    Wlien  this  base  mur- 
der was  perpetrated.  Esar-haddon  was  him- 
self conducting  a  campaign  in  the  northwest, 
probably  in  Armenia.     On  receiving  news  of 
the  event,  he  at  once  started  with  his  army 
for  Nineveh,  but  was  met  on  the  way  by  the 
rebel  forces.  Tlie  confederates  were,  however, 
defeated,  and  Esar-haddon  was  able  to  ascend 
the  throne  of  Assyria  on  the  btli  of  Nisan, 
6f<0  B.  c.     The  partiality  of  the  father  had 
not  been  mi.splaced.  Esar-haddon  was  equally 
eminent  as  a  military  general  and  a  political 
ruler.     In  his  first  y3ar  he  defeated  the  son 
of  Merodach-baladan  in  southern  Babylonia. 
Later  he  commenced  the  restoration  of  the 
city  of  Babyhtn  which  Seuuaclurib,  proyoked 
by'its  continual  revolts  against  the  Assyrian 
domination,  had  given  \\\)  to  plunder.     Esar- 
liaddon    also   waged   war   against    the   Cim- 
merian barbarians  who  had  descended  u]>on 
the  more  civilized  south    from   beyond   the 
Caucasus;  against  the  mountaineers  of  Cilicia, 
and  against  the  children   of  lOden  wh<i  were 
in  Telassar  (cp.  Is.  xxxvii.  12).   In  his  fourth 
year  be  caiitured  and  ])illaged  Sidon,  dejiorted 
its  inhabitants,  razed  the  <'ity  to  the  ground, 
and  erected  a  new  town  on  the  old  site.     Its 
king  had  escaped  by  sea,  but  he  was  pursued, 
taken,  and  behead(Hl.     The  same  fate  befell 
his  two  royal  allies.  Afterwards  twelv<'  tribes 
on  the  mainland  and  ten  in  Cyjirus submitted 
to   the    Assyrian    (bnuinion.     Among   others 
were  Manasseh,  king  of  .ludah,  and  the  kings 
of    Edoni,   Moab,    .■Vinnion,   (iaza.   Ashkelon, 
ICkron,  and   Ashdod.      Esar-haddon   succe.s.s- 
fuily  accoiniilislu'<l   two  most  dillicult  mili- 
tary enterjirises.  the  penetration  of  the  Ara- 
bian dest'rt  and  of  far  off  Media.    He  turned 
his  attention  to  a  yet  gn^ater  undertaking. 


the  conquest  of  Egypt,  but  he  was  for  a  time 
diverted  from  his  purpose,  being  compelled 
in  his  eighth  year  to  war  with  a  tribe  at  the 
head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  near  Ur.  At 
length  in  his  tenth  year  he  made  his  great 
expedition  against  Egypt.  Marching  past 
Tyre,  he  left  the  city  under  siege.  He  en- 
teVed  Egypt,  captured  Memphis,  and  laid  the 
entire  country  and  its  petty  kings  at  his  feet. 
He  divided  "the  yalley  of  the  Nile  from 
Thebes  to  the  Mediterranean  into  twenty 
satrapies.  Over  the  less  important  in  a  spirit 
of  conciliation  he  set  governors  of  native 
descent,  but  over  the  more  important  be 
placed  Assyrian  governors.  He  died  669  or 
66S  B.  c,  leaving  his  eldest  son,  Ashurbanipal, 
who  for  a  short  time  previously  had  been 
associated  with  him  in  the  government,  to 
ascend  the  throne. 

E'sau  [hairy]. 

Son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and  elder  twin 
brother  of  Jacob.     Esau   was  so  named  be- 
cause he  was  all  over  like  an  hairy  garment 
(Gen.  XXV.  21-26).    As  he  grew  up  he  became 
a  skillful  hunter,  and  was  accustomed  to  bring 
home  venison,  doubtless  the  flesh  of  various 
antelopes,  to  his  father  Isaac.     On  one  occa- 
sion he  returned  from  the  chase  famishing, 
and  asked  for  scnne  red  pottage  which  Jacob 
had  just  made  ready.    Jacob  asked  from  him 
the  surrender  of  his  birthright  as  payment; 
and    Esau,    esteeming   the   higher    blessings 
lightly,  and  caring  more  for  present  gratifica- 
tion, sold  his  birthright  rather  than  wait  for 
the  in-eparation  of  food.     From  the  red  pot- 
tage, which   was  its  price,  Esau  obtained  a 
second  name,  Edom,   i.e.  Red  (27-34;  Heb. 
xii.  16,  17).     When   he  was  40  years  old  he 
married  two  wives,  Judith  or  Oholibamah  and 
Basemath  or  Adah,  both  Hittites  (Gen.  xxvi. 
34,  35;  xxxvi.  1,  2).     Afterwards  he  wedded 
Mahalath,  called  also  Basemath,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ishmael  (xxviii.  9  ;  xxxvi.  3).     When 
Isaac  was  old  and  nearly  blind,  he  designed 
to  confer  the  covenanted  blessing  on  Esau, 
who  was  his  favorite  son.     But  Jacob  was 
Rebekah's  favorite,  and  she  induced  him  to 
personate  Esau  and  fraudulently  obtain  the 
blessing.     Esau    resolved   to   kill   his  selfish 
brother,  but  did   not  like  to  carry  out  the 
murder  while  his  father  was  living  (xxvii. 
1-41).     To  give  time  for  this  anger  to  cool, 
Jacob  fled  to  Mesopotamia,  and  for  twenty 
years  was  an  exile  (xxvii.  42-xxxi.  55).     On 
his  return    he   took    means   to    appease   his 
justly  olfended  brother;  and  Esau,  who  was 
of  a  generous  nature,  dismissed  his  vindictive 
feeling,  and  gave  Jacob  a  fraternal  recei)tion 
(xxxii.  3-xxxiii.  15).     Prior  to  this  Esau  had 
taken  u])  his  abode  in  mount  Seir,  to  which 
he  at  once  Returned  (16).     The  reconciliation 
between   the  brothers  \yas   permanent,   and 
both   met  to  hury  their  fatlier   (xxxv.   29). 
Esau's  descendants  increased  and  ultimately 
disi)ossessed  the  original  inhabitants  of  mount 
Seir  and  l)ecame  the   Edomite  people  (Deut. 


Esdras 


217 


Esther 


ii.  4,  12,  22).  Mount  Seir  could,  accordingly, 
be  called  the  mount  of  Esau  ((~)bad.  8,  9,  19, 
21).  For  the  election  of  Jucol)  to  he  the 
child  of  proujise  and  the  rejection  of  Esau, 
see  Geu.  xxv.  23  ;  Mai.  i.  2,  3  ;  Kom.  ix.  12, 13. 

Es'dras. 

The  Greek  form  of  Ezra.  It  is  used  in  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Apocrypha,  but  does  not 
occur  in  the  canonical  Scriptures.    See  Apoc- 

KYPHA. 

E'sek  [contention]. 

A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  valley  of  Gerar, 
which  the  Philistine  herdmeu  claimed  (Gen. 
xxvi.  20). 

E'shan,  in  A.  V.  Esliean  [support]. 

A  village  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
grouped  with  Dumah  and  Hebron  (Josh. 
XV.  52).  Septuagint  has  Soma  ;  hence  it  may 
be  identical  with  the  ruin  es-Simia,  near 
Dumah,  and  about  8V  miles  southwest  by 
south  of  Hebron. 

Esh'ba-al.     See  Ishboshetii. 

Esli'ban  [reason,  intelligence]. 
A  son  of  Dishon,  descended  froiQ  Soir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26  ;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

Esh'col  [a  cluster;  specially  of  grapes]. 

1.  One  of  three  Amorite  brothers,  residing 
near  Hebron  and  confederate  with  Abram 
(Gen.  xiv.  13,  24). 

2.  A  valley  near,  probably  north  of,  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22,  23;  Deut.  i!^  24).  The  region 
round  about  Hebron  is  celebrated  for  its  large 
clusters  of  luscious  grai)es.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  the  valley  bore  this  name  before  the 
time  of  Moses  or  not.  At  any  rate  the  name 
henceforth  suggested  to  the  Israelites  the 
spot  where  the  spies,  whom  Moses  had  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land,  cut  the  famous  cluster 
which  two  of  them  carried  suspended  on  a 
pole  between  them  to  save  from  being  dashed 
and  broken  (Num.  xiii.  24). 

E'she-an.     See  Eshan. 

E'shek  [violence,  oppression]. 

A  Benjamite,  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chron. 
viii.  39).' 

Esh'ka-lon-ite.     See  Ashkelonite. 

Esh'ta-ol  [perhaps  petition]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  eventually  allotted  to  the  Danites  (xix. 
41).  It  is  commonly  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Zorah  (Judg.  xiii.  2.5  ;  xvi.  31 ;  xviii. 
2.  8,  11  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  53).  It  has  been  iden- 
tified as  the  village  of  Eshii'a.  about  Ih  miles 
east  by  north  from  Zorah,  and  13  miles  west, 
slightly  north  from  Jerusalem. 

Esh'ta-ul-ite,  in  R.  V.  Eshtaolite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Eshtaol  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Esh-te-mo'a,  once  Eshtemoh  (Josh.  xv. 
•  50)  [obedience]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah, 
given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  priests  (Josh. 
XV.  50  ;  xxi.  14 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  57).  David  sent 
it  some  of  the  spoils  obtained  on  the  recap- 


ture of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28).  The  site 
has  been  found  at  Seniii'a,  9  miles  south  of 
Hebron,  a  considerable  village  with  tlie  foun- 
dation of  ancient  walls  designed  for  a  large 
town. 

2.  A  Maacathite,  son  of  llodiah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  19,  R.  v.). 

Esh'ton  [])ossibly  uxorious]. 
A  descendant  of  Clielul).  reckoned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Es'li  [perhaps  from  Hebrew  'esli,  at  my 
side  (is  God)]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
captivity  (Luke  iii.  25). 

Es'rom.     See  IIezron. 

Es-senes'. 

An  order  of  men  among  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  who  numbered  about  4000, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  a  more  or  less 
ascetic  life.  Hoping  by  isolation  to  escape 
ceremonial  detilemcnt,  they  formed  colonies 
by  themselves.  The  wilderness  of  Juda;a 
near  En-gedi  was  a  favorite  place  for  their 
.settlements,  but  there  were  colonies  in  va- 
rious towns  of  Judtva  also.  Each  colony  liad 
its  own  synagogue,  a  common  hall  for  meals 
and  assemblies,  and  i)rovision  for  daily  bath- 
ing in  running  water.  Whoever  became  a 
member  of  the  order  gave  up  all  that  he  pos- 
sessed to  it.  They  read  the  law  of  Moses 
daily  and  nightly,  and  endeavored  to  regu- 
late their  lives  in  every  detail  according  to 
it.  Their  habits  were  simjjle.  Their  food 
and  clothing  were  jilain.  They  passed  the 
day  in  husbandry  and  other  useful  industry. 
Money  was  almost  unnecessary,  as  they  suji- 
plied  their  needs  by  their  own  labor;  and 
when  they  traveled,  they  found  lodging  and 
food  free  of  cost  among  their  brethren.  They 
had  no  slaves,  as  tliey  recognized  no  distinc- 
tion between  men  .save  that  of  cli'an  and  un- 
clean. They  did  not  deny  the  fitness  of  mar- 
riage ;  but  they  abstained  from  wedlock,  ex- 
cept one  party  among  them.  Their  morality 
was  lofty.  They  protnised  "to  honor  (Jod.  to 
be  righteous  toward  man.  to  injure  no  one. 
either  at  the  bidding  of  another  or  of  tlieir 
own  accord,  to  hate  evil,  to  promote  good,  to 
be  faithful  to  every  one.  es]ie<'ially  those  in 
authority,  to  love  the  truth,  to  unmask  liars, 
and  to  keep  the  hand  from  theft  and  the 
conscience  from  unrighteous  gain  "  (Antitj. 
xviii.  1.  5  ;  War  ii.  8,  2-13). 

Es'ther  [from  Persian  xitarfh,  star]. 

A  beautiful  maiden,  daughter  of  Abihail, 
and  probably  of  the  tribe  of  Henjauiin  i  Esth. 
ii.  15  ;  and  v\>.  5  with  7).  Her  llcluew  name 
was  i/"c/as,sa/(,  myrtle.  Early  left  an  orphan, 
she  was  brought  up  at  Susa,  the  Persian 
metropolis,  by  Mordecai,  her  cousin,  who 
adopted  her.  Ahasucrus,  king  of  Persia,  who 
by  common  consent  is  ident  ilied  with  Xerxes, 
when  in  wine,  ordered  Vasliti  the  (pieen  to 
be  brought  into  the  banquet  hall  and  dis- 
played in  royal  regalia  to  the  revelers.     An- 


Esther 


218 


Esther 


gered  by  her  refusal  to  submit  to  such  indig- 
nity, he  followed  the  advice  of  his  obsequious 
courtiers,  and  decreed  lier  permanent  seclu- 
sion and  had  his  realm  searched  for  a  fair 
maiden  to  take  her  place.  Eventually,  in 
the  seventh  year  of  tlie  king,  Esther  was 
selected  and  installed  in  the  palace  as  queen. 
It  was  not  known  at  the  time  that  she  was  a 
Jewess.  Slie  came  to  the  tiiroue  at  a  critical 
time.  The  royal  fovorite  was  Hamau.  Five 
years  after  Esther's  elevation  (Esth.  ii.  16; 
iii.  7),  Haman,  annoyed  by  Mordecai's  re- 
fusal to  do  him  obeisance,  wished  to  revenge 
himself  by  the  massacre,  not  simply  of  Mor- 
decai,  but  of  all  the  large  Jewish  population 
scattered  tiiroughout  tlie  empire.  Ho  se- 
cured the  king's  consent  by  the  offer  of  a 
heavy  bribe  and  by  allusion  to  the  stubborn 
adherence  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  laws  and 
customs;  and  he  sought  to  get  the  aid  of  tl}e 
rabble  in  the  work  of  slaughter  by  an  appeal 
to  their  greed  (Estli.  ii.  o-iii.  15).  Mordccai 
urged  Esther  to  interfere  for  the  protection 
of  her  race.  Slie  was  afraid  ;  but,  on  being 
solemnly  addressed  by  her  guardian,  she, 
after  fasting  and  prayer,  risked  lier  life  by 
coming  unbidden  into  tlie  king's  presence. 
Witii  great  prudence  and  tact  she  made  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  bringing  to  tlie 
king's  attention  the  fact  that  Hainan's  plot 
invaded  the  palace  and  included  her;  and, 
since  the  edict  of  destruction  could  not  be 
recalled,  she  gained  permission  for  the  Jews 
to  defend  tiieuiselves,  and  even  to  take  the 
otfensive  against  their  foes.  The  time  and 
manner  of  Esther's  death  are  unknown.  If 
.\liasuerus  is  Xer.^es,  as  is  universally  be- 
lieved, Esther  was  one  of  Xer.^es'  wives  (cp. 
the  wives  of  Xerxes'  father,  Herod,  iii.  88;  vii. 
2  ;  and  also  2  Sam.  iii.  2  .') ;  si.  26,  27 ;  1  Kin. 
i.  11;  vii.  8;  xi.  3;  Dan.  v.  2,  10),  of  whom 
one  wa.s  Amestris,  tiie  daughter  or  grand- 
daughter of  Otanes,  first  definitely  rejiorted 
as  already  Xerxes'  wife  in  479  B.  c,  his  sev- 
entli  or  eiglith  regnal  year  (Herod,  ix.  109; 
cp.  vii.  61 ;  Ctesias,  Exc.  Pers.  20).  Vashti 
was  the  reigning  wife  in  Xerxes'  third  year 
'  Esth.  i.  3,  9),  the  year  in  which  he  convoked 
a  great  assembly  to  consult  about  a  war  witli 
the  Greeks  (Herod,  vii.  7,  8),  and  Estlier  was 
put  into  her  place  in  the  tentli  month  of  the 
seventh  year  i  Esth.  ii.  16,  17),  and  was  queen 
in  th(!  twelfth  year  also  (iii.  7;  v.  ?>). 

The  book  of  Esther  is  the  last  of  the  liis- 
torical  books  of  the  ().  T.  In  the  Hebrew 
canon  it  stands  among  the  Hagiograiiha ; 
formerly,  according  to  the  Talmud,  between 
Daniel  and  Ezra,  but  now  .just  after  Eccle- 
siastcs  and  immediately  befor(^  Daniel.  This 
latter  position  is  due  to  its  being  grouped 
witli  four  other  rolls  which  were  used  on  live 
solemn  anniversaries.  The  last  of  these  an- 
niversaries is  Purini,  h(^nce  Esther  has  been 
placed  last  among  the  Five  Rolls.  Long  after 
the  comph^tion  of  the  canon,  the  right  of 
Esther  to  its  place  in  that  canon  was  (tailed 
in  qtiestion  by  the  Jews,  probably,  however, 


not  seriously,  but  to  afford  opportunity  for 
intellectual  display  in  its  defense.  The  Jews 
now  regard  it  with  special  honor.  Christians 
have  been  more  divided  on  the  subject  of  its 
merits.  Melito  of  Sardis  and  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  omitted  it  from  their  lists  of 
canonical  books;  Atliauasins  classed  it  with 
nou-canonii-al  books,  and  Luther  denounced 
it.  Opposition  to  it  was  based  mainly  on  the 
fact  that  the  name  of  God  does  not  occur  in 
it  even  once.  But  iv.  14  implies  the  existence 
of  Providence  :  iv.  16  recognizes  fasting  as  a 
religious  practice,  and  ix.  31  not  merely  fast- 
ing, but  a  cry  or  prayer.  The  great  lesson 
of  the  book  is,  in  fact,  the  overruling  power 
of  Providence. 

Investigators  who  seek  for  a  possible  myth- 
ological or  legendary  origin  for  the  narratives 
of  the  Old  Testament  argue  that  the  book  of 
Esther  springs  from  such  a  source.  The 
theory  of  a  Babylonian  origin  is  most  in 
vogue.  In  its  principal  form  at  present  it 
rests  its  claim  for  acceptance  mainly  on  the 
evidence  that  Esther  is  a  hite  form  of  the 
name  of  the  Babylonian  goddess  Ishtar  ;  and 
that  Esther's  other  name  Hadassah  is  the 
Babylonian  word  hadashafu,  bride,  originally 
myrtle,  and  is  used  as  a  title  of  goddesses. 
Mordecai  is  the  same  as  Marduk,  the  patron 
deity  of  Babylon.  He  is  the  cousin  of  Esther, 
and  it  is  possible  thus  to  relate  Marduk  to 
Ishtar.  Haman,  the  adversary  of  Mordecai, 
represents  Huniman  or  Hamman,  a  chief 
god  of  the  Elamites,  in  whose  capital  Susa 
the  scene  is  laid  ;  and  Zeresh,  the  wife  of 
Haman,  may  be  the  same  as  Kirisha,  an 
Elamite  goddess,  presumably  the  consort  of 
Humnian.  Yashti  is  also  an  Elamite  deity, 
presumably  a  goddess.  The  successful  re- 
sistance of  Mordecai  and  Esther  to  Haman, 
Zeresh,  and  Vashti  is  the  conflict  of  the  gods 
of  Babylonia  with  the  gods  of  Elani,  in  other 
words,  it  is  the  struggle  between  Babylonia 
and  Elani  for  supremacy,  which  lasted  for  a 
thousand  years  and  ended  in  the  victory  of 
Babylonia  (Jensen,  Wiener  Zeitschrift  f.  d. 
Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,  vi.  47  ff,  209  fl'; 
(Tunkel,  Schopfung  und  Chaos,  310-314,  who 
admits  that  tlie  basis  is  lacking  so  long  as 
the  word  Pur  remains  unexi)lained,  314).  If 
this  theory  were  established,  it  might  show 
that  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion,  feeding  their 
liopes  on  th(^  prophecies  of  deliverance,  in- 
stituted a  joyous  feast  and  made  use  of  the 
contest  of  Marduk  and  Ishtar  with  Humba 
and  Washti  to  illustrate  or  typify  the  certain 
victory  of  the  Jews  over  all  their  foes. 

Before  this  theory  is  adopted,  however,  its 
foundations  must  be  critically  examined  : 

I.  Regarding  the  Elamite  deities.  1.  Tlie 
identification  of  Haman,  the  archenemy  of 
the  Jews,  with  the  chief  god  of  the  Elamites. 
(1)  The  name  of  this  deity  was  ordinarily 
written  by  the  Assyrians  Humba,  but  in 
ci'rtain  phonetic  connections  it  was  repro- 
duced by  them  as  Uinnian,  with  a  final  nun, 
and  this  form  could  be  represented  in  Hebrew 


Esther 


219 


Esther 


by  Human  <jr  Hamaii.  So  far  good  ;  but  (2) 
tlie  book  of  Estlier  tells  more  about  Hainan 
tliau  liis  name.  It  knows  him  as  the  son  of 
lliuiiuiedatha,  and  an  Agagite  (ill.  1,  10; 
viii.  .■>;  ix.  -24);  and  gives  the  names  of  ten 
sons  of  his  (ix.  7-10).  The  Elamite  theory 
does  not  account  for  these  names,  and  fails 
toexplain  thisd(!scent.  2.  Regarding  Haman's 
wife  Zeresh,  whom  the  theory  would  identify 
with  an  Elamite  goddess,  there  should  be 
noted  (1)  the  argument  for  the  goddess  Ki- 
rislia,  thus:  The  deity  Kirisha  is  apparently 
identical  with  the  deity  Kiririsha,  who  may 
have  been  a  goddess.  A  temple  was  dedi- 
cated to  Humba  and  Kiririsha,  and  hence 
Kiririsha  or  Kirisha  may  have  been  the  wife 
of  Humba  (wzkm.  vi.  63).  The  argument 
lacks  cogeucy.  (2)  Some  texts  of  Josephus 
give  the  initial  letter  in  the  name  of  Haman's 
wife  as  (t  (Antiq.  xi.  6,  10;  see  Niese's  edi- 
tion) ;  and  reading  Geresh  iustead  of  Zeresh, 
tlie  sound  approximates  that  of  Kirisha,  the 
Elamite  deity.  ]ierhaps  a  goddess.  But  other 
copies  of  Josephus  ugice  with  the  great  man- 
uscripts of  the  Scjituagint  (A,  B,  and  Lucian). 
These  typical  texts  support  the  Hebrew  form 
of  the  name  in  this  essential  point  and  attest 
in  various  ways  the  sibilant  zain,  Z  and  not 
G,  as  the  first  letter  in  the  name  of  Haman's 
wife.  They  allow  scant  reseml)lance  to  the 
name  Kirisha.  .3.  The  name  of  the  Elamite 
deity  Mashti  (not  Bar-ti,  as  Professor  Sayce, 
using  the  alternative  sound  of  the  first  sign, 
writes  the  name)  may,  for  phonetic  reasons, 
be  pronounced  Washti,  and  thus  correspond 
to  Vashti,  the  queen  in  the  opening  chapters 
of  the  book  of  Esther.  Washti  was  "  prob- 
ably a  goddess"  (WzicM.  vi.  51).  Evidently 
much  that  is  essential  to  the  theory  remains 
to  be  proven.  Even  if  the  assumption  re- 
garding the  .sex  of  this  deity  were  established 
as  a  fact,  it  would  be  necessary  to  inquire 
whether  Vashti  was  not  the  abbreviation  of 
a  compound  name  containing  the  name  of 
tliis  deity  (cp.  Ben-hadad).  But,  after  all, 
Vashti  may  be  a  good  Persian  jiame,  as  befits 
the  queen  of  Ahasuerus  (see  Vashti). 

II.  Regarding  the  Hebrews  who  figure  in 
the  narrative:  1.  Possibly  tlie  parents  of 
Esther  named  their  daughter,  or  friends  of 
later  years  called  the  handsome  maiden,  after 
the  bright  and  beautiful  star  of  evening  and 
morning  (Is.  xiv.  12;  Rev.  xxii.  Kj;  cp. 
Lebana).  But  (1)  there  are  obstinate  etymo- 
logical facts  against  identifying  the  name  of 
Esther  with  that  of  the  star-goddess  Ishtar. 
The  initial  letter  of  Esther  is  aleph,  whereas 
of  Ishtar  it  is  ain.  All  the  Semitic  dialects, 
east  and  west,  in  which  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess occurs,  without  exception  preserved  this 
distinction  and  maintained  it  until  centuries 
after  the  book  of  Esther  had  been  written 
and  the  celebration  of  Purim  had  become 
universal  among  the  Jews  throughout  the 
world.  It  is  rej)orted.  indeed,  that  the  plural 
of  Ishtar  is  written  with  aleph,  not  ain,  in 
some  Jewish  incantations  on  sherds  found  in 


Babylonia.  Tlie  date  of  these  sherds  is  not 
stated.  But  whether  they  are  as  early  as 
the  liook  of  Esther  or  naich  later,  tills  form 
of  Ishtar  is  ai)ii(n'mal  i.iid  sadly  degenerate. 
Th(^  citation  of  it  is  irrelevant,  for  tlie  vo- 
cabulary of  the  book  of  Esther  is  not  degen- 
erate. There  is,  however,  no  need  to  think 
of  Ishtar  at  all ;  since  Esther,  as  a  Persian 
word,  is  the  good  name  SIclhi.  a  star.  (2) 
The  evidence  tliat  hadaslKttu  denotes  a  bride 
is  valid.  But  there  is  no  evidence  wliatso- 
ever  that  it  signified  myrtle,  and  none  that 
it  was  used  as  a  characteristic  e]iithet  of  god- 
desses. The  c()m])arison  of  it  with  Hsther's 
own  Hebrew  name  Hadassah  is  peculiarly 
unfortunate  from  the  standpoint  of  etymol- 
ogy ;  for  the  Assyrian  counterpart  of  Ha- 
dassah Wduld  be  '<i(Jitss(it)t.  not  lindnshntit.  (3l 
Finally,  Esther  is  known  in  the  ixiok  that 
bears  her  name  as  the  daughter  of  Abihail 
and  a  queen  of  Ahasuerus;  and  the  theory 
utterly  fails  to  explain  these  relationships. 
2.  Mordecai  means  either  belonging  to  Mar- 
duk  or  is  a  diminutive  or  hyixicoristic  form 
of  Marduk.  Now  (1)  the  name  Mardiik  and 
its  diminutive  Marduka  were  quite  fre- 
quently borne  by  men  in  Babylon.  (2)  The 
form  of  the  name  in  the  book  of  Esther 
points  to  a  man,  not  to  a  god.  (3)  Such 
names  were  not  wanting  among  godly  He- 
brews: comjiare  Apollos,  Henadad,  Slienazzar. 
The  name  Mordecai  itself  was  borne  by 
another  Jew  of  the  exile  besides  the  cousin 
of  Esther  (Ezra  ii.  2).  (4)  The  narrative 
takes  Mordecai's  lineage  back  through  sev- 
eral ancestors  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Esth. 
ii.  5). 

Thus,  on  removing  the  mere  surmises  from 
the  mass  of  evidence  otfered  in  siij)port  of 
the  theory,  the  name  Esther  may  jierchance 
be,  but  yet  scarcely  is,  a  form  of  Ishtar  in 
this  narrative  ;  Mordecai  is  certainly  derived 
frcmi  Marduk  ;  and  Haman  and  Vashti  may 
represent  Elamite  deities.  But  granting  all 
this  in  favor  of  the  theory.  ne\  ertheless : 
1.  No  substantial  ground  has  been  found  for 
regarding  the  jier-sonages  who  bear  these 
names  in  the  narrative  as  di'ities  rather  than 
people  ;  and,  moreover,  the  hypothesis  fails 
to  account  for  the  ancestry  of  the  chief  actors 
in  the  events  described.  And  why  does  king 
Ahasuerus  appear?  2.  Against  the  theory  of 
a  heathen  origin  is  the  accejitance  of  the 
event  as  historical,  and  the  universal  cele- 
bration of  the  festival  in  the  first  century 
bv  the  Jews  throughout  the  world  (Antiq. 
xi.  6,  13  ;  Septuagint :  2  Mac.  xv.  36).  3.  The 
principal  events  of  the  narrative  are  expressly 
claimed  to  be  recorded  in  the  state  chronicles 
of  Persia  (Esth.  ii.  23;  vi.  1,  2;  x.  2).  4. 
Finally,  so  far  as  any  form  of  the  theory 
''  assumes  a  heathen  festival  as  the  origin  of 
1  Purim,  the  grand  objection  is  that  no  lieathen 
celebration  has  yet  been  discovered  for  the 
!  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  days  of  Adar.  the 
i  twelfth  month  of  the  year.  See  other  articles, 
;  such  as  Mordecai,  Pkovince,  Vashti. 


Etam 


220 


Ethiopia 


Tlie  language  of  tbo  book  of  Esther  is  He- 
brew, like  that  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiali.  but 
with  mure  Persian  words.  From  x.  2  it  would 
si'eiii  that  Xerxes  was  dead  when  it  was 
jienned.  Its  date  is  generally  fixed  about 
425  B.  C,  forty  years  after  bis  assassination, 
or  at  least  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes,  465- 
425 ;  and  there  is  no  valid  reason  to  date  it 
later.  The  book  is  not  (pioted  in  the  N.  T., 
nor  alluded  to.  Certain  additions  to  it  appear 
in  the  Septuagint.  Jerome  separated  them 
and  put  them  at  the  end  of  the  book,  and 
they  now  find  place  in  the  Apocrypha. 

E'tam  [place  of  beasts  of  prey]. 

1.  A  village  on  the  border  of  the  south 
country  and  the  lowland,  tninsferred  from 
Judah'to  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  32 ;  cp.  Josh. 
XV.  32  and  42).  In  the  cleft  of  a  rock  near 
by  Samson  dwelt  for  a  time  ( Judg.  xv.  8, 11), 
Jiaving  gone  down  Ihither  from  Timnah. 
I'erhaps  the  site  is  'Aitun.  about  11  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Hel)ron.  But  the  rock  of  Etam 
may  have  been  rearer  Samson's  home.  Chiefly 
for  this  reason  Conder  locates  the  cleft  at  Beit 
'Atab,  5  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Zorah  ;  Schick  at 
Arak  Isma'in,  in  wady  Isma'in,  2h  miles  E. 
S.  E.  of  Zorah. 

2.  A  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethle- 
hem, fortified  by  Eeliohoam  for  the  defense 
of  Judah  after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes 
( 1  Chron.  iv.  3  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  6 ;  and  Josh.  xv. 
(iO  in  Septuagint).  According  to  the  Talmud, 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  sujiplied  with 
water  conducted  from  the  spring  of  Etam, 
and  an  ancient  aqueduct  extends  for  7  miles 
from  tlie  temple  hill,  past  Bethlehem,  to 
three  pools,  the  lowest  of  which  is  fed  by  a 
neighboring  spring,  situated  on  the  south, 
calied  'Ain  'Atan.  Josephus  relates  that  Solo- 
mon was  fond  of  driving  out  in  the  early 
morning  to  Etan  (written  also  Etam),  distant 
2  schoinoi  or  7  miles  from  Jerusalem,  where 
there  was  a  delightful  prospect  of  gardens 
and  rivulets  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3;  cp.  Song  vi. 
11,  12;  Eccl.  ii.  5,  H).  Here,  then,  at  'Ain 
'Atan,  near  the  village  of  Urtas  and  about  2 
miles  southwest  of  Bethlehem,  was  the  site 
of  Etam.  The  tliree  reservoirs  were  discov- 
ered by  jtilgrims  at  (juite  a  late  date  and 
named  the  pools  of  Solomon.  Tlie  aqueduct 
is  ancient,  antedating  thi;  tJliristiau  era  and 
the  lv(jman  i)eriod.  J'ontius  I'ilate  probably 
used  it  as  the  last  section  of  the  great  conduit 
which  he  undertook  to  build  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  water  to  Jerusalem  from  a  dis- 
tance of  200  stadia  or  23  miles  (Anti([.  xviii. 
3,  2 ;  or  400  stadia,  War  ii.  !),  4).  Another 
section  extends  from  tlie  three  pools  to  the 
wady  el-'Arrub  near  Hebron,  and  a  third 
reaches  a  few  miles  soutiiward  from  the 
pools  to  the  wady  el-Biar. 

E'tham  [perhaps  lioundary]. 

The  first  encaiiipmenl  of  the  Israelites 
after  leaving  Succolh,  as  tliey  were  depart- 
ing from  Egypt.  It  was  on  the  edge  of  the 
wilderness  (Ex.  xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  6).    It 


apparently  did  not  lie  on  the  direct  road 
from  Egypt  to  the  Philistine  country  (Ex. 
xiii.  17).  The  name  was  extended  to  a  por- 
tion of  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  requiring  at 
least  three  days  to  cross  it,  and  apparently 
reaching  to  or  even  including  Marah  (Num. 
xxxiii.  8;  cp.  Ex.  xv.  22).  Identifications 
have  been  proposed,  but  are  all  conjectural. 

E'than  [firmness,  perpetuity]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  belonging  to 
the  tribal  family  of  Zerah  (1  Chron.  ii.  6).  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  person  of  this  name 
who  was  celebrated  for  his  wisdom  (1  Kin. 
iv.  31 ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.,  title). 

2.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Gershom, 
house  of  Libni  (1  Chron.  vi.'  42,  43;  cp.  20 
and  Num.  xxvi.  58). 

3.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  INIerari,  house 
of  Mushi.  He  was  a  son  of  Kishi  or  Ku- 
shaiah,  and  was  appointed  a  singer  in  the 
time  of  David  (1  Chron.  vi.  44,  47;  xv.  17, 
19).  His  name,  it  appeal's,  was  changed  to 
Jeduthun,  praising  one,  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  service  in  the  tabernacle  at  Gibeon 
(1  Chron.  xvi.  38-41  ;  cp.  xv.  17,  19  with 
XXV.  1). 

Eth'a-nim  [incessant  rains]. 

The  seventh  month  (1  Kin.  viii.  2\  called 
also  Tishri.  It  was  approximately  October. 
Within  it  fell  the  feast  of  trumpets,  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  and  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.     See  Year. 

Eth'ba-al  [with  Baal,  or,  to  judge  from 
the  Greek  form,  with  him  is  Baal]. 

A  king  of  the  Tyrians  and  Sidonians,  and 
father  of  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31 ;  Antiq.  viii. 
13, 1  and  2  ;  ix.  fi,  fi).  He  was  priest  of  Ashto- 
reth,  but  slew  his  brother  and  seized  the 
throne  (contra  Ajiion.  i.  18). 

E'ther  [abundance]. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  42),  but  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon 
(xix.  7).  It  is  called  Tochen  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
32.  Tlie  best  suggestion  as  to  its  site  is  the 
ruined  village  of  'Atr,  about  a  mile  north- 
west by  north  of  Beit  Jibrin. 

E-tM-o'pi-a  [Greek  AUhioina,  sunburnt. 
Possibly,  however,  this  may  have  been  sub- 
stituted for  the  Egyptian  Ethmish,  Ethiopia, 
with  wliicli  it  nearly  agrees  in  sound]. 

1.  A  country  called  in  the  Hebrew  language 
Ciish.  which  is  continually  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  Egyiit  (Ps.  Ixviii.  31 ;  Is.  xx.  3-5  ; 
Ezek.  XXX.  4,  5 ;  Dan.  xi.  43;  Nab.  iii.  9)  and 
sometimes  with  Libyaor  the  Libyans  (2Chron. 
xvi.  8;  Ezek.  xxx.  5;  xxxviii.  5;  Dan.  xi. 
43  ;  Nail.  iii.  9),  and  must  certainly  have  been 
in  eastern  Africa.  It  ran  southward  from 
Syene,  the  southern  point  of  Egypt  (Ezek. 
xxix.  10,  K.  V.  margin  ;  cp.  Judith  i.  10).  It 
was  nianilV'stly  the  uiiiicr  region  of  the  Nile, 
tlic  Soudan,  Nubia  with  Kordofan,  Sennaar, 
and  norlhern  Abyssinia,  a  region  in  large 
measure  desert,  though  in  ])laces  fertile.  This 
general  region  was  known  to  the  Egyptians 


Eth-kazin 

as  Kcs.  The  rivers  of  Ethiopia  (Is.  xviii.  1; 
Zeph.  iii.  10)  wore  probably  the  White  and 
Blue  Niles,  with  the  Atl)ara  or  Tacazze.  The 
topazes  of  Ethio]iia  were  celebrated  (Job 
xxviii.  19).  Its  inhabitants  were  tall  (Is. 
xlv.  14).  They  were  colored  men,  probably 
black  (Jer.  xiii.  23).  They  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile transactions,  selling  the  productions 
of  their  country  in  foreign  lands  (Is.  xlv.  14), 
and  as  a  consequence  became  wealthy  (xliii. 
3).  When  the  Ethiopians,  led  by  Zerah,  in- 
vaded Judah,  they  were  signally  defeated  by 
king  Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15;  xvi.  8).  An 
Ethiopian  dynasty,  the  twenty-fifth,  estab- 
lished itself  in  Egypt;  to  it  belonged  that 
Tirhakah  who  met  Sennacherib  in  battle  at 
Eltekeh  (2  Kin.  xix.  9  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  9).  Isaiah 
fxx.  1-6)  and  Zephaniah  (ii.  12)  prophesied 
against  the  Ethiopians,  while  tlie  psalmist 
jiredicted  that  Ethiopia  would  haste  to  stretch 
out  her  h^nds  unto  God  (Ps.  Ixviii.  31  ;  cp. 
Ixxxvii.  4).  The  prophecy  obtained  fulfill- 
ment in  the  conversion  of  the  Ethio])ian 
eunuch  (Acts  viii.  26-40)  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  gospel  into  Al)yssiuia,  which  still 
remains  a  Christian  kingdom. 

2.  There  was  an  Asiatic  as  well  as  au  Afri- 
can Cush.     See  Cush  1  and  2. 

Eth-ka'zin,  in  A.  Y.  It-tah-ka'zin,  with 
the  case-ending. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13). 

Eth'nan  [gift,  liire]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron  (1 
Chron.  iv.  7  ;  cp.  5  and  ii.  24). 

Eth'ni  [bountiful,  munificent]. 

A  Gershonite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  41).  In 
ver.  21  he  is  called  Jeatherai.  The  main 
difference  is  found  in  the  last  consonant.  A 
scribe  seems  to  have  confounded  the  Hebrew 
letters  nun  and  resh. 

Eu-bu'lus  [well  advised,  prudent]. 

A  Koman  Christian  (2  Tim.  iv.  21). 

Eu'me-nes  [well  disposed]. 

King  of  Pergamos,  197-159  B.  C.  When  the 
Eomans  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  at 
Magnesia  in  190  B.  c,  they  assigned  the 
greater  part  of  the  defeated  king's  realm 
north  of  the  Taurus  mountains  to  Eumeues  in 
return  for  the  services  which  he  had  ren- 
dered them  (1  Mac.  viii.  6-8;  Livy  xxxvii. 
44).  They  bestowed  Lycia  and  Caria  on  the 
Khodians.  The  report,  which  Judas  Macca- 
bteus  beard,  that  the  Eomans  had  taken  India 
and  Media  also  was  not  true. 

Eu-ni'ce  [blessed  with  victory] . 

A  pious  Jewess,  mother  of  Timothy  (Acts 
xvi.  1  ;  2  Tim.  i.  5). 

Eu'nucli  [having  the  couch]. 

Properly  a  chamberlain  ;  but  in  the  East 
persons  who  had  been  rendered  impotent 
were  employed  for  this  oflice,  hence  an  im- 
potent man  (Is.  Ivi.  3;  Mat.  xix.  12).  There 
is  scarcely  a  doubt  tliat  the  word  is  used 
in  this  sense  throughout  Scripture,  even  when 


221 


Euphrates 


it  is  rendered  into  English  by  some  other 
term.  Tliere  have  been,  and  still  are,  mar- 
ried eunuchs  ((ivu.  xx.xix.  1.  rendered  ofHcer, 
and  7).  Eunuchs  ol'tt'U  obtaini'd  high  jwsi- 
tion  and  great  authority.  The  captain  of 
the  guard  of  I'haraoh  and  his  chief  butler 
and  his  chief  baker  were  eunuchs  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  36  ;  xl.  2,  7,  translated  ollicer).  Eu- 
nuchs ministered  at  the  court  of  Uabylon 
(Dan.  i.  3).  They  served  in  the  presence  of 
the  Persian  king,  and  acted  as  doorkeepers 
of  his  palace  (Esth.  i.  10;  ii.  21)  ;  a  eunuch 
was  over  his  harem  (ii.  3,  14),  and  a  eunuch 
was  deputed  to  attend  hiscjueen  (iv.  5).  They 
served  also  at  the  court  of  Ahab  and  his  son 
Jehoram,  and  they  waited  upon  Jezebel  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  9;  2  Kin.  viii.  6;  ix.  32).  Even 
in  Judah.  although  eunuchs  were  legally  ex- 
cluded from  the  congregation  of  the  Lord 
(Deut.xxiii.  1),  they  were  employed  at  David's 
court  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  1),  and,  in  the  last 
days  of  the  monarchy,  at  the  degenerate 
court  of  the  successors  of  Josiah  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  15  with  Jer.  xxix.  2  ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  19). 
The  eunuchs  in  Judah  werejirobably  in  most, 
if  not  in  all,  cases  foreigners  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7). 
The  cupbearer  of  Herod  the  Great  was  a  eu- 
nuch, as  Avere  also  the  oliicial  who  brought 
him  his  food  and  the  o'ne  who  assisted  him  to 
bed ;  and  his  favorite  wife  ilarianiue  was 
served  by  a  eunuch  (Antiq.  xv.  7,  4 ;  xvi. 
8,  1).  A  eunuch  was  over  the  treasure  of 
queen  Candace  of  Ethiopia,  and  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  baptism  (Acts  viii.  27,  37 ;  cp.  Is. 
hi.  3). 

Eu-o'di-a,  in  A.  V.  Euodias  [fragrance]. 

A  Christian  woman  at  Philippi  blemished 
by  l)ickering  with  Syntyche  (Phil.  iv.  2). 

Eu.-phra'tes  [tTreek  modification  of  the 
Hebrew  Pn-ath,  which  is  variously'  explained 
as  meaning  sweet  or  broad  or  with  good  fords]. 

One  of  the  great  rivers  of  western  Asia 
and  the  world.  It  is  formed  liy  tlii' junction 
of  two  streams  :  the  Murad,  rising  in  Armenia, 
between  lake  Van  and  mount  Ararat,  being 
the  more  easterly;  and  the  Frat  or  Kara, 
rising  about  40  miles  northeast  of  Erzeroum, 
the  more  westerly.  Sometimes  the  name  Frat, 
cognate  with  the  Hebrew  Ptm^/i,  is  applied  to 
both  of  these  streams.  They  run  in  a  westerly 
direction  to  about  latitude  39°  N.,  and  longi- 
tude 39°  E.,  after  which  the  combined  waters 
turn  southward,  break  through  the  southern 
chain  of  the  Taurus  mountains,  and  at  various 
places  are  not  more  than  50  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean.  Then  the  river  bends  south- 
eastward, constituting  the  western  boundary 
of  Mesopotamia.  About  latitude  31°  N'.,  lyn- 
gitude  47°  E.,  the  Tigris  unites  with  the  Eu- 
phrates, to  constitute  what  is  now  called  the 
Shat  el- Arab,  which,  after  a  course  of  about 
90  miles  more,  falls  into  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  whole  length  of  the  Euphrates  is  about 
1800  miles.  It  was  one  of  the  rivers  of 
Paradise  (Gen.  ii.  14).  It  was  familiarly 
known  to  the  Hebrews  as  "  the  great  river  " 


Eupolemus 


222 


Evil 


or  simply  "the  river  "  It  fi»niie(l  the  limit 
in  the  northeasterly  direction  of  the  Hebrew 
dominion  when  its  extension  w;is  at  the 
greatest  (xv.  1«;  cp.  2  Sam.  viii.  3  ;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  3;  1  Kin.  iv.  21,  24).  It  was  a  boimd- 
aiy  between  east  and  west,  between  Egypt 
and  Assyria-Bal)ylonia,  each  power  desiring 
to  possess  the  country  between  the  brook  of 
Egypt  and  the  Euphrates.  In  the  Persian 
period  also  it  sei>arated  east  from  west  (Ezra 
iv.  10,  11  ;  V.  3;  vi.  G;  Neh.  ii.  7).  It  was  a 
boundary  of  the  Seleucidan  kingdom  (1  Mac. 
iii.  32 ;  vii.  8),  and  it  was  regarded  as  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  Roman  empire.  The 
greatest  city  on  its  banks  was  Babylon. 
Another  imjjortant  place  was  the  old  Hittite 
capital  Carchemish,  the  scene  of  various  bat- 
tles, especially  of  one  between  the  Baby- 
lonians and  the  Egyptians,  the  latter  led  by 
Pharaoh-necho  (Jer.  xlvi.  2).  In  the  book 
of  Revelation  certain  angels  are  described 
as  being  "bound  in  the  great  river  Euphra- 
tes" (Rev.  ix.  14),  and  the  sixth  vial  was  poured 
out  upon  the  Euphrates  itself  (xvi.  12). 

Eu-pol'e-mus  [good  at  war]. 

Son  of  that  .lolm  who  obtained  special  priv- 
ileges for  the  .lews  from  Antiochus  the  Great 
(1  Mac.  viii.  17;  2  Mac.  iv.  11).  Eupolemus 
was  one  of  two  ambassadors  sent  by  Judas 
Maccabseus  to  Rome  to  make  a  treaty  with 
the  Romans.  Some  think  that  he  is  the  Jew- 
ish historical  writer  Eupolemus  whom  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  quotes  so  frequently. 

Eu-ra'qui-lo  [from  Greek  eurakuldn,  the 
northeast  wind]. 

A  tempestuous  northeast  wind  which  blows 
over  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii.  14;  in 
A.  V.  Euroclydon).  The  wind  from  that 
quarter,  now  called  Gregali,  blows  generally 
in  early  spring,  and  is  tlie  most  violent  wind 
on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  sometimes  termed 
a  Levanter. 

Eu-roc'ly-don  [from  Greek  euroJclndm,  per- 
haps a  wind  from  the  southeast  or  east]. 

A  tempestuous  wind  which  blows  from  the 
southeast  or  the  east.  It  brought  the  vessel 
in  which  Paul  was  sailing  toward  Rome 
first  into  danger,  and  then  to  shipwreck 
(Acts  xxvii.  14,  A.  V.).  But  the  revisers 
prefer  the  reading  Eumkulbn,  which  is  in 
some  manuscripts,  and  render  Euracjuilo. 

Eu'ty-chus  [fortunate]. 

.V  young  man  of  Troas,  who,  falling  asleep 
while  Paul  was  i)reaching  there,  fell  from 
the  third  loft  or  Hour.  He  was  taken  up 
dead,  but  was  miraculously  restored  to  life 
by  the  apostle  (Acts  xx.  9,  10). 

E-van'gel-iat  [from  Greek  euagyclistes,  a 
mes.senger  of  good  tidings]. 

An  order  of  men  in  the  primitive  church 
distinct  from  ajiostli'S,  prophets,  pastors,  and 
teachers  (Eph.  iv.  11).  Their  name  imjdied 
that  their  s])ecial  function  was  to  announce 
the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  those  before 
ignorant  of    them,   and   as   they   were    not 


pastors  of  jiarticular  churches,  they  were 
able  to  go  from  place  to  place  preaching  to 
those  who  as  yet  were  without  the  Christian 
pale.  Philip,  who  was  the  means  of  convert- 
ing and  baptizing  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  was 
an  evangelist  (Acts  xxi.  8),  and  we  find  him 
successively  at  Jerusalem  (vi.  5),  in  Samaria 
(viii.  5),  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Gaza  (26),  in  the  cities  north  of  Ashdod  (40), 
and  finally  at  Casarea  (40  ;  xxi.  8).  Timothy 
was  also  commanded  by  Paul  to  do  the  work 
of  an  evangelist  (2  Tim.  iv.  5).  At  a  later  date 
the  name  was  given  to  the  writers  of  the  four 
gospels. 
Eve  [life]. 

The  name  given  by  Adam  to  the  first  wo- 
man because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  living 
(Gen.  iii.  20).  Soon  after  his  creation,  she  was 
brought  into  being  to  be  a  helpmeet  for  him 
(21,  22).  The  narrative  has  been  variously 
interpreted  as  meaning  that — 1.  Woman  was 
formed  from  the  rib  of  man,  Adam  being  in 
a  trance  and  beholding  the  operation,  but 
feeling  nothing;  2.  Woman  was  not  actually 
formed  from  man's  rib,  but  Adam  had  a 
vision  by  which  he  was  taught  his  oneness 
of  nature  with  woman  and  her  rights  and 
privileges;  3.  Woman's  relation  to  man  is 
set  forth  in  allegory.  From  a  literary  point 
of  view  the  third  explanation  is  unlikely; 
for  it  is  improbable  that  the  writer  intended 
to  insert  an  allegory  in  the  midst  of  histori- 
cal narrative  which  includes  the  creation  of 
the  universe,  the  creation  of  man,  and  the 
flood.  The  two  human  beings  were  placed 
in  the  garden  of  Eden  ;  and  in  order  to  test 
their  obedience,  they  were  forbidden  to 
touch  or  taste  the  fruit  of  one  jtarticular 
tree.  But  the  serpent  under  Satanic  in- 
fluence led  Eve  to  question  the  goodness 
of  God,  and  then  to  eat  the  forbidden- fruit. 
She  afterwards  persuaded  Adam  to  eat,  who 
thus  shared  her  guilt.  The  result  was  the 
fall  of  man  (iii.  1-21;  2  t!or.  xi.  3  ;  1  Tim.  ii. 
13).  After  the  expulsion  of  the  guilty  i)air 
from  the  garden,  Eve  successively  became  the 
mother  of  Cain,  Abel,  Seth,  with  other  sons 
and  also  daughters  (Gen.  iv.  1,  2,  25,  2(j ;  v. 
1-5). 
E'vi. 

One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  in  the  war  waged  by 
Moses  against  the  Midianites  because  they 
seduced  the  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 
E'vil. 

The  origin  of  evil  is  a  jiroblem  which  has 
perplexed  speculative  minds  in  all  ages  and 
countries.  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  but 
he  permits  it.  He  has  ])ermitted  it,  because 
the  revelation  of  his  infinite  perfection  is  the 
highest  conceivable  good  and  the  ultimate 
end  of  all  his  works,  and  there  could  be  no 
manifestation  of  certain  of  his  attributes  if 
sin  were  not  permitted.  Were  there  no 
misery,  there  could  be  no  mercy  shown  by 


Evil-merodach 


223 


Ezbai 


God ;  and  there  could  he  no  revelation  of  his 
grace  and  justice,  if  there  were  no  sin  (Koin. 
ix.  22,  23).  Sin  is  permitted  that  (lod's  jus- 
tice may  be  known  in  its  punishment,  and 
his  mercy  in  its  forgiveness.  Holiness  and 
sin  may  be  nearly  balanced  on  earth  ;  but  in 
the  universe,  sin  is  very  limited  in  compari- 
son with  holiness,  and  the  number  of  lost 
men  and  angels  is  doubtless  small  compared 
with  the  whole  number  of  the  rational  crea- 
tures of  God. 

E-vil-mer'o-dach  [in  Babylonian,  Avil- 
marduk,  man  of  god  Merodach]. 

Son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He 
ascended  the  throne  as  early  as  the  seventh 
month  of  562  B.  c,  and  reigned  only  two 
years.  In  the  first  of  these  two  he  took 
Jehoiachin,  the  captive  king  of  Judah,  from 
his  prison,  and  placed  him  above  all  the  other 
rulers  whom  he  had  in  thrall,  giving  him  a 
daily  allowance  of  food  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  (2  Kin.  xxv.  27-30  ;  Jer.  Hi.  31-34). 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Evil-mero- 
dach, his  own  brother-in-law,  Neriglissar  or 
Nergalsharusur,  being  at  its  head.  The  king 
was  accused  of  lawlessness  and  intemperance, 
and  was  put  to  death  in  560  B.  c.  Nerig- 
lissar, the  chief  conspirator,  then  ascended 
the  throne  (Antiq.  x.  11,  2;  contra  Apion. 
i.  20). 

E'vil  Spir'it.     Si-c  Dkmon. 

Ex-e-cu'tlon-er.     See  Guard. 

Exile.     See  Captivity  and  Dispersion. 

Ex'o-dus  [a  going  out,  a  way  out]. 

1.  The  departure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt,  after  they  had  been  divinely  eman- 
cipated from  bondage  in  that  land.  There  is 
considerable  difficulty  in  settling  the  exact 
route  of  the  Exodus.  The  miracles  by  the 
hand  of  Moses  were  wrought  at  Zoan,  that  is 
Tanis  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12),  and  Eamses  was  a 
suburb  of  that  capital.  Thence  the  Israelites 
journeyed  to  Succoth  (Ex.  xii.  37),  the  site  of 
which  is  marked  by  Tell  el-Maskhutah  in 
the  wady  Tumilat,  32  miles  south-southeast 
of  Tanis  and  11  miles  west  of  Isma'iliya. 
They  did  not  take  the  shortest  route  to  Pal- 
estine, which  lay  through  the  land  of  the 
Philistines,  but  they  went  by  the  way  of  the 
wilderness  by  the  Eed  Sea  ( xiii.  17, 18).  Their 
first  encampment  after  leaving  Succoth  was 
Etham.  The  site  has  not  been  identified ; 
but  it  was  on  the  edge  of  the  wilderness 
(20).  Thence  they  turned  back  and  eii- 
cfimped  before  Pi-hahiroth,  between  Migdol 
and  the  sea,  before  Baal-zephon  (xiv.  2;  Num. 
xxxiii.  7).  This  camp  has  not  been  definitely 
located.  It  was,  however,  west  of  the  Eed 
Sea.  From  this  place  they  marched  through 
the  Eed  Sea  into  the  wilderness  of  Sliur  (Ex. 
XV.  4,  22  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  8),  and  thence  along 
the  coast  of  the  Eed  Sea  toward  mount  Sinai 
(Ex.  xvi.  1;  Num.  xxxiii.  10,  15).  F'or  the 
date  of  the  exodus,  see  Chronology. 

2.  The  book  of  Exodus,  the  second  book 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 


the  title  consists  of  Ihe  opening  words,  "  .\n<l 
these  the  names."  The  name  Exodus  was 
api)ropriately  given  to  the  book  by  the  (ireek 
translators,  becau.se  it  narrates  the  departure 
from  Egypt  which  was  a  turning  point  in 
Israel's  history. 

The  book  is  a  continuous  narrative,  and 
may  be  divided  into  three  .sections:  1.  In 
Egypt  (i.-xii.  36).  The  period  of  several  cen- 
turies immediately  following  the  descent  of 
Jacob  into  Egypt  is  passed  over  with  a  single 
remark  about  the  increase  of  the  i)eople  after 
the  death  of  Joseph  (i.  7).  Oppression  of  the 
Israelites  (8  seq.).  Birth,  earlier  life,  and 
call  of  Moses  (ii.-iv.).  Struggle  with  Pharoah 
and  infliction  of  the  jilagues ;  in  connection 
with  the  last  plague,  institution  of  the  pass- 
over  (v. -xii.  .36).  2.  From  Egyi)t  to  Sinai 
(xii.  37-xix.  2).  Departure  from  Kamses  (xii. 
37-42).  Supplementary  regulation  res})ect- 
ing  the  passover,  stating  the  condition  upon 
which  foreigners  could  partake  of  it  (4:>-51). 
Sanctification  of  the  firstborn  enjoined  upon 
Moses  (xiii.  1.  2)  ;  announcement  to  the  peojjle 
of  a  seven  days'  festival  to  be  observed  hence- 
forth in  connection  with  the  passover,  and 
of  God's  command  to  sanctify  the  firstborn 
(3-16).  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (xiv.),  song  of 
deliverance  (xv.  1-19),  bitter  water  at  Marah, 
tnanna  and  quails  (20-xvi.).  At  Kcjihidim : 
water  from  rock  in  Horeb,  victory  over  Ama- 
lek,  and  visit  of  Jethro  (xvii.,  xviii.).  3.  At 
Sinai  (xix.  3-xl.  .'58  and  >ininterruptedly  to 
Num.  X.  10).  Establishment  of  the  theocracy: 
theocratic  covenant  proposed  by  God  on  con- 
dition of  obedience  (xix.  3-6),  a])i)roval  of 
the  terms  by  the  elders  of  the  people  (7,  8), 
the  ten  commandments  and  subsidiary  laws 
enacted  and  written  in  the  book  of  the  cove- 
nant (xx.-xxiii.  ;  xxiv.  4;  for  analysis  and 
form  of  these  laws,  see  Thkocracy,  A.m- 
RAPiiEL).  Ratification  of  the  covenant  by 
the  nation  (xxiv.  1-8),  and  the  covenant  meal 
of  the  contracting  parties  (!)-ll).  Moses 
in  the  mount;  architectural  specifications 
for  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  ta- 
bles of  stone  (12-xxxi.;  for  analysis,  see 
Tabernacle).  The  golden  calf  ^xxxii., 
xxxiii. ).  Moses'  second  sojourn  in  the  mount, 
with  summarizing  urgent  repetition  of  cove- 
nant laws  (xxxiv.).  Construction  and  erec- 
tion of  the  tabernacle  (xxxv.-xl.).  See  Pen- 
tateuch. 

Ex'or-cist  [in  Greek,  administrator  of  an 
oath  ;  expeller  by  adjuration]. 

One  who  professes  by  using  words  and 
ceremonies  to  e.ject  evil  .spirit.s,  and  deliver 
from  their  malign  influence.  Certain  im- 
postors of  this  sort,  vagabond  Jews,  were  en- 
countered by  Paul  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix. 
13-19). 

E'zar.     See  Ezek,  II. 

Ez'bal. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron,  xi.  37,  possibly  merely  a  variant  read- 
ing of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 


Ezbon 


224 


Ezekiel 


Ez'bon. 

1.  A  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16).    See  Ozni. 

2.  The  liead  of  a  father'.s  house,  family  of 
Bela.  triUf  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

Ez-e-ki'as.     See  Hezekiah. 

E-ze'ki-el  [God  doth  strengthen ;  or,  per- 
haps, God  is  strong]. 

One  of  the  greater  Jewish  prophets,  a  son 
of  Buzi,  and  of  priestly  family  (Ezek.  i.  3). 
He  grew  up,  until  beyond  the  years  of  ehild- 
lidod,  in  the  home-land;  near  Jerusalem, 
siiiee  he  was  of  ])riestly  descent;  dining  the 
ministry  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  He  was 
carried  captive  from  Judah  with  Jehoiachin, 
eight  years  after  Daniel's  deportation  (xxxiii. 
•.il  ;  xi.  1 ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  11-16).  Josephus 
says  that  he  was  a  youth  at  the  time  (Antiq. 
X.  6,  3).  He  was  not  a  child,  but  was  under 
tlie  age  when  Levites  assumed  their  duties 
and  were  reckoned  in  the  census  as  men. 
He  lived  with  the  Jewish  exiles  on  the  river 
(_'iiel)ar  in  Babylonia,  probably  at  Tel-abib 
(Ezek.  i.  1,  3;  iii.  15)  ;  married  probably  as 
early  as  the  sixth,  at  least  by  the  ninth,  year 
of  the  captivity,  and  had  a  house  (viii.  1 ; 
xxiv.  1,  18). 

His  ])rophetic  ministry  began  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity,  seven  years 
before  the  destruction  of  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, while  he  was  dwelling  on  the  Chebar 
(i.  ],  2).  He  was  then  in  his  thirtieth  year 
(i.  1),  the  age  at  which  Levites  entered  upon 
service  (Num.  iv.  3).  The  theory  that  the 
thirtieth  year  does  not  refer  to  Ezekiel's  age, 
l)ut  is  a  date  reckoned  either  from  the  ac- 
cession of  Nabojjolassar,  Nelmchadnezzar's 
father,  or  from  the  reforms  of  Josiah,  fails 
in  view  of  Jer.  xxv.  1,  3 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  36; 
XXV.  2-6;  Ezek.  i.  2.  Though  an  exile  in  a 
foreign  land.  Ezekiel  had  freedom  to  utter 
his  jirophecies,  and  was  resorted  to  for  advice 
by  the  ehlers  of  the  people  (viii.  1  ;  xiv.  ]  ; 
XX.  1);  but  his  words  were  not  followed 
faithfully  ( xxxiii.  30-33).  It  is  evident  from 
the  aflinities  of  thought  and  language,  that 
he  was  (|uite  lamiliarwith  .leremiah's  teach- 
ing. Perhaiis  as  a  frequenter  of  the  sanctu- 
ary he  had  heard  Jeremiah  i)reaching  at  the 
temi)le  or  listened  to  the  i)ublic  reading  of 
.leremiah's  i)rophecics  theri;  (Jer.  vii.  2  ;  xix. 
11:  xxvi.  2;  xxviii.  .">;  xxxvi.  8);  or  later, 
wiiile  an  exile  in  I!al)yloiiia,  he  nniy  have 
had  a  collection  of  these  discourses  in  written 
form  (xxix.  1,  31;  xxxvi.  .32;  Dan.  ix.  2). 
.•\t  any  rate  he  takes  up  brief  doctrinal  re- 
marks, or  suggestive  allegories,  or  short 
s|)eeches  of  Jeremiah,  and  (levelo])s  and  ex- 
pands them,  and  often  gives  to  them  a  liter- 
ary finish:  as  the  caldron  (Jer.  i.  13-ir); 
Kzek.  xi.  2-11  ;  xxiv.  3  14),  the  two  sisters 
i.ler.  iii.  (i  11  ;  Kzek.  xxiii.  1-4!)),  forgiveness 
for  the  condemned,  when  peniti'iit  (a  nation, 
.ler.  xviii.  .')-12,  an  individual,  Ezek.  xviii. 
21-321  ;  the  evil  shepherds  ri'i>laced  by  the 
Davidic  king  (Jer.  xxiii.  1-6;  Ezek.  xxxiv. 
1-24),   individual  resjionsibility   in   view  of 


the  proverb  about  the  fathers  eating  sour 
grapes  (Jer.  xxxi.  29,  30;  Ezek.  xviii.  2-31). 
the  new  spiritual  nature  (Jer.  xxxi.  33,  34  ; 
Ezek.  xi.  19,  20;  xxxvi.  2o-29),  the  exiles, 
not  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem,  the  hope  of  tiie 
future  (Jer.  xxiv.  1-10;  Ezek.  xi.  1.5-21; 
xxxvii.  1-14).  Ezekiel's  prophetic  activity 
extended  over  a  period  of  at  least  twenty- 
two  years  (i.  2  with  xxix.  17).  The  time  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  unknown.  The 
late  tradition  that  he  was  slain  by  a  prince 
of  the  people  because  he  denounced  idolatry 
is  worthless. 

The  book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  stands  in 
the  English  Bible  between  Lamentations  and 
Daniel.  As  these  two  books  are  placed  among 
the  Hagiographa  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  Eze- 
kiel's place  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is  be- 
tween Jeremiah  and  Hosea.  The  prophecies 
are  arranged  nearly,  though  not  quite,  in 
chronological  order,  and  they  are  dated  ac- 
cording to  the  years  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity 
in  which  they  were  delivered.  The  book 
falls  into  three  divisions  : 

I.  Prophecies  delivered  before  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  foretelling  its  overthrow  for 
its  sins.  In  the  tifth  year  the  priest  is  called 
to  the  prophetic  office  and  prepared  for  his 
work  by  a  vision  (i.-iii.  21),  and  then  is  di- 
rected to  prophesy,  by  symbolical  actions 
and  their  interpretation,  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (iii.  22-vii.).  In  the  sixth  year,  are 
denunciations  of  Judah  for  idolatry  (viii.) ; 
symbolical  departure  of  Jehovah  from  the 
temple  because  of  its  profanation  (ix.-xi.  13) ; 
comfort,  the  exiles  are  still  God's  people,  he 
will  be  a  sanctuary  to  them  (16),  restore  them 
to  the  land  of  Israel  (17),  give  those  that  re- 
form their  lives  a  new  lieart  (18-21).  Unbe- 
lief and  adherence  to  false  prophets  are  the 
reasons  for  Jehovali's  forsaking  his  city  (xii.- 
xiv.)  ;  tlie  event  is  certain  (xv.-xvii.),'  but 
the  repentant  shall  enjoy's  God's  fa'vor 
(xviii.).  Lamentation  for  the  princes  of 
Israel  (xix.).  In  the  seventh  year,  it  is  proph- 
esied that,  because  Jehovah's  name  has  been 
profaned  in  the  sight  of  the  heathen,  he  will 
punish  the  people,  but  will  afterwards  restore 
them  for  his  name's  sake  (xx.  1-44)  ;  the 
doom  is  certain,  the  transgressions  are  come 
to  remembrance  before  God  (xx.  45-xxiii.). 
In  the  ninth  year,  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  people  are  symbol- 
ized by  a  caldron  (xxiv.). 

II.  Prophecies  of  judgment  against  the  Da- 
tions:  in  the  ninth  year,  against  Amnion^, 
Moab,  Edom,  and  Philistia  (xxv.)  ;  in  the 
eleventh  year,  against  Tyre  and  Sidon  (xxvi.- 
xxviii.)  ;  and  in  the  tenth,  twenty -seventh, 
and  eleventh  years,  against  Egypt  (xxix.- 
xxxii.). 

III.  Projihecies concerning  the  restoration, 
delivered  after  the  capture  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Nebucliadnezzar.  In  the 
twelfth  year,  the  evening  before  the  news 
of  the  fall  of  the  city  reached  the  prophet, 
he  received  a  second  formal  call  to  the  pro- 


Ezekiel 


225 


Ezekiel 


phetic  work  (xxxiii.  1-22).  He  is  further 
taught  that,  after  the  judgmeut,  the  i)eople 
shall  recognize  that  Jehovah  is  God,  aud  that 
a  true  prophet  has  been  amung  them  (2o-."Jo) ; 
a  good  shepherd,  even  David,  shall  be  raised 
up  (xxxiv.),  their  present  foes  jiuuished 
(xxxv.),  the  people  sanctified  and  restored  to 
their  land  (xxxvi.),  revived  as  from  the  dead, 
their  twelve  tribes  reunited  (xxxvii. ),  aud 
their  foes  finally  overthrown  (xxxviii.- 
xxxix.).  In  the  twenty-fifth  year,  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  God's  church  is  disclosed, 
being  symbolically  exhibited  in  the  vision 
of  the  temple  enlarged  and  holj'  throughout, 
and  the  people  cleansed  and  accepted  by  Je- 
hovah (xl.-xliii.),  its  holy  services  (xliv.- 
xlvi.),  the  river  of  life  issuing  from  it  and 
making  the  desert  to  rejoice  (xlvii.),  aud  the 
distribution  of  the  land  among  the  tribes, 
and  their  common  city  kuowu  as  the  place 
where  Jehovah  is  (xlviii.). 

In  this  vision  the  temple  that  Ezekiel  had 
known  so  well  in  his  younger  days  is  quite 
changed  in  appearance.  Instead  of  the  little 
hill  of  Zion,  he  beholds  a  high  mountain, 
crowned  by  the  buildings  of  a  new  and 
grander  sanctuary.  An  angel,  with  a  meas- 
uring rod  and  line,  is  standing  at  the  gate. 
The  new  temple  is  modeled,  indeed,  after  the 
old  in  its  general  arrangements,  but  it  is  so 
located  with  reference  to  the  habitations  of 
men,  and  its  courts  and  chambers  are  so  dis- 
posed, as  to  safeguard  the  holiness  of  Jeho- 
vah, who  is  soon  to  dwell  there,  and  impress 
upon  the  worshipers  .Jehovah's  separateness 
from  both  moral  and  ceremonial  impurity. 
Many  years  earlier  Ezekiel  had  seen  in  vision 
•Jehovah  leaving  the  old,  desecrated  temple 
(x.  18,  19;  xi.  22-24);  now  the  prophet  be- 
holds Jehovah  returning  by  the  same  gate 
into  the  temple  aud  the  glory  of  Jehovah 
filling  the  house,  and  he  hears  a  voice  from 
within  saying,  "This  is  the  place  of  my 
throne,  . .  .  where  I  will  dwell  in  the  midst  of 
the  children  of  Israel  for  ever ;  and  the  house 
of  Israel  shall  no  more  defile  my  holy  name  " 
(xliii.  1-7).  In  the  inner  court,  before  the 
holy  house,  Ezekiel  sees  the  altar  of  atone- 
ment provided  for  the  new  Israel  and  hears 
the  declaration,  "  Aud  I  will  accept  you, 
saith  the  Lord  Jehovah"  (13-27).  Tlie  wor- 
ship of  accepted  Israel  is  now  described  to 
the  prophet.  In  the  new  theocracy  the 
reality  will  correspond  to  the  divine  ideal. 
The  uncircumcised  in  heart  or  flesh  will  not 
enter  into  the  sanctuai-y.  The  Levitical 
families  who  proved  unfaithful  of  old  will 
not  be  allowed  to  ofiiciate  at  the  altar;  yet 
they  will  be  given  a  place,  albeit  a  humble 
one,  in  the  temple.  The  priests,  the  sous  of 
Zadok,  whose  very  name  means  righteous, 
that  had  remained  faithful,  will  alone  fill 
the  high  oifice  of  priest  before  Jehovah 
(xliv. ).  An  oblation  unto  Jehovah  will  be 
made  of  a  portion  of  the  land  for  the  support 
of  the  services  and  ministry  of  the  sanctuary 
(xlv.  1-6).  For  the  prince  also  suitable  pro- 
15 


vision  will  be  made  from  the  oblation-laud, 
enabling  him  to  nuiintain  the  ]>ublic  .services 
in  the  name  of  the  pcuide,  and  he  shall  not 
abuse  his  power  l)y  ojijiressing  the  i)eopie  or 
encroaching  on  the  prerogatives  of  tlie  priests 
(7-12;  xlvi.  2,  1(J-18).  The  people  likewise 
shall  assemble  in  their  own  appointed  jilace 
in  the  temple,  when  they  worship  (!)).  All 
members  of  tlie  theocracy,  official  and  lay. 
know  and  i)erform  the  duties  in  reference  to 
atonement  which  belong  to  them  in  their 
several  places  and  relations.  Ezekiel  is  next 
shown  a  river  issuing  from  the  tenii)h",  swell- 
ing into  a  mighty  stream,  and  liringing  life 
and  health  to  the  regions  of  barrenness  and 
death  (xlvii.  1  12).  The  bounds  of  the  land 
to  be  occupied  by  the  reston^d  community 
are  described  (xlvii.  13-20),  and  the  location 
of  the  tribes  (21-xlviii.  2i») ;  the  oblation- 
land  being  divided  between  priests,  Levites, 
the  crown,  and  the  city  (xlviii.  8-22).  Tlie 
city  belongs  to  !\]1  Israel  in  common  (15-20, 
30-34;  cp.  1!)  aud  xlv.  (Ji,  aud  its  name  is  Je- 
hovah-shaniniah,  Jehovah  is  there  (xlviii. 
33),  symbolizing  the  central  thought  of  the 
entire  prophecy. 

What  was  Ezekiel's  contribution  to  Israel's 
thought?  Critics  of  the  school  of  Well- 
hauseu  regard  Ezekiel  as  the  father  of  the 
later  formal  Judaism.  They  assert  that  the 
description  of  the  new  Jerusalem  in  chaps, 
xl.-xlviii.  is  a  program,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
characteristic  priestly  regulations  contained 
in  I^eviticus  and  Numbers.  This  theory  is 
rejected  by  critics  of  the  school  of  Ewald, 
however,  and  by  all  scholars  who  take  tlie 
biblical  view  of  the  origin  of  Israel's  insti- 
tutions; and  they  cite  evidence  both  that 
the  characteristic  legislation  of  Leviticus 
antedates  Ezekiel,  and  also  that  the  jirojihet 
did  not  intend  these  cha])ters  as  a  i)rogram. 
Further  the  pi(^ture  that  is  unfolded  in  those 
chapters  is  not  an  ideal  wjiich  the  prophet 
expected  would  be  realized  literally,  but  is 
purely  symbolical ;  for  in  no  otlier  way  is  it 
possible  to  understand  the  high  mountain 
of  the  new  Zion,  and  the  measurenu'uts, 
and  the  allotments  of  tlu;  land  which  are 
geometrical  and  not  geographical,  and  the 
healing  Avaters  that  issue  from  the  sanctuary 
and  presently  become  a  miglity  river,  and 
the  trees  whose  fruit  is  produced  every 
month  and  whose  leaves  are  for  healing. 
Ezekiel's  enrichment  of  Israel's  thought, 
through  these  chapters  and  his  other  proph- 
ecies, is  found  in  the  sjuritnal  teadiing. 
Among  other  things  he  contributed  :  1.  "ro 
the  thought  of  (Jod.  While  others  speak  of 
Jehovah  shepherding  his  people  (Gen.  xlviii. 
15;  Ps.  xxiii),  gathering  the  scattered  flock 
of  Israel  (Jer.  xxiii.  3;  xxxi.  10 1,  and  ten- 
derly caring  for  them  (Is.  xl.  11),  Ezekiel 
represents  God  as  seeking  his  lost  sheep 
(xxxiv.  11-16;  cp.  :Mat.  xviii.  12-14;  Luke 
xix.  10).  2.  To  the  vision  of  the  new  Jeru- 
salem :  the  high  mountain  (Ezek.  xl.  2;  Rev. 
xxi.   10),   the  holy  city,    God's   tabernacle 


£zel 


226 


Ezra 


among  men  (Ezek.  xxxvii.  li" ;  Kev.  xxi.  ',i), 
tlu!  glory  of(io(l  ill  it  lEzt-k.  xliii.  '^-5;  Kev. 
xxi.  11),  tlic  city  foursquare  (Ezek.  xlviii.  Ifi, 
30;  Kev.  xxi.  lii),  liaving  twelve  gates  (Ezek. 
xlviii.  30-34;  Kev.  xxi.  12,  13),  the  river  of  life 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  1 ;  Kev.  xxii.  1),  and  the  trees 
on  either  side  of  the  river,  whose  leaves  are 
for  healing  (Ezek.  xlvii.  7,  1~ ;  Eev.  xxii,  2). 
As  in  Ezekiel,  so  in  John  the  vision  is  syni- 
bolieal.  3.  But  above  all  Ezekiel  contributed 
to  the  spiritual  conception  of  the  Jerusalem 
of  the  future.  Ezekiel  depicts,  indeed,  as  his 
predecessors  had  done,  the  fertility  of  the 
land  in  the  new  age  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  29,  30)  ; 
but  this  aspect  does  not  call  forth  his  enthu- 
siasm. Taking  up  a  germinal  teaching  of 
Jeremiah's,  he  lays  the  emphasis  on  the  re- 
newed nature  of  the  people  and  the  holiness 
of  the  kingdom  as  the  crowning  glory  of  the 
coiuing  time  (xi.  U),  20:  xxxvi.  24-29).  The 
sjiiritually  regenerate  Zion  is  henceforth  def- 
initely before  tlie  minds  of  God's  people  as 
a  noble  idea  and  the  great  hope. 

E'zel  [separation,  departure]. 

The  jilace  where  David  hid  until  Jonatham 
could  inform  him  of  Saul's  disposition  toward 
him  (1  Sam.  xx.  19). 

E'zem,  in  A.  V.  twice  Azem  [a  bone]. 

A  village  near  the  border  of  Edom  in  that 
part  of  the  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  which  was  afterwards  assigned  to 
Simeon  (Josh.  xv.  29  ;  xix.  3  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  29). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

E'zer,  I.,  in  A.  V.  once  Ezar,  an  error  not 
found  in  the  original  edition  of  IGll  [enclo- 
sure, treasure]. 

A  Horite  tribeand  itschieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21,  30;  1  Chrou.  i.  3t^). 

E'zer,  II.  [hell.]. 

1.  A  descendant,  probably  son,  of  Eidiraim, 
killed  in  a  raid  against  the  I'hilistiues  (1 
Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Ilur 
(1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

3.  A  Gadite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Cliron.  xii.  9). 

4.  A  son  of  Jeshua.  He  was  ruler  of  Miz- 
pah,  and  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  iii.  19). 

5.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  ceremony 
at  the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jeril- 
s;ileni  (xii.  42). 

E'zi-on-ge'ber,  in  A.  V.  often  Ezion-gaber 
[backbone  of  a  man]. 

A  town  on  the  Ked  Sea,  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  near  Elath,  on  the 
confines  of  Edom  (Deut.  ii.  8;  1  Kin.  ix.  2(i; 
xxii.  48  ;  2  Chron.  viii.  17).  The  Israelites 
encamped  by  the  town  as  they  journeyed  in 
the  wilileriiess  (Xuiii.  xxxiii.  :!,^*).  As  Kobin- 
son  suggested,  the  name  may  linger  in  el- 
Ghudyan,  a  small  valley  with  brack i.sh  water 
opening  into  the  Arabah  from  the  western 
mountain  sonn;  distance  north  of  the  fortress 
of  'Akaba,  the  apiiroxiinate  site  of  ancient 


Elath.     Tile  respective  ieilers  correspond  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic. 

Ez'nite.     See  Adino. 

Ez'ra,  in  R.  V.  once  Ezrah  (1  Chron.  iv. 

17),  the  pure  Hebrew  orthography  [help]. 

1.  A  man  who  is  registered  with  Judah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  17). 

2.  One  of  the  chief  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  (ver.  13). 

3.  A  priest  descended  from  Zadok  and  from 
Phinehas  (Ezra  vii.  1-6).  He  was  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses,  making  the  writ- 
ten law,  which  was  in  his  hand  (14),  the  sub- 
ject of  study  and  teaching  (10,  11).  In  the 
seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king 
of  Persia  from  465  to  425  B.  c,  he  was  coiu- 
missioned  by  the  king  to  go  to  Jerusalem  to 
inquire  into  the  civil  and  religious  condition 
of  the  Jewisli  coiuiuunity  and  conform  it  to 
the  teaching  of  God's  law  (14).  He  was  given 
orders  on  the  autiiorities  in  the  province 
Beyond-the-river  for  money  and  goods  for 
the  temple  and  for  the  exemption  of  the 
temple  officials  from  taxation  (21,  24).  He 
was  authorized  to  lead  a  fresh  company  of 
Jewish  exiles  to  Palestine,  in  addition  to 
those  who  had  accompanied  Zerubbabel  and 
the  high  priest,  Jeshua,  eighty  years  before. 
On  gathering  together  those  who  proposed 
to  return,  and  mustering  them,  he  found  no 
Levites  of  the  lower  order  ;  but  on  sending 
word  to  their  chief,  a  few  were  persuaded  to 
join  him.  After  fasting  and  seeking  God's 
guidance  for  the  journey,  the  party,  num- 
bering over  1700  men,  set  forth  on  the  twelfth 
day  of  the  first  month,  in  the  seventh  year 
of  Artaxerxes,  458-457  b.  c.  (viii.  1-23,  31). 
On  reaching  .Jerusalem  four  months  later,  on 
the  first  day  of  the  fifth  month  (vii.  8),  Ezra 
gave  over  the  vessels  he  had  received  for  the 
temple,  offered  sacrifice,  and  presented  the 
king's  orders  to  the  neighboring  governors 
(viii.  33-361.  He  was  grieved  to  discover 
that  .Tews  of  Palestine,  including  even  some 
of  the  priests,  contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses, 
had  married  heathen  wives ;  but  he  suc- 
ceeded in  inducing  most  of  them  to  divorce 
tliese  foreign  women  (ix.,  x. ).  Thirteen  years 
later,  after  Nehemiah  had  come  to  Jerusalem 
and  rejiaired  its  walls.  Ezra  took  the  leading 
])art  ill  reading  the  law  of  Moses  to  tlu^  ])eo- 
ple  of  tlie  colony  (Neh.  viii.).  He  died,  accord- 
ing to  .Josephus,  about  the  time  of  Eliashib's 
succession  to  the  highpriesthood  (Antiq.  xi. 
5,  5).  He  was  certainly  for  a  while  contem- 
porary with  Eliasliil)  (Nt'li.  iii.  1;  viii.  9i. 
Ezra  marks  tlie  transition  from  the  projihets 
to  tlu!  scribes.  For  his  relation  to  the  law 
and  to  the  O.  T.  books,  see  Canon. 

The  book  of  Ezra  consists  of  two  parts: 
1.  A  narrative  of  I  he  return  of  the.  .Tews 
from  Bal)yloiiia  under  Zerubbal)el  in  the  year 
5:58  R.  c,  the  restoration  of  divine  service, 
and  the  erection  of  the  temple  in  the  face  of 


Ezra 


Fair  Havens 


Samaritan  opposition  (i.-vi.).  2.  An  account 
of  the  return  of  a  second  body  of  exiles 
under  Ezra  in  the  year  458-457,  aiid  of  Ezra's 
energetic  and  successful  measures  to  ])ut  a 
stop  to  the  marriage  of  Israelites  with  for- 
eigners (vii.-x. ).  The  book  is  largely  com- 
))osed  of  copies  of  public  records  and  official 
documents.  The  provincial  documents  and 
history  are  written  in  Aramaic  (iv.  8-vi.  18; 
vii.  12-2fi)  ;  namely,  copies  of  the  letters  sent 
to  the  Persian  kings  by  officials  of  the  prov- 
ince Beyond-the-river  (iv.  8-16  ;  v.  7-17  ;  vi. 
6-12),  the  royal  replies  and  decrees  imposing 
commands  on  these  officials  (iv.  17-22;  vi. 
3-5;  and  vii.  12-2(5,  cp.  21,  24),  and  the  brief 
connecting  history  referring  primarily  to  pro- 
vincial aflairs  (iv.  23-v.  5;  vi.  1,  2,  13-18). 
Aramaic  had  been  for  several  centuries  the 
language  of  international  commerce  and  di- 
plomacy. The  remainder  of  the  book  records 
the  proper  domestic  history  of  Judah,  and  is 
written  in  Hebrew.  It  includes  the  royal  edict 
issued  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  (i.  2-4),  copies 
of  Jewish  archives  (ii.  1-67;  viii. ;  x.  18-44), 
and  the  connecting  history.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  Aramaic  narrative  was  writ- 
ten by  a  contemporary  of  Zerubbabel  and 
eyewitness  of  the  events  described  (cp.  v.  4, 
where  the  pronoun  we  is  used)  ;  but,  since 
documents  of  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  are  in- 
serted (iv.  9-16;  17-22),  the  written  narrative 
cannot  date  earlier  than  Ezra's  time,  and  the 
pronoun  we  was  employed  in  speaking  of  a 
past  generation  because  the  writer  felt  his 
identity  with  the  Jewish  people,  past  and 
present,  as  in  ix.  6-15  and  Neh.  ix.  29,  33. 
Some  would  date  the  narrative  even  later; 
but  see  below. 

At  least  a  section  of  the  book  was  written 
by  Ezra,  beginning  with  vii.  27,  for  it  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  lirst  person.  Ezra,  therefore, 
wrote  history,  and  he  may  have  compiled  the 
book  which  iDcars  his  name,  for  the  narrative 
closes  during  his  lifetime.  But  why,  it  may 
be  asked,  if  Ezra  compiled  the  book  which 
bears  his  name,  are  two  passages  in  which 
Ezra  is  prominent,  namely  the  ten  opening 
verses  of  chapter  vii.  and  the  last  chapter  of 
the  book,  which  is  inseparable  from  the  pre- 
ceding ninth  chapter,  not  expressed  in  the 
first  person  ?  The  ten  introductory  verses 
are  primarily  genealogical.  The  use  of  the 
third  person  is  natural.  As  the  introduction 
was  begun  in  the  third  person,  it  is  with 
propriety  concluded  in  the  third  person. 
Parallel  changes  of  person  occur  in  the  book 
of  Daniel,  which  is  regarded  as  the  work  of 
one  author.  As  to  the  last  chapter  of  the 
book,  it  would  seem  that  Ezra's  record  stop- 
ped at  the  ninth  chapter  and  the  narrative 
was  concluded  by  another  person,  though  not 
unlikely  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ezra  and 
acted  under  Ezra's  authority,  and  was  the 
scribe  who  drew  up  the  protocol  of  the  pro- 
ceedings and  wrote  down  the  official  list  of 
the  men  who  gave  pledge  (x.  18-44). 

Some  have  supposed  that  those  sections  in 


which  the  pronoun  I  is  not  used  wen;  in- 
serted in  Ezra's  narrative  by  another  editor, 
whose  hand  is  thought  to  be  discernible  in 
Nehemiah  and  Chronicles  also,  and  many 
modern  critics  place  the  date  of  the  sup- 
posititious editor  after  .330  it.  c.  The  argu- 
ment rests  ultimately  upon  the  fact  that  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  reckoned 
as  one  book  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and  upon 
the  belief  that  the  genealogies  in  tlie  book 
of  Nehemiah  are  carried  down  until  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great;  hence  Ezra  and  Ne- 
herniah  must  have  been  edited  in  the  (Jrecian 
period.  Now  it  is  a  credible,  hut  not  a  neces- 
sary, supposition  that  the  hooks  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  were  combined  and  sujiplemented 
by  an  editor.  But  apart  from  the  possible 
implication  of  the  genealogies  (see  Nehe- 
miah), there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
hypothetical  editor  belonged  to  a  younger 
generation  than  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  His 
supposed  additions  concern  events  in  which 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  participants,  and 
the  history  is  related  as  by  an  eyewitness  (cp. 
above  and  see  Nehemiah).  And  assuming 
that  the  books  were  not  edited,  and  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  each  other  in  authorship 
throughout,  as  they  are  confessedly  in  large 
part,  there  was  reason  for  reckoning  them  as 
one.  This  reason  is  scarcely  found  in  the 
purpose  to  conform  the  number  of  books  to 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet, twenty-two,  or,  by  peculiar  comjiutation, 
twenty-four;  but  the  reason  is  found  rather 
in  the  fact  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah form  a  continuous  narrative  of  post- 
exilic  Jewish  history,  and  are  concerned  with 
the  interrelated  work  of  the  contemporary 
rulers  of  the  community,  Ezra  the  i)riestand 
Nehemiah  the  civil  governor.  The  two  books 
were  known  to  be  of  diverse  authorship  (Neh. 
i.  1),  but  were  reckoned  as  one.  .just  as  the 
twelve  minor  prophets  were  counted  as  one 
book,  although  it  was  recognized  that  the 
twelve  writings  were  by  twelve  diUerent 
prophets. 

Ez'rah.     See  Ezra  1. 

Ez'ra-Mte  [alternate  form  of  Zarhite]. 

A  descendant  of  Zerah,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  as  Ethan  (1  Kin.  iv.  31 ;  Ps. 
Ixxxix.,  title;  c]).  1  Chron.  ii.  6)  and  Heman 
(Ps.  Ixxxviii.,  title  :  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  6). 

Ez'ri  [probably,  (God  is)  a  help]. 

Overseer  of  the  laborers  who  tilled  David's 
fields  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  26). 

F. 

Fair  Ha'vens. 

A  harbor  in  Crete,  near  the  city  of  Lasea, 
where  Paul's  shi])  touched  (Acts  xxvii.  8). 
Mr.  Smith  of  Jordanhill  located  it  about  5 
miles  east  of  Cape  Matala.  a  promontory  on 
the  southern  shore  of  Candia,  just  west  of 
which  the  coastline  turns  northward. 


Faith 


228 


Famine 


Faith. 

As  far  as  a  difference  exists  between  belief 
aiul  faith,  belief  is  assent  to  testimony,  and 
faith  is  assent  to  testimony,  united  with  trust. 
Faith  is  an  active  inincinle :  it  is  an  ait  both 
of  the  iindei-standin.ii  and  the  will.  The  dis- 
tinction between  belief  and  faith  is  that  be- 
tween '■  believe  me"  and  "believe  on  me." 
The  verb  believe  thus  does  service  for  the 
two  nouns  faith  and  belief.  In  the  Bible 
faith  or  belief  is  contidence  in  the  absolute 
truthfulness  of  every  statement  which  comes 
from  God  (Gen.  xv.  ti ;  Dent,  xxxii.  20  :  Mark 
xi.  -J-J  :  Kom.  iv.  [i-r>).  In  this  faith  the  heroes 
of  Scripture  acted  (Heb.  xi/).  In  a  special 
sense,  faith  is  reliance  on  God's  testimony 
regardinj;  the  mission  and  atonins;  death  of 
his  Sou.  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (John  v.  •J4). 
and  on  the  testimony  of  Jesus  regarding 
himself  (cp-  John  iii.  IS;  Acts  iii.  16  ;  xx.-Jl  ; 
Eom.  iii.  25).  Faith  in  the  Redeemer,  where- 
by a  sinner  rests  upon  him  alone  for  sjilva- 
tion,  is  essential  to  s;ilvation  (John  iii.  15. 16, 
18;  Eph.  ii.  S,  etc.).  Belief  in  his  historical 
existence  and  in  the  truth  of  his  claims  may 
be  produced  by  evidence,  but  faith  in  him.  re- 
liance upon  him  for  salvation,  cannot  be.  It 
is  the  gift  of  God  (Eph.  ii.  S)  ;  the  Spirit  ap- 
plies the  truth  to  the  soul.  Human  meaiis 
should  be  used,  in  cooperation  with  his 
Spirit,  for  its  production  (Eom.  x.  17).  It 
may  exist  in  larger  or  in  smaller  measure 
(Rom.  iv.  19.  -20;  xiv.  1).  The  apostles  when 
they  deplored  the  weakness  of  their  faith 
prayed  to  Jesus  for  its  increa.se  (Luke  xvii. 
5).  *  It  works  by  love  (Gal.  v.  6),  and  over- 
comes the  world  (1  John  v.  4).  But  with  all 
its  importance  it  is  not  the  greatest  of  the 
three  primary  Christian  graces,  that  position 
being  occupied  by  love  d  Cor.  xiii.  13). 

The  system  of  doctrine  given  by  revela- 
tion of  God  is  termed  the  faith  (Acts  vi.  7 ; 
xxiv.  24  ;  Eom.  i.  5,  etc.). 

FaJ'con. 

A  diurnal  bird  of  prey  other  than  a  vul- 
ture. The  family  includes  among  its  genera 
falcons  strictly  so-called,  hawks,  kites,  eagles. 
The  word  is  used  in  E.  V.  to  render  the  He- 
brew 'Ayyiih  (Job  xxviii.  7  ;  in  A.  V.  vul- 
ture), an  unclean  bird  iLev.  xi.  14;  Deut. 
xiv.  13;  in  A.  V.  kite).  Several  varieties  are 
mentioned  by  Tristram  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine: the  hobby  hawk  (Falco  subbuteo).  the 
red-legged  hobby  (F.  vespertinus),  the  Elea- 
nora  falcon  (F.  elenuorsc). 

Fallow  Deer  [deer  of  fallow  or  yellowish 
hue]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yahmur  in 
A.  V.  of  Deut.   xiv.  5;  l  Kin.  iv.  23.'    R.  V. 

has  roebuck  (q.  v.).  The  genuine  fallow  deer 
(Dama  rnlgayia)  has  horns,  with  their  up]ier 
part  paluiated.  The  hair  in  summer  is  yel- 
lowish-brown all  over,  with  spots:  in  winter 
the  tints  are  less  bright.  The  male  is  about 
three  feet  high  at  the  .shoulder.  Its  native 
countrv seems  to  be  the  Mediterranean  region. 


It  occurs   sparingly  in  Galilee   and   mount 
Lebanon. 

Fa-mil'iar  Spir'it. 

The  spirit  of  a  dead  person  which  professed 
mediums  claimed  to  summon  to  consultation 
(Deut.  xviii.  ID.and  which  appeared  to  speak 
from  the  earth  (Is.  xxix.  4),  or  to  dwell  in 
the  controlling  medium  (Lev.  xx.  27.  in  He- 
brew). The  medium  was  called  the  posses.sor 
or  lord  of  a  spirit  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  7,  in  He- 
brew). It  revealed  the  future  (Is.  viii.  19). 
It  was  either  a  special  spirit  which  was  be- 
lieved to  always  respond  to  the  summons  of 
the  medium,  as  the  English  rendering  would 
lead  one  to  suppose,  and  who  might  raise 
other  ghosts  ;  or  it  was  any  spirit  whom  the 
medium  desired.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  8  is  capable 
of  either  interpretation,  "Divine  by  the 
ghost  "  in  you  or  "whom  I  shall  name."  To 
consult  familiar  spirits  was  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  (Lev.  xix.  31 ;  Is.  viii.  191.  Under 
the  Mo.saic  law  a  person  pretending  to  possess 
the  power  of  consulting  a  tamiliar  spirit  was 
to  be  put  to  death  (Lev.  xix.  31 ;  xx.  6,  27; 
Deut.  xviii.  11).  Saul  carried  out  this  enact- 
ment, but  when  sorely  troubled  about  bis 
fate,  he  sought  out  a  woman  of  Endor  who 
bad  a  familiar  .spirit,  asked  her  to  bring  back 
Samuel  to  the  world,  and  believed  her  state- 
ment that  she  had  succeeded  (1  Sam.  xxviii. 
3.  5-25).  Mauasseh  favored  them  that  pro- 
fessed to  have  familiar  spirits  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6 ; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  6).  His  grandson  Josiah 
carried  out  the  Mosaic  law  against  them  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.24i.  They  probably  included  ven- 
triloquists, and  the  voice  of  the  spirit,  which 
appeared  to  come  in  a  whisper  from  the 
ground,  emanated  from  the  human  pretender 
himself. 

Fam'ine. 

Deficiency    of    food,    generally    produced 
either  by  failure  of  rain  leading  to  the  with- 
1  ering  of  the  crops,  or  by  the  prevention  of 
the  entrance  of  food  into  a  beleaguered  city. 
Famine  compelled  Abraham  to  leave  Canajin 
I  and  sojourn  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xii.  10).     It  was 
[  the  first  of   a    series  of   famines   connected 
'  with  the  history  of  the  patriarch  and  bis  de- 
,  scendants.    and   which  led   the  Hebrews  to 
I  temporarily  withdraw  from  Palestine  (xxvi. 
1;  xli.27-.56;  xlvii.  13'.     Other  famines  oc- 
curred in  the  days  of  the  judges  which  made 
j   Eliuu'lech  remove    to  iloab  (Euth  i.  1\  in 
David's  reign  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1),  in  the  time  of 
I   Elijah  (1  Kin.  xvii.  1-xviii.  46),   in  Elisha's 
1  time  (2  Kin.  iv.  38;  viii.  l),and  in  the  reign 
!  of  Claudius,   A.  D.  41-54,  when  severe  local 
I  famines  swept  in  succession  from  Juda>a  in 
his  fourth  year  to  Greece  in  his  ninth  year 
and  Italy  in  his  eleventh  year  (Acts  xi,  28; 
Antiq.  xx.  2,  5;  5,  2 ;  Tacitus,  Annals  xii.  43). 
The  chief  famines  produced  in  besieged  cities 
by  the  foe  outside  preventing  provisions  from 
entering  are  those  during  the  siege  of  Sama- 
ria by   Benhadad  (2  Kin.  vi.  24-vii.  20)  and 
during  the  sieges  of  Jerusiilem  bv  Xebuchad- 


Fan 


220 


Fathom 


iiezzar  'xxv.  1-3;  Jor.  lii.  l-() i  ami  l)v  Titus 
(War  V.  10,  2  and  3  . 

Fan. 

Tiio  winnowiuEC  fan.  in  Hebrew  Misreh. 
.'itill  called  inidhra  by  the  Arabs,  was  a  furic 
with  six  prongs,  with  whieli  irraiu,  after  it 
had  been  threshed,  was  thrown  up  anainst 
the  air  to  clear  it  of  the  chaflMIs.  xsx.  •2\  ; 
.Fer.  XV.  7).  A  shovel  was  also  used  for  tlie 
same  purpose.     See  Threshing. 

Far'tMng. 

1.  A  Koman  Qtiadrans.  a  small  l)niss  coin 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  an  n,i.  The  Greeks 
used  the  Eoman  name,  calling  the  coin 
kodriintes.  In  the  time  of  Christ  its  value 
was  about  one-half  of  an  English  farthing,  or 
one-quarter  of  a  cent  (.Mat.  v.  26 ;  Mark  xii. 
42). 

2.  An  Assarion,  diminutive  of  the  Liitin  a*, 
a  copper  coin  equal  to  about  one  cent  (Mat. 
X.  29). 

Fast. 

Abstinence  from  food,  or  the  period  during 
which  it  takes  place. 

1.  Iiirolitntary.  arising  from  the  foct  that 
nothing  to  eat  is  procurable.  Of  this  Type 
were  apparently  the  forty  days'  fast  of  Moses 
on  mount  Sinai  (Ex.  xxxiv.  2S  :  Dent.  ix.  9), 
of  Elijah  on  his  journey  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  Si,  and  of  our  Lord  during  his  tempta- 
tion in  the  wiklerness  (Mat.  iv.  2;  Mark  i.  13; 
Luke  iv.  2) ;  also  of  Paul  (2  Cor.  vi.  5). 

2.  Vohmiary.  from  religious  motives.  In 
this  sense  it  is  often  used  regarding  pre- 
scribed periods  of  abstinence.  There  do  not 
appear  to  be  any  injunctions  regarding  fast- 
ing in  the  Mosaic  law.  and  neither  the  verb 
"to  fast."'  nor  the  nouns  "fast  "  and  "fast- 
ing." occur  in  the  Pentateuch.  If  fasts  are 
prescribed  at  all.  it  is  in  the  ambiguous  lan- 
guage "Ye  shall  afflict  your  souls"  (Lev. 
xvi.  29  ;  xxiii.  27  :  Xum.  xxix.  7).  The  lirst 
mention  of  voluntary  fasting  is  in  connec- 
tion with  king  David,  who  refused  food  when 
he  supplicated  God  for  the  life  of  the  child 
borne  to  him  in  sin  by  the  wife  of  Uriah  (2 
Sam.  xii.  22).  Many  instances  of  the  same 
unprescribed  fasting  are  found  in  the  later 
books  of  the  O.  T.  (Ezra  viii.  21 :  Neh.  ix.  1 ; 
Esth.  iv.  3  :  Ps.  xxxv.  13  :  Ixix.  10  :  cix.  24; 
Dan.  vi.  18;  ix.  3).  Sometimes  fasts  were 
proclaimed  at  periods  of  calamity  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
9  ;  Joel  i.  14).  the  object  being  to  chasten  the 
soul  (Ps.  xxxv.  13;  Ixix.  10)  and  make  the 
voice  heard  in  heaven  (Is.  Iviii.  3.  4i.  The 
public  fast  signified  that  a  load  of  guilt  was 
resting  on  the  people,  for  which  they  hum- 
bled themselves  before  God  (1  Sam.  vii.  6  ;  1 
Kin.  xxi.  9,  12).  True  fasting  must  not  be 
confined  to  externals,  but  involves  abstinence 
from  iniquity  and  illicit  pleasures  (Is.  Iviii.). 
In  Zechariah's  days  there  were  stated  fasts 
in  the  fourth,  fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth  months 
(Zech.  viii.  19).  to  commemorate  the  com- 
mencement of  the  siege  of  Jerusiilem  in  the 
tenth  month  (2  Kin.  xxv.  1),  its  capture  in 


the  fourth  m<mth  (3;  Jer.  lii.  fi.  7  .  the  de- 
struction of  the  tenijile  in  tlie  fifth  month 
i2  Kill.  xxv.  8,  9).  and  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liah  and  the  Jews  that  were  with  him  in 
the  seventh  month  (2oi.  Anna  served  God 
with  fasting  (Luke  ii.  .37).  The  Pharisee  did 
so  twice  in  the  week  (Luke  xviii.  12).  When 
religious  formalists  lasted,  they  simetimes 
ostentatiously  put  on  a  .sad  countenance. 
This  practice  was  denounced  in  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  (Mat.  vi.  10,  17'.  The  discijihs 
of  John  the  Bapti.st  fasted  ;  those  of  our  Lord 
did  not,  at  least  while  he  was  among  them 
(Mat.  ix,  14,  15;  Mark  ii.  18.  19;  Luke  v. 
33-35),  but  afterwards  in  certain  circum- 
stances they  did  so  (Acts  xiii.  3;  xiv.  23). 

There  are  no  injunctions  laid  upon  Chris- 
tians to  fast ;  and  the  revisers,  on  the  ground 
of  textual  criticism,  have  removed  the  word 
from  Mat.  xvii.  21  ;  Mark  ix.  29 ;  Acts  x.  30 ; 
1  Cor.  vii.  5. 

Fat. 

1.  Abel  offered  the  fat  of  the  firstlings  of 
his  flock  to  Jehovah  (Gen.  iv.  4;  cp.  Xum. 
xviii.  17).  The  principle  was  laid  down  in 
the  Mosaic  law  that  to  the  Lord  belongs  all 
the  fat  of  sacrificial  animals  (Lev.  iii.  16; 
vii.  23.  25).  Neither  it  nor  the  blood  was 
eaten  (iii.  17),  bnt  was  burned  as  an  offering  to 
Jehovah  (Ex.  xxix.  13,  22;  Lev.  iii.  3;  iv.  8, 
9).  In  view  of  the  settlement  in  Canaan 
and  the  remoteness  of  the  majoritj-  of  the 
people  from  the  altar,  this  provision  was  ap- 
parently abolished  ^-ith  respect  to  animals 
slain  solely  for  food  (Dent.  xii.  15, 16  ;  21-24), 
the  animals  of  the  flock  and  herd  being  eaten 
as  were  non-sacrificial  animals. 

2.  A  vat  (Joel  ii.  24).  It  occurs  in  compo- 
sition in  the  word  winefat  (Is.  Ixiii.  2). 

Fa'ther. 

1.  The  immediate  progenitor  of  a  person 
(G*n.  xlii.  13),  or  grandfather  (xxviii.  13),  or 
more  remote  ancestor  (xvii.  4).  See  Pakexts. 

2.  The  founder  of  a  trade  (Gen.  iv.  20)  or  of 
anything.  The  ancestor  or  head,  or  one  of 
the  heads,  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  (1 
Chron,  ii.  51 ;  iv.  14,  18). 

3.  One  who  acts  toward  another  with  pater- 
nal kindness  and  wisdom  (Gen.  xlv.  8  ,  Judg. 
xvii.  10:  xviii.  19).  A  title  of  respect  and 
honor  bestowed  upon  an  authorized  teacher, 
especially  when  aged  (1  Sam.  x.  12 ;  2  Kin. 
ii.  12),  and  upon  royal  advisers  and  prime 
ministers  (Gen.  xlv.  8). 

4.  God,  either  as  the  Creator  of  the  human 
race  (Mai.  ii.  10 :  Antiq.  iv.  8.  24 ;  cp.  Acts 
xvii.  28).  or  as  the  begetter  and  loving  guard- 
ian of  his  spiritual  cliildren  (Rom.  viii.  15; 
Gal.  iv.  6).  or  as  standing  in  a  more  myste- 
rious relation  to  Jesus  (Mat.  xi.  26;  Mark 
xiv.  36;  Luke  xxii.  42).     See  God. 

Fath'om. 

A  measure  much  used  in  reckoning  depth 
of  water  (Acts  xxvii.  28».  It  is  the  render- 
ins:  of  the  Greek  Ortixin.  which  denotes  the 
length  of   the   outstretched   arms,   and  was 


Feast 


230 


Felix 


estimated  at  4  cubits  or  2t  ])alins  (Herod,  ii. 
1  lit).     The  English  lathoia  is  0  feet. 

Feast. 

1.  A  suniptiinus  meal  attended  by  mirth 
and  joyfulness  (Dan.  v.  1). 

•2.  A  time  set  apart  by  the  canons  of  some 
religions  for  sacred  joy.  Besides  the  ap- 
pointed seasons,  called  feasts  or  set  feasts  in 
the  English  versions  (Lev.  xxiii.  2.  E.  V. 
margin),  which  included  the  weekly  Sab- 
bath, the  memorial  of  trumjiet-blowing  on 
the  tirst  day  of  the  seventh  month,  and  the 
day  of  atonement  (3,  24,  27),  the  Mosaic  law 
enjoined  three  annual  celebrations  expressly 
called  feasts  or  rather  festivals.  They  were 
the  passover  on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  first  month,  with  the  accompany- 
ing feast  of  unleavened  bread  commencing 
on  the  fifteenth  and  lasting  seven  days  (5-8) ; 
the  feast  of  weeks,  called  also  feast  of  har- 
vest and  day  of  tirst  fruits  (Ex.  xxiii.  16; 
xxxiv.  22  ;  Num.  xxviii.  26),  and  in  later 
times,  because  celebrated  on  the  liftieth  day 
after  the  passover,  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  1)  ;  and 
the  feast  of  tabernaoles  or  ingathering,  which 
commenced  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh 
month  and  continued  for  seven  or  eight  days 
(Lev.  xxiii.  34-44).  These  three  annual  fes- 
tivals were  deemed  so  important,  that  when 
they  came  every  adult  male  not  incapacitated 
l)y  disease  or  infirmity  was  required  to  ap- 
])ear  before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary  (Ex. 
xxiii.  17 ;  Deut.  xvi.  16).  For  further  de- 
scription of  these  feasts,  see  the  appropriate 
articles.  As  Jesus  desired  to  fulfill  all  right- 
eousness, it  may  be  assumed  that  he  was  cus- 
tomarily present  at  Jerusalem  three  times  a 
vear,  on  occasion  of  the  three  festivals  (John 
ii.  23;  vii.  2-37,  etc.  ;  Mat.  xxvi.  17;  Mark 
xiv.  12;  Luke  xxii.  8;  John  xiii.  1).  In  ad- 
dition to  the  festivals  prescribed  by  the  law. 
a  festival  called  Purim  was  instituted  to  com- 
memorate annually,  on  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  of  Adar,  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews 
from  the  plot  of  Ilaman  (Esth.  ix.  21-28). 
Later  still  the  festival  of  dedication  was  ap- 
lK)inted,  which  was  instituted  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabieus,  to  be  celebrated  annually  for  eight 
days,  from  the  twenty-fill h  day  of  Chislev, 
in  commemoration  of  the  rededication  of  the 
temple  after  its  pollution  by  the  agents  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  iv.  41-.^)9;  John 
X.  22).  The  Lord's  Su])])er,  instituted  by 
Chri.st,  or  more  broadly  the  Christian's  life 
of  faith,  is  also  a  feast  (1  Cor.  v.  H). 

Fe'llx  [happy]. 

A  freedman  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  who 
wasapi)ointed  procurator  of  Juda-a.  The  date 
of  his  appointment  to  office  in  Palestine  Is 
disputed.  Ciinianus  succeed(>d  the  ]irocura- 
l(ir  Tiberius  Ah'xander  in  A.  I).  4H  (Antiij.  xx. 
.">,  2).  According  to  'I'acitus,  Cumanus  gov- 
erned (ialilee,  and  Felix  ruled  part  of  Sa- 
maria until,  on  the  deposition  of  Cumanus, 
he  was  appointed  procurator  of  the  whole 
province  by  Quadratus,   govenun-  of  Syria. 


Josephus,  who  was  a  boy  in  Jerusalem  in 
A.  D.  4S,  and  became  historian  of  the  Jews, 
represents  Cumanus  as  procurator  of  Judaea, 
and  states  that  Felix  was  sent  as  successor  of 
Cumanus  by  the  emperor  Claudius  to  admin- 
ister the  afl'airs  of  Judaja  in  52  ( Antiq.  xx.  7, 
1 :  War  ii.  12,  8).  Probably  Cumanus  and 
Felix  exercised  a  joint  procuratorship,  with 
Cumanus  higher  in  authority.  In  this  arti- 
cle A.  D.  52  is  assumed  as  the  date  of  his  sole 
procuratorship  in  Judsea.  He  seems  to  have 
obtained  this  apiioiutment  partly  through 
the  influence  of  his  brother  Pallas,  who  was 
a  great  man  at  the  court  of  Claudius.  Nero, 
the  successor  of  Claudius,  transferred  four 
Galiliean  cities  from  Felix  to  Agrippa.  Felix 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  in  the  exercise 
of  power  showed  the  disposition  of  a  slave 
(Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9;  Annals  xii.  54).  Jona- 
than, the  high  priest,  had  supported  the  ap- 
pointment of  Felix  to  the  procuratorship,  but 
displeased  Felix  by  the  fidelity  with  which 
he  counseled  him  regarding  his  government 
of  the  Jews.  Jonathan  was  murdered  by  the 
robbers,  the  so-called  Assassins,  encouraged, 
Josephus  says,  by  Felix.  The  impunity  with 
which  this  gross  crime  was  committed  em- 
boldened the  robbers.  They  became  the 
terror  of  Judvea.  Felix  undertook  to  sup- 
press them.  He  captured  many  of  them,  and 
crucified  the  ordinary  sort,  but  sent  their 
leader,  Eleazar,  to  Rome  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  5  ; 
War  ii.  13,  2).  Next  false  prophets  arose  and 
led  people  in  multitudes  into  the  wilderness, 
where  they  were  told  God  would  show  them 
the  signals  of  liberty.  Felix,  believing  these 
gatherings  in  the  wilderness  to  be  the  com- 
mencement of  revolt,  attacked  the  people 
present  and  slew  them  in  large  numbers 
(War  ii.  13,  4).  An  Egyptian  soon  afterwards 
made  his  appearance  as  a  prophet  and  led  out 
a  great  mob  to  the  mount  of  Olives,  under 
the  pretense  that  they  would  see  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  fall  down,  allowing  them  to 
enter  the  city.  Felix  attacked  them  with 
troops,  slew  about  400  and  took  about  200 
prisoners.  The  Egyptian  escaped.  His  in- 
surrection was  in  A.  D.  55  ;  and  when  about 
five  years  later  the  riot  about  Paul  arose,  the 
Roman  commandant  at  Jerusalem  suspected 
that  the  apostle  was  the  Egyptian  back 
again  to  excite  fresh  troubles  (Acts  xxi.  38; 
Antiq.  xx.  8,  6).  Paul,  arrested  on  the  false 
charge  of  profaning  the  temjde,  was  sent 
for  protection  from  Jewish  violence  to 
CiEsarea,  the  seat  of  the  Roman  govern- 
ment for  Judsea  (Acts  xxiii.  26),  and  the 
trial  took  place  before  Felix  (xxiv.  1-23). 
Felix'  wife  Drusilla,  a  Jewess,  whom  he 
had  seduced  from  her  lawful  husband 
(Antiq.  XX.  7,  1,  2),  was  present  at  an  inter- 
view when  Paul  reasoned  of  rigliteousness, 
temperance,  and  judgment  to  come,  with 
such  power  that  Felix  trembled.  He  did 
not  repent,  however.  Nor  did  he  set  Paul 
fri^e,  for  he  hoped  that  his  prisoner  would 
buy  freedom  (Acts  xxiv.  24-26).     On  going 


Fenced  Cities 


231 


Fig 


out  of  office  he  left  the  apostle  bound  in 
order  to  jilease  the  Jews  (27).  This  favor 
did  not,  however,  ]irevent  them  from  com- 
plaining of  him  after  he  had  ceased  to  be 
procurator  and  returned  to  Eome,  about 
A.  D.  GO.  Tliey  represented  that  he  liad  not 
acted  well  in  the  recent  riots  between  Jews 
and  Syrians  at  Ca>sarea,  and  he  would  have 
been  punished  by  Nero  had  not  the  powerful 
intercession  of  his  brother  Pallas,  who  was  a 
favorite  with  the  reigning  emjieror,  been  ex- 
erted in  his  favor  (Antiq.  xs.  H  9;  cp.  8,  7  ; 
War  ii.  13,  7).  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
l)rocuratorship  by  I'orcius  Festus. 

Fenced  Cit'ies. 

Towns  fortified  by  walls,  towers,  gates,  and 
bars  (Deut.  iii.  5 ;  2  Chron.  viii.  5  ;  Neh.  iii. 
1-32).  Such  were  the  cities  of  the  Canaanites 
and  the  Amorites  when  the  Israelites  warred 
against  them  (Num.  xiii.  28;  Deut.  iii.  5; 
Josh.  xiv.  12).  After  the  Israelites  had  oc- 
cupied Canaan,  they,  like  their  predecessors, 
had  fenced  cities  (Deut.  xxviii.  .52  ;  2  Sam. 
XX.  6 ;  2  Kin.  xiv.  13  ;  2  Chron.  xii.  4  ;  Jer.  v. 
17  ;  Hos.  viii.  14;  Zeph.  i.  16).  For  illustra- 
tion and  description  of  the  walls,  see  Jeru- 
salem and  Lachish. 

Fer'ret. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"nahnh,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal,  classed  by  the 
Hebrews  with  reptiles  (Lev.  xi.  30 ;  in  R.  V. 
gecko). 

Fes'tus  [festal,  joyful]. 

Porcius  Festus,  who  succeeded  Felix  as 
procurator  of  Judaea  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
while  Pallas  was  still  the  emperor's  favorite 
and  Burrus  was  still  alive  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  9). 
Pallas  was  put  to  death  in  a.  d.  62,  and  Bur- 
rus died  not  later  than  February  of  the  same 
year.  Two  years  before  the  arrival  of  Fes- 
tus, Paul  could  say  that  Felix  had  been  for 
many  years  a  .judge  unto  the  nation  (Acts 
xxiv.  10,  27).  If  the  procurator-ship  of  Felix 
be  reckoned  from  A.  D.  48  (see  Felix),  he 
would  have  been  many  years  in  otfice  in  Pal- 
estine in  A.  D.  .54  or  .55,  and  Festus  may  have 
succeeded  him  in  55  or  56.  the  second  and 
third  years  of  Nero  respectively.  This  date 
IS  adopted  by  some  authorities,  with  the  re- 
sult of  putting  the  dates  of  important  events 
in  Paul's  life,  among  others  his  imprison- 
ment, four  or  five  years  earlier  than  the  date 
generally  accepted  by  leading  investigators 
who  date  Felix'  accession  in  52  and  Festus' 
appointment  in  60.  Festus  fell  on  troublous 
times.  The  Assassins  were  murdering  and 
pillaging.  An  impostor  led  a  crowd  of  ad- 
herents into  the  wilderness,  where  the  forces 
of  Festus  routed  them  with  great  slaughter. 
King  Agrippa  built  a  dining-room  to  the 
royal  palace  of  Jerusalem,  and  its  windows 
overlooked  the  courts  of  the  temple.  The 
Jews  were  annoyed,  and  built  a  wall  to  block 
the  view.  But  the  wall  prevented  the 
Eoman  guards  also  from  seeing  the  inner 
courts,  and  Festus    ordered  its  demolition. 


On  appeal  to  Nero,  however,  it  was  allowed 
to  remain  (Antiq.  XX.  8,  n  .  The  character 
of  Festus  contrasts  favorably  witli  that  of 
Felix  (War  ii.  14,  1).  He"  reinvestigated 
Paul's  case,  and  was  satisfied  of  his  inno- 
cence ;  but,  in  attem])ting  to  please  the  Jews, 
he  suggested  that  tlie  apostle  be  tried  at 
Jerusalem.  It  was  against  this  injudicious 
proposal  tliat  Paul  appealed  to  Ca'sar  (Acts 
XXV.  1-xxvi.  32).  Festus  died  at  his  ])ost, 
and  was  succeeded,  about  A.  D.  62,  by  Albinus, 
who  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Scripture  nar- 
rative (Antiq.  xx,  9,  1). 

Fe'ver. 

A  disease,  or  rather  a  genus  of  diseases,  at- 
tended by  dryness  and  heat  of  the  body,  with 
consequent  thirst,  a  high  i)iilse,  and  other 
symptoms.  Fevers  are  of  three  leading  ty)ies, 
intermittent,  remittent,  and  continued.  Fe- 
vers of  all  the  types  now  named  doulitless 
existed  in  ancient  Palestine,  though  it  is  not 
possible  in  all  cases  to  identify  them  with  cer- 
tainty. Fever  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
hvew  Knddnhath,  burning  (Lev.  xxvi.  16,  in 
A.  V.  burning  ague;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  In 
the  latter  passage  it  is  associated  with  inflam- 
mation and  fiery  heat,  both  febrile  symptoms. 
Fever  is  likewise  the  correct  rendering  of  the 
Greek  Puretos,  from  Pm\  fire  (Mat.  viii.  15  ; 
Ijuke  iv.  38;  John  iv.  52;  Acts  xxviii.  8). 
(jalen  and  the  Greek  physicians  divided 
fevers  into  greater  and  lesser.  Luke  in  the 
passage  quoted  does  so  also,  as  might  be  ex- 
jiected  from  one  who  vs'as  himself  a  medical 
man.  Fever  so  uniformly  attends  certain 
diseases  that  the  two  are  mentioned  together, 
as  in  the  designation  "fever and  dysentery." 
When  the  sword,  the  famine,  and  the  pesti- 
leTice,  are  mentioned  in  this  order  of  succes- 
sion the  pestilence  was  probably  typhus  fever. 

Field. 

In  biblical  usage,  unenclosed  ground,  wheth- 
er pasture  or  tillage  (Gen.  xxxvii.  7,  14-16), 
of  whatever  extent,  from  a  small  area  to  the 
territory  of  a  people  (xiv.  7,  margin  of  R.  V.  ; 
xxiii.  9:  Ruth  i.  6,  rendered  countiy;  Mat. 
vi.  28  ;  xiii.  24).  It  might  be  wooded  (1  Sam 
xiv.  25,  i-endered  ground).  Boundaries,  when 
artificially  marked,  were  indicated  by  stones 
(cp.  Deut.  xix.  14). 

Fig. 

A  tree  producing  good  fruit  (Jndg.  ix.  10) 
and  the  fruit  itself  (Num.  xiii.  23),  )K)th  called 
T''<-n(ih  in  Hebrew,  while  in  Greek  the  tree  is 
Sake  and  the  fruit  Siikon.  The  tree  is  native 
in  western  Asia.  The  young  tree  does  not 
bear  fruit  unless  the  ground  is  cultivated 
(Luke  xiii.  6-9),  and  old  trees  speedily  de- 
generate and  fail  when  neglected  (Prov. 
xxvii.  18).  The  young  fruit,  or  rather  blos- 
som, appears  in  spring  before  the  leaves  open, 
on  branches  of  the  last  year's  growth.  It  is 
the  green  fig  (Song  ii.  13).  If  blown  from 
the  tree  (Rev.  vi.  13*,  it  is  eaten,  though  im- 
mature. If  green  fruit  is  not  on  the  tree 
when  the  leaves  have   opened,   no  figs  will 


Fir 


232 


Firmament 


he  l)oriic.  The  first  ripe  fruit  is  ready  in 
June,  in  favored  localities  larlicr  (Is.  xxviii. 
4;  War  iii.  10,  8).  The  late  figs  grow  on 
the  new  wood,  keep  appearing  during  the 
si'asoii,  and  are  ripe  from  August  onward. 
They  are  dried  for  preservation,  pressed 
into  cakes,  and  form  a  staple  article  of  food 
(1  Sam.  XXV.  18;  xxx.  12j.  The  tree  was 
highly  prized,  and  is  often  mentioned  along 
with  the  vine  (Deut.  viii.  8;  Ps.  cv.  [V.i;  Jer. 
V.  17  ;  Joel  i.  l:i),  and  to  sit  under  one's  vine 
and  one's  fig  tree  was  the  synihol  of  prosperity 
and  security  (1  Kin.  iv.  25;  Mic.  iv.  4;  Zech. 
iii.  10).  The  barren  fig  tree  (jf  our  Lord's 
liarahle  meant  the  Jewisli  nation.  Figs  were 
u.sed  in  medicine,  and  there  is  mention  of 
their  employment  as  a  poultice  (2  Kin.  xx.  7). 
The  fig,  the  Ficus  carica  of  cultivation,  is  a 
tree  20  to  30  feet  high.  The  leaves,  which 
come  forth  late  in  spring  and  are  shed  at  the 
approach  of  winter,  are  often  8  or  10  inches 
across.  They  are  heart  shaped  with  three  or 
four  lobes.  The  fruit  is  of  so  anomalous  a  con- 
struction that  botanists  have  had  to  give  it  a 
distinct  name  and  place  among  fruits.  It  is 
a  hollow  receptacle,  with  minute  fiowers  on 
its  inner  side,  which  later  produce  the  true 
fruit.  The  tree  is  wild  in  southern  Europe 
and  the  nortli  of  Africa.  It  is  indigenous  in 
Palestine,  where  it  grows  wild  in  fissures  of 
rocks  and  on  walls,  besides  being  everywhere 
cultivated  (Deut.  viii.  8). 

Fir  and  Fir  Tree. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  B'ronh,  Ara- 
maic B'loth  (2  Sam.  vi.  5:  Song  i.  17).  The 
K.  V.  places  cypress  on  the  margin.  The  tree 
grew  with  the  cedar  in  Lebanon  (1  Kin.  v.  8, 
10;  Is.  xiv.  8:  xxxvii.  24;  Ix.  l.J:  Zech.  xi. 
2).  It  was  used  for  the  woodwork  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  along  with  cedar  (1  Kin.  v.  8, 
10;  vi.  15,  ."M  :  2  (^hron.  ii.  H;  iii.  5),  for  the 
l)lanks  of  ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5),  for  spears 
( Nah.  ii.  3,  R.  V.),  and  for  musical  instruments 
(2  Sani.  vi.  5).  The  stork  made  i(s  nest  witliin 
its  brandies  (Ps.  civ.  17).  The  Vulgate  trans- 
lates the  Hebrew  word  once  by  cypress  (Song 
i.  17),  but  elsewher(>  by  nbieft,  fir,  c\'ce|)t  2 
Sam.  vi.  5;  2  Chron.  ii.  8;  Nah.  ii.  3.  The 
Se))tuagint  commonly  renders  it  l)y  cypress, 
but  also  by  pine  and  juniper.  All  of  these 
trees  bi-long  to  the  Coiiiferie  or  \mw  family. 
The  only  true  fir  of  the  region  is  Abies  rilica. 
It  grows  on  the  higher  parts  of  Lebanon  and 
in  the  mountains  northward,  attaining  a 
height  of  from  30  to  75  feet.  The  cyiircss 
(('nj)res><u.i  xempervireiis)  is  a  tall  tree,  from  20 
to  (iO  or  75  feet.  The  Avood  is  reddisli  yellow, 
jih'asant  to  the  smell,  and  durable.  It  was 
much  used  for  cabinet  work.  It  is  extensively 
lilaiilcd  in  burial  grounds -in  tlu'  Last,  for 
whicli  its  .slender  pyramidal  form  and  grace- 
fulness render  it  well  adajited.  See  Cypkks.'!. 
The  Syrian  or  Alei)po  \nnv  {I'iiiiis  hatejieusis)  is 
found  in  the  mountains  of  wesli  in  Palestine, 
and  is  one  of  the  characteristic  trees  of  the 
lower  Lebanon.  It  is  inferior  in  .size  to  the 
fir  and  the  cypress.     The  stone  jiiiie  (I'inns 


maritima)  grows  on  the  toast  and  in  sandy 
plains,  but  is  not  common.  In  Gilead  there 
are  extensive  forests  of  Pinus  cur'ica  on  the 
highest  mountains  above  the  line  where  the 
evergreen  oaks  cease.  A  tall,  fragrant  juni- 
per (JuHipenis  e.rceJ.sa)  grows  abundantly  on 
Lebanon.     For  Is.  xliv.  14,  see  Ash. 

Fire. 

Fire  was  found  to  be  indispensable  (Ecclus. 
xxxix.  26).  It  was  used  in  the  arts  (Gen.  iv. 
22),  in  the  jireparatiou  of  food  (Ex.  xvi.  23; 
Is.  xliv.  IH),  and  for  warmth  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22; 
John  xviii.  18:  Acts  xxviii.  2).  Oflerings 
were  made  to  Jehovah  by  fire  (Gen.  viii.  20). 
The  fire  carried,  as  it  were,  the  sacrifice  to 
God,  who  took  delight  in  the  ottering,  or,  to 
speak  figuratively,  snielkd  a  sweet  savor  (21). 
The  offerel'  kindled  the  fire  himself  (xxii.  6). 
Moses  offered  burnt  offerings  on  the  great 
altar,  newly  erected  (Ex.  xl.  29),  but  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and 
his  sons  to  the  priesthood,  fire  came  forth 
from  the  iiresence  of  the  Lord  and  consumed 
the  sacrifice  (Lev.  ix.  24).  God  accepted  and 
appropriated  the  offering.  This  fire  was  not 
allowed  to  go  out  (vi.  9-13).  Likewise  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  and  the  new  altar, 
fire  came  from  heaven  and  consumed  the 
sacrifice  (2  Chron.  vii.  1).  On  other  occasions 
also  God  indicated  his  acceptance  of  a  sacri- 
fice by  causing  it  to  kindle  (Judg.  vi.  21 ;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  23,  24 ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  26 ;  as  to 
this  matter,  cp.  Gen.  xix.  24 ;  Ex.  ix.  23  ;  2 
Kin.  i.  12).  Among  the  heathen  there  were 
fire  worshipers  (Wisd.  xiii.  2).  The  wor- 
shipers of  Moloch  and  some  other  idolaters 
burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  as  an  act  of 
piety  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3  ;  xxi.  6  ;  Jer.  vii.  31 ;  Ezek. 
xvi.  20,  21). 

Fire'pan. 

A  pan  made  of  brass,  gold,  or  silver  (Ex. 
xxvii.  3 ;  1  Kin.  vii.  50 ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  15),  and 
nsed  for  carrying  fire  (Lev.  xvi.  12,  where  it 
is  rendered  censer). 

Fir'kin. 

A  measure  of  capacity  (John  ii.  6).  It  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Greek  Metretrx,  which, 
reckoned  at  1952.17  cubic  inches,  held  nearly 
8  gallons,  3i  pints,  wine  measure,  American 
standard. 

Flr'ma-ment  [Latin  firmamentum,  a  sup- 
port, a  firm  foundation]. 

The  sky  or  heaven  (Gen.  i.  8),  an  expanse 
beaten  out  as  it  were,  if  we  employ  the  figure 
embodied  in  the  Hebrew  word  (cp.  Ezek.  i. 
22),  which  divided  the  primeval  watery  mass 
(Gen.  i.  (i),  so  .that  part  of  the  waters  were 
abov(^  it  and  others  were  below  it  (i.  7;  Ps. 
cxlviii.  4).  The  stars  and  planets  were  placed 
in  it,  where  they  move  unimpeded  (Gen.  i. 
14,  17).  Birds  fly  in  front  of  it  (20,  K.  V. 
margin).  The  heavens,  and  presumably  the 
firniaiiient,  are  comjiared  to  a  tent  spread 
above  the  earth  (Ps.  civ.  2;  Is.  xl.  22),  are 
likened  in  strength  to  a  molten  niirror  (Job 
xxxvii.  18),  and  are  spoken   of  as  though 


Firstborn 


.  233 


Fisliing 


luiving  doors  and  windows,  through  which 
the  rain  pours  and  God's  blessings  descend 
(Gen.  vii.  11  :  2  Kin.  vii.  2;  Ps.  Ixsviii.  2'J; 
civ.  13).  This  conception  was  current  in 
ancient  Semitic  tliouglit.  The  doctrine  of 
the  division  of  the  i)rinieval  tluid  chaos  is 
not  unacceptable  to  modern  thought;  other 
features  are  regarded  as  naive.  They  are 
not  taught  in  the  Scriptures  as  facts.  They 
lingered  in  Hebrew  speech  and  imagery  as  an 
inheritance,  and  were  used  in  both  poetic 
and  prose  writings  even  when,  for  example, 
the  agency  of  the  clouds  in  bringing  raiu 
was  understood  (Gen.  ix.  14 ;  Job  xxvi.  8 ; 
xxxvi.  27-29;  xxxvii.  11;  xxxviii.  34;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17;  cxxxv.  7;  Is.  v.  6 ;  Jer.  x.  13). 

First'born  or  Firstling,  the  former  being 
used  chiefly  of  men,  the  latter  always  of 
beasts. 

To  the  firstborn  offspring  of  men  and  ani- 
mals God  the  giver  has  the  first  claim  (cp. 
Gen.  iv.  4).  Among  the  Israelites  an  addi- 
tional reason  existed  in  the  fact  that  Jehovah 
had  purchased  the  people  from  Egyptian 
bondage.  The  tenth  and  last  plague  of 
Egypt  had  slain  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyji- 
tians,  and  the  firstborn  of  the  Israelites  had 
been  preserved  only  by  sprinkling  blood  on 
the  lintels  and  door  posts  of  the  houses  with- 
in which  they  resided  (Ex.  xii.  12,  13,  23, 
29).  Saved  in  this  manner,  they  became  con- 
secrated to  Jehovah.  Every  firstborn  male 
of  man  and  beast  was  holy  to  the  Lord  (xiii. 
2  ;  xxxiv.  19),  and  could  not  be  used  by  man 
(Lev.  xxvii.  26),  but  belonged  to  the  sanc- 
tuary for  sacrifice;  but  the  firstborn  of  man 
was  redeemed  (Ex.  xiii.  13,  15;  xxxiv.  20; 
cp.  Lev.  xxvii.  6).  On  this  occasion  he  was 
brought  to  the  sanctuary  and  presented  to 
tlie  Lord  (Luke  ii.  22  ;  cp.  Num.  xviii.  15). 
The  Levites  were  afterwards  substituted  for 
the  Israelite  firstborn  (Num.  iii.  12,41,  46; 
viii.  13-19;  cp.  Ex.  xxxii.  26-29;  Dent. 
xxxiii.  9),  and  served  at  the  sanctuary. 
Those  of  animals  also,  against  which  the  tenth 
plague  was  partly  directed,  became  similarly 
consecrated  to  Jehovah,  but  there  were  dis- 
tinctions among  them.  The  firstling  of  clean 
animals  was  sacrificed.  Unclean  animals,  of 
wliich  the  ass  is  named  as  representative, 
either  had  the  neck  broken  or  were  replaced 
by  a  lamb  (Ex.  xiii.  13,  15;  xxii.  30;  xxxiv. 
20).  On  the  establishment  of  the  priesthood 
at  Sinai,  the  disposition  of  these  animals  was 
specified.  The  fat  of  the  clean  animal  was 
burned  and  the  flesh  was  given  to  the  priest. 
The  unclean  animal  was  redeemed  or  sold 
(Lev.  xxvii.  27;  Num.  xviii.  15-18).  Later, 
in  view  of  the  new  circumstances  in  which 
it  was  foreseen  that  the  people  would  be  placed 
in  Palestine,  and  the  inconvenience  and  ex- 
pense of  the  journey  to  the  sanctuary,  a  de- 
lay was  authorized  in  presenting  the  firstling 
at  the  house  of  God.  The  firstling  might  be 
kept  beyond  the  eight  days  originally  pre- 
scribed until  the  time  of  an  annual  festival ; 


and  the  flesh,  instead  of  falling  jis  a  perquisite 
to  the  priest,  was  given  to  the  pilgrim  who 
brought  the  animal,  and  to  his  family,  to  eat 
at  the  sanctuary  (Deut.  xv.  19,  20).  But  de- 
fective animals  were  eaten  at  home  without 
religious  ceremony  (21-23). 

For  the  legal  privileges  of  the  firstborn  sou, 

see  BlRTIIRIGUT. 

First'fruits. 

The  fruits  first  ripe,  the  plucking  of  which 
was  an  earnest  of  the  coming  harvest.  First- 
fruits  were  to  be  given  as  an  ottering  to  Jeho- 
vah :  on  behalf  of  the  nation,  a  sheaf  at  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  and  two  loaves  at 
the  feast  of  weeks  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  17)  ;  and 
by  individuals  (Ex.  xxiii.  19:  Deut.  xxvi.  1- 
11^.  The  term  is  used  figuratively  in  Rom. 
viii.  23 ;  xi.  16  ;  xvi.  5  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  20,  23 ;  xvi. 
15  ;  Jas.  i.  18 ;  Rev.  xiv.  4.  See  Firstborn. 

Fish'ing. 

Fishing  went  on  largely  in  Egypt  in  the 


Fisliing  with  the  Hook  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

main  channel  of  the  Nile  and  in  the  several 
branches  into  which  it  separates  before  reach- 
ing the  Mediterranean  (Is.  xix.  8),  and  the 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Egypt  did  eat 
fish  freely  (Num.  xi.  5).  The  fishing  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Palestine  was 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Tyrians  and 
Sidonians  in  the  north  (Xeh.  xiii.  161  and  the 
Philistines  in  the  south.  To  the  Israelites 
belonged  the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  was  their 
chief  fishing  ground.  Tristram  enumerates 
twenty-two  species  of  fish  in  its  waters,  many 
of  which  pass  down  the  Jordan  also  ;  but  any 
that  reach  the  Dead  Sea  die  in  its  briny 
water.  In  certain  places  there  were  artificial 
fish  ponds  (Song  vii.  4).  Fish  were  on  sale 
in  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  14 ;  Neh.  xiii. 


Fitch 


234 


Flesh 


Vi).  For  fishiug,  lines,  hooks,  and  siiears 
were  used  (Job  xli.  1,  7  ;  Is.  xix.  8  ;  Amos  iv. 
2;  Mat.  xvii.  27),  and  nets  were  cast  from 
boats  (Luke  v.  4-7). 


Flag'on. 

1.  A  vessel  for  liolding  liquids  (Is.  xxii.  21, 
in  Hebrew  Nehel). 

2.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 


Fishing  with  a  Net  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


Fitch  [obsolete  form  of  English  refcK] . 

A  tare  (Vicia],  an  herb  much  cultivated  as 
a  forage  i)lant  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27,  Hebrew 
Kemh).  The  plant  so  designated  was  sown 
broadcast ;  and  when  its  fruits  were  ripe,  they 
were  beaten  out  with  a  staff  to  separate  the 
seeds.  R.  V.,  following  Septuagint,  Vulgate, 
and  the  Rabbins,  places  black  cummin  {Nigella 
S(ttira)  on  the  margin,  and  considers  the  plant 
to  have  been  what  is  now  called,  from  its 
fennel-like  leaves,  fennel  flower.  It  is  of 
the  crowfoot  or  buttercup  order  (Rnnuncu- 
laceie).  It  is  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  with 
yellow  or,  more  rarely,  blue  petals,  many 
stamens,  and  several  seed  vessels,  with  nu- 
merous black  acrid  and  aromatic  .seeds,  which 
are  used  in  the  East  for  seasoning  dishes  and 
as  a  carminative.  It  grows  wild  in  the  Medi- 
terranean lands,  and  is  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine for  its  seeds. 

The  Hebrew  Kussemeth  is  likewise  trans- 
lated fitch  in  Ezek.  iv.  9,  A.  V. ;  but  else- 
where in  A.  V.  it  is  rendered  rye,  and  every- 
where in  R.  V.  it  is  translated  spelt. 

Flag. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ahn  in 
Job  viii.  11.  On  the  margin  of  R.  V.  it  is 
translated  reed  grass,  and  also  in  the  text  of 
Oen.  xli.  2,  R.  v.,  where  A.  V.  renders  it 
meadow.  It  was  a  water  plant;  and  grew, 
among  otlur  places,  on  the  edge  of  the  Nile. 
It  is  not  likely  that  it  was  tlie  flag,  which  is 
an  iri.s,  with  three  brightly  colored  petals.  It 
.seems  to  have  been  the  Egyptian  designation 
for  the  crowded  mass  of  water  plants,  rushes, 
reeds,  sedges  found  along  the  margin  of  the 
.Nile. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Suph  (Ex.  ii.  3,  5;  Is. 
xix.  G),  a  plant  growing  by  the  brink  of  the 
Nile.  It  also  grew  in  salt  water  (Jon.  ii.  5, 
where  it  is  rendered  weeds).  Th(;  Red  Sea 
in  Hebrew  is  called  the  sea  of  Suph.  It  is 
evident  that  the  i)lant  meant  is  not  tlie  flag, 
wliich  does  not  grow  in  salt  water.  The  word 
denotes  a<iuatic  vegetation,  whether  seaweeds 
or  fresh  water  reeds  and  sedges. 


word  '"shishah,  something  pressed  closely 
together  (2  Sam.  vi.  19 ;  1  C'hron.  xvi.  3 ; 
Song  ii.  5  ;  Hos.  iii.  1).  The  R.  V.  correctly 
translates  it  cake  of  raisins. 

Flax. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words  Pish- 
teh  and  Pishtah  and  of  the  Greek  Linon 
(Is.  xlii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20).  It  was  a  plant 
cultivated  in  Egy]>t  and  elsewhere  (Ex.  ix. 
31).  It  had  stalks,  which  were  spread  on 
flat  roofs  of  hou.ses  and  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun  (Josh.  ii.  6).  Its  fibers 
were  fine  (Is.  xix.  9).  and  were  woven  like 
wool  (Prov.  xxxi.  13;  cp.  Hos.  ii.  5).  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  flax  plant  [Lhmm  nsitatissi- 
mnm),  the  type  of  the  botanical  order  Lina- 
ce.T,  or  flaxworts.  It  is  a  small  plant,  with 
solitary  erect  stems,  five  sepals,  five  fugitive 
petals,  with  five  perfect  and  as  many  rudi- 
mentary stamens.  It  is  now  found  only  in  a 
state  of  cultivation.  The  woody  fiber  of  the 
bark  furnishes  the  flax  fiber  of  which  linen 
is  woven,  and  the  seeds  constitute  the  lin- 
seed of  commerce,  valued  on  account  of  its  oil. 

Flea. 

An  insect,  called  iii  Hebrew  Par'osh,  leaper 
(1  Sam.  xxiv.  14;  xxvi.  20).  The  species  is 
very  common  in  Palestine;  so  much  so  that 
it  has  become  a  popular  saying  that  the  king 
of  the  fleas  has  his  court  at  Tiberias. 

Flesh. 

1.  The  mu.scles  of  the  animal  body,  whether 
of  man,  beast,  bird,  or  fisli ;  or,  less  precisely, 
all  its  softer  parts  (Gen.  xl.  19;  Ex.  xii.  «; 
xvi.  8;  Lev.  xxi.  5 ;  Job  x.  11;  Luke  xxiv. 
39  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  39).  It  is  distinct  from  the 
spirit  (Job  xiv.  22;  Is.  x.  18,  Hebrew;  xxxi. 
3;  Mat.  xxvi.  41 ;  Col.  ii.  .5). 

2.  All  beings  po.ssessed  of  flesh,  man  and 
tlie  inferior  animals,  especially  man  (Gen. 
vi.  13,  19;  viii.  17;  Acts  ii.  17  ;'  Rom.  iii.  20; 
1  Cor.  i.  29) ;  often  in  contrast  with  God  who 
is  spirit  (Ps.  Ivi.  4  ;  Is.  xxxi.  3  ;  xl.  6-8  ;  Joel 
ii.  28;  Mat.  xvi.  17). 

3.  Human  nature  deprived  of  the  Spirit 
of    God,    dominated    by   the    appetites  and 


Flint 


235 


Flood 


obeyed  by  the  luiud  (Rom.  vii.  5;  viii.  i>-7; 
2  Cor.  vii.  1 ;  Gal.  v.  16-20;  2  Pet.  ii.  10),  thus 
including  the  whole  unregenevated  and  uu- 
sanctified  nature  of  man  (Rom.  viii.  8,  9 ;  cp. 
John  iii.  H). 

Flint. 

In  Scripture,  any  hard  or  intractable  rock 
(Deut.  viii.  13;  xxsii.  13;  Ps.  c.xiv.  8)  ;  and 
hence  figuratively,  uucom]ironiising  firmness 
in  the  discharge  of  duty  (Is.  1.  7;  Ezek.  iii. 
9).  In  it  the  miner  sinks  his  shaft  in  (juest 
of  gold  (Job  xxviii.  9,  R.  V.).  Broken  frag- 
ments were  used  as  rude  knives  (Ex.  iv.  25  ; 
,I()sh.  v.  2,  R.  v..  where  in  Hebrew  the  ge- 
neric word  for  rock  is  used). 

Flood. 

A  stream,  especially  a  great  stream  (Job 
xiv.  11 ;  xxviii.  11  in  A.  V.),  as  the  Nile  in 
its  inundations  (Jer.  xlvi.  7  ;  Amos  viii.  8  in 
A.  v.),  the  Euphrates  (Josh.  xxiv.  2,  A.  V.), 
the  Jordan  (Ps.  Ixvi.  6,  A.  V.).  An  inunda- 
tion (Dan.  ix.  26;  Nah.  i.  8  ;  Mat.  vii.  2."),  27; 
Luke  vi.  48).  A  great  restless  mass  of  water  ; 
the  sea  and  its  currents  (Ps.  xxiv.  2;  Jon. 
ii.  3). 

Specially,  the  deluge  in  the  time  of  Noah. 
It  was  sent  as  a  divine  judgment  on  the 
antediluvians  for  their  wickedness  (Gen.  vi. 
5-13).  Secondary  causes  were  employed  to 
bring  on  the  catastrophe.  Two  are  mentioned  : 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  were  broken 
up,  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were  opened. 
Thus  i)art  of  the  water  was  that  of  the  ocean, 
the  rest  was  produced  by  a  downjiour  of  rain 
continuing  forty  days  and  nights  (vii.  11,  12). 
All  the  high  mountains  under  the  whole 
heaven  were  covered,  fifteen  cubits  upward 


the  Avaters  prevailed,  and  all  llesh  died  that 
moved  on  the  earth,  man,  bird,  beast,  and 
creeping  thing.  Noah  only  was  left  and  they 
that  were  with  him  in  the  ark  (vii.  lt(-23) ; 
see  Akk.  The  waters  iirevailed  150  days, 
until  at  length  the  ark  rested  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Ararat.  Two  and  a  half  months 
later  the  tops  of  the  mountains  were  seen 
(viii.  3-5).  Three  months  later,  after  investi- 
gating the  state  of  the  water  by  means  of 
birds  which  he  sent  forth,  on  New  Year's  day 
Noah  removed  the  covering  from  the  ark 
and  saw  that  the  face  of  the  ground  was 
dried  ;  but  eiglil  weeks  more  elapsed  before 
God  gave  counnaud  to  go  forth  from  the  ark 
(viii.  13-15). 

The  mouths  are  reckoned  at  thirty  days 
each,  and  the  number  of  days  which  measure 
an  interval  is  the  diU'ennce  between  the 
dates  obtained  by  simple  subtraction  (vii.  1] 
with  viii.  3,  4).  On  this  mode  of  reckoning, 
and  dating  from  the  day  of  entrance  into 
the  ark  as  first  day,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
the  days  and  weeks.  The  first  day  which 
dawned  fair  and  beautiful  after  the  forty 
days  and  nights  of  rain  was  the  forty-second, 
a  recurring  seventh  day,  fit  reminder  of  di- 
vine rest  and  favor.  Land  was  seen  on  a  re- 
curring first  day,  the  new  world  wherein 
dwelt  righteousness  began  like  the  old  on  a 
first  day.  Noah  released  the  birds,  at  inter- 
vals of  a  week,  either  on  successive  sixth 
days,  in  expectancy  of  tlie  morrow,  or  on 
seventh  days.  Noah  rem<iv('d  the  covering 
on  New  Year's  day,  old  reckoning  ;  but  it 
was  also  a  recurring  seventh  day.  And  eight 
weeks  later,  on  the  recurring  seventh  day, 
God  released  Noah  from  the  ark. 


vii    4,  10.  COMM.^ND  TO  BEGIN  E5IBARKING  THE  ANIM.'^LS, 

vii   11  ENTR.\NrE  OF  Noah  into  the  ark,  and  in  the  evening,  as  re- 

lated by  the  Babylonian  tradition,  bursting  of  the  storm, 
vii.  12.  Rain  40  days  and  40  nights,  so  that 

Rain  ceaskd  toward  evening, 
vii.  24.  The  waters  prevailed  on  the  earth 

viii.  3.  150  days,  so  that  the 

viii.  4.  Ark  stranded 

The  waters  decreased  continually  until 
viii.  .'>.  Tops  of  the  mountains  visible,  ...    ■,  ,n  j 

viii  6  After  seeing  the  mountain  tops,  Noah  waited  40  clays: 

expecting  that,  as  the  rain  had  fallen  40  days,  the  waters 
would  perhaps  abate  from  the  ground  in  40  days  ;  and  then 
(or  on  the  following  day)  the 
Raven  released,  wliieh  returned  not. 
After  7  davs  (c)).  "yet  otlier,"  v.  10)  a 
viii.  8.  Dove  released,  which  returned. 

After  yet  other  7  days,  the      ,      .^,      ,.        ,      .     c.  v.,oi, 
viii   10  Dove  released,  which  returned  with  olive  leaf,    so  Noah 

knew  that  the  waters  were  abated  trom  ott  the  earth. 
After  vet  other  7  days,  a  third  time  the  ,    ,    ,» 

viii.  12.  Dove  released,  which  did  not  return,  since  food  and  shelter 

were  now  found  outside  the  ark, 

Notwithstanding  these  favorable  indications,  Noah  did 
not  leave  the  ark,  but  waited  for  God's  command.  Alter 
nearlv  a  month,  on  New  Year's  day  »,    *  »i, 

viii  13  Noah  removed  the  covering  of  the  ark,  and  saw  that  the 

■      ■  waters  were  dried  up  and  the  face  of  the  ground  was  dried, 

But  Noah  still  awaited  God's  bidding,  and  eight  weeks 
later,  the  earth  being  dry,  God  gave  the 
viii.  14, 15.    Command  to  go  forth  from  the  ark, 


2  mo.  lOth  day. 

2  nio.  17th  day. 

3  mo.  27th  (lay. 

7  mo.  17th  day. 

10  mo.  1st  day. 


11  mo.   nth  (or  12th)  day. 
11  mo.   l.sth(orl'.ith)day. 

11  mo.   25th  (<)r2(')th)day. 

12  mo.   2d  (or  3d)  day. 


1  mo.    1st  day. 

2  mo.    27th  day. 


description  originated  with  eyewitnesses.    Its 
language  must  be  understood   in   the  sense 


As  is  now  generally  known,  the  account  of 
the  flood  was  handed  down  by  tradition.    The 


Flood 


236 


Flood 


which  it  hove  tu  the  authors  and  i)n>iiuilj;a- 
tors  of  tlif  narrative  centuries  liefore  the 
days  of  Moses.  The  extent  of  the  tiood  can- 
not he  determined  from  the  account  of  it 
which  has  been  transmitted.  The  deluge 
may  have  heen  universal  and  covered  the 
globe,  or  it  may  have  been  confined  to  a 
locality  of  greater  or  less  extent.  All  the 
mountains  under  the  whole  heaven,  that  is 
within  the  h<irizon  of  the  inmates  of  the  ark 
as  they  drifted  on  the  waters,  were  covered 
(compare  the  employment  of  similar  language 
iu  Col.  i.  2\i).  The  i)urpose  of  the  Hood  was  to 
destroy  the  corrupt  race  of  man  (Gen.  vi.  7, 13, 
17;  vii.  4),  and  with  man  all  animals  depend- 
ent u])on  the  existence  of  dry  land  were  in- 
volved in  destruction.  This  was  also  the  re- 
sult as  discerned  by  those  who  were  saved  in 
the  ark  (vii.  21-23),  and  as  confirmed  by  their 
descendants  when  they  migrated  in  the  earth. 
They  met  no  survivors.  They  found  the  world 
uninhabited.  Noah  had  been  instructed  to 
take  the  male  and  female  of  every  kind  of 
animal,  and  to  gather  food  for  them  (vi.  20, 
21).  The  language  of  the  command  was  in- 
tended to  be  understood  in  its  usual  sense, 
as  any  man  of  that  age  would  understand  it. 
Noah  dt)uhtless  took  specimens  of  every  ani- 
mal of  which  he  had  knowledge  and  food 
suitable  for  them  (cp.  Dan.  vi.  25) ;  but  there 
is  no  I'viilence  that  he  believed  himself  to  be 
commanded  to  .seek  for  species  as  yet  un- 
known, or  if  under  supernatural  imj)ulse  the 
animals  unsought  came  to  him  (as some  would 
unnecessarily  interpret  vii.  8,  9),  to  gather 
peculiar  food  and  provide  peculiar  shelter  for 
strange  animals  of  different  kinds  and  from 
different  climes. 

The  tradition  of  the  flood  was  current 
among  the  people  from  whom  the  Hebrews 
sprang.  In  the  ancestral  home  of  Abraham 
tlie  rto((d  was  remembered  as  a  great  crisis  in 
human  history.  An  Assyrian  scribe,  record- 
ing the  names  of  ancient  kings,  remarks  con- 
cerning certain  of  them,  that  they  "were 
after  the  flood."  Ashur))ani])al  i-efers  to  in- 
scriptions "of  the  time  before  the  flood." 
Tlu'  nat)yl<jnian  ])riest  lierosus  devoted  the 
second  volume  of  his  history  to  the  ten  ante- 
diluvian kings  (jf  the  Chaldeans,  considering 
tliat  the  flr)od  marked  the  close  of  the  first 
period  of  liuman  history.  The  tradition  of 
the  deluge  whicli  was  current  iu  Hahylouia 
and  Assyria  differed  in  some  details  from  the 
Hebrew  account.  The  ]Iel)rews,  Assyrians, 
and  Habyloniansoncedwelt  together  in  Haby- 
loriia,  and  were  one  ])eople  with  one  tradi- 
tion, but  iu  course  of  transmission  from  age 
to  ago  this  tradition  umler\\  ent  slight  changes 
and  received  unessential  additions.  When 
tlie  .Semites  of  J'.abylonia  became  three  na- 
tions, dwelling  apart  and  diverse  iu  religion, 
the  tradition  of  the  flood  wiiich  each  jire- 
served  bore  the  imiue-ss  of  the  national  pe- 
culiarities. The  Hebrew  account  was  mono- 
theistic, the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  narra- 
tive is  polytheistic.     It  is  furtiier  observable 


j    to  the  attentive  reader  that  the  Hebrew  ac- 
I    count  not  only  as  a  whole,  but  in   minute 
,    l)articulars.  is  crediljle,  and  reflects  the  con- 
ditions of  a  i)rimitive  age,  which  cannot  be 
I    said  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian. 
I        The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  themselves 
had  slightly  divergent  traditions.    The  story, 
as  current  in  Babylonia  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander  the   Great,  was   recorded   by  Berosus 
(Antiq.    i.    3,    6 ;   con.  Apion.   i.    19),  and  is 
I    quoted  in  full  by  the  church  historian  Eu.se- 
i    bins.     A  form  which  is  much  older,  which  in 
!    fact  is  the  oldest  known  and  the  best  pre- 
j    served,   though   even  variations  of   it  were 
current,  is  embodied  in   the  epic  that  cele- 
brates the  deeds  of  Izdubar  or   Gilgamesh, 
king  of  Erech.  Izdubar  had  been  smitten  with 
disease,  and  he  determined  to  seek  help  from 
his  ancestor  Sitnapishtim,  who  had  been  trans- 
lated   to   the   gods,    was    dwelling    "at   the 
mouth  of  the  rivers."  and   had    knowledge 
of  life  and  death.     After  a  long  journey,  in 
which  he  encountered  many  difficulties  and 
dangers,   Izdubar   found    i>itnapishtim.      He 
belonged  to  a  generation  long  j)ast,  but  still 
enjoyed   the  freshness  and  vigor  of  youth. 
Astonished,  Izdubar  exclaimed  :  "  Howcame.st 
thou,    (Sitnapishtim,    to    see    life    amid    the 
gods'?" 

"  I  will  open  to  you,  Izdubar,"  replied  Sitnap- 
i.shtim,  "  the  concealed  story,  and  also  the  oracle 
of  the  gods  [with  reference  to  the  cure  of  your 
disease]  will  I  declare.  You  know  the  city  of 
Siirippak,  which  stands  on  the  Euphrates.  That 
city  was  old  when  the  gods  who  dwelt  therein 
were  moved  at  heart  to  bringabout  a  flood-storm. 
God  Anu  was  there  among  others,  and  Hel  and 
Niuib.  The  god  Ea,  however,  delilierated  with 
them,  and  he  revealed  unto  me  their  ])urpose 
[by  means  of  a  dream  (].  177)].    '  Man  of  Surip- 

Eak,  son  of  Ubaratutu,'  said  he,  'tear  down  the 
ouse,  f)nild  a  ship,  despise  property,  and  save 
life.  Bring  into  the  ship  seed  of  life  of  tvery 
kind.'  1  pai<l  attention,  and  said  to  god  Ea,  'O 
my  lord,  what  thou  hast  commanded  I  will  re- 
spect by  carrying  out.' 

"On  the  niorriiw  [preparations  were  begun]. 
On  the  fifth  day  1  laid  the  framework— 140 cubits 
its  height,  140  cubits  its  extent  above.  I  divided 
its  interior,  1  provided  a  rudder.  Over  the  ont^ 
side  I  poured  three  measures  [sars]  of  bitumen 
and  likewise  over  the  inside.  When  the  ship 
was  completed  1  filled  it  with  all  that  I  pos- 
sessed—with silver,  gold,  and  seed  of  life  of 
every  kind.  I  took  on  board  all  my  meu-ser- 
vanls  and  maid-servants,  the  cattle  and  the  beast 
of  the  field,  and  the  artisans. 

"The  sun-god  set  a  time.  'When  the  sender 
of  violent  rain  causes  a  heavy  rain  to  pour  down 
in  tlie  evening,  enter  into  the  ship  and  shut  the 
door.'  The  set  time  came.  He  wlio  sends  vio- 
lent rain  caused  a  heavy  rain  to  fall  in  the  even- 
ing. I'he  dawning  of  the  day  1  feared,  1  trem- 
bled to  l)eliold  the  morning.  I  entered  Die  shi|i, 
closecl  tile  door  to  shut  it  in,  and  committed  the 
iuuueuse  structure  with  its  cargo  to  I'uzur-bel, 
the  iiilot. 

"  As  soon  as  the  dawn  appeared,  a  dark  cloud 
ascended  on  the  horizon.  In  the  midst  of  it  the 
stonn-god  rolled  the  thunder.  The  gods  Nebo 
and  Marduk  marched  on  before,  went'as  guides 
over  hill  and  dale;  the  mighty  pest-god  tore 
loose  the  shin,  the  god  Ninib  caused  the  streams 
to  overflow  their  banks.    The  Anunnaki,  spirits 


Flood 


2;)7 


Flood 


cf  the  subterranean  regions,  lifted  torches  and 
made  the  land  flicker  by  the  light.  The  storm- 
god  raised  billows  which  readied  to  heaven. 
All  light  was  turned  to  darkness.  Man  saw  not 
his  fellow,  human  beings  were  not  discerned  by 
those  in  heaven. 

"  The  gods  also  were  terrified  at  the  flood- 
storm,  sought  refuge,  ascended  to  heaven,  and 
crouched  at  the  wall  like  a  dog  in  his  lair.  Then 
the  goddess  Ishtar,  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
cried  out— she  of  beautiful  voice  called  :  '  Man- 
kind which  was  is  become  mud,  the  very  evil 
which  I  foretold  in  the  presence  of  the  gods  and 
just  as  I  foretold  it  to  them.  A  storm  for  the 
annihilation  of  my  people  1  declared  it  would 
be.  I  brought  forth  men,  but  to  what  purpose? 
Like  fry  offish  they  till  the  sea.'  The  gods  over 
the  spirits  of  the  subterranean  regions  wept 
with  her,  sitting  bowed  in  tears,  their  lips  cov- 
ered. 

"Six  days  and  six  nights  *  wind,  flood-storm, 
and  rain  prevailed :  on  the  seventh  day  the  rain 
abated  ;  the  flood,  the  storm  which  had  writhed 
like  a  woman  in  travail,  rested;  the  sea  with- 
drew to  its  bed,  and  the  violent  wind  and  the 
flood-storm  ceased. 

"  I  looked  on  the  sea,  at  the  same  time  shout- 
ing ;  but  all  men  were  become  mud.  I  opened 
a  window;  and,  as  the  light  fell  upon  my  face, 
I  shrank  back  and  sat  down  weeping;  over  my 
cheeks  the  tears  coursed.  I  had  looked  on  every 
side — a  wide  expanse,  sea. 

"  A  bit  of  land,  however,  rose  to  the  height  of 
twelve  measures.  To  the  country  of  Nisir  the 
ship  took  its  course.  A  mountain  of  that  land 
stranded  the  vessel  and  kept  it  from  moving 
farther.  On  the  first  day  and  on  the  second 
day  mount  Nisir  held  the  ship,  on  the  third  day 
and  on  the  fourth  day  likewise,  on  the  fifth  and 
sixth  days  likewise."  When  the  seventh  day 
came  1  released  a  dove.  The  dove  flew  hither 
and  thither ;  there  was  no  resting  place,  so  it 
returned.  Next  I  sent  forth  a  swallow.  The 
swallow  also  flew  hither  and  thither,  and,  as 
there  was  no  resting  place,  returned.  Then  I 
sent  forth  a  raven.  The  raven  flew  away,  and, 
when  it  saw  that  the  waters  had  fallen,  it  ap- 
proached, alighting  but  not  returning.! 

"  I  then  sent  forth  [all  the  animals]  to  the  four 
winds.  I  poured  out  a  libation,  I  made  an 
offering  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  I  set 
vessels  by  sevens,  and  underneath  them  spread 
sweet  cane,  cedar,  and  herlis.  The  gods  smelled 
the  savor  and  like  flies  gathered  about  the 
offerer. 

"  When  the  goddess  Ishtar  arrived,  she  raised 
aloft  the  great  ornament  which  the  god  of  the 
sky  had  made  at  her  request.  'By  the  ornament 
of  my  neck,  never  will  I  forget ;  I  will  think  of 
these  days,  and  to  eternity  not  forget  them.  Let 
all  the  gods  come  to  the  oft'ering  except  Bel,  for 
he  inconsiderately  caused  tlie  deluge  and  con- 
signed my  iteople  to  the  judgment.'  But  Bel 
came  also ;  and,  when  he  saw  the  ship,  was  fllled 
with  wrath  against  the  gods  of  the  heavenly 
spirits.  '  What  soul  has  escaped?'  he  cried  ;  '  not 
a  man  shall  survive  the  judgment.'  Then  god 
Niuilj  opened  his  mouth  and  spake  to  the  valor- 
ous Bel:  'Who  else  than  god  Ea  has  done  this 
thing?    Ea  knows  surely  every  exorcism.'    Ea 

*  Mentioning  the  nights  as  well  as  the  days,  as 
does  the  Hebrew  narrative  at  the  same  point. 
Oelitzsch  reads  "six  days  and  seven  nights." 
His  text  thus  contains  a  formula  often  found 
elsewhere,  e.  fj.,  1.  188.  The  majority  of  Assyr- 
iologists  who  have  examined  the  tablet  discern 
the  marks  for  six  days  and  six  nights,  not  for 
seven  nights. 

t  Or,  the  raven  flew  away  and  saw  the  abate- 
ment of  the  waters  :  [thereupon]  he  eats,  alights 
carefully,  but  does  not  return. 


also  opened  his  mouth,  and  said  to  the  valorous 
Bel:  'Thou,  valorous  chieftain  of  the  gods,  so 
utterly  without  reflection  hast  thou  acted  and 
caused  the  flood.  On  the  sinner  lay  his  sin,  cjn 
the  evil  doer  his  evil  deeds.  Desist  ("from  wrath] 
that  he  be  not  cut  off:  be  gracious  also.  Instead 
of  causing  a  Hood-storm,  send  the  lion  anil  the 
hyena,  famine  and  pestilence,  and  let  tlu  lu  di- 
minish men.  And  as  for  me,  I  did  not  reveal 
the  purpose  of  the  great  gods;  I  sent  Atrahasis* 
a  dream  and  he  perceived  the  purpose  of  the 
gods.' 

"Then  Bel  became  reasonable,  and  went  up 
into  the  ship,  grasped  my  hand  and  led  me  up. 
He  led  up  my  wife  also,  iind  made  her  kneel  at 
my  side.  Then  turning  to  us  he  placed  himself 
between  us  and  blessed  us,  saying:  '  Heretofore 
Sitnapishtim  was  a  [mere]  man;  now  let  him 
and  his  wife  be  exalted  to  eiiuality  with  the 
gods,  and  let  him  dwell  afar  off  at  tlie  month 
of  the  rivers.'  Thereupon  he  too!t  me  away  and 
placed  me  afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers."t 

The  account  of  the  flood  existed  in  this 
form  among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
before  the  seventh  century  B.  c,  for  the 
colophon  affixed  to  the  tablet  on  wliich  it  is 
recorded  states  that  the  document  is  the 
property  of  A sli urban! pal,  who  reigned  over 
Assyria  from  6(i8  to  about  62fi  B.  c,  and  that 
the  words  were  copied  from  an  older  tablet. 
It  existed  in  the  same  form  centuries  earlier, 
for  fragments  of  it  have  been  found  which 
were  written  in  the  time  of  Ammizaduga, 
the  fourth  successor  of  Hammurabi,  king  of 
Babylon,  who  is  believed  on  good  evidence 
to  have  been  Abraham's  contemporary  Am- 
raphel. 

A  coin  bearing  a  picture  of  the  flood  was 
struck  at  Apamea  in  Phrygia  in  the  reign  of 


Coin  of  Apamea,  representing  Noah  and  the  Ark. 

the  Roman  emperor  Septimius  Severus.  193- 
'21 1  A.  T).  A  boat,  inscribed  with  the  letters  NfiE, 
the  Cireek  spelling  of  Noah,  floatson  the  waves. 
A  man  and  a  woman  are  in  it.  A  bird  jierches 
on  it ;  and  another  bird  flies  toward  tlie  ves- 

*  In  the  account  which  Berosus  wrote  in  Greek, 
this  name  is  written  Xisnthrus,  the  constituent 
parts  being  transposed.  It  is  another  name  of 
Siinapislitim. 

t  Such  is  essentially  the  cuneiform  story.  As 
here  reproduced,  it  i.s  slightly  aliridged:  chiefly, 
however,  by  the  omission  f>f  mutilated  lines  and 
of  sentences  whose  translation  is  still  uncer- 
tain. 


Flute 


238 


Foreigner 


sel,  hoariiiji  a  branch  between  its  feet.  Before 
the  ark  the  fornur  inmates  are  seen,  having 
quitted  it  and  got  ou  dry  land.  A]iauiea  was 
formerly  called  Kihotos,  the  Ark.  The  coins 
of  towns  frecjiiently  exhibited  some  promi- 
nent event  iu  their  history  or  local  traditions. 

Flute. 

A  nuisieal  instrument  used  in  Babylon  (Dan. 
iii.  .5)  ;  in  Aramaic  3[nshrokitha\  whistle,  pipe. 
Pipes  consisting  of  one,  two,  or  more  reeds 
were  in  use.  According  to  the  Septuagint,  it 
was  Pan's  ])ipe,  which  consisted  of  several 
reeds,  joined  side  by  side  in  a  series,  and  grad- 
ually diminishing  in  length. 

A  flute  or  pipe,  in  Greek  AHlos,was  played 
in  the  house  of  mourning  (Mat.  ix.  23)  and  on 
occasions  of  joy  (Rev.  xviii.  22).     See  Pipe. 

Flux.     See  Dysentery. 
Fly. 

1.  A  flying  insect;  a  two-winged  insect, 
one  of  the  order  Dipfern,  specially  the  do- 
mestic fly  (Mnsca  domef^ficft).  So  troublesome 
are  flies  of  various  kinds  in  hot  countries  (Is. 
vii.  IS;  Ecc.  x.  1)  that  the  Ekronites  wor- 
shiiied  a  god  Baal-zebub,  lord  of  flies,  who  was 
stipposed  to  be  able  to  keep  the  annoyance 
within  boujids  (2  Kin.  i.  2). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Arab,  a 
voracious,  biting  insect  of  Egvpt  (Ex.  viii. 
21  :  Ps.  cv.  .31).  It  devoured  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  4.5) 
and  destroyed  (Ex.  viii.  24,  margin).  Accord- 
ing to  the  Septuagint,  the  dog  fly. 

Fol'ly. 

The  absence  of  wisdom,  disregard  of  the 
true  nature  of  things  in  their  relation  to  man 
and  f4od.  Hence  injudicious  action  or  con- 
diu-t  (Prov.  XV.  21;'Ecc.  i.  17;  x.  1:2  Cor. 
xi.  1),  and  wickedness  (Gen.  xxxiv.  7:  Deut. 
xxii.  21 ;  Josh.  vii.  1,');  ,Tudg.  xix.  2.3:  xx.  6). 

Food. 

The  food  of  the  Hebrews,  when  they  lived  a 
sinijile  nomadic  life,  consisted  largely  of  bread 
and  the  ])rfiduc.t,-i  of  the  herd,  such  as  nnlk, 
curds,  and  occasionally  meat  (Gen.  xviii.  7,  8  : 
.Tudg.  V.  2.")).  Wild  honey  was  also  eaten  (.liidg. 
xiv.  8,  9).  When  they  adopted  a  settled  life  in 
Palestine,  the  products  of  garden,  vineyard, 
and  olive  yard  were  added,  such  as  lentils, 
cucunihers,  beans  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28),  pome- 
granates, figs,  grapes  (Num.  xiii.  23;  xx.  5; 
Mat.  vii.  Ki).  Sweet  and  sour  wine  were  im- 
portant articles  of  food.  Fish  were  eaten, 
locusts  also,  and  fowl  and  eggs  (1  Kin.  iv. 
23:  Neh.  xiii.  Ki;  Mat.  iv.  18;  I^uke  xi.  121. 
A  simple  re]iast  consisted  of  bread  and  len- 
tils ((Jen.  XXV.  .34)  or  other  pottage  (2  Kin. 
iv.  38),  or  bread  and  wine  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  or 
roasted  grain  and  sour  wine  (Ruth  ii.  14). 
Abraham  honored  his  unexpected  guests  with 
a  more  pretentious  meal,  consisting  of  butter 
and  milk,  cakes  made  of  fine  flour,  and  the 
flesh  of  a  calf  ((Jen.  xviii.  3-8).  A  greater 
variety  of  foods  came  on  the  tables  of  the 
rich  and  great  (1  Kin.  iv.  22.  23  ;  Neh.  v.  18). 
See  Mi;ai.s. 


Fool. 

One  destitute  of  understanding  or  wis.dom 
(2  (_'or.  xi.  16) ;  especially  a  wicked  man, 
the  doctrine  taught  being  that  nothing  shows 
a  greater  want  of  understanding  than  for  a 
man  to  commit  wickedness.  The  greater  the 
talents,  the  greater  the  responsibility,  and 
conse(|uently  the  folly  of  naisusing  them  for 
evil  ends  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  21 ;  2  Sam.  iii.  33  ; 
xiii.  13;  Ps.  xiv.  1 ;  cp.  2,  3.  etc. ;  Prov.  xxvi. 
10;  Mat.  V.  22).  See  FoLLY,  Philo-sophy, 
and  Wisdom. 

Fool'ish-ness. 

The  same  as  folly  (2  Sam.  xv.  31 :  Prov. 
xxii.  15). 

Foot 'man. 

1.  A  soldier  who  marches  and  fights  on 
foot,  in  contradistinction  to  one  on  horseback 
(Num.  xi.21  ;  2  Kin.  xiii.  7;  1  Chron.  xviii.  4i. 

2.  A  runner  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17,  A.  V. ),  one  of 
the  king's  bodyguard.     See  Runners. 

For'eign-er,  in  A.  V.  usually  Stranger. 

A  gentile;  a  person  belonging  to  another 
people  than  Israel  and  owning  other  allegi- 
ance than  to  Israel  and  Israel's  God  I  Deut. 
xxix.  22,  24),  as  the  Egyptians  (Ex.  ii.  22i; 
Jebnsites  (Judg.  xix.  12),  Phili.stines  (2  Sam. 
XV.  lOi,  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites, 
Sidonians,  Hittites  (1  Kin.xi.l).  As  a  tech- 
nical term  foreigner  does  not  include:  1. 
Slaves  bought  with  money  and  captives  taken 
iu  war ;  for  they  were  in  the  power  of  their 
masters  and  subject  to  the  laws  of  Israel 
(Gen.  xvii.  12;  Ex.  xxi.  20,  21).  2.  Prose- 
lytes to  the  religion  of  Israel  (Gen.  xxxiv. 
14-17;  Is.  Ivi.  f)-8;  Acts  ii.  10).  3.  The 
so-calU'd     sojourners     or     strangers.       (See 

STRAN(iER.) 

Israel  was  Jehovah's  peculiar  people  (Deut. 
xiv.  1,  2)  ;  therefore  idolatrous  C'anaanites 
specifically  were  not  to  be  received  into  cov- 
enant relations  of  any  sort  (Ex.  xxiii.  32), 
and  all  foreigners  were  debarred  from  eating 
the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  43),  entering  the 
sanctuary  (Ezek.  xliv.  0;  Acts  xxi.  28;  cp. 
Deut.  xxiii.  3,  7,  8),  and  ascending  the  throne 
asking  (Deut.  xvii.  15).  Intermarriage  with 
them  on  equal  terms  was  forbidden  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  Ki;  Deut.  vii.  3;  Josh,  xxiii.  12,  spe- 
cifically t'anaanites;  cp.  Gen.  xxiv.  3,  4  ; 
xxvi.  34,  35;  xxviii.  1;  xxxiv.  14-17;  Judg. 
xiv.  3;  Ezra  x.  2;  Neh.  xiii.  2«.  27;  Tob.  vi. 
12).  The  flesh  of  animals  that  died,  which 
the  Israelites  were  not  allowed  to  eat,  might 
be  sold  to  foreigners  (Deut.  xiv.  21);  money 
might  be  lent  to  them  on  interest  (xxiii.  20; 
cp.  Ex.  xxii.  25) ;  and  debts  could  be  collected 
from  them  even  in  the  year  (if  release,  when 
they  were  lemitted  to  Israelites  (Deut.  xv. 
3).  In  later  times  strict  Jews  abstained  from 
even  eating  and  drinking  with  gentiles  (Acts 
xi.  3;  (lal.  ii.  12).  Yet  access  into  Judaism 
was  always  open  to  the  gentiles  (Gen.  xvii. 
27:  xxxiv.  14-17;  Matt,  xxiii.  15) ;  and  their 
ultimate  engrafting  into  the  kingdom  was 
Israel's  expectation. 


Forerunner 


289 


Frankincense 


Fore'run-ner. 

A  precursor;  as  1.  A  runner  who  immedi- 
ately precedes  the  hurse  or  chariot  of  hi}jch 
officials  in  order  to  clear  the  way  or  make 
proclamation  (see  the  verbs  in  Gen.  xli.  43  ; 
1  Sum.  viii.  11;  2  Sam.  xv.  1;  1  Kin.  i.  5  ; 
xviii.  46;  Esth.  vi.  9).  2.  Descriptive  of  a 
herald  (Herod,  i.  60).  3.  The  advance  guard 
of  an  army  (Wisdom  xii.  8;  Herod,  iv.  l:il, 
1'24;  cp.  ix.  14).  4.  First  fruits  (Num.  xiii. 
•.20,  Septuagint). 

As  a  forerunner  Christ  has  entered  on  our 
hehalf  into  heaven,  the  holy  of  holies,  into 
the  immediate  presence  of  God  (Heb.  vi.  20). 

For'est. 

An  extensive  wood  (Is.  xliv.  14).  One  grew 
on  Lebanon,  famed  for  its  cedars  and  firs  (1 
Kin.  vii.  2) :  another  stretched  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  well  into  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim  (Josh.  xvii.  \r>,  18)  :  a  third  was  in 
Judah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5)  ;  and  a  fourth  existed 
bevond  Jordan  near  Mahauaim  (2  Sam.  xviii. 
6-9). 

For-tu-nat'us  [fortunate]. 

One  of  three  messengers,  apparently  from 
Corinth,  who  reached  Paul,  and  supplied 
what  was  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  church 
in  that  city  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

Foun'tain. 

A  spring  arising  from  under  a  roc-k  or  a 
bank,  or  welling  up  from  the  ground  (Dent. 
viii.  7).  In  the  geography  of  Palestine  it  re- 
quires to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  mere 
wells,  pools,  and  cisterns.  Strong  fountains 
are  numerous  in  Palestine.  They  are  the 
permanent  source  of  rivers,  and  give  life  and 
fertility  to  the  soil.  Many  towns  are  named 
from  t»em,  as  En-dor  and  the  other  com- 
pounds of  En.  Figuratively,  fountain  symbol- 
izes the  permanent  and  inexhaustible  source 
of  spiritual  blessings  (Ps.  xxxvi.  9  ;  .Ter.  ii.  13  ; 
Eev.  vii.  17;  xxi.  6).  Children  are  also  de- 
scribed as  a  fountain  jiroceediug  fi'om  the 
parents  (Dent,  xxxiii.  28;  Ps.  Ixviii.  26). 

Foun'tain  Gate.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Fowl. 

Any  bird  (Gen.  i.  26  ;  Lev.  xi.  13-19). 

Fowl'er. 

One  who  catches  birds  by  a  net  or  other 
snare  (Ps.  cxxiv.  7  ;  Prov.  vi.  5)  ;  hence  figu- 
ratively one  who  en.snares  the  innocent  or 
unwary,  and  takes  their  life,  or  lures  them 
to  moral  and  spiritual  ruin  (Ps.  xci.3:  cxxiv. 
7  ;  Hos.  ix.  8). 

Fox. 

An  animal  which  dwells  in  holes  (Mat.  viii. 
20;,  especially  among  solitary  ruins  (Lam.  v. 
18),  and  is  sly  and  careful  for  its  own  safety 
(Luke  xiii.  32 ;  Ezek.  xiii.  4).  Tristram 
enumerates  two  species  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Egyptian  fox  ( Valpes  nilotica),  and 
the  tawny  fox  {Viilpes  Jlavescens).  The  former 
is  abundant  in  central  and  southern  Pales- 
tine, as  well  as  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the 
latter,   which  is  somewhat  larger,  and  may 


ptu'hap.s  be  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
fox  (Valpes  vulfjaris),  in  the  wooded  parts  of 
the  country. 

Under  the  general  name  of  fox,  f^ka'al,  the 
Hebrews,  like  the  modern  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  appear  to  have  comi)reheiuled  the 
jackal,  which  belongs  to  the  dog  family,  al- 
though they  had  a  si)ecial  name  for  the 
jackal.  The  jackal  is  jierliaps  intended  in 
Judg.  XV.  4  (cj).  K.  V.  margin) ;  for  it  abounds 
in  the  lowland  of  Philistia,  goes  about  by 
night  in  bands,  and  siiends  the  day  as  a  pack 
in  some  cave.  It  is  thus  easily  caught  :  where- 
as the  fox  is  a  .solitary  animal  ami  dilhcult  U) 
capture.  The  jackal  also  devours  carrion 
(Ps.  Ixiii.  10),  which  the  fox  is  loath  to  do. 
The  jackal  eats  fruit  as  well  as  flesh,  and 
may  be  inteiuled  in  Song  ii.  15,  yet  the  fox 
tramples  and  destroys  vineyards. 

Frank'in-cense. 

A  fragrant  gum  of  a  tree  (Ecclus.  1.  8; 
Song  iii.  6).  It  is  \vliite  in  color,  as  its  He- 
brew name  TJbonnh  denotes.  It  was  an  in- 
gredient in  the  holy  anointing  oil  with  which 
priests  were  consecrated  to  their  sacred  func- 
tions (Ex.  XXX.  34).  It  was  added  with  oil  to 
the  meal  offerings  (Lev.  ii.  1,  2,  15,  16,  K.  V.), 


Frankincense  (Bostvellia  Carteri). 

and  ultimately  burned  (vi.  I5i.  .No  frankin- 
cense was  added  to  sin  otTcrings  (Lev.  v.  11) 
and  offerings  of  jealousy  (Num.  v.  15).  Pure 
frankincense  was  poured  upon  the  twelve 
loaves  of  showbread  (Lev.  xxi  v.  7;  cp.  also 
1  ('hron.  ix.  29;  Neh.  .xiii.  5).  The  drome- 
daries of  Midian,  Eidiali,  and  Sheba,  brought 


Friend  of  the  King 


240 


Gabriel 


it  to  Palestine  frooi  Arabia  ( Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  vi. 
•20).  TIr-  hill  of  Iraukiiiceuse  (Song  iv.  6) 
was  ])robably  a  rttiied  spot  in  the  palace 
gardens,  among  exotic  frankincense  trees 
(cp.  Ecc.  ii.  5;  Autiq.  viii.  6,  tl ;  ix.  1,2). 
Tlio  frankincense  of  antiquity,  the  olibanum 
of  Eiin)i)eau  coninieree.  comes  from  Bo.^vellia 
J{oril)itH<l(i,oin-  of  the  Amyrida'.'ex  (Amyrids), 
jirowiufi  in  India,  or  from  other  species  of 
the  genus,  especially  B.  Carteri,  B.  Frereava 
and  B.  serrnta,  of  which  there  are  two  va- 
rieties, B.  sen  (ltd  projier,  the  B.  thurifern  of 
Koxbnrgh,  and  the  variety  B.  glabra.  The 
first  and  fourth  species  are  Indian  ;  the  sec- 
ond and  third  occur  on  the  Somali  coast  of 
Africa  and  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia.  The 
frankincense  itself  is  gum  resin,  which  is 
dry,  consists  of  tears  often  an  inch  long, 
with  a  balsamic  odor,  especially  when  burnt. 
A  ])oor  quality,  reddish  in  color,  is  obtained 
in  the  spring  ;  the  best  is  gotten  later,  and  is 
white. 

Friend  of  the  King. 

A  high  court-official  (Gen.  xxvi.  26;  1  Kin. 
iv.  5),  probably  the  king's  confidential  ad- 
viser. Under  the  Syro-Macedonian  kings 
there  was  a  specially  privileged  class  known 
as  the  king's  friends  (1  Mac.  ii.  18;  iii.  38, 
vi.  10).    See  Priest. 

Frog. 

An  amphibious  animal  (Ex.  viii.  ";  Eev. 
xvi.  13);  in  the  Old  Testament  probably 
Enna  jiunrtata,  the  dotted  frog  of  Egypt. 

Front'let. 

A  band  for  the  forehead;  then,  figuratively, 
the  constant  public  exhibition  of  a  trait  or 
obedience  to  a  command  (Ex.  xiii.  l(j ;  Deut. 
vi.  8,  9;  xi.  18;  cp.  Prov.  iii.  3).  The  in- 
junction was  interpreted  literally  by  the 
later  Jews.     See  Phylactery. 

Full'er. 

One  who  cleanses  undressed  cloth  from  oil 
and  grease,  ami  renders  it  thick  or  compact 
by  the  application  of  pressure,  or  else  one 
who  thoroughly  cleanses  soiled  garments 
(.Mark  ix.  3j.  The  clothing  was  steeped  in 
soup  and  water  (Mai.  iii.  2i  and  trodden,  as 
till',  Hcl)rew  name  denotes.  A  fuller's  field 
lay  outside  of  Jerusalem.  It  had  a  highway 
and  tiie  conduit  of  the  upper  pool  (Is.  vii.  3 ; 
xxxvi.  2),  and  was  so  near  the  city  that  the 
Assyrian  aml)assadors,  standing  in  the  field 
and  speaking,  were  heard  and  unchMstood  by 
the  ])copic  on  the  city  wall  (2  Kin.  xviii.  17). 
Tin;  conduit  is  commonly  regarded  as  the 
ciiannel  which  conducts  the  water  from  the 
Uirket  Maniilhi,  in  the  upper  Hinnoni  valley 
northwest  of  .Terusaleni,  into  the  city,  li", 
however,  the  conduit  referred  to  is  tlie  tun- 
nel connecting  the  fountain  of  tlie  Virgin 
with  the  pool  of  Siloam,  the  fuller's  field  was 
in  the  valley  of  the  Kidron. 

Fur 'long. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  noun  Stadion 
(Lukexxiv.  13;  John  vi.  19;  xi.  18;  Kev.  xiv. 


20).  The  Greek  stadion  was  tlOO  Greek  and 
606|  English  feet,  or  about  ^  of  a  Roman  mile. 
It  is  a  little  less  than  an  English  furlong, 
which  is  fitiO  English  feet,  or  J  of  an  English 
mile.  See  Measure. 
Fur'nace. 

1.  An  oven  for  smelting  iron  from  the  ore 
(Deut.  iv.  20;  1  Kin.  viii.  51).     See  Iron. 

2.  A  crucible  for  refining  gold  and  silver, 
and  for  melting  gold,  silver,  brass,  tin,  and 
lead  (Prov.  xvii.3:  Ezek.  xxii.  20).  See  Smith. 

3.  A  bake  oven  ;  so  in  Neh.  iii.  11 ;  Is.  xxxi. 
9.    See  Bread. 


G. 


Ga'al  [loathing]. 

A  son  of  Ehed.  With  a  band  of  followers 
he  came  to  the  city  of  Shecheni,  and,  having 
gained  the  confidence  of  its  inhabitants, 
began  to  vilify  Abimelecli,  their  absent  king, 
and  .to  assume  authority.  Zebul,  the  gov- 
ernor, sent  word  to  Abimelecli  of  what  was 
going  on,  and  advised  him  to  lie  iu  wait  by 
night  and  advance  against  the  town  at  dawn. 
He  did  so.  Gaal  went  forth  and  gave  him 
battle,  but  was  put  to  flight  ( Judg.  ix.  26-41). 

Ga'ash  [trembling,  earthqinike]. 

A  liill  iu  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim.  south 
of  Timnath-serah  (Josh.  xxiv.  30;  Judg.  ii. 
9  ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  30;  1  Chron.  xi.  32).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Ga'ba.     See  Geba. 

Gato'bai  [tax  gatherer]. 

A  Benjamite  Avho  consented  to  live  in  Je- 
rus<ileni  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  8). 

Gab'ba-tlia  [an  elevated  place]. 

The  equivalent  in  Aramaic  of  the  Greek 
word  Litlimtrdton,  a  pavement  of  tessellated 
work  (John  xix.  13).  On  it  stood  the  public 
tribunal  on  which  Pontius  Pilate  sat  to  decide 
cases.  I'robably  it  was  an  open  space  in  front 
of  Herod's  palace  (cp.  War  ii.  14,  8).  There 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  Pilate,  like  Caesar 
on  his  campaigns,  carried  a  transportable 
jiavement  about  with  him,  which  he  laid 
wherever  he  M'ished  to  erect  his  tribunal. 

Ga'bri-el  [man  of  God]. 

An  angel  of  high  rank  sent  to  interpret  a 
vision  to  the  prophet  Daniel  (Dan.  viii.  1(5- 
27). '  He  was  commissioned  again  to  visit  the 
prophet  to  give  him  skill  and  understand- 
ing, and  reveal  to  him  the  ]irophecy  of  the 
seventy  weeks  (ix.  16-27).  At  a  long  subse- 
(|nent  jieriod  he  was  dispatched  to  Jerusalem 
to  announce  to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  John 
the  iiaptist  (Luke  i.  11-22),  and  to  Nazareth 
to  hail  the  Virgin  Mary  as  chosen  to  the  high 
l)rivil(>ge  of  being  niotiier  of  tlie  Messiah  (26- 
31).  Gabriel  described  himself  as  habitually 
standing  in  the  presence  of  God  (19).  Thence, 
doubtless,  he  departed  at  longer  or  shorter 
intervals  to  carry  the  divine  messages  to  and 
from  this  earth  or  other  worlds. 


Gad 


241 


Galatia 


Gad  [good  fortune]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jacob  by  Ziljjali,  IjOfih's  hand- 
niaid.  At  his  birth  Leah  said.  "  Fortunate  !" 
and  she  called  his  name  Gad  ((ien.  xxx.  10. 
11  :  ci>.  13,  E.  v.).  Jewish  tradition  adojited 
a  different  reading  from  the  text,  and  made 
Leah  say,  "  A  troox>  or  fortune  cometli."  Jacob 
jirophesied  :  "  Gad,  a  troop  shall  i)ress  ui)ou 
hitu  :  but  he  shall  press  ui>on  their  heel" 
(Gen.  xlix.  19,  R.  V.).  Moses  blessed  God 
who  enlarged  Gad,  and  praised  the  valor  of 
the  tribe  and  its  fidelity  to  duty  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
'20,  21).  Gad  had  seven  sons  (Gen.  xlvi.  16). 
each  of  whom,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Ezbon,  founded  a  ti'ibal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 

m-id). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Gad  was  the  pro- 
genitor, the  Gadites  (Num.  i.  14  ;  Deut.  xxvii. 
13  :  Ezek.  xlviii.  27,  28,  34).  At  the  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  the  Gadites  capable  of 
bearing  arms  were  4.5,650  (Num.  i.  24,  25)  ; 
at  the  second  there  were  40,500  (xx\t.  15- 
18).  Valiant  Gadites  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  8).  The  territory  occupied  by 
the  tribe  was  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  was  as- 
signed them  by  Moses,  but  with  the  proviso 
that,  before  finally  settling  down  in  it,  the 
warriors  of  the  tribe  should  cross  the  river 
with  their  brethren,  and  give  assistance  in 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxii.  21-32). 
The  territory  of  the  Gadites  was  situated  be- 
tween that  of  Reuben  on  the  south  and  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  on  the  north.  It  in- 
cluded the  southern  part  of  mount  Gilead 
from  the  Jabbok  southward  to  Heshbon,  and 
from  the  vicinity  of  Eabbath-ammon  on  the 
east  westward  to  the  Jordan  valley.  In  the 
valley  it  took  in  the  entire  eastern  bank  from 
Beth-nimrah,  near  the  northern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  to  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  (Josh. 
xiii.  24-28 ;  Deut.  iii.  12,  16,  17).  The  country 
was  adapted  to  pasturage  (Num.  xxxii.  1-4). 
Ramoth  in  Gilead  was  iu  the  territory  of 
Gad,  and  was  appointed  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8).  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5  probably  means  that 
the  enumerators  passed  from  the  Arnon  to- 
ward Gad  and  unto  Jazer. 

3.  A  prophet,  David's  seer,  who,  when 
David  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  advised 
him  to  quit  that  place  of  refuge  and  seek 
safety  elsewhere  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5),  and  M'ho 
later  gave  the  king  the  option  from  God  of 
three  kinds  of  punishment  for  his  having 
numbered  the  people  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11-14). 
He  aided  in  arranging  the  musical  service 
of  the  sanctuary  (2  Chron.  xxix.  25),  and  he 
wrote  an  account  of  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29). 

4.  Perhaps  a  heathen  deity  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Gad,  for  Isaiah  represents  the 
Israelites  as  engaging  in  idolatrous  worship, 
and  setting  a  table  for  Fortune  [Hebrew  Gad] 
and  filling  up  mingled  wine  unto  Fate  [He- 
brew Meni]  (Is.  Ixv.  11,  R.  V.). 

Gad-a-renes'. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Gadara,  which 
16 


Josephus  calls  the  nu'troi)o!is  of  Persea  and  a 
place  of  strength,  adding  that  it  had  wealthy 
inhabitants  (War  iv.  7,  3).  He  also  describes 
it  as  a  Greek  city  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  Eu- 
sebius  places  it  cast  of  the  Jordan,  nearly  op- 
posite to  Tiberias  and  Scy  thojjolis.  It  liasbeen 
identified  as  Unim  Keis,  on  a  bold  headland 
about  5i  English  miles  southeast  from  the 
southern  side  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  with  the 
sea  in  full  view  and  the  river  Yarmuk  be- 
tween. Tlie  most  imposing  ruins  are  the  re- 
mains of  two  theaters.  The  hot  springs  be- 
longing to  Gadara  are  north  of  the  Yarmuk, 
while  Umm  Keis  lies  to  the  south  of  that 
river.  Gadarenes  is  the  reading  approved  by 
textual  criticism  iu  Mat.  viii.  23  (cp.  Mark  v. 
1;  Luke  viii.  26,  37,  A.  V.).   See  Gekgesenes. 

Gadaritis  was  the  designation  of  a  political 
district  east  of  the  Jordan  (War  iii.  10,  10), 
having  Gadara  as  its  capital  and  extending 
to  the  southeastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 
But  perhaps  Matthew,  in  mentioning  the 
country  of  the  Gadarenes,  speaks  more 
broadly,  since  Gadara  was  a  great  city  and 
its  mention  sufficiently  indicated  the  general 
locality. 

Gad'di  [fortunate]. 

The  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the 
exploration  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  11). 

Gad'di-el  [God  hath  given  fortune]. 

The  spy  representing  Zebulun  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Ga'di  [a  Gadite]. 

Father  of  king  Menahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  14). 

Ga'ham  [flaming,  burnt]. 

Asonof  NahorandEeumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Ga'har  [hiding  place]. 

Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  returned 
from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  47;  Neh.  vii.  4'J). 

Gai  [valley]. 

A  locality  near  Ekron,  probably  Gath  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  .52,  R.  V.;  context  and  margin). 

Ga'ius  [a  common  Roman  name,  sometimes 
written  Cains]. 

1.  A  Macedonian,  one  of  Paul's  companions 
who  was  dragged  into  the  amphitheater  dur- 
ing the  riot  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  29). 

2.  A  man  of  Derbe,  who  accompanied  Paul 
on  his  last  journey  to  Asia  (Acts  xx.  4), 

3.  A  Christian  of  Corinth,  baptized  by  Paul, 
noted  for  hospitality  to  his  fellow  Christians 
(Rom.  xvi.  23;  1  Cor.  i.  14).  Perhaps  he  was 
the  person  to  whom  John  addressed  his  third 
epistle  (3  John  1). 

Gal'a-ad.     See  Gilead. 
Ga'lal   [a  rolling,  as  e.  g.,  the  rolling  of 
one's  waj'  on  the  Lord]. 

1.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

2.  Another  Levite,  the  son  of  Jeduthun 
(1  Chron.  ix.  16;  Neh.  xi.  17). 

Ga-la'tia. 

A  district  of  central  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Pontus,  on  the  east  by  Pontus  and  Cappa- 
docia,  on  the  south  by  Ca])padocia  and  Ly- 


Galatians 


242 


Galatians 


caoiiia,  on  the  west  by  Plirygia  and  Bitliyuia. 
Its  name  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain Gallic  tribes,  after  having  about  280 
B.  c.  invaded  Macedonia  and  Greece,  mi- 
grated to  Asia  ISlinor  and  received  this  ter- 
ritory from  Niconicdes,  king  of  Bithynia,  in 
return  for  services  rendered  him  in  war. 
Other  Gallic  tribes  passed  onward  through 
central  Europe,  finally  settling"  in  Gaul,  i.  e. 
France.  The  Gauls  were  conmionly  called 
Galatai  by  the  Greeks.  The  chief  cities  of 
Galatia  were  Pessiuus,  Ancyra,  and  Tayium. 
The  territory,  however,  varied  in  size  at 
ditferent  times  according  to  the  fortunes  of 
war.  In  189  B.  c.  the  Galatians  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Eomans,  but  retained  their  self- 
government,  and  were  favored  by  their  con- 
querors, since  they  were  valuable  allies. 
Hence  under  their  last  king,  Amyntas,  their 
territory  was  much  extended  to  the  south, 
so  as  to  include  part  of  Phrygia,  Pisidia,  Ly- 
caonia,  and  Isauria  ;  and,  after  the  death  of 
Amyntas  (-25  B.  c),  this  enlarged  region  be^ 
came  the  Roman  province  of  (lalatia.  In  7 
B.  c.  Paphlagonia  and  part  of  Pontus  were 
added  on  the  north,  and  after  A.  D.  (>3  other 
territorial  changes  were  frequently  made. 
During  the  travels  of  Paul  therefore  the 
term  Galatia  was  applicable  both  to  the  orig- 
inal Galatic  territory  and  to  the  large  Ro- 
man province.  In  which  sense  it  is  used  in 
Acts  xvi.  6  (where  the  A.  V.  has  "when  they 
had  gone  throughout  Phrygia  and  the  region 
of  Galatia,"  and  the  K.  Y.  "they  went 
through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia," 
but  which  Prof.  Ramsay  translates  "they 
went  through  the  Phrygo-Galatic  region  "), 
and  in  Acts  xviii.  2'S  (which  translation  is 
open  to  similar  difl'erences  of  opinion),  and 
in  Paul's  epistle  to  the  "churches  of  Gala- 
tia," is  disputed.  If  (jalatia  meant  the  Ro- 
man province,  then  Paul  evangelized  it  on 
his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.) 
in  company  with  Barnabas.  If  it  meant  the 
old  territory  of  Galatia,  then  he  evangelized 
it  on  his  second  journey  (Acts  xvi.  (i).  The 
churches  of  (ialatia  are  also  mentioned  in 
1  Cor.  xvi.  1.  In  2  Tim.  iv.  10  we  read  that 
Crescens  had  gone  to  Gahitia,  whicli,  how- 
ever, many  think  meant  (.iaul  (now  France). 
1  Peter  was  addressed  to  the  t'hristians  of 
(ialatia  among  others  (i.  l),and  there  (^alatia 
clearly  means  the  Roman  jjrovince.  There 
are,  however,  serious  difficulties  in  so  under- 
standing it  in  The  Acts  and  in  the  Ejiistle  to 
the  Galatians.  a.  r.  p. 

Ga-la'tians,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

A  letter  addnss(<l  to  the  churches  of  Gala- 
tia (i.  2),  showing  tliat  there  were  a  numt)er 
of  them  in  different  ]iarts  of  the  territory. 
What  churches  are  thus  described  de]iends 
on  the  meaning  we  attach  to  the  term  Gal;i- 
tia  (q.  v.).  The  date  of  tlie  eiiistU;  also  turns 
on  this  point.  If  (Jalatia  be  tiu;  Koman  jirov- 
ince,  and  the  churches  of  (Jalatia  those  found- 
ed on  Paul's  tirst  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.), 


then  the  epistle  was  probably  written  toward 
the  latter  jiart,  or  at  the  close,  of  Paul's  sec- 
ond journey,  since  Gal.  iv.  13  ("the  first 
time,"  R.  V.)  implies  that  he  had  visited 
them  twice,  and  since  it  seems  necessary  to 
date  the  epistle  later  than  those  to  the  Thcs- 
salonians,  for  the  letters  to  the  Thessalonians 
contain  no  allusion  to  the  Judaistic  attacks. 
If,  however,  Galatia  means  Galatia  proper, 
and  if  it  was  evangelized  on  the  second 
journey  (Acts  xvi.  6),  then  the  epistle  could 
not  have  been  written  before  the  apostle's 
sojourn  in  Ephesus,  since  Acts  xviii.  23  men- 
tions his  second  visit,  on  this  interpretation, 
to  Galatia.  In  conformity  with  this  latter 
view  are  the  facts,  first,  that  the  apostle  ap- 
peals to  his  readers  as  if  he  alone  had  been 
their  spiritual  father  (Gal.  iv.  13-20;  v.  1), 
whereas  on  his  first  missionary  journey  Bar- 
nabas was  associated  with  him ;  and,  secondly, 
that  Paul's  description  of  his  reception  as  an 
angel  of  God  (iv.  14)  hardly  comports  with 
any  known  experience  of  his  on  his  first 
journey.  Most  scholars  take  this  latter  view, 
conclude  that  Galatia  proper  was  evangelized 
on  the  second  journey,  and  date  the  epistle  in 
A.  D.  55  or  56.  Others,  however,  put  it  still 
later,  thinking  that  its  resemblance  to  Romans 
shows  that  it  was  written  shortly  before  that 
ei)istle,  say  in  the  winter  of  57-58.  What- 
ever its  readers  and  date,  it  was  occasioned 
by  the  operations  of  certain  Judaizing  teach- 
ers among  the  Galatians,  who  assailed  Paul's 
authority,  and  tauglit  the  necessity  of  ob- 
serving the  Mosaic  laws.  They  declared  that 
Paul,  not  being  one  of  the  original  apostles, 
was  dependent  on  others  for  his  knowledge 
of  the  gospel.  They  seem  also  to  have 
charged  him  with  being  himself  inconsistent 
in  his  preaching  of  gentile  freedom  from  the 
law.  'They  also  attacked  his  doctrim',  and 
persuaded  his  converts  to  adopt  Jewish  ob- 
servances. The  very  gospel  being  thus  at 
stake.  Paul  wrote  this  epistle  with  great  in- 
tensity of  feeling  and  vigorous  argument. 

This  epistle  is  the  magna  chartaof  Christian 
liberty.  After  the  introduction  (i.  1-10),  in 
which  the  apostU^  o])ens  the  subject  of  their 
error  in  listening  to  false  teachers,  and  ve- 
lunu'ntly  asserts  the  divineness  of  the  gospel 
which  he  had  preached,  he  defends  his  apos- 
tolic authority  (i.  11-ii.  21)  as  given  directly 
by  Christ  and  not  dependent  on  man.  He 
also  shows  tliat  (he  .lerusalem  church  and 
tlu',  original  apostles  agreed  with  his  position 
(ii.  1-10),  and  that  (ii.  11-21)  he  had  never 
changed  his  teaching,  even  when  Peter  at 
iVntioch  had  seemed  by  his  conduct  tc  oppose 
it.  In  cha]).  iii.  he  defends  his  doctrine  of 
just itication  by  faith  alone,  appealing  in 
])roof  to  their  own  experience  of  salvation 
tlirough  faith  (iii.  1-5),  to  the  teaching  of 
Scrii)tnre  regarding  the  origina.l  Abrahamic 
way  of  salvation  (iii.  ti-9)  and  to  certain 
facts,  fully  taught  in  Scripture,  concerning 
the  law,  namely,  that  the  law,  since  it  re- 
quires perfect  obedience   as  the  condition  of 


G-alatians 


243 


Galilee 


salvation,  brinjis  only  a  curse  or  penalty  (iii. 
10-1"^) ;  that  Christ  has  redeemed  us  from 
the  curse,  having  become  a  curse  for  us  (iii. 
13,  1 1) ;  that  (lod  ratified  his  covenant  of 
salvation  by  faith  with  Abrahani  and  his 
seed,  and  hence  the  law,  which  came  later, 
cannot  disannul  tlie  original  comi)act  (iii. 
lo-]8),  but  was  intended  as  a  temporary  dis- 
cipline to  make  men  realize  that  sin  is  a 
transgression  of  God's  commandments  (iii. 
19,  20),  that  the  law  was  therefore  a  tutor 
to  bring  sinners  to  Christ  (iii.  21-24).  In 
cliap.  iv.  theapostleadvances  three  more  rea- 
sons for  tiieir  fidelity  to  his  gospel,  namely, 
the  analogy  of  sonship  and  its  rights  under 
the  civil  law  (iv.  1-11),  tiieir  personal  affec- 
tion for  hinjself  ;iv.  12-20),  and  the  illustra- 
tion which  the  narrative  of  Genesis  provided 
in  the  account  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  and  their 
sous  (iv.  21-31).  In  v.-vi.  10  he  applies  the 
doctrine  of  freedom  from  the  law.  bidding 
them  to  maintain,  yet  not  to  abuse,  their 
liberty,  and  to  exercise  it  with  meekness 
and  a  sense  of  responsibility.  The  closing 
ver.ses,  vi.  11-18,  form  the  conclusion,  prob- 
ably in  the  apostle's  own  handwriting  (see 
ver.  11  in  R.  V.),  in  w  hich  he  summarizes  the 
substance  of  his  instruction. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  is  of  immense 
value.  1.  It  is  important  for  the  details  it 
gives  about  the  apostle's  life.  Its  harmony 
with  the  account  in  The  Acts  of  Paul's  life, 
and  of  his  relation  to  the  church,  has  been 
much  contested,  but  may  be  completely 
proved  (see  Paul  and  the  remarks,  made  at 
the  proper  chronological  point  in  the  article, 
concerning  Paul's  first  visit  to  Jerusalem 
after  his  conversion,  Gal.  i.  IS,  19  ;  Acts  ix. 
2(5-29,  and  concerning  the  council  at  Jerusa- 
lem, Gal.  ii.  2-10  and  Acts  xv.).  2.  The  epis- 
tle proves  also  that  the  older  apostles  were 
in  accord  with  Paul,  though  to  him  was  al- 
lotted the  work  among  the  gentiles.  3.  It 
gives  in  briefer  outline,  and  with  special  ap- 
plication, the  same  scheme  of  salvation  and 
the  same  view  of  the  Hebrew  disjjensation 
which  is  more  elaborately  and  calmly  pre- 
sented in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  All  men 
being  under  lav*',  and  condemned  as  sinners 
by  the  law,  salvation  is  impossible  by  the 
works  of  the  law.  Christ  alone  can  save, 
since  he  has  by  his  death  met  the  claims  of 
the  law  against  those  who  believe.  The  law 
was  never  intended  to  save,  but  to  be  a 
schoolmaster  (i,  e.  a  slave  who  led  children 
to  school)  to  bring  us  to  Christ.  By  faith 
Abraham  was  saved,  and  by  faith  alone  do 
■we  become  children  of  Abraham,  partakers 
of  the  blessing  and  heirs  of  the  ]iromise. 
Judaism,  as  a  method  of  salvation,  was  there- 
fore a  misinterpretation  even  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament itself,  and  the  distiuction  between 
Jew  and  gentile  has  been  done  away.  The 
declaration  of  these  truths  made  Christianity 
a  world  religion  instead  of  a  Jewish  sect. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  much 
used  by  early   Christian   writers  :    certainly 


by  Polycarp,  and  in  the  Ejiistle  to  Diognetu.s. 
and  by  Justin  Martyr,  during  the  first  half 
of  the  second  centurj",  and  by  .Melito  in  the 
third  quarter;  and  in  the  last  ((uarter  it  is 
quoted  by  name,  according  to  tlicir  custom 
in  citing,  by  Irenseus,  ('lenient  of  Alexandria, 
and  Tertullian.  It  is  contained  in  tin-  Old 
Latin  version,  and  is  listed  in  the  Muratoriau 
fragment.  g.  t.  p.  (supplemented). 

Gal'toa-num. 

A  fragrant  spice  (Ex.  xxx.  34  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv. 
15),  in  Hebrew  Ilelh'nah,  in  Greek  Chnlhan?. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  (inlhinnim  was  a  gum 
brought  from  Persia.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  two  nnibelliferons 
plants.  Ferula  galbouifliid  and  F.  nihrirniilis. 
The  Levant  galbanum  of  Euro])ean  com- 
merce is  a  diflerent  plant.  The  umbellif- 
erous plant  from  which  it  comes  is  imper- 
fectly known. 

Gal'e-ed  [heap  of  witness]. 

A  cairn  erected  by  Jacob  in  mount  ({ilead, 
north  of  the  Jal)l)(dv.  The  exact  situation  is 
unknown.  It  was  between  the  respective 
homes  of  Laban  and  Jacob,  and  was  intended 
as  a  memorial  of  the  covenant  concluded  be- 
tween them  there,  that  neither  would  ])ass 
that  place  to  do  the  other  injury  (Gen.  xxxi. 
45-54)  ;  see  Mizpah.  The  two  names  (iilead 
and  Galeed  are  never  confused  in  Hebrew. 
Their  pronunciation  is  difl'erent;  and  the 
former  is  a  conunon  noun  rather  than  a 
proper  name,  and  took  the  definite  article.^ 

Gal'ga-la,  in  R.  V.  Gilgal. 

A  place  (1  Mac.  ix.  2),  presumably  one  of 
the  towns  known  as  Gilgal. 

Gal-i-lae'an. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Galilee  (Mark 
xiv.  70;  Luke  xiii.  1). 

Gal'i-lee  [Hebrew  galll,  circle,  regi(;ii,  dis- 
trict]. 

Originally  a  district  in  the  hill  country  of 
Xaphtali  (2  Kin.  xv.  29;  1  Chron.  vi.  "?«,. 
Kedesh  being  one  of  its  cities  (Josh.  xx.  7: 
xxi.  32).  The  tweutj'  unimportant  towns 
given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram  were  in  the 
land  of  Galilee  (1  Kin.  ix.  11).  In  this  re- 
gion many  of  the  Canaauites  remained 
(Judg.  i.  30-33 ;  iv.  2),  and  the  expression 
"Galilee  of  the  nations"  or  ''gentiles''  im- 
plies that  the  district  or  region  so  called  was 
inhabited  chiefly  by  a  non-Jewish  population 
(Is.  ix.  1;  cp.  1  Mac.  v.  15  and  Mat.  iv.  15^. 
The  name  Galilee  gradually  extended  until 
it  included  the  country  as  far  south  as  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  (1  Mac.  v.  55;  x.  30;  xii. 
47,  49).  Many  of  its  inhabitants  had  been 
carried  away,  especially  during  the  Assyrian 
wars  (2  Kin.  xv.  29;  1  Kin.  xv.  '20),  and  the 
few  Jews  who  settled  in  (nililee  after  the 
return  were  taken  to  .Tudfca  by  Simon  Mac- 
calwus  about  l(i4  B.  r.  (1  ^lac.  v.  23) ;  but 
Galilee  soon  after  became  thoroughly  Jew- 
ish. It  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Herod  the  Great,  and  on  his  death  passed 


Galilee 


244 


Galilee 


under  the  authority  of  Herod  the  tetrarch. 
It  was  the  most  northerly  of  the  three  prov- 
inces west  of  tlie  Jordan  into  which  (if 
rha'nicia  be  ignored)  Palestine  was  divided 
in  the  times  of  the  Konians.  At  the  period 
of  the  Jewish  war,  a.  d.  70,  it  was  di- 
vided into  Upper  and  Lower  Galilee  ;  and 
was  hounded  on  the  north  by  Tyrian  ter- 
ritory, on  the  south  by  the  northern 
boundary  line  of  Samaria  and  Scythopolis 
to  the  Jordan,  on  the  east  by  Hippene, 
Gadaris,  (raulonitis,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa,  that  is,  by  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes, 


village  Japha  (Life  45).  The  mixture  of 
races  tended  to  produce  a  distinct  accent  or 
even  dialect  (Mark  xiv.  70;  Luke  xxii.  59; 
cp.  Acts  ii.  7).  The  people  also  was  suj)- 
posed  to  be  one  which  never  would  produce 
a  prophet  (John  vii.  4L  52).  Nevertheless, 
nearly  all  the  apostles  of  Jesus  were  natives 
of  Galilee,  and  he  himself  was  brought  np 
in  it  and  made  it  the  chief  scene  of  his 
ministry,  laboring  on  its  eastern  limits  by 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  within  its  area  at 
Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  Nain,  Cana. 
and  Nazareth. 


Map  of  .  '      '    •^ 


Sea/^    „fM,/e 


and  on  the  west  by  Plunnicia.  Lower  Galilee 
lay  to  the  south  of  Uiiper  (ialilee,  and  ex- 
tended from  Tiberias  to  near  Ptolemais,  now 
Acre,  on  the  IMediterranean  Sea  (War  iii. :},  1  ; 
Life  i;{,  11,  :{7;  cp.  also  .luditli  i.  )S).  It  was 
at  that  time  densi^ly  po)nilated.  It  furnished 
an  army  of  10(),()()()  men  (Warii.  20,  (i).  Tliere 
were  210  cities  and  villages  within  the  limits 
of  the  two  (ialilees  (Life  45).  'i'jie  .smallest 
of  them,  it  is  incorrectly  stated  elsewhere, 
had  15,000  inhabitants  (War  iii.  3,  2).  The 
Jargest  city  was  Sepphoris,  and  the  largest 


Galilee  is  about  60  miles  long  by  25  broad. 
It  is  generally  mountainous,  with  fertile  val- 
leys between.  Its  scenery  is  picturesque. 
Lower  Galilee  is  divided  from  Upper  Galilee 
on  a  line  running  almost  due  west  from  the 
northern  end  of  the  lake  to  Acre.  It  is  a 
grain-growing  region,  with  a  less  elevation 
above  the  sea  level  than  Ujjper  Galilee,  its 
mountains  being  all  under  1850  feet  high. 
Upper  Galilee  has  summits  of  2000,  .'WOO,  and 
4(M)0  feet  altitude.  It  is  characterized  by 
olive  groves. 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


245 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


Gal'i-lee,  Sea  of. 

A  fresh-water  lake,  fed  by  the  river  Jordan. 
It  was  called  originally  sea  of  Chinnereth 
(Num.  xxxiv.  11),  later  lake  of  Gennesaret 
(Luke  V.  1  ;  Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  cp.  xiii.  5,  7; 
1  Mac.  xi.  67j,  aud  sea  of  Galilee  or  Tiberias 
(John  vi.  1;  xxi.  1).  The  latter  name  is 
I)reserved  in  the  Arabic  form  Bahr  Tabariya. 

It  is  enclosed  by  hills,  save  where  the  Jor- 
dan enters  and  leaves.  The  hills  on  the 
eastern  side  rise  to  the  height  of  1000  feet 
and  more;  those  on  the  western  side  toward 
the  southern  en<l  of  the  lake  are  of  like 
character,  but  toward  the  northwest  they  are 
lower  and  less  steep.  It  is  designated  a  .sea, 
from  its  considerable  extent,  though  its  water 


feet.  Lying  so  low,  it  has  a  seniitroi)ical 
Climate,  and  ice-crowned  Hermon  being  at 
no  great  distance,  sudden  and  violent  stoims 
at  times  rush  down  the  mountain  slo])e  and 
terminate  on  the  lake.  The  water  abounds 
in  fish.  Tristram  enumerates  twenty-two 
species;  two  of  BlenniUhe,  seven  of  Chro- 
mifJie,  one  of  l^iluHda',  and  twelve  of  Cy- 
prinidx.  Some  are  called  after  biblical  per- 
sonages, viz.,  Chromis  Andreie,  C.  Si motiis,  and 
C.  Magdalense.  The  best  fish  for  the  table  of 
all  now  in  the  lake  are  the  sheatlish  (  Clarins 
macracanthus)  and  the  harheX  [  Bnrhus  loiifi'i- 
ceps).  The  sheatfish,  called  by  Josephns  Cor- 
acinus  (War  iii.  10,  8),  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  American  catfish,  and  attains 


Southern  End  of 


is  fresh.  Its  length  from  the  entrance  to  the 
exit  of  the  Jordan  is  12j  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  which  is  opposite  to  Magdala,  is  7i 
miles.  Its  eastern  side  is  destitute  of  con- 
spicuous indentations,  while  on  the  western 
side  there  is  a  swelling  bay  extending  from 
Tell  Hum  on  the  north  to  Tiberias  on  the 
south.  The  depression  of  the  surface  of  the 
lake  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean  is  (582.5 


f  (iahkt 


a  length  of  three  feet.  The  most  abundant 
fish  is  Chromix  fiberindis.  Tristram  saw  them 
in  shoals  of  over  an  acre  in  extent,  so  closely 
packed  that  it  seemed  impossible  for  them  to 
move.  Their  dorsal  fins,  rising  above  the 
water,  gave  it  at  a  distance  an  appearance  as 
if  a  heavy  shower.were  pattering  on  one  spot 
of  the  glassy  lake.  The  fish  are  taken  in 
nets   both  from    boats  and  from  the   shore. 


Gallim 


Sea  111'  (iulik'c  Iruiu  Inflow  Tiberias,  witli  Ht'nunii  in  the  distaiiee. 


Of  course,  the  same  kinds  of  fish  are  found 
in  the  Jordan  and  its  tributaries  also.     For 


Fish  of  the  Sea  of  (.alilcc  {('liroiiiis  Siinonis}. 

illustrations   of  tlie    siiore  of   the,  lake,   see 
Capernaum,  (Jennesarkt,  and  Macidala. 

Gall  [remotely  from  (^Jreek  chole.  bile]. 

1.  The  bitter  seeretion  of  the  liver,  bile 
(.loh  xvi.  i;!:  ,\x.  '2')).  In  Ili'brt'W  M'rcrah 
and  M'nirah,  as  beinj;  fluid  or  bitter.  The 
jioisoii  of  iisjis  was  anciently  believed  to  come 
from  their  bile  (xx.  11).  ^'enomous,  malig- 
nant feelini;  ajrainst  what  is  f^ood  was  called 
the  gall  of  bitterness  (Acts  viii.  2.'{). 

2.  A  poisonous,  bitter  lierb  (Deut.  xxix. 
18  ;  xxxii.  3'2,  :«  :  Ps.  Ixix.  ;il),  called  in  He- 
brew Rosh,  in  (Ireek  Choir.  It  grew  upsjion- 
taneously  in  the  furrows  of  fields  (Hos.  x.  4, 


where  the  English  versions  translate  it  hem- 
lock, though  in  all  other  passages  they  call  it 
gall).  It  was  associated  in  rhetorical  lan- 
guage with  wormwood  (Deut.  xxix.  18).  A 
sore  punishment  was  likened  to  a  drink  of 
gall  water  (.Ter.  viii.  14;  ix.  l.'i;  xxiii.  15).  A 
stupefying  drink,  made  of  wine  mingled  with 
gall,  was  mercifully  ofiered  to  .Tesus  at  the 
])lace  of  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  34).  The 
characteristics  do  tiot  well  agree  with  hem- 

ck.  which  is  not  bitter,  nor  with  the  poppy. 
Tliey  suit  the  colocyiith,  wliich,  however,  is 
called  in  the  Hible  the  wild  gourd. 

Gal'ler-y. 

A  long  room  or  corridor,  or  a  partial  story 
in  a  building  (Ezek.  xli.  li"),  16;  xlii.  3,  .5).  A 
different  Hebrew  word,  rendered  galleries  in 
A.  \ .  of  Song  vii.  5,  doubtless  means  tresses, 
as  it  is  translated  in  K.  V. 

Gal'ley, 

A  low  fiat-built  vessel  with  one  or  more 
banks,  /.  e.  rows  of  oars  (Is.  xxxiii.  21 ;  2  Mac. 
iv.  -JO). 

Gal'lim  [heajis]. 

1.  A  village  near  Gibeah  of  Saul  and  Ana- 
thoth  (Is.  X.  2!l,  30),  apparently  not  a  great 
distance  from  Bahurim  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44  ;  2 
Sam.  iii.  13-lG). 

2.  A  town  of  .Tudah  called  Gallim,  men- 
tioned by  the  Sei)tuagint  in  a  group  with 
Tekoa,  Bethlehem,   p]tam,  and  especially  in 


Gallio 


247 


Garden 


oonnoctioii  witli  towns  soutliwcst  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Josh.  XV.  between  59  aud  (iO). 

Gal'li-o. 

Komau  proconsul  of  Acliaia  at  the  time  of 
Paul's  first  visit  to  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  Marcus  Annseus  Novatus;  hut  he 
v^as  adopted  into  the  family  of  Lucius  Junius 
Gallio,  and  took  the  name  Junius  Anua'us 
Gallio.  He  was  the  brother  of  the  Eoman 
philosopher  Seneca,  and,  like  him,  was  put 
to  death  by  the  emperor  Nero.  When  the 
Jews,  maddened  by  the  suc- 
cess of  Paul  at  Corinth,  drag- 
ged him  before  the  procon- 
sul's tribunal,  Gallio  refused 
to  take  notice  of  religious 
questions,  and  summarily 
dismissed  the  case.  He  re- 
mained equally  indifferent 
when  the  crowd  took  Sos- 
thenes,  the  ruler  of  the  syn- 
agogue, and  beat  him  before 
the  judgment  seat  (Acts 
xviii.      1:2-17).      See     Sos- 

THENES. 


through  a  h)ng  course  of  .severe  training.  Im- 
mense multitudes  were  spectatt.rs  of  their  skill, 
and  though  the  direct  rewards  of  the  victors 
were  but  slight,  the  honor  given  to  them  by 
their  fellow  citizens  and  countrymen  was  be- 
yond measure  great.  Similar  games  were  in- 
troduced into  JudH>a  by  hellcnizing  Jews  in 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  Kpii)lianes,  and  were 
fostered  by  Herod  the  (ireat  (1  Mac.  i.  10,  14  ; 
Antiq.  xv.  8,  1)  ;  see  Gymn.'^sium.  As  the 
Isthmian  games  were  held  in  the  vicinity  of 


Gal'lows. 

Hamau  had  a  gallows 
made  fiftv  cubits  high,  ou 
which  to  hang  Mordecai  (Esth.  v.  14,  E.  V. 
margin,  tree).  Hanging  by  a  rope  about  the 
throat  was  not  a  Persian  method  of  punish- 
ment. Haman  no  doubt  intended  to  impale 
Mordecai  (cp.  ii.  2?>;  Herod,  iii.  159). 

6a-ma'li-el  [God's  reward]. 

1.  Sou  of  Pedahzur  and  head  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10; 
ii.  20;  vii.  54,  59). 

2.  A  member  of  the  Jewish  sanhedrin,  of 
the  Pharisee  sect,  and  a  doctor  of  the  law, 
lield  in  high  reputation  by  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple. He  advised  against  persecuting  the 
apostles,  on  the  ground  that  if  their  work 
were  simply  man's,  it  would  eventually  fail ; 
while  if  it  were  from  God,  opposition  to  it 
was  wicked  and  vain  (Acts  v.  34-39).  Gam- 
aliel had  Paul  for  one  of  his  pupils  in  the 
law  (xxii.  3).  According  to  the  Talmud, 
Gamaliel  was  the  grandson  of  the  celebrated 
rabbi  Hillel.  Its  further  statement  that 
Gamaliel  long  presided  over  the  sanhedrin  is 
imjirobable,  for  at  this  time  the  presidency 
was  held  by  the  high  priests.  He  died  about 
A.  D.  .50. 

Gaines. 

In  the  N.  T.  there  are  numerous  allusions, 
more  or  less  clear,  to  the  games  of  ancient 
Greece.  The  most  important  of  these  were 
four  in  number  :  the  Olympic  games,  at  Olym- 
pia,  in  the  district  of  Elis.  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  the  Pythian  games,  at  Delphi,  in 
Phocis ;  the  Nemean  games,  at  Argos,  in  Ar- 
golis,  in  the  Peloponnesus;  and  the  Isthmian 
games,  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  con- 
tests carried  on  were  chariot,  horse,  and  foot 
racing,  quoiting,  boxing,  wrestling,  hurling 
the  spear.     The  intending  comjietitors  went 


Grecian  Games  of  Pulling  and  Wrestling 


Corinth,  and  the  other  tliree  at  no  great  dis- 
tance, it  is  natural  for  Paul's  two  epistles  to 
the  Corinthians  to  contain  metaphors  or  com- 
parisons borrowed  from  the  games.  In  1  Cor. 
ix.  24-27  there  is  allusion  to  the  training  of 
a  competitor  in  the  games,  to  running,  and 
to  fighting,  the  object  in  view  being  to  gain 
a  prize.  There  are  scattered  allusions  of  a 
similar  kind  through  other  epistles  (Gal.  ii. 
2 ;  V.  7  :  Phil.  ii.  16 ;  iii.  14  :  2  Tim.  ii.  5).  In 
Hebrews  there  is  a  notable  pas.sage  (xii.  1,  2). 
The  vast  multitude  of  men  and  women  who 
have  borne  testimony  to  their  faith  in  God 
is  likened  to  the  immense  concourse  of  spec- 
tators at  a  foot  race.  The  competitor  lays 
aside  every  weight  to  make  himself  lighter, 
and  the  long,  flowing  garment,  which  else 
would  beset  him  and  perhaps  throw  him 
down.  He  requires  patience  to  go  forward 
perseveringly,  but  obtains  it  by  looking  at 
the  umpire  seated  at  the  end  of  the  course, 
ready  to  confer  the  prize  if  it  be  fairly  won. 
Every  one  of  these  details  had  a  distinct 
spiritual  reference,  which  would  couk^  home 
with  great  power  to  every  reader  of  the  epis- 
tle who  had  seen  any  of  the  Grecian  games. 

Gam'ma-dim,  in  A.  V.  improperly  Gam- 
madims  [valorous  men]. 

Brave  people  who  manned  the  towers  of 
Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  11,  A.  V.  and  E.  R.  V.). 

Ga'mul  [recompensed]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family  in 
David's  reign  was  made  the  twenty-second 
course  of  the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  17 1. 

Gar'den. 

The  first  garden  or  park  mentioned  in 
Scripture   was    that    of    Eden,    which    God 


Grareb 


248 


Gate 


caused  to  grow  for  man  in  his  state  of  inno- 
cence (Gen.  ii.  8-iii.  24;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13; 
xxxi.  8,  9).  Gardens  were  watered  by  the 
foot  in  Egypt  (Deut.  xi.  10)  with  water 
raised  from  the  Nile  by  sweep  and  bucket, 
or  by  wheel  from  wells,  and  poured  into  the 
irrigation  ditch.  By  opening  or  closing  this 
furrow  by  the  foot  the  water  was  led  to  the 
spot  desired.  Irrigation  was  practiced  in 
Palestine  also  (Ecc.  ii.  6;  Is.  Iviii.  11;  Jer. 
xxxi.  12).  Herbs  were  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens (1  Kin.  xxi.  2) ;  so  also  were  lilies  and 
other  flowers  (Song  v.  1;  vi.  2),  and  fruit 
trees  (Jer.  xxix.  5,  28;  Amos  ix.  14).  The 
garden  of  Gethsemane  seems,  from  its  name, 
to  have  been  an  olive  grove,  and  to  have 
had  a  press  in  it  wherewith  to  express  the 
oil  from  the  fruit.  There  was  a  royal  gar- 
den at  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4),  another  at 
Etam  near  Bethlehem  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3;  cp. 
Song  vi.  11  ;  Ecc.  ii.  5),  another  in  the  palace 
at  Sliiisiian  (Esth.  i.  5).  To  protect  gardens 
against  depredators  they  were  enclosed  with 
a  wall  or  hedge  (Song  iv.  12;  Is.  v.  2,  .5),  and 
occasionally  a  lodge  was  placed  within  them, 
attended  by  a  watcher  (Is.  i.  8).  In  the 
scchision  and  coolness  of  gardens  people 
walked  (Hist,  of  Susanna  i.  7),  sometimes 
bathed  (15),  spread  repasts  (Esth.  i.  .5),  en- 
paged  in  devotion  (Mat.  xxvi.  36),  practiced 
idolatrous  rites  (Is.  i.  29;  Ixv.  3;  Ixvi.  17; 
cp.  2  Kin.  xvi.  4),  and  occasionally  buried 
their  dead  (John  xix.  41). 
Ga'reb  [rough,  scabby]. 

1.  .\n  Ithrite,  on(^  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chron.  si.  40). 

2.  A  hill  near  Jerusalem  on  the  west  (Jer. 
xx.\i.  39;  cp.  38,  40).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Garlic. 

A  bulbous  jdaut  resembling  the  onion,  and 
in  Hebrew  called  from  its  odor  .s'/wm.  It  was 
much  eaten  in  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  125),  and 
the  Israelites  when  there  used  it  for  food 
(Num.  xi.  .5).  It  is  AUiiun  Niiliriim,  of  the 
same  genus  as  the  onion,  hut  with  more  taste 
and  .scent  than  that  esculent.  It  is  a  native 
of  central  Asia,  is  grown  largely  in  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  and  is  eaten  by  the  com- 
mon peojile  as  a  relish  to  their  bread. 

Gar'ment.     See  Clothing. 

Gar'mite  [pertaining  to  (tcrem,  or  ])ony]. 

.\n  a])pellation  of  i)robably  llic  father  of 
Kcihili  (1  Chron.  iv.  19). 

Gar 'net. 

A  place  for  storing  grain,  a  granary  (Ps. 
c.\liv.  13  ;  Joel  i.  17;  Mat.  iii.  12). 

Gar'nish. 

To  adorn,  to  dccorati'  with  ornamental  ad- 
ditions (2  (;hron.  iii.  (j ;  Job  xxvi.  13 ;  Mat.  xii. 
44;  xxiii.  29;  Luke  xi.  25;  Kev.  xxi.  19). 

Gar'ri-son. 

A  military  i>ost  ;  a  body  of  troojis  statioued 
in  a  fort  (1  Sam.  xiv.  1,  15;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  14- 
16;  2  Cor.  xi.  32).     A  dill'c  iciit  llcl)rew  word 


from  that  used  in  the  foregoing  passages  from 
the  O.  T.  is  also  rendered  garrison  by  the  Vul- 
gate and  English  versions  in  1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  xiii. 
'.'>.  But  this  word  certainly  means  a  ])illar  in 
Gen.  xix.  26,  and  an  officer  stationed  at  a 
place  in  1  Kin.  iv.  19.  What  does  it  mean  in 
1  Sam.  X.  5;  xiii.  3?  There  is  no  authority 
for  rendering  it  by  garrison  excejjt  that  that 
meaning  yields  good  sense  in  these  and  some 
other  passages.  The  author  of  the  Books  of 
Samuel,  however,  uses  a  different  word  for 
garrison.  Pillar  is  suitable  in  the  first  of 
these  ])assages.  If  this  is  the  true  meaning, 
then  the  Philistines  had  erected  n)emorial 
columns  in  the  land  of  Israel  as  monuments 
of  their  victory  or  dominion,  such  as  the  He- 
brews set  up  at  Mizpah  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  It 
was  quite  customary  for  conquerors  to  erect 
memorials  in  the  conquered  country.  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  kings  carved  records  of 
their  con(iuests  on  the  cliff"  at  the  Nahr  el- 
Kelb  near  Beirut,  which  were  never  effaced, 
not  even  when  the  Phoenicians  regained  their 
independence,  but  exist  to  this  day.  Driver 
believes  that  the  word  means  pillar  in  xiii.  3 
also,  and  cites  Amos  ix.  1  in  proof  that  Jona- 
than could  be  said  to  have  smitten  a  pillar. 
But  as  the  word  means  officer  in  1  Kin.  iv. 
19,  as  this  attested  meaning  yields  good  sense, 
not  only  in  1  Sam.  x.  5  and  xiii.  3,  but  al.so 
in  2  Sam.  viii.  6,  14,  and  as  a  ditferent  word  is 
evidently  used  to  denote  a  garrison,  it  is  better 
to  believe  that  the  author  of  the  douV)le  Book 
of  Samuel  always  uses  it  in  the  sense  of  officer. 
The  smiting  of  a  Philistine  officer  by  Jona- 
than was  an  act  of  rebellion  and  a. just  cause 
of  war.  It  was  so  regarded  by  the  Philis- 
tines. His  overthrow  of  a  pillar  would  have 
been  a  mere  act  of  wanton  violence,  unless 
there  was  a  body  of  Philistines  posted  in  its 
vicinity  to  protect  it  from  desecration  ;  and 
it  was  not  customary  to  guard  such  monu- 
ments. 

Gash'mu.     See  Geshem. 

Ga'tam  [i)uny]. 

A  descendant  of  Ellphaz  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11  : 
1  Chron.  i.  36),  and  chief  of  a  tribe  of  the 
sons  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  Ki). 

Gate. 

In  walled  cities  or  palaces  a  gate  was  es- 
sential for  the  egress  and  ingress  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  for  defense  against  the  en- 
trance of  an  enemy.  It  was  often  protected 
by  a  strong  tower  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9),  indeed 
the  gateway  frequently  led  through  the 
tower.  There  were  bars  to  place  acro.ss  the 
gates,  and  render  them  stronger  against  as- 
sault (Deut.  iii.  5 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  13;  2  Chron. 
viii.  5  ;  xiv.  7).  The  gate  was  a  place  of  pub- 
lic concour.se  where  business  was  carried  on 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  vii.  1;  Ezek.  xi.  1)  ; 
legal  transactions  conducted  and  witnessed 
((ien.  xxiii.  10, 18  ;  Kuth  iv.  1-11) ;  cases  tried 
and  Judgment  i)ronounced  (Deut.  xxi.  19; 
xxii.  15;  .\xv.  7-9;  Job  xxxi.  21;  Amos  v. 
15).      There    were    gates   in    the    enclosures 


Gath 


249 


Gaza 


connected  with  the  mansions  of  the  aristoc- 
racy (Luke  xvi.  20),  where  love  of  magnifi- 
cence and  disphiy  found  expression  (Prov. 
xvii.  ly). 

Gath  [wine  press]. 

One  of  the  five  great  Philistine  cities  (Josh, 
xiii.  3 ;  Judg.  iii.  3  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  17  ;  vii.  14  ;  xvii. 
52).  It  was  noted  as  the  residence  of  a  remnant 
of  the  Anakim,  men  of  great  stature  (Josh.  xi. 
22;  cp.  Num.  xiii.  33;  Deut.  ii.  10,  11).  To 
this  race,  Goliath  and  the  other  gigantic  war- 
riors probably  belonged  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4  ;  2 
Sam.  xxi.  15-22  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  4-8).  The  town 
was  captured  by  David  (1  Chron.  xviii.  1). 
During  Solomon's  reign,  it  had  a  king  of  its 
own  who  was  jirobably  subject  to  the  king  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  ii.  39,  42).  It  was  fortified 
by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  8),  but  soon  again 
reverted  to  the  Philistines.  It  was  captured 
by  Hazael  (2  Kin.  xii.  17).  Uzziah  broke 
down  its  wall  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6)  ;  and  hence- 
forth it  drops  out  of  history.  Micah,  indeed, 
names  it,  but  he  uses  an  ancient  form  of 
sjieech  (i.  10;  c]).  2  Sam.  i.  20).  When  after- 
wards the  Philistine  cities  are  mentioned, 
<Tath  is  missing  (Jer.  xxv.  20;  Zeph.  ii.  4; 
Ze<;h.  ix.  5) ;  and  it  is  not  referred  to  in  Mac- 
cabees, nor  by  Josephus,  when  he  relates 
events  subsequent  to  the  year  750  t?.  C.  Nu- 
merous theories  have  been  ofiered  as  to  its 
site.  It  has  been  located — 1.  Near  the  sea; 
at  Yebnah  (so  the  Crusaders)  ;  2.  In  or  on  the 
border  of  the  Shephelah,  at  Beit  Jibrin:  or 
Deir  Dubban,  4^  miles  north  of  Beit  Jibi-in  : 
or  Kefr  Dikkerin,  4  miles  to  the  northwest 
of  Beit  Jibrin  ;  or,  following  the  same  high- 
way 4  miles  farther,  at  Tell  es-Safiyeh  on  the 
vale  of  Elah,  at  the  junction  of  the  She- 
phelah with  the  maritime  plain  ;  or  Tell  Zaka- 
riya,  5  miles  east  up  the  valley.  All  that  is 
known  is  that  Gath  lay  inland,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Hebrew  territory,  and  in  a  sense 
between  Ashdod  and  Ekrou,  but  apparently 
southwest  of  the  latter  town  and  nearer  the 
mountains  (1  Sam.  v.  8;  vii.  14;  xvii.  52). 

Gath-he'plier,  in  A.  V.  ome  through  mis- 
apprehension Git-tah-he'pher  [wine  press 
of  the  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
prophet  Jonah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25).  In  Jerome's 
day  it  existed  as  a  small  village,  2  Eoman 
miles  east  of  Sepplioris.  This  location  cor- 
responds with  the  village  of  el-Meshhed  or 
Meshhad,  3  miles  northeast  of  Nazareth. 
Here  one  of  Jonah's  tombs  exists,  its  chief 
rival  being  at  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh. 

Gath-rim'mon  [pomegranate  press]. 

1.  A  town  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix. 
45),  assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (xxi. 
42;  1  Chron.  vi.  69).     Exact  site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  Manasseh  west  of  tlic  Jordan, 
assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi. 
25) ;  probably  an  erroneous  transcription  of 
Ibleam  or  Bileam  (q.  v.). 

Gauls.     See  Galatia. 


Ga'za,  thrice  Azzah  in  A.  V.  and  once  in 
R.  V.  (1  Chron.  vii.  2«),  accoidiug  as  one  (U- 
otlior  tireek  modification  of  (lie  Hebrew 
word  '^-Issa/i  is  imitated   [strong]. 

1.  The  riiost  southerly  of  tlie  five  Philistine 
cities  (Josh.  xiii.  '.',;  1  Sam.  vi.  17;  .ler.  xxv. 
20),  and  very  ancient  (Gen.  x.  19;  el-Amarna 
letters,  15th  century  B.  c).  It  stood  on  the 
main  road,  between  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt, 
at  the  edge  of  the  desert  and  at  the  junction 
of  a  trade  route  from  southern  .\rabia.  As- 
signed to  .ludali  (.Idsii.  XV.  47),  it  was  ca])- 
tured  by  the  men  of  tliat  tribe  (Judg.  i.  18), 
but  reverted  to  the  Philistines  (cp.  Judg.  vi. 
4).  Samson  carried  off  the  doors  of  tlie  city 
gate  (.Judg.  xvi.  1-3).  When  his  eyes  were 
put  out,  it  was  in  tiie  prison  house  of  Gaza 
that  he  had  to  grind  (20,  21).  The  tutelary 
god  of  Gaza,  as  of  Ashdod,  was  Dagon.  The 
last  act  of  Samson's  life  was  to  bow  with  his 
strength  against  the  two  middle  jiillars  of 
tlie  temple  of  Dagou  and  throw  them  froni 
their  place  (23-31).  Gaza  was  the  limit  of 
Solomon's  dominion  toward  the  southwest 
(1  Kin.  iv.  24).  Hezekiah  smote  the  Philis- 
tines as  far  as  Gaza's  gates  (2  Kin.  xviii.  8). 
Pharaoh  took  the  city  (Jer.  xlvii.  1),  prob- 
ably Pharaoh-necho  or  Pharaoh-hoohra,  i.  e. 
Apries  (Herod,  ii.  1.59,  161).  Judgment  was 
denounced  against  it  and  the  other  Philis- 
tine cities  by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xxv.  20; 
xlvii.  1,  5;  Zeph.  ii.  4;  Zech.  ix.  5).  One 
sin  specified  was  its  sale  of  captured  Hebrews 
to  the  Edomites  (Amos  i.  6).  It  held  out 
against  Alexander  the  Great  for  five  months, 
and  when  it  fell  its  inhabitants  were  massa- 
cred. Jonathan  Maccabeus  was  shut  out  of 
Gaza,  and  burnt  its  suburbs  ;  but  he  event- 
ually made  peace  without  storming  the  place 
(1  Mac.  xi.  61,  62).  It  was  afterwards  cap- 
tured by  his  brother  Simon  (xiii.  43-48; 
Antiq.  xiii.  5,  5).  About  96  B.  c, after  a  year's 
siege,  it  was  devastated  by  Alexander  Jan- 
nteus  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  3).  In  62  b.  c.  Pompey 
placed  it  under  the  jurisdiction  of  .Syria  (xiv. 
4,  4).  Gabinius,  the  Roman  governor  of  Syria, 
built  it  in  .57  B.  c,  probably  on  a  new  site, 
and  the  old  town  perhaps  became  known  as 
Desert  Gaza  (xiv.  5,  3;  Strabo  xvi.  2,  30;  cp. 
Acts  viii.  26).  About  A.  D.  65  the  Jews  de- 
stroyed Gaza  ;  but  it  rose  again,  and  coins 
are  extant  belonging  to  it  which  were  struck 
in  honor  of  Titus  and  Hadrian.  Later  it  l>e- 
came  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishopric.  In 
A.  D.  634  it  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  and,  ex- 
cept during  the  brief  intervals  when  it  was 
held  by  the  (h-usaders,  has  remained  in  Mo- 
hamiuedau  hands.  It  is  called  Gluizzeh  by 
the  Arabs;  is  about  2i  miles  from  the  iledi- 
terranean,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
waste  of  sand;  and  is  situated  (m  a  low, 
round  hill,  about  50  or  60  feet  above  tlie 
plain,  but  extends  from  the  hill  across  the 
plain  to  the  east  and  north.  On  the  north 
there  are  immense  olive  groves,  the  finest  in 
Palestine ;  and  the  great  staple  of  the  city  is 
soap,  manufac:tured  from  the  olive  oil.    Ghuz- 


Gazara 


250 


Gederoth 


zi-li  is  not  fortified  ;  but  there  are  iiulieations 
of  tlie  course  of  the  ancient  walls,  and  ancient 
remains  are  found  near  the  town.  The  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  18,000. 

2.  A  town  of  Ephraim  il  Chron.  vii.  28, 
K.  v.),  possibly  represented  by  'Azzun, 
twelve  miles  west  by  south  of  Shechem. 

Ga-za'ra.     See  Gezer. 

Ga'zath-ite.    See  Gazite. 

Ga-zelle'. 

A  small  antelope,  called  in  Hebrew  S'hi. 
Where  A.  V.  renders  this  word  by  roebuck, 
R.  V.  substitutes  gazelle  ;  and  where  A.  V. 
renders  it  by  roe,  E.  V.  jfenerally  places  ga- 
zelle on  the  margin.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  gazelle  (Gazella  dorcas)  is  intended. 
It  was  ceremonially  clean  (Deut.  xii.  22  ;  xiv. 
5),  was  bunted  (Prov.  vi.  5;  Is.  xiii.  14),  and 
was  swift-footed  (2  Sam.  ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  xii. 
8).  Its  beauty  and  grace  rendered  it  a  term 
of  endearing  comparison  (Song  ii.  9,  17  ;  viii. 
14).  It  is  about  3  feet  6  inches  long  by  1  foot 
!)  inches  high.  The  horns  are  larger  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female  ;  the  limlis  and  whole 
form  in  both  .sexes  graceful:  the  fur  mostly 
fawn  colored  about  the  head,  more  fulvous 
on  the  other  parts.  It  is  found  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  Arabia,  mostly  in  small  groups  or 
nearly  solitary.  It  is  timid,  and  flees  from  a 
pursuer  rai)idly  and  with  great  l)Ounds.  Tris- 
tram found  a  second  species  of  gazelle  {Gnselhi 
nrabicn),  larger  than  the  common  one,  east  of 
the  .Jordan. 

Ga'zer  and  Ga-ze'ra.     See  Gezer. 
Ga'zez  [shearer]. 

A  son  and  i)erhaps  also  a  grandson  of  the 
elder  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  4()). 

Ga'zite,  in  A.  V.  once  Gazathite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gaza  (Josh.  xiii. 
3  ;  Judg.  xvi.  2). 

Gaz'zam  [devourer]. 

I'Vtunder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  re- 
tiirneil  with  Zeruhhabel  (Ezra  ii.  48). 

Ge'ba,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Gaba  [a  hill]. 

A  city  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin  (.Tosh, 
xviii.  24),  which  was  allotted  to  the  priests 
(xxi.  17).  It  must  be  distinguished  from 
Gibeah  of  Saul  (Is.  x.  2!)).  (Jeba  was  the 
northern  extreme  of  the  kingdom  of  .Tndah 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  8;  Zech.  xiv.  10).  A  village, 
still  bearing  the  old  nanu;,  marks  the  site,  (i 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  .Jeru.salem  and  2  miles  S. 
W.  of  Michmash. 

Ge'bal  [mountain]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  on  the  ^Mediterranean 
Sea,  17  miles  north  of  Beirut  (Ezek.  xxvii.  i); 
c]).  .Josh,  xiii..');  1  Kin.  v.  18,  R.  V.).  It  was  a 
great  seat  of  the  lascivious  worship  of  Adonis. 

2.  The  northern  ])orlion  of  the  mountains 
of  Edom  (Antiq.  ii.  1,2;  ix.  9,  1 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
7) ;  known  also  as  Teman. 

Ge'ber  [a  man.  a  hero]. 

Solomon's  ])urveyor    for   (he    territory  of 


southern  Gilead  (1  Kin.  iv.  19),  and  probably 
father  of  the  purveyor  for  northern  Gilead 
and  Argob  (13). 

Ge'bim  [cisterns,  locusts]. 

A  village  north  of  Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  31). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Geck'o. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ^"nnkah,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal  which  the  He- 
brews cla.ssed  with  creeping  things  (Lev.  xi. 
.30,  R.  v.).  The  gecko  is  a  wall  lizard.  It 
has  white  spots  on  its  back  ;  and  it  emits  a 
plaintive  wail,  whence  the  Hebrew  name.  The 
common  gecko  or  fan-foot  (Ptyodactylus  gecko) 
is  very  common  in  Palestine.  It  frequents 
houses,  running  over  the  walls  and  ceiling. 
It  is  able  to  do  this  by  reason  of  the  peculiar 
construction  of  its  toes,  which  are  provided 
with  plates  under  which  a  vacuum  is  created 
when  the  animal  walks,  thus  causing  it  to 
adhere. 

Ged-a-li'ab  [Jehovah  is  great]. 

1.  A  harper,  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron. 
XXV.  3),  and  head  of  the  second  of  the  twenty- 
four  companies  of  twelve  musicians  each 
which  David  appointed  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuaiy  (9). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah 
(Zeph.  i.  1). 

3.  A  son  of  Pashhur  in  .Jeremiah's  time 
(Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah  of  high  birth,  son  of 
Ahikam,  son  of  Shai)han.  He  was  appointed 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  governor  of  Judah  after 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Mizpah,  where  he  was  treacherously 
assassinated  by  Ishmael  of  the  seed  royal  (2 
Kin.  XXV.  22-26  ;  Jer.  xxxix.  14  ;  xl.o-xli.  18). 

5.  A  ]iriest  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  18). 

Ged'e-on.     See  Gideon. 

Ge'der  [a  wall]. 

A  town,  apparently  in  the  extreme  south 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xii.  13).  Exact  site  unknown. 
It  may  be  the  same  as  Beth-gader  or  Gedor  3. 

Ge-de'rah  [wall,  enclosure,  sheepfold]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  '36).  Conder  locates  it  at  Jedireh,  a  ruin 
4  miles  and  4  V  miles  respectively  to  the  north- 
west of  Zorah  and  E.slita»l  (33).  See  Gede- 
roth. 

2.  A  village  of  Benjamin  (cp.  1  Chron.  xii. 
4).  Conder  suggests  Jedireh,  a  ruin  about  G 
miles  north  by  west  of  Jerusalem. 

Ge'der-ite. 

A  man  of  Geder  or  (iederah  {1  Chron.  xxvii. 
28;  c]).  Josh.  XV.  .'ili). 

Ge-de'roth  [enclosures,  sheepfolds]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  41).  In  Ahaz'  reign  it  M'as  taken 
by  the  Philistines  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  Its 
site,  or  that  of  Gedcrah,  is  ctmimonly  fixed 
at  Katrali,  called  in  1  Mac.  xv.  39  Kidron, 
in  the  maritime  jilain  about  4  miles  south- 
west hv  south  of  Ekron. 


G-ederothaim. 


Genealogy. 


Ged.'e-ro-tha'iin[twoenclosures,twosheep- 

fokLs]. 

A  town  witliin  the  territory  of  Jiulah  (Josli. 
XV.  36),  otherwise  unkuown.  Tlic  Si'iitiiaKint 
regards  it  as  a  conimou  iioiiii,  and  translates 
it  "its  cattle-euclosnres."  It  is  in  favor  of 
this  rendering  that,  wliile  the  towns  are 
reckoned  up  as  hut  fourteen,  tifteen  names 
are  given,  including  tliis  one.  Still  this  word 
nuist  not  l>e  suniuiarily  I'ejected. 

Ge'dor  [wall,  fortress,  walled  enclosure]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jehiel,  and  a  hrother  of  Ner, 
the  ancestor  of  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  30,  31  ; 
ix.  35-37). 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  .Tudah 
(Josh.  XV.  58 ;  1  Chron.  iv.  4,  18).  Its  site  is 
marked  bv  tlie  ruins  Jedur,  7i  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Hebron. 

3.  A  tow'u,  api)arently  in  the  territory  of 
Simeon,  not  far  from  the  southwestern  bound- 
ary of  Palestine  (1  Chron.  iv.  39)  ;  see  Geder. 
Tlie  Septuagiut,  however,  reads  Gerar. 

4.  A  village,  ai)i)arently  in  Benjamin  (1 
Chron.  xii.  7 :  cj).  1). 

Ge-har'a-shim.     See  Chakashim. 

Ge-ha'zi  [valley  of  vision]. 

Elisha's  servant.  He  told  the  prophet  of 
their  hostess'  desire  for  a  son,  but  when  the 
lad  that  was  given  her  died  and  the  mother 
cast  herself  at  Elisha's  feet,  Gehazi  would 
have  thrust  her  away  (2  Kin.  iv.  14,  27).  To 
teach  that  it  is  not  magic,  but  faith  and 
prayer  which  avail,  Elisha  sent  Gehazi  to 
lay  the  prophet's  staff  on  the  dead  child. 
He  did  so,  but  without  eflTect  (29-37).  When 
Naaman  the  Syrian  followed  the  directions 
of  Elisha,  and  was  cured  of  leprosy,  he 
wished  to  make  the  prophet  a  present.  The 
man  of  God  refu.sed  ;  but  Gehazi,  regretting 
that  tlie  Syrian  had  been  spared,  ran  after 
him,  and  told  him  that  Elisha  asked  a  talent 
of  silver  and  two  changes  of  raiment  for 
needy  friends.  As  penalty  for  his  avarice 
and  lying,  and  for  bringing  the  prophetic 
office  into  contempt,  the  leprosy  of  Naaman 
cleaved  to  hiiu  (2  Kin.  v.  20-27).  More  say- 
ings and  doings  of  Elisha's  servant  are  sub- 
sequently reported,  but  the  person  referred 
to  was  probably  Gehazi's  successor. 

Ge-hen'na.     See  Hell  2. 

Gel'i-loth  [circles,  regions]. 

A[)parently  the  same  place  as  Gilgal,  op- 
posite the  ascent  of  Aduinmim  (cp.  Josh.  xv. 
7  and  xviii.  17). 

Ge-mal'li  [probably,  possessor  or  rider  of 
a  camel]. 

Father  of  the  spy  Amniiel  (Num.  siii.  12). 

Gem-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  completed  or 
jierfected]. 

1.  A  son  of  Hilkiah.  He  was  one  of  two 
messengers  sent  by  Zedekiah  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jeremiah  took  advantage  of  the  op- 
jiortunity  to  send  by  them  a  letter  to  the 
captives  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

2.  A  prince,  son  of  Shaiihan  the  .scribe,  and 
brother  of  Aliikam.     He  occupied  a  chamber 


in  the  temple.  He  joined  in  requesting  Je- 
hoiakim  not  to  burn  Jeremiah's  writings 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  10,  U,  12,  25). 

Gen-e-al'o-gy. 

The  tracing  backward  or  forward  of  the 
line  of  ancestry  of  an  individual  or  a  family. 
The  regulations  of  the  commonwealth  of 
Israel  necessitated  this  being  done  to  a  large 
extent.  Successicm  to  the  royal  sovereignty, 
the  high-iiriesthood,  the  headship  of  tribe, 
tribal  family,  and  father's  house,  deiiended 
u]M)n  lineage.  There  was  general  knowledge 
on  the  subject  from  the  earliest  i)eriod.  (ivn- 
ealogy  was  revealed  of  itself  by  reason  of 
the  constitution  of  tribes,  which  were  di- 
vided on  the  lines  of  growth  into  great  fam- 
ilies, and  these  in  turn  into  smaller  families 
and  so-called  houses.  Birth  in  a  household 
declared  one's  relation  to  the  several  divisions 
of  the  tribe  as  distinctly  as  the  native  jilace 
determined  one's  (dassitication  according  to 
the  geographical  divisions  and  subdivisions 
of  a  kingdom.  Definite  genealogical  records 
are  traceable  from  the  beginning  of  the  He- 
brew nation  (Num.  i.  2,  18;  1  Chron.  v.  7, 
17).  C'lainiants  in  the  days  of  Ezra  sought 
their  register  among  those  that  were  reck- 
oned by  genealogy,  but  could  not  find  it,  on 
which  account  they,  as  polluted,  were  ex- 
])elled  from  the  priesthood  (Ezra  ii.  61,  62; 
Neh.  vii.  63,  64).  The  endless  genealogies 
against  which  Timothy  and  Titus  were  warn- 
ed seemed  to  have  been  (inostic  genealogies 
of  a?ons  and  other  imaginary  beings  (1  Tim. 
i.  4;  Tit.  iii.  9). 

Two  genealogies  of  Christ  are  given  ;  one 
by  Matthew  in  the  direct,  and  one  by  Luke 
in  the  reverse,  order  of  descent  (Mat.  i.  1- 
16  and  Luke  iii.  23-38).  Matthew's  pur- 
pose is  to  show  Christ's  legal  title  to  the 
throne  of  David  and  to  the  covenant  with 
Abraham  (Mat.  i.  1).  Luke  begins  with  the 
second  Adam,  the  eternally  begotten  Son  of 
God,  and  ascends  to  the  first  Adam,  the  son 
of  God  by  creation  (Luke  iii.  38).  Appar- 
ently to  help  the  memory,  either  Matthew 
or  the  official  record  from  which  he  quoted 
made  3  X  14  =  42  generations  for  the  period 
between  Abraham  and  Jesus ;  viz.,  fourteen 
generations  between  Abraham  and  David, 
fourteen  between  David  and  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  and  fourteen  more  between  tiie 
Babylonian  captivitj'  and  Jesus  Christ.  To 
carry  out  this  artificial  division  Ahaziah, 
Joash,  and  Amaziah  are  omitted  between 
Jorani  and  Uzziah  in  the  .second  fourteen. 
There  may  be  similar  omissions  in  the  last 
fourteen.  In  Luke  there  are  forty-one  names 
in  the  line  of  descent  from  David  to  Jesus, 
against  twenty-eight,  or,  with  the  omitted 
three,  thirty-one  in  Matthew.  If  the  Sheal- 
tieland  Zerubbabel  of  Matthew  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Luke,  as  can  scarcely  be  ques- 
tioned, the  difficulty  arises  that  in  Matthew 
Shealtiel  is  the  son  of  Jechoniah,  but  in 
Luke  the  son  of  Neri ;  indeed,  the  two  lines 
of  descent  from  David  to  .Jesus  are  different 


Genealogy 


2o2 


Genealogy 


in  tlio  two  evangelists.  They  diverge  from 
David  ;  one  line  passes  through  Solomon  and 
the  other  through  his  brother  Nathan.  Put- 
ting both  in  the  direct  order  of  descent,  they 
stand  thus : 


From  Matthew's 

From  Luke's 

genealogy. 

genealogy. 

David. 

David. 

Solomon. 

Nathan. 

Mattatha. 

Rehoboam. 

Menna. 

Abijah. 

Melea. 

Asa. 

Eliakim. 

Jonam. 

Jehoshaphat. 

Joseph. 

Joram. 

Judas. 

Symeon. 

Levi. 

Matthat. 

Uzziah. 

Jorim. 

Jotham. 

Eliezer. 

Ahaz. 

Jesus. 

Hezekiah. 

Er. 

Manasseh. 

Elmadam. 

Amon. 

Cosara. 

Josiah. 

Addi. 

Jechoniah. 

Melchi. 

Neri. 

Shealtie!  (Salathiel). 

Shealtiel  (Salathiel). 

Zerubbabel. 

Zerubbabel. 

Rhesa. 

Joanan. 

Abiud. 

Joda. 

Joseeh. 

Semein. 

Eliakim. 

Mattathias. 

Maath. 

Azor. 

Naggai. 

Esli. 

Sadoc. 

Nahum. 

Amos. 

Achim. 

Mattathias. 

Joseph. 

Eliud. 

Jannai. 

Melchi. 

Eleazar. 

Levi. 

.Matthan. 

Matthat. 

Jacob. 

Heli. 

Joseph,  the  husband 

Joseph,  the  hu.sband 

of  Mary. 

of  Mary. 

Two  explanations  of  these  divergent  gen- 
ealogies are  possible. 

I.  The  early  church  generally  explained 
both  tables  as  recording  the  genealogy  of 
Joseph.  Julius  Africanus  (A.  D.  220j,  the 
first  known  investigator  of  the  question, 
udojjted  the  theory  that  Joseph's  grand- 
fathers in  the  two  genealogies,  Melchi  [Afri- 
canus has  a  corrupt  text]  and  Matthan,  had 
married  successively  the  same  woman,  and 
that  conseiiueutly  lleli  and  Jacob  were  half- 
brothers,  having  the  same  mother  but  differ- 
ent fathers.  Heli  married  and  died  ehild- 
le.ss;  and  Jacob,  according  to  the  liiw  of 
Levirate  marriage  (I)eut.  xxv.  (i),  took  the 
widow  to  wife,  and  raised  up  seed  to  his 
l)rother  Heli  by  begetting  a  son  Josej)h. 
Hence  Matthew  can  say,  "Matthan  begat 
Jacob,  ami  Jacob  begat  .losi'iili ;"  and  Luke 
can  say,  "Joseph  the  son  of  Heli,  the  son 
of  Matthat." 

A  readier  solution  of  the  i)rol)leni  on  the 
lines  of  this  theory  is  that  the  table  in  Mat- 
thew  contains   the    legal   successors   to   the 


throne  of  David,  while  that  in  Luke  gives 
the  paternal  ancestors  of  Joseph.  The  line 
of  Solomon  became  extinct  in  Jechoniah, 
otherwise  known  as  Jehoiachin ;  and  the 
succession  passed  over  to  the  collateral  line 
of  David  which  sprang  from  David's  son 
Nathan.  The  representative  of  this  line  was 
Shealtiel.  For  a  brief  space  the  royal  line 
and  the  natural  lineage  of  Joseph  were  iden- 
tical ;  but  after  Zerubbabel  the  two  lines  sep- 
arated. The  family  of  the  elder  son,  in 
whom  the  title  to  the  throne  inhered,  at 
length  became  extinct,  and  the  descendants 
of  the  younger  son  succeeded  to  the  title. 
Matthat  of  this  line  (by  some  identified  with 
Matthan)  became  heir  apparent.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Heli. 
The  elder  Jacob  had  no  son,  but  probably  a 
daughter,  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  younger 
Heli  had  a  son  Joseph  ;  and  Joseph,  since  his 
uncle  Jacob  had  no  male  descendant,  became 
heir  to  his  uncle  and  to  the  throne.  Broad 
genealogical  terminology  enables  Matthew  to 
say  "Jacob  begat  Joseph,"  and  Luke  to  say 
"Joseph,  the  .son  of  lieii." 

II.  Since  the  Reformation  a  different  con- 
ception of  the  two  genealogies  has  won  favor, 
and  is  probably  correct.  According  to  this 
opinion,  the  tai)le  in  Matthew  gives  the  gen- 
ealogy of  Joseph,  and  exhibits  him  as  heir  to 
the  throne  of  David,  while  the  table  i.n  Luke 
gives  the  genealogy  of  Mary,  and  shows  Jesus 
to  be  the  actual  son  of  David.  With  the  clear 
declaration  of  Luke  that  Jesus  had  no  human 
father,  with  the  customary  Hebrew  usage  of 
the  word  son  for  descendant  however  remote, 
and  on  the  basis  of  the  approved  Greek  text, 
the  advocates  of  this  view  render  Luke  iii. 
23,  "Jesus,  being  son  (as  was  supposed  of 
Joseph)  of  Heli,  etc."  Jesus,  according  to 
Luke,  is  grandson  of  Heli,  Mary's  father, 
and  thus  a  lineal  descendant  of  David.  A 
ditticulty,  not  however  peculiar  to  this  theory, 
but  lying  equally  against  the  first-mentioned 
hypothesis,  is  Matthew's  record  that  Sheal- 
tiel was  begotten  by  king  Jechoniah,  whereas 
Luke  makes  Shealtiel  the  son  of  Neri.  Per- 
haps the  simplest  solution  is  the  following : 
Jechoniah,  who  spent  years  in  captivity,  ap- 
l)ears  to  have  been  the  surviving  nominal 
king  of  Judah  in  the  year  562,  twenty-five 
years  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
27).  He  apparently  had  no  sons  when  car- 
ried off  captive  in  598  b.  c.  He  was  com- 
jiaratively  young,  and  children  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  enumeration  of  his  family  (2 
Kin.  xxiv.  S,  12,  L5).  Jeremiah  prophesied 
that  no  son  of  his  should  occupy  the  throne 
(Jer.  xxii.  30 ;  cji.  what  is  said  of  his  father, 
xxxvi.  30).  In  the  genealogy  as  given  in 
Mat.  i.  ai)pears  the  entry,  "After  the  carry- 
ing away  to  Babylon,  Jechoniah  begat  Sheal- 
tiel." All  Scripture  references  are  in  har- 
mony, and  the  two  genealogies  are  intelligi- 
ble, if  this  iu)tice  in  Matthew  be  understood 
as  a  broad  declaration  in  genealogical  form 
denoting  legal  succession  to  the  throne.    The 


Generation 


253 


Gennesaret 


title  passed  from  Jeclioniali  on  his  death  to 
Shealtiel,  a  lineal  descendant  of  David.  There 
may  of  course  have  been  close  kinship  be- 
tween Jechoniab  and  Shealtiel.  If  Jechoniah 
had  no  son  surviving  him,  but  only  a  daugh- 
ter, the  inheritance  passed  to  her  children 
according  to  the  law  (Num.  xxvii.  8-11).  The 
phraseology  of  the  genealogies  is  therefore 
explained  on  the  assumption  that  Neri  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Jechoniah  and  begat 
Shealtiel  by  her.  Shealtiel's  lineage  was  reck- 
oned as  usual  through  his  father  back  to 
Nathan  and  David,  but  his  title  to  the  throne 
was  reckoned  through  his  maternal  grand- 
father Jechoniah  to  Solomon  and  David. 

In  1  Chron.  iii.  17  is  the  record  :  "  The  sons 
of  Jeconiah  ;  Assir  [not  to  be  rendered  "the 
captive,"  for  the  definite  article  is  not  used], 
Shealtiel  his  son,  and  Malchiram.  etc."  The 
epithet  "  his  sou  "  is  peculiar  to  Shealtiel,  pe- 
culiar also  in  that  it  is  deemed  necessary  to 
apply  it  to  one  of  a  group  already  designated 
as  sons  of  Jeconiah.  It  marks  Shealtiel  as 
the  king's  successor.  He  could  be  called  his 
son,  if  his  daughter's  son,  just  as  Abiezer,  son 
of  the  si.ster  of  Gilead,  son  of  Manasseh,  is 
reckoned  among  the  sons  of  Manasseh,  and 
apparently  even  among  the  sons  of  Gilead 
(1  Chron.  Vii.  14,  18;  Num.  xxvi.  30). 

Hebrew  genealogical  tables  are  apt  to  ditfer 
in  the  principles  of  construction  from  modern 
registers  of  pedigree.  1.  Symmetry  is  often 
preferred  to  the  exhibition  of  the  unbroken 
descent  from  father  to  son.  Hence  links 
were  freely  omitted,  and  the  enumeration 
was  otherwise  left  incomplete.  Ten  in  the 
genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah,  and  ten  from 
Shem  to  Abraham.  Seventy  sons  of  Noah's 
sons,  and  seventy  souls  of  the  house  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xlvi.  27;  see  further  Egypt  III.  1). 
2.  The  genealogy  may  be  tribal,  latlier  than 
personal ;  and  son  may  denote  the  inhabit- 
ants of  a  country  (Gen.  x.  2-4,  (>,  7,  22),  a 
people  or  tribe  (4,  13,  16-18,  the  words  end- 
ing in  "im"  being  gentile  adjectives  in  the 
plural),  a  town  (15),  rarely  an  individual 
(8-10).  Similar  phenomena  are  found  else- 
where (Gen.  XXV.  2-4;  1  Chron.  ii.  50-55; 
see  Son).  3.  The  words  bear  and  beget  and 
father  are  used  with  a  corresponding  breadth 
of  meaning ;  as  bear  or  beget  a  grandchild 
(Gen.  xlvi.  12  with  15,  18,  25),  or  great- 
grandchild (12,  and  probably  21,  22),  or 
grandchild's  graiidchild  (Mat.  i.  9),  or  coun- 
try ((tcii.  XXV.  2,  3), 

Gen-er-a'tion. 

1.  A  begetting  or  producing,  or  the  person 
or  thing  produced  (Gen.  ii.  4;  v.  1)  ;  in  He- 
brew only  plural  Tol^doth. 

2.  Each  succession  of  persons  from  a  com- 
mon ancestor  (Gen.  1.  23 ;  Ex.  xx.  5 ;  Dent. 
xxiii.2)  ;  in  Hebrew  expressed  by  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  proper  numeral  or  by  Dur  with  an 
ordinal  number. 

3.  The  age  or  period  of  a  body  of  contem- 
poraries, not  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
average  lifetime  of  all  who  survive  infancy, 


but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of 
any  body  of  contemporaries  as  determined 
by  the  normal  span  of  life.  The  generation 
lasts  as  long  as  any  of  the  members  survive 
(Ex.  i.  () ;  Num.  xxxii.  13  ;  Judg.  ii.  10;  Ecc. 
i.  4)  ;  in  Hebrew  IJor. 

Gen'e-sis  [Greek  genesis,  origin  (of  the 
world)]. 

The  name,  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint, 
of  the  first  O.  T.  book,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
from  its  initial  word  B'reshilh,  "  In  the  be- 
ginning." It  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  sections:  first,  the  history  of  the  uni- 
verse, showing  God's  relation  to  it,  and  intro- 
ducing human  history  (i.-ii.  3j ;  second,  a 
sketch  of  human  history  before  Abraham, 
showing  God's  relation  to  the  human  race, 
and  introducing  the  history  of  the  chosen 
people  (ii.  4-xi.  26) ;  and  third,  the  history 
of  the  covenant  people  down  to  the  descent 
into  Egypt  (xi.  27-1.).  The  second  section 
includes  the  creation  of  man  and  his  original , 
condition  (ii.  4-25),  the  fall  (iii.),  the  progress 
of  sin  (iv.  1-15),  the  worldly  race  (16-24),  the 
godly  line  (25-v.  32),  the  increase  of  wicked- 
ness (vi.  1-8),  the  flood  (vi.  9-ix.  17),  the  re- 
peopling  of  the  earth  (ix.  18-x.  32).  the  build- 
ing of  the  tower  of  Babel  (xi.  1-9),  and  the 
Semitic  race  in  its  earliest  germs  (xi.  10-26). 
The  third  section  includes  the  early  history 
of  Abraham,  his  call,  and  his  sojourn  in 
Canaan  (xi.  27-xxv.  10),  the  life  of  Isaac 
from  his  father's  death  to  the  departure  of 
Jacob  for  Mesopotamia  (xxv.  11-xxvii.  40), 
the  life  of  Jacob  from  his  departure  for  Meso- 
potamia to  the  death  of  Isaac  (xxvii.  41-xxxv. 
29),  the  descendants  of  Esau  (xxxvi.),  the  early 
hi.story  of  Joseph  tothe  time  when  he  was  sold 
into  Egypt  (xxxvii.),  Judah's  sin  and  shame 
(xxxviii.),  Joseph  in  Egypt  (xxxix.-xlv.), 
Jacob  and  his  whole  household  with  Joseph 
in  Egypt  (xlvi.-xlix.),  and  the  death  of  Jacob 
and  Joseph  (1.). 

The  writer  of  the  book  has  embraced  his 
narrative  after  the  introduction  in  ten  suc- 
cessive sections,  each  under  a  caption  begin- 
ning with  the  formula,  "  These  are  the  gen- 
erations of"  (ii.  4;  V.  1;  vi.  9;  x.  1  ;  xi.  10; 
xi.  27:  xxv.  12,  19;  xxxvi.  1;  xxxvii.  2). 
For  unity  and  authorship,  see  Pentateuch. 

Gen-nes'a-ret ;  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  Gen- 
nesar,  in  R.  V.  of  same  Gennesareth  [per- 
haps, garden  of  Hazor]. 

A  land  adjacent  to  the  lake  of  Gennesaret, 
on  its  western  shore  (Mat.  xiv.  34 ;  Mark  vi. 
53)  ;  described  by  Joseiihus  as  a  fertile  ])lain, 
30  stades  in  length  by2(»  in  breadth,  watered 
by  a  fountain  called  Capharnaum.  and  pro- 
ducing walnuts,  palms,  fig  trees,  olives,  and 
grapes  (War  iii.  10,  8).  It  is  almo.st  certainly 
identical  with  the  plain  called  el-Ghuweir, 
formed  by  a  recession  of  the  hills  from  the 
shore  just  north  of  Magdala. 

The  lake  of  Gennesaret  (Luke  v.  1  :  Antiq. 
V.  1,  22 ;  xviii.  2,  1  and  3)  or  Gennesar  ( War. 
ii.  20,   6\  or  the  water  of  Genuesarcth   or 


Gentiles 


2-")-l 


Gerar 


i 


Plain  of  (icnnesaret,  viewed  from  the  Northeast. 


(ieiuiesar  (1  Mac.  xi.  ()7  ;  Aiitiq.  xiii.  p,  7), 
was  a  coiuiiion  name  tor  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

Gen'tiles. 

All  nations  of  the  world  other  than  the 
Jews  (Is.  xlix.  «:  Rom.  ii.  14;  iii.  29).  The 
Jews  were  the  chosen  people  of  (jod  ;  their 
reliirion  was  sublime,  and  its  truth  stood  in 
strong  iind  favorable  contrast  to  the  untruths 
of  the  gentile  relif;ii>ns;  and  strict  laws  were 
enacted  to  prevent  the  corruption  of  manner.'^ 
and  of  the  true  relijiion  through  contact  with 
idolaters.  These  things  led  the  Jews,  though 
unjustly,  to  feel  contempt  for  the  gentiles. 
Tlie  Israelites  had  I)een  chosen  for  a  purpose. 
They  were  to  he  a  light  to  the  gentiles  (Is. 
xlix.  l-(il.  The  gentiles  were  embraced  in 
the  promises  (Is.  ii.  2~A;  Amos  is.  12;  Zech. 
ix.  7).  The  attitude  of  the  Jews  recalls  that 
of  the  Indian  Brahmins,  who  will  not  eat 
with  their  countrymen  of  inferior  caste,  and 
much  less  with  those  of  no  caste  at  all,  or 
with  stningers  of  another  nation.  When 
Peter,  taught  by  the  vision  at  Jopi)a,  liroke 
through  caste  restriction,  visiting  and  eating 
witli  the  gentile  (Jornelius,  it  gave  offense 
to  even  Christian  Jews  ( .\cts  x.  28  ;  xi.  .'{); 
and  when  I'aul,  s|)eaking  from  the  steps  of 
tlie  castle  of  .\ntonia,  deciart^d  that  (Jod  had 
commissioned  him  to  preacli  to  the  gentiles, 
the  audience  of  Jews  in  the  temple  court 
cried  out  for  his  death  (xxii.  21,  22).  Tlie 
eiirly  churches  consisted  hirgely  of  gentih's, 
and  the  first  Council  of  .JerusalcMU  declincil 
to  impose  on  the  former  llie  liurden  <if  the 
Mosaic  law(xv.  1-29). 


Ge-nu'batli  [theft,  robbery]. 

The  son  of  the  Edomite  prince  Hadad 
and  the  Egyptian  queen's  sister  1 1  Kin.  xi. 
20). 

Ge'ra  [a  grain]. 

1.  A  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benja- 
min (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  1  Chron.  viii.  3). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Rela.  perhaps  re- 
moter than  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  3,  and  prob- 
ably 7). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Ehud  (Judg.  iii. 
1.-)). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  that  Shimei  who 
cur.sed  David  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5). 

Perhaps  3  and  4  denote  the  founder  of  the 
family  to  which  Ehud  and  Shimei  belonged, 
and  are  identical  with  the  grandson  of  Ben- 
jamin. 

Ge'rah.     See  Weights. 

Ge'rar  [water  ])ot  or  a  course  or  dry]. 

An  ancient  city  on  the  southern  border  of 
Palestine  ne;ir  (iaza  ((Jen.  x.  19  ;  2  C^bron.  xiv. 
13),  and  early  occujiied  by  Philistines  (Gen. 
xxvi.  1).  The  country  subject  to  it  extended 
toward  Kadesh  and  Shur  (xx.  1,  9  with  xxvi. 
6,  17,  ly).  It  is  coiumonly  identified  with 
the  ruins  Umni  Jerrar,  (J  mihis  south  of  Ga/a 
on  the  wady  (rhuzzeh.  A  location  about  nO 
miles  south,  in  tlie  immediate  vicinity  of 
Ka(l(>sh,ha-s  i)een  less  plausibly  urged,  namely, 
the  wady  .lerur,  a  braiicli  of  the  wady  esii- 
Slu  rait  which  drains  into  wady  el-'Arish. 
Possibly  this  indicates  the  considerable  ex- 
tent of  the  region  dominated  by  Gerar. 


Gerasenes 


Gershonites. 


Ger-a-senes'. 

The  people  of  Gerasa  (E.  V.  of  Mark  v.  1 
and  Luke  viii.  26,  37 ;  manuscripts  vary  be- 
tween Gerasenes,  Gadarenes,  Gergesenesj; 
Gerasa  is  jirobably  still  echoed  by  Kersa,  the 
name  of  a  ruin  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  opposite  Magdala,  5  miles  fioni 
the  entrance  of  tlie  Jordan  into  the  hike.  A 
short  distance  south  of  the  site  is  the  only 
place  on  this  coast  where  tlie  steep  hills  come 
down  close  to  the  water  (viii.  32 1.  The  city 
of  the  Decapolis,  known  as  Gersa,  now  Jerash, 
does  not  meet  the  conditions  of  the  narra- 
tive, being  .'57  miles  southeast  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee  and  32  miles  southeast  of  Gadara. 

Ger-ge-senes'. 

The  jieople  of  Gergesa  (Mat.  viii.  28,  A.  V., 
but  in  E.  V.  Gadarenes).  The  introduction 
of  the  name  Gergesenes  into  the  text  is  as- 
cribed to  Origen,  who  is  said  to  liave  felt 
that  Gadara  was  too  far  from  the  lake,  and 
was  told  by  people  acquainted  with  the 
region  that  an  old  town  named  Gergesa  ex- 
isted, and  near  it  was  the  declivity  down 
which  the  swine  rushed.  The  ruin  Kersa  is 
jirobably  this  old  town.     See  Geeasknes. 

Ger'i-zim  [pluial  of  Gerizzi,  Gerizites;  cp. 
( iirzite] . 

A  steep  rocky  mountain  forming  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  valley  in  which 
Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem,  lies,  and  facing 
the  more  elevated  mount  Ebal,  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  val!°,y.  Mount  Gerizim  rises 
2849  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  700  feet  above  tiie  town.  When 
the  Israelites  conquered  central  Palestine 
Joshua  carried  out  the  direction  given  to 
Moses,  and  placed  half  of  the  tribes  in  front 
of  mount  Gerizim  to  pronounce  blessings, 
and  the  other  half  over  against  mount  Ebal 
to  pronouuce  curses  (Ueut.  xi.  29;  xxvii.  12, 
13;  Josh.  viii.  33-35).  Jotham,  the  son  of 
Gideon,  standing  on  mount  Gerizim,  pro- 
claimed his  parable  to  the  men  of  Shechem 
(Judg.  ix,  7).  Jo.sejjhus  (Antiq.  xi.  8,  2,  7) 
says  that  Manasseh,  brother  of  Jaddua,  the 
high  priest  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  had  married  the  daughter  of  a  for- 
eigner, Sanballat.  The  elders  at  Jerusalem 
commanded  him  either  to  divorce  her,  or  no 
longer  to  approach  the  altar.  Manasseh 
thought  of  divorcing  her,  though  she  was 
still  dear  to  him;  but  her  father,  Sanballat, 
deprecating  this  step,  promised  to  build  for 
his  son-iu-Iaw,  if  he  retained  his  wife,  a  rival 
temple  to  that  of  Jerusalem.  He  kept  his 
word,  erecting  one  on  mount  Gerizim.  This 
was  the  origin  of  the  Samaritan  temple  on 
that  mountain,  and  must  be  dated  before  330 
B.  c.  If  Sanballat  was  the  Samaritan  of  that 
name  who  was  an  oi)])onent  of  the  Jews  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah,  about  415  b.  C.  (Neh. 
iv.  1;  xiii.  28),  and  not  an  official  sent  by 
Darius  Codomanus  (Antiq.  xi.  7.  2  ;  xii.  5,  5), 
the  temple  was  built  considerably  before  330, 
perhaps  about  380  B.  C.    It  was  destroyed  by 


John  Hyrcanus,  129  b.  c.  Tiie  erection  of 
the  edifice!  made  Gerizim  the  Samaritan  sa- 
cred mountain.  It  was  to  it  that  the  woman 
of  Samaria  and  Jesus  referred  as  "  this  moun- 
tain "  (John  iv.  20,  21;  cp.  Autiq.  xii.  1); 
and  Jacob's  well,  at  wiiich  they  were  con- 
versing, was  at  the  foot  of  mount  Gerizim. 
Gerizim,  now  called  Jebel  et-Tor,  is  a  high 
table-land  stretching  far  toward  the  east  and 
southeast  of  Nablus.  From  the  days  of  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,  a  Jewish  rabbi  who  traveled 
ill  Palestine  about  a.  d.  IKiO,  on  to  recent 
times,  the  view  was  held  that  Gerizim,  the 
mountain  of  blessings,  was  fertile,  and  Ebal, 
that  of  curses,  barren.  But  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  ravine  coming  down  from 
Gerizim  near  Nablus,  both,  mountains  are 
equally  barren.  See  illustration  under 
Shechem. 

Ger'shom  [often  interpreted  as  meaning 
"stranger  there;"  liut  the  vocalization  and 
the  variant  form  Gershou  with  its])atronymic 
show  that  the  Hebrews  did  not  regard  the 
word  as  having  that  meaning.  It  rather  sig- 
nifies "banishment."  In  Ex.  ii.  22,  the  au- 
thor, according  to  custom,  plays  ujion  the 
general  sound]. 

1.  Gershon,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  C'hron.  vi. 
16,  17,  20,  43,  62,  71).     See  Gershon. 

2.  The  elder  son  of  Moses,  born  to  him  in 
Midian  (Ex.  ii.  22;  xviii.  3).  He  gave  rise  to 
a  father's  house  which  was  reckoned  among 
the  Levites,  not  among  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  14-16). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Phinehas  the  priest, 
and  head  of  a  father's  house  in  that  line  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  2). 

Ger'shon  [banishment]. 

A  sou  of  Levi,  and  founder  of  the  Gershonitc 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11;  Ex.  vi.  16;  Num.  iii. 
17).  He  is  sometimes  called  Gershom,  which 
is  formed  by  a  different  affix,  but  has  the  same 
meaning.  His  two  sons,  Libni  and  Shimei, 
gave  rise  to  two  subdivisions  of  the  greater 
tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  18;  1 
Chron.  vi.  17). 

Ger'shon-ltes. 

The  childixn  and  descendants  of  Gershon, 
constituting  one  of  the  three  great  divisions 
of  the  Levitical  body.  In  the  wilderness 
th(>y  encamped  on  the  western  side  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  had  charge  of  the  tabernacle 
itself,  the  tent  with  its  hangings,  and  tho.ve 
of  the  courtyard  (Num.  iii.  23-26:  iv.  21-28i. 
To  aid  them  in  moving  the  tabeniacJe  there 
were  assigned  them  two  wagons  and  four 
oxeu  ( vii.  7j.  They  consisted  of  two  families, 
those  of  the  Libiiites  and  those  of  tiie  Shim- 
eites,  and  at  the  first  census  in  tlie  wilder- 
ness nuuibiTcd  7500  males  (iii.  21,  22).  Of 
the  thirteen  cities  assigned  to  tiieni,  two  were 
in  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond  the 
Jordan,  four  were  in  Is.sachar,  four  in  Asher, 
and  three  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xxi.  ',^7-33). 
They  were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chrou. 
xxiii.  7-11). 


Geruth  Chimham 


256 


Gethsemane 


Ge'ruth  CMm'liain  [the  lodging-place  of 
Chiiiiliam]. 

Pri)h;il)ly  a  kliau  (Jer.  xli.  17,  E.  V.).  See 
Chimham. 

Ger'zites.     See  Girzite. 

Ge'shan,  iu  A.  V.  Gesham,  an  error  which 
crept  into  the  later  editions,  the  original  of 
Itill  having  CTeshan. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  sou  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  47). 

Ge'shem  and  Gashmu,  the  latter  being  the 
Arabic  form,  of  whicii  (Jcslieni  is  the  regular 
Hebrew  modification  [rain,  body]. 

An  Arabian,  a  great  opixment  of  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  captivity.  He  ridi- 
culed the  proposal  of  Nehemiah  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  as  if  this  were  tanta- 
mount to  rebellion  (Xeh.  ii.  lit).  Not  suc- 
ceeding in  deterring  the  Jew  by  tliis  means, 
he  joined  with  others  in  plotting  violence,  if 
noteven  actual  murder.against  him.  Failingin 
this  purpose  also,  lu^  allowed  the  report  to  be 
circulated  far  and  wide  on  his  authority  that 
Nehemiah  was  fortifying  the  city  ])reparatory 
to  rebelling  against  Persia  and  proclaiming 
himself  king  (vi.  1  seq.). 


Gesh'u-rites,  in  A.  V.  twice  Geshuri,  the 
Hel>re\v  instead  of  the  English  term  l)eing 
employed. 

1.  The  people  of  Geshur  (Dent.  iii.  14  ; 
Josh.  xii.  5  ;  xiii.  11,  13). 

2.  A  people  who  dwelt  in  ancient  times  in 
the  country  south  of  Philistia  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Egypt  (Josh.  xiii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  b). 

Ge'ther. 

A  family  of  the  Aramaeans  (Gen.  s.  23;  1 
Chron.  i.  17).  Their  locality  has  not  been 
determined. 

Geth-sem'a-ne  [an  oil  press]. 

A  garden,  presumably  of  olives  and  fur- 
nished with  a  press  to  squeeze  oil  from  the 
fruit.  It  was  east  of  Jerusalem,  a  little  be- 
yond the  brook  Kidron.  and  at  or  near  the 
foot  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxvi,  30 
with  36;  Mark  xiv.  26  with  32;  John  xviii. 
1).  It  was  a  favorite  spot  with  our  Lord,  who 
often  resorted  to  it  for  retirement  (Luke  xxii. 
30;  .Tohn  xviii.  2),  and  it  is  now  forever 
sacred  as  having  been  the  scene  of  his  agony 
and  of  his  betrayal  and  arrest  (Mat.  xxvi. 
36-.^6  ;  ^lark  xiv".  32-.52 ;  Luke  xxii.  39-53; 
John   xviii.   1-12).     The   traditional   site  of 


The  Traditioiijil  Garden  of  (ieiliseinane. 


Ge'shur  [a  })ridge]. 

A  district  lying  ))etween  Herinon  and  Ra- 
shan  and  marching  on  Argob  (Deut.  iii.  14; 
Josh.  xii.  ,") ;  xiii.  11,  13  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  23).  Evi- 
dently it  was  situated  to  the  eastward  of 
Maacah,  for  Maacali  bordered  on  Naphtali. 
It  constituted  an  Araina'an  kingdom  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  37;  xv.S).  Hire  David  obtained  a  wife 
and  hither  his  son  Absalom  fled  after  the 
murder  of  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii.  3;  xiii.  37). 


Gethsemane  lies  a  little  east  of  the  bridge  by 
which  the  road  from  St.  Stephen's  gate  o'f 
Jerusalem  crosses  the  Kidron  The  garden 
IS  situated  at  the  angle  made  by  the  division 
of  the  road  into  two  branches,  "one,  the  most 
nortiicrly,  leading  directly  up  the  face  of 
the  mount  of  Olives,  while  the  more  south- 
erly one  winds  gently  an»und  the  southern 
brow  of  the  hill.  The  garden  is  nearly 
square,  and  the  Latins  have  recently  enclosed 


Geuel 


257 


Gibeah 


it  with  a  wall,  its  northern  side  150  feet  and 
its  western  one  l(jO  feet.  Eight  venerable 
olive  trees  are  within,  on  whi('h  it  is  said 
the  tax  levy  can  be  traced  back  to  the  occii- 
jiation  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
seventh  century  ;  and  many  equally  old  are 
outside  on  the  slope  of  the  mount.  These 
trees,  however,  did  not  witness  our  Lord's 
agony,  for  all  the  trees  around  Jerusalem 
were  cut  down  during  the  siege  of  the  city 
by  Titus  (War  v.  12,  4).  Eobinson  thinks 
that  the  spot  is  the  same  as  that  described  by 
Ensebius  as  at  the  mount  of  Olives,  and 
afterwards  more  definitely  by  Jerome  as  at 
thf  foot  of  the  mount;  but  he  is  doubtful  if 
it  is  the  genuine  Gethsemane.  Thomson  re- 
gards the  position  as  too  near  the  city,  and 
too  close  to  the  great  thoroughfare  eastward 
to  have  served  as  a  place  for  retirement  on 
that  dangerous  and  dismal  night.  He  believes 
Gethsemane  to  have  been  in  a  secluded  vale 
several  hundred  yards  northeast  of  the  tra- 
ditional site.  Barclay  thinks  it  evident  that 
the  present  enclosure,  from  its  narrow  di- 
mensions, can  occupy  oul,v  in  part  the  site 
of  the  ancient  garden,  and  finds  a  better  po- 
sition higher  up  in  the  valley.  The  Greeks 
have  recently  enclosed  an  adjacent  piece  of 
ground  to  the  east,  on  the  slope  of  the  moun- 
tain, as  being  the  garden. 

6e-u'el  [majesty  of  God]. 
The  spy  who  represented  the  tribe  of  Gad 
in  the  exploration  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ge'zer,  in  A.  V.  twice  Gazer  [a  place  cut 
oft'].  In  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  the  Greek  forms 
Gazera  and  Gazara  are  used. 

An  ancient  Canaauite  town  (sl-Amarna 
letters,  15th  century  b.  C.  ),  not  far  from 
Lachish  and  the  lower  Bethhoi-on  (Josh.  x. 
.33).  It  was  on  the  boundary  line  of  Ephraim 
(xvi.  3;  op.  1  Chron.  vii.  2S),  and  witli  its 
suburbs  was  assigned  to  the  Kohathite 
Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  21;  1  ChroU.  vi.  67).  The 
Ephraimites  failed  to  expel  the  Canaauite 
inhabitants,  and  occupied  the  city  with  them 
at  least  for  a  time  (Josh.  xvi.  10;  Judg.  i. 
29).  More  than  one  battle  in  David's  reign 
was  fought  at  or  near  Gezer  (2  Sam.  v.  25  ;  1 
Chron.  xiv.  16  ;  xx.  4).  One  of  the  Pharaohs 
captured  Gezer  from  the  Canaanites,  who 
seem  again  to  have  possessed  it  in  every  part. 
After  burning  i%,  he  gave  the  ruins  over  to 
Solomon  as  a  dowry  with  his  daughter  when 
she  was  married  to  the  Hebrew  king.  The 
city  was  at  once  rebuilt.  It  was  an  import- 
ant place  in  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees.  Bac- 
chides  strengthened  its  fortifications  (1  Mac. 
ix.  .52).  It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Simon, 
and  made  stronger  than  before  (xiii.  43,  R.  V. 
43.53;  xiv.  34).  M.  Clermont  Ganneau  iden- 
tified the  site  by  inscriptions  ;  one  of  which, 
perhaps  as  old  as  the  Herods,  marked  the 
limits  of  Gezer,  and  gave  in  Hebrew  letters 
the  actual  name.  It  is  now  called  Tell.Tezar 
and  is  situated  about  18  miles  west-northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  and  5'i  east  of  Ekron. 
17 


Gez'rite.     See  Gikzite. 

Gi'ah  [breaking  forth,  as  of  a  spring]. 

A  village  somewhere  between  (.iibeon  in 
Benjamin  and  the  ford  of  the  Jordan  near 
the  Jabbok  (2  Sam.  ii.  24,  cp.  16,  29). 

Gi'ant. 

A  man  of  abnormally  tall  stature  ;  like  Og, 
king  of  Bashan,  whose  bedstead  or  sarcoi)h 
agus  was  nine  cubits  long  bv  four  broad 
(Dent.  iii.  11),  Goliath  of  (4af]i,\vh<ise  height 
was  six  cubits  and  a  sjian  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4).  and 
the  man  whom  Benaiah  slew,  whose  height 
was  five  cubits  (1  Chron.  xi.  23).  A  stalwart 
race  of  men  like  the  Anakimand  other  early 
nations  of  Canaan  and  the  country  east  of 
the  Jordan  { Deut.  i.  28  ;  ii.  10,  11,  20,  21  ;  is. 
2).  When  Hebron  was  captured  by  the  He- 
brews, the  Anakim  who  escaped  destruction 
took  refuge  in  the  Philistine  towns.  Goliath 
of  Gath,  Ishbi-benob,  and  other  huge  Philis- 
tines were  probably  of  this  ex]ielled  race  of 
the  Anakim  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  15- 
22).  The  valley  of  the  Eeiihaim  or  giants 
near  Jerusalem  was  a  perpetual  reminder,  by 
its  name,  of  the  early  stalwart  race  which 
long  inhabited  it  (Josh.  xv.  8;  xviii.  16). 
The  exact  meaning  of  w*;>/m7mh,  the  word  ren- 
dered giants  in  Gen.  vi.  4  ;  Num.  xiii.  33, 
A.  v.,  is  uncertain,  and  accordingly  it  is  left 
untranslated  in  E.  V.  It  may  refer  to  large- 
ness of  stature  or  fierceness  of  disposition  or 
debased  character  or  illegitimacy  of  birth. 
In  the  latter  passage  the  word  describes  the 
Anakim.  In  the  former  passage  the  Nepbi- 
lim,  as  the  name  is  transliterated  in  E.  V., 
are  described  as  miglity  men,  men  of  renown. 
The  description  is  the  same  as  that  given  of 
David's  most  noted  warriors  (1  Chron.  xi.  10, 
24). 

Gib'bar  [mighty  man,  hero]. 

A  man  whose  children,  or  a  jdace  of  whose 
former  inhabitants  some  descendants,  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  20).  In  the  parallel  passage  in  Neh.  vii. 
25  Gibeon  stands  in  place  of  Gibbar. 

Gito'be-thon  [perhaps,  conical  height]. 

A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  44)  assigned  to 
the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohatli  (xxi. 
20-23).  The  Philistines  gained  jiossession  of 
it.  Nadab  was  assassinated  there  while  lay- 
ing siege  to  the  place  (1  Kin.  xv.  27).  Omri 
before  he  ascended  the  throne  also  besieged 
the  town  (xvi.  15,  17). 

Gib'e-a  [a  hill]. 

Probably  a  village   (1   Chron.    ii.    49)  ;  cp. 

GiBEAH  1. 

Gib'e-ah  [a  hill]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  57);  probably  south  or  southeast 
of  Hebnm.  .Jeb'ah  (Jeb'a),  on  an  isolated 
hill  eight  miles  west  by  south  from  Bethle- 
hem, lies  outside  the  group  included  in  verses 
55-57. 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  near  Eamah  (Judg. 
xix.  13,  11) ;  called  also  Geba.  the  masculine 
form  of  the  same  name  (xx.  10,  E.  V.  margin, 


Gibeah 


258 


Gibeon 


with  4).  It  is  desijinated  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
iiiin  {ibid.;  cp.  1  Sam.  xiii.2),  and  Gibeah  of 
the  ciiildreii  of  Buiijaiuiii  {2  Sam.  xxiii.  29i ; 
and  ai>|)oar.s  to  be  identical  with  Gibeali  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xi.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  6  ;  Is.  x.  2f)). 
Its  iiihal)itaiits  by  their  misbehavior  brought 
down  piMiisliment,  not  merely  on  themselves, 
but  on  the  whole  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg. 
xix.,  XX.).  Gibeah  was  Saul's  place  of  resi- 
dence when  he  was  called  to  be  king  (1  Sam. 
X.  2(i),  and  it  remained  his  home  and  served 
a.s  the  political  capital  of  his  kingdom  (xv. 
34;  xxii.  6  ;  xxiii.  19).  It  existed  in  the  days 
of  Isaiah  and  of  Hosea  (Is.  x.  29,  distinguished 
from  Geba  ;  Hos.  ix.  9;  x.  9).  The  town  was 
situated  on  the  highway  from  .lerusalem  to 
the  north,  about  midway  between  Jerusalem 
and  Ramah  (Judg.  xix.  1.'! ;  Antiq.  v.  2,  8,  cp. 
viii.  12,  .3;  War  v.  2,  1).  It  is  commonly 
identified  with  Tell  el-Ful,  2^miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  although  no  ancient  remains  have 
been  discovered  except  the  ruins  of  a  watch- 
tower. 

3.  A  hill  or  town  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim,  belonging  to  Phinehas :  where 
Eleazar  the  high  priest,  the  son  of  Aaron, 
wa.s  buried  f.Tosh.  xxiv.  33:  Antiq.  v  1.  29). 
Perhaps  Jibia  with  ancient  ruins,   8i  miles 


God,  4  miles  northwest  by  north  of  Ramah, 
has  been  proposed.  The  determination  de- 
l)enils  largely  upon  the  identiticatiou  of 
Kachel's  sepulcher  and  Zuph  (cp.  ver.  2-5 
with  xiii.  3). 

Gito'e-ath  [a  hill]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  in  imme- 
diate connection  with  Jerusalem  (Josh,  xviii. 
2b).     The  name  is  a  mere  variant  of  Gibeah. 

Gib'e-ath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gibeah  (1  Chron. 
xii.  3). 

Gib'e-on  [pertaining  to  a  hill]. 

The  chief  city  of  the  Hivites,  a  people  of 
Canaan  (Josh.  xi.  19),  included  in  the  gen- 
eral designation  Amorite  (2  Sam.  xxi.  2). 
They  posbessed  also  Chephirah,  Beeroth,  and 
Kirjath-jearim  (.Tosh.  ix.  17).  They  obtaineil 
a  treaty  with  Joshua  by  false  pretenses.  The 
deceit  was  discrovered.  and  they  were  made 
•slaves  of  the  Israelites  (ix.  1-27).  But  the 
treaty  was  respected  :  the  Gibeon ites  were 
aided _  against  their  enemies  (x.)  ;  and  sev- 
eral centuries  later,  when  Saul  violated  its 
provisions  by  a  massacre  of  Gibeonites,  the 
sense  of  justice  wns  satisfied  by  the  execu- 
tion of  seven  of  Saul's  sons  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1-9). 


Gibeon. 


west-southwest  of  Seihin  (Shiloh),  and  3i 
miles  east  by  south  of 'i'ibneh  (Timnath).  The 
tradition  of  the  Samaritans,  which  locates 
the  grave  at  'Awertah,  4i  miles  south  of  She- 
chcm,  is  late. 

4.  Gibeah  or  hill  of  God  (1  Sam.  x.  5). 
Probably  es.sentially  the  same  as  (iibeah  of 
Saul,  for  it  appears  to  have  been  Saul's  home 
(11,  14).  For  the  reason  of  the  name,  see 
ver.  5.  Its  identity  with  Ram  Allali,  lieight  of 


Gibeon  was  within  the  territory  assigned  to 
the  BeMJamit(^s  (Josh,  xviii.  2*5)  ;  and  was 
given,  with  its  suburbs,  to  the  family  of 
Aaron  (xxi.  17).  Saul's  ancestors  dwelt  for  a 
time  in  the  town,  and  were  men  of  influence 
(1  ('hron.  viii.  29;  ix.  .35).  In  the  contest  be- 
tween Isli-l)osheth  and  David,  a  battle  took 
place  liere  (2  Sam.  ii.  8-17,  24;  iii.  .30).  Here 
David  gained  a  victory  over  the  Philistines 
(1  Ghron.  xiv.  16  ;  in  2  Sara.  v.  25  Geba).     In 


Gibeonites 


259 


Gideon 


its  vicinity  Joab  murdered  Amasa  (2  Sam. 
XX.  8  .  Thei'e  also,  in  David's  reijiii  and  in 
the  early  part  of  Solomon's  reign,  before  the 
temple  was  built,  stood  the  tabernaele  and 
the  brazen  altar:  and  there  Solomon  saeri- 
fieedand  in  a  dream  received  a  meshage  from 
God  ^l  Kin.  iii.  4-15  ;  1  Chroa.  xvi.  39,  40; 
xxi.  29;  2  t'hron.  i.  3,  6,  13).  Gibeonites  re- 
turned from  tlie  exile  (Neh.  vii.  25),  and 
aided  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(iii.  7).  According  to  Josephus.  Gibcon  was 
40  or  50  stadia  (about  4A  to  6  miles)  from 
Jerusalem  (Antiij.  vii.  11,  7  ;  War  ii.  19,  1). 
Its  site  is  found  at  the  modern  village  of  el- 
Jib,  5i  miles  northwest  by  noith  of  Jerusa- 
lem. An  oblong  or  oval  hill  stands  in  the 
midst  of  a  basin  consisting  of  broad  valleys 
in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  The  hill  is 
steep  of  asceut,  being  composed  of  horizontal 
layers  of  limestone  rock  that  form  great  stei)S 
from  the  plain  upward.  The  village  is  built 
on  a  broad  summit  at  the  northern  end.  The 
liouses  number  forty  or  fifty,  and  are  almost 
all,  in  whole  iji-j^])art,  ancient. 

Southeast  orthe  village,  and  quite  a  dis- 
tance down  the  hill,  is  a  line  fountain  of 
water,  which  Hows  into  a  subterranean  re- 
servoir artificially  cut.  Not  far  from  it, 
among  olive  trees,  is  an  open  reservoir  59 
feet  long  by- 36  feet  broad  ;  it  was  doubtless 
intended  to  receive  the  superfluous  waters 
of  the  cavern.  On  the  west  is  a  tank,  11  by 
7  feet  in  size,  cut  in  the  rock,  and  called  el- 
Birkeh,  the  pool.  In  the  plain  a  little  lake, 
6  to  8  acres  in  extent,  is  formed  during  the 
winter.  One  or  other  of  these  was  doubtless 
the  pool  or  great  waters  of  Gibeon  (2  Sam. 
ii.  l.'i;  Jer.  xli.  12). 

Tlie  wilderness  of  Gibeon  was  perhaps  .sim- 
l)ly  the  uncultivated  plateau  between  Gibeon 
aiul  Ramah.  If  a  desert  is  meant,  it  was  at 
considerable  distance  east  from  the  city  (2 
Sam.  ii.  24). 

Gib'e-on-ites. 

The  inhabitants  of  Gibeon  or  of  that  city 
with  its  three  dependent  towns  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
1-4.  9). 

Gib'lites,  in  R.  V.  Gebalites. 

The  people  of  the  town  and  kingdom  of 
Gebal  (Josh.  xiii.  r,;  1  Kin.  v.  IS;  in  text  of 
A.  V.  stonesquarers). 

Gid-dal'ti  [I  have  magnified]. 

A  singer,  a  son  of  Heman  (1  Cliron.  xxv.  4), 
and  head  of  the  twenty-second  of  the  twenty- 
four  companies  of  twelve  musicians  each 
w-hich  were  appointed  in  David's  reign  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  (29j. 

Gid'del  [he  hath  magnified]. 

1.  Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 
47  ;   Neh.  vii.  49). 

2.  Head  of  a  family  of  Solomon's  servants 
(Ezra  ii.  56;  Neh.  vii.  58). 

Gid'e-on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gedeon  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  pronunciation  [a  cutting 
off,  a  hewing  down]. 


A  son  of  Joash,  family  of  Abiezer,  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  who  dwelt  at  Ophrah  (Judg.  vi. 
11).  He  was  divinely  summoned  to  deliver 
the  Israelites  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Mid- 
ianites,  who  had  invaded  and  seized  Pales- 
tine. As  he  was  threshing  wheat  in  the  wine 
press  at  Ophrah,  to  hide  it  from  the  Midian- 
ites,  an  angel  saluted  him,  and  conmiissioned 
him  to  undertake  the  deliverance  of  his  peo- 
ple. The  first  step  was  directed  against  his 
father's  altar  of  Baal,  which  he  threw  down. 
The  idolatrous  worshipers  demanded  his 
death  ;  but  his  father  Joash  called  on  his 
opi)ouents  to  baud  over  the  pleading  for  Baal 
to  Baal  himself.  If  he  was  a  god,  of  course 
this  was  within  his  power,  "rhe  multitude 
were  pacified,  and  (xideon  received  a  second 
name,  Jerubbaal,  "Let  Baal  plead,"  and,  as 
Baal  was  regarded  as  abominable,  Jerubbe- 
sheth,  "Let  the  shameful  thing  plead"  (2 
Sam.  xi.  21  ;  cp.  Ish-bosheth).  Having  sum- 
moned the  men  of  Manasseh,  Asher.  Zebulun, 
and  Naphtali  (Judg.  vi.  35),  he  yet  hesitated 
until  his  call  had  been  confirmed  by  the 
miracle  of  the  fleece  (36-40).  Going  forward 
to  the  battle  with  his  followers  intentionally 
reduced  to  300,  that  the  glory  of  the  victory 
might  be  not  with  man  but  with  Jehovah,  he 
njade  a  night  attack  on  the  Midianite  camp, 
which  was  pitched  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel 
(33),  by  the  hill  of  Moreh  (vii.'l).  In  the 
confusion  thus  produced  the  INIidianite  sol- 
diers slaughtered  each  other.  Then  inducing 
the  Ephraimites  to  .seize  the  fords  of  Jordan, 
who  inflicted  fresh  lossses  on  the  fugitives  as 
they  attempted  to  cross,  he  himself,  with' the 
tribesmen  of  Manasseh,  Asher,  Zebulun,  and 
Naphtali  (vii.  23),  pursued  the  enemy  across 
the  Jordan  to  the  confines  of  the  desert.  In 
this  flight  Oreb  and  Zeeb,  Zebah  and  Zal- 
munna  were  captured  and  slain.  Tliis  vic- 
tory was  the  celebrated  day  of  Midian  (Is. 
ix.  4:  X.  26;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11).  Having  deliv- 
erid  the  northern  Israelites  from  the  foreign 
yoke,  he  pacified  the  Ephraimites,  who  were 
angry  because  he  liad  slighted  them,  as  they 
supposed,  in  the  war.  A  movement  now  set 
in  to  make  him  king,  but  he  refused  the 
crown  oflered  him  for  himself  and  liis  de- 
scendants, and  returned  home  (Judg.  viii. 
22,  29j.  Unwisely,  however,  he  had  the  ear- 
rings of  the  Midian ites  made  into  an  ephod. 
If  it  was  ]iatterned  after  tin-  ei)lu)d  of  the 
hiirh  jiriest,  it  was  costly,  for  it  was  wrought 
with  gold  thread  and  bore  precious  stones  set 
in  gold.  Gideon  put  it  in  his  own  city, 
where  the  angel  of  the  Lord  had  appeared 
unto  him,  where  he  had  erected  an  altar,  and 
where  he  had  been  divinely  authorized  to 
offer  a  sacrifice  (vi.  21-28  ;  cp.  Ex.  xx.  24, 
25).  These  high  privileges  had  led  him  to 
consider  the  priestly  office  ojien  to  him,  and 
he  made  the  official  ephod.  and  probably  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  in  order  to  use  them 
to  inquire  of  the  Lord  ;  and  the  thing  became 
a  snare  to  (iideon  and  his  family  and  a 
means  of  seduction  to  Israel  (Judg.  viii.  24- 


Gideoni 


260 


Gilboa 


27).  He  had  many  wives,  and  seventy  sons, 
besides  a  son  Al)inielfch,  a  concubine's  cbild, 
who  made  himself  king  on  the  death  of  liis 
father.  Gideon  died  in  a  good  old  age  (vi- 
viii. ;  Ih'b.  xi.  32). 

Gid-e-o'ni  [a  cutting  off]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  11). 

Gi'dom  [a  cutting  ofli']. 

A  village  apparently  in  Benjamin,  between 
Gibeah  and  the  rock  of  Eimmon  (Judg.  xx. 
4.-,). 

Gier'  Eagle. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Euham,  so  named  from  its  affection  for 
its  young.  In  R.  V.  the  word  is  translated 
vulture,  which  is  the  meaning  of  gier.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut. 
xiv.  17).  Undoubtedly  the  Egyptian  vulture, 
Pharaoh's  hen  or  chicken  {Neophron  percuopte- 
rus),  is  meant,  which  the  Arabs  still  call 
raham.  Its  general  color  is  white,  but  the 
primary  feathers  of  the  wings  are  black.  The 
young  are  brown.  The  length  of  the  adult 
is  a  little  over  two  feet.  It  ranges  in  sum- 
mer from  the  south  of  France,  by  southern 
Europe  and  northern  Africa,  to  the  west  of 
India,  where  it  is  replaced  by  a  closely  al- 
lied species.  The  Egyptian  vulture  is  a 
funereal-looking  bird,  generally  seen  acting 
as  a  scavenger  in  Eastern  cities,  camps,  and 
outside  hospitals.  It  is  common  in  Palestine 
during  its  northern  migration,  and  breeds  in 
that  ccnintry. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  R.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Peres  (Lev.  xi.  13;  Deut.  xiv.  12).     See 

OSSIFK.\GE. 

Gifts. 

Gifts  were  given  by  fathers  to  sons  (Gen. 
XXV.  6),  or  as  dowry  to  daughters  on  their 
marriage  (xxxiv.  12),  or  by  people  present  by 
iuvitatitm  at  a  wedding  (Ps.  xiv.  12).  They 
were  bestowed  upon  fellow  men  out  of  good 
will  (Esth.  ix.  22)  or  to  secure  favor  (Prov. 
xviii.  l(j).  It  was  forbidden  to  offer  them  to 
judges  for  the  purpose  of  bribery  (Ex.  xxiii. 
8;  Deut.  xvi.  19;  Prov.  xxix.  4).  Monarchs 
bestowed  them  as  a  reward  for  service  (Dan. 
ii.  48),  or  as  a  gracious  favor  to  cau.se  ]niblic 
rejoicings  (Esth.  ii.  IN).  They  were  brought  by 
subjects  as  tribute  (2  Sam.  viii.  2,  (!  ;  2  Chroii. 
xxvi.  8;  Ps.  xiv.  12;  Ixxii.  10;  Mat.  ii.  11). 
Gifts  were  required  for  the  expenses  of  re- 
ligious worshij)  (Mat.  v.  2.3.  24  ;  viii.  4;  Luke 
xxi.  5).  lOssentially  the  same  customs  as  to 
gifts  still  prevail  throughout  the  East. 

The  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life  through 
Jesus  {'hri.st  (.John  iv.  10;  Rom.  vi.  2'.i). 
(,'hrist  reci'ived  gifts  for  men  (E])h.  iv.  8). 
He  not  only  opened  up  a  way  for  them  to 
God,  and  enables  them  to  stand  before  the 
just  and  holy  Gne,  but  he  has  obtained  for 
them  the  gift  of  the  Holy  (ihost  (John  xiv. 
IfJ  ;  xvi.  7  ;  .\cts  ii.  :58),  and*  all  the  niar.ifesta- 
tions  of  the  Spirit  in  the  hearts  and  lives  of 
believers,  ri-jientance  (Acts  v.  31),  faith  (Ejih. 


ii.  81,  love  (Rom.  v.  5),  joy,  peace,  long  suffer- 
ing,  gentleness,  goodness,  meekness,  temper- 
ance (Gal.  v.  22).  All  Christian  virtues  are 
graces,  that  is  gifts.  God  bestows  various  gifts 
ui)on  men,  qualifying  them  severally  as  he 
will  for  different  fowms  of  work  in  the  king- 
dom (Rom.  xii.  0 ;  1  Cor.  vii.  7  ;  xii.  4,  9 ;  Eph. 
iv.  7-16).    See  Miracle,  Tongue. 

Gi'hon  [bursting  forth,  as  a  fountain  or 
stream  ;  a  stream,  river]. 

1.  One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  (Gen. 
ii.  13).     See  Eden. 

2.  A  spring  in  a  valley  outside  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  from  which  the  city  obtained  part 
of  its  water  supply  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30 ; 
xxxiii.  14 ;  Antiq.  vii.  14,  5).  It  was  not 
in  sight  of  the  stone  of  Zoheleth,  near  En- 
rogel ;  but  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  and  the 
noise  of  the  shouting  at  Gihon  were  heard 
at  En-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  40-45).  There  was  an 
upper  and  presumably  a  lower  Gihon,  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Hezekiah  at  least  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  30).  Upper  Gihon  is  commonly  iden- 
tified with  Birket  Mamilla,  and  lower  Gihon 
with  Birket  es-Sultan.  The  former  of  these 
pools  is  less  than  half  a  mile  west,  the  latter 
not  the  third  of  a  mile  south,  of  the  Jaffa 
gate.  These  iiools,  however,  are  not  now 
fed  by  living  springs.  Largely  on  this  ac- 
count the  question  has  been  raised  in  recent 
years  whether  Gihon  should  not  be  identified 
with  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin,  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  Ophel,  and  distant  some  400 
yards  from  the  pool  of  Siloam.  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  an  ancient  tunnel. 

Gil'a-lai  [perhaps  weighty]. 

A  Levite,  a  musician  who  took  part  in  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  when  re- 
built under  Neheniiah  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Gil-bo'a  [a  bubbling  fountain]. 

The  mountain  on  which  Saul  sustained  de- 
feat by  the  Philistines  and  met  his  death  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  4  ;  xxxi.  1,8;  2  Sam.  i.  6,  21  ; 
xxi.  12;  1  Chron.  x.  1,  8).  It  is  the  north- 
eastern spur  of  mount  Ephraim,  and  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Kishon  basin  and 
the  Jordan  valley.  The  ridge  lies  west-north- 
west and  cast-southeast,  being  about  8  miles 
long  and  3  to  n  miles  in  breadth  ;  and  is  di- 
vided by  ravines  into  several  plateaus.  The 
highest  point,  which  is  at  Jebel  Abu  Madwar, 
is  1648  feet  above  sea  level,  and  about  1200 
feet  higher  than  the  ]ilain  of  Esdraelon  at  its 
foot.  The  western  slopes  of  the  range  are 
gradual,  but  those  facing  north  are  steep  and 
rugged,  with  precipices  in  many  places.  The 
eastern  slopes  over  the  Jordan  valley  are  also 
steep,  in  idaces  jirecipitous,  esjiecially  toward 
the  south.  On  the  table-lands  and  gentle 
western  slojjcs  jiasturt'  land  is  found,  wheat 
and  barley  grow,  and  olives  and  figs  are  cul- 
tivated. The  rest  of  the  ridge  is  naked  rock, 
or  is  covered  with  wild  grass  and  brushwood. 
A  village,  .lelhon,  preserves  the  memory  of 
the  name  < lilboa. 


Gilead 


261 


Gimel 


Gil'e-ad,  in  A.  V.  of  Maccabees  Galaad 
[lianl.  rugged,  rough]. 

1.  The  sou  of  ]\Iachir  and  grandson  of  Ma- 
nasseh.  He  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  29.  30;  Josh.  xvii.  1). 

■2.  Father  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xi.  1). 

3.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  The  mountainous  country  east  of  the 
Jordan,  extending  from  the  table  land  of 
Moab  northward  to  the  Yarmuk  at  least 
(Dent.  iii.  Ki,  17;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  11),  and  per- 
haps further,  since  the  ruggedncss  of  the 
land  continues  unchanged  iu)rth  of  that  river. 
It  is  divided  by  the  Jabbok  intt)  two  parts 
(Josh.  xii.  2).  The  southern  half  was  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and  the  northern 
half  was  included  in  the  territorv  of  half 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  12, 13;  Josh.  xiii.  24-31). 
The  name  is  still  connected  with  a  mountain 
south  of  the  Jabbok  in  its  designation  Jebel 
Jil'ad.  The  last  interview  between  Laban 
and  Jacob  took  place  in  mount  Gilead  (Gen. 
xxxi.  21).  It  was  a  place  Avell  suited  for 
cattle  (1  Chron.  v.  9,  10;  8ong  iv.) ;  and  the 
sight  of  Gilead  and  the  land  of  Jazer  (cp.  1 
Chron.  xxvi.  31)  suggested  to  the  Reubenites 
and  the  Gadites,  wdio  had  large  flocks  and 
herds,  the  expediency  of  applying  to  Moses  for 
permission,  which  was  conditionally  granted 
them,  of  settling  permanently  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii.  1-42:  Josh, 
xiii.  8-11).  Within  the  limits  of  Gilead  grew 
the  celebrated  balm  (Jer.  viii.  22;  cp.  Gen. 
xxxvii.  25).  In  an  extended  sense  the  term 
Gilead  includes  the  whole  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1:  Josh.  xxii.  9;  Judg. 
XX.  1 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  9  ;  1  ]\[ac.  v.  17,  24-27.  36; 
Antiq.  xii.  8,  3  ;  in  ix.  8,  1,  Gilead  and  Bashan 
are  distinguished). 

5.  A  mountain  abutting  on  the  valley  of 
Jezreel  (Judg.  vii.  3;  cp.  ver.  1  and  vi.  3.3). 
While  Gilead  in  this  passage  may  be  a  mis- 
reading for  Gilboa,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  tiie  s]n-ing  which  best  corresponds  in 
position  with  that  at  which  Gideon's  men 
drank,  and  the  mountain  from  which  it 
issues,  and  the  river  down  which  the  dis- 
comfited Midianites  fled,  are  called  respect- 
ively the  spring,  mountain,  and  river  Jalud, 
which  is  Arabic  for  Goliath.  T()  spring,  moun- 
tain, and  river,  are  thus  attached  a  name 
which  possibly  perpetuates  Gilead  in  a  cor- 
rupt form.  There  is  perhaps  better  evidence 
than  the  present  name.  Gilead  was  part  of 
Naplitali  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  It  may  be  that 
Naphtali  extended  across  the  Jordan  to  the 
east,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  Gilead  de- 
noted a  rugged  district  of  Naphtali  west  of 
the  Jordan  ;  and  if  so,  the  correctness  of  the 
text  of  Judg.  vii.  3  is  confirmed. 

6.  A  city  in  the  region  of  Gilead  (Hos.  vi. 
8:  cp.  xii.  11). 

Gil'gal  [act  of  rolling,  wheel,  a  circle]. 

1.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
alter  crossing  the  Jordan,  and  their  head- 
quarters during  the  cou(iuest  of  Canaan  (Josh. 


iv.  19-24).  The  special  association  which 
they  had  with  the  name  was  the  rolling  away 
of  their  reproat  h  by  their  circumcision  after 
long  neglect  of  the  ordinajice  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Josh.  V.  7-9).  The  cani))  was  i)itched 
between  the  Jordan  and  Jericho.  On  its  site 
arose  a  town,  which  was  on  the  northern 
border  of  Judah  (xv.  7).  There  were  quar- 
ries in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  iii.  19).  These  la.st 
two  references  are,  however,  believed  by 
some  authorities  to  indicate  the  existence  of 
another  Gilgal  at  the  foot  of  Ihe  mountains. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  this  town  or  another 
place  of  the  name  was  on  Samuel's  circuit 
(1  Sam.  vii.  I'j),  aTul  where,  it  may  be 
judged,  Saul,  the  ojiposition  to  him  having 
ceased,  was  made  king  and  the  kingdom  re- 
newed (xi.  15).  At  any  rate,  it  was  at  Gilgal 
in  the  Jordan  valley  where  a  muster  of  the 
people  took  place  to  form  an  army  which 
should  encounter  the  Philistines  then  op- 
jiressing  the  land,  when  Saul,  finding  it  diffi- 
cult to  hold  the  people  together  until  Samuel 
should  come  and  offer  sacrifice,  himself  of- 
fered burnt  offerings  (xiii.  4,  7,  8  ;  cp.  12,  15). 
For  his  disobedience  the  forfeiture  of  his 
kingdom  was  announced  to  him  (13,  14). 
There,  too,  Saul  incurred  a  second  rebuke 
for  his  disobedience  in  sjiaring  Agag  (xv.  12, 
21,  33  ;  cp.  34).  It  was  to  Gilgal  also  that  the 
representatives  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  went  to 
welcome  David  back  after  the  death  of  Absa- 
lom (2  Sam.  xix.  15,  40).  Like  other  holy 
places,  it  became  a  focus  of  idolatry  under 
the  kings  who  succeeded  Jeroboam,  and  it  was 
in  consequence  denounced  by  the  prophets 
(Hos.  iv.  15  :  ix.  15  ;  xii.  11 :  Amos  iv.4  ;  v.  5). 
It  is  probably  the  house  of  Gilgal  or  Beth- 
gilgal  mentioned  after  the  captivity  (Neh. 
xii.  29).  Its  site  is  Jiljulieh,  a  ruin  2  miles 
east  of  Jericho. 

2.  A  village  from  which  Elijah  and  Eli-sha 
went  down  to  Bethel  (Deut.  xi.  30;  2  Kin. 
ii.  1-4  ;  iv.  38  (?)).  It  was  probably  the  pres- 
ent village  of  Jiljilia,  on  the  to])  of  a  high 
hill.  7  miles  nortli  l)y  west  of  Bethel  ;  though 
when  the  levels  are  taken,  its  site  is  actually 
lower  than  that  of  Bethel. 

3.  A  town  associated  with  Dor  and  Tirzah 
(Josh.  xii.  23);  probably  Jiljulieh.  a  little 
north  of  the  brook  Kauab.  and  5  miles  north- 
east by  north  of  Antiiiatris. 

Gi'loh  [exile]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judab 
(Josh.  XV.  51);  enumerated  with  towns  lyinj; 
to  the  south  of  Hebron. 

Gi'lo-nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  (iiloh,  as  Ahith- 
ophel  (2  Sam.  xv.  12;  xxiii.  34). 

Gi'mel. 

The  third  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  Greek  letter  gamma,  and  consequently 
the  English  C  have  the  same  origin  ;  but  in  the 
spelling  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  names  in  the 
English  versions,  giuiel  and  gamma  (though 
not  these  letters  only)  are  represented  by  G, 


Gimzo 


2G2 


Gnat 


their  approximate  eiiuivaleiit  in  scuiiil  and  a 
form  fabricated  out  of  C. 

Gimel  stands  at  tlie  liead  of  the  third  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  esix.  in  several  versions,  since 
each  verse  of  the  section  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original. 

Gim'zo  [abounding  in  syconiores]. 

A  town  with  dependent  villages  situated 
in  Judah.  It  was  taken  by  the  Philistines 
during  the  reign  of  Ahaz  [2  Chnm.  xxviii. 
18).  Robinson  identified  it  with  Jimzu,  on 
an  eminence  about  3  miles  east-.southeast  of 
Lydda. 

Gin. 

A  noo.se  or  trap,  laid  on  the  ground,  in 
which  birds,  beasts,  and  even  men  are  caught 
(Job  xviii.  9;  Amos  iii.  5).  The  two  words 
Mokenh  and  Pah,  of  which  it  is  the  transla- 
tion, are  usually  rendered  by  snare. 

Gi'uath. 

Father  of  Tihni  (1  Kin.  xvi.  22). 

Gin'ne-ttioi,  in  A.  V.  Ginnetho  [gardener]. 

A  chief  of  tlie  jiriests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbaliel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  4,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occupies  the  same  position 
in  the  corresponding  catalogue,  bore  the 
name  Ginnethon  (ver.  l(i).  The  diSerence  is 
merely  that  between  a  jod  and  a  final  nun. 
Probably  Ginnethon  stood  originally  in  ver.  4. 

Gin'ne-tlion  [gardener]. 

1.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  16);  see  Ginnetiioi. 

2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  a  covenant  to  worship 
Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  6). 

Gird'le.  .See  Clothing  and  High  Priest. 

Gir'ga-sMtes,  in  A.  V.  once  Girgasites 
[perhaps,  dwellers  on  clayey  soil]. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  15,  16;  xv.  21  ; 
Deut.  vii.  1  ;  Josh.  iii.  10;  xxiv.  11  ;  Neh.ix. 
H).  It  is  not  known  what  part  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabited.  They  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Gergesenes. 

Gir'zite,  in  A.  V.  Gezrite  ;  in  margin  Giz- 
rites  and  Gerzites  rcsixctively,  following  a 
Hebrew  tradition. 

A  people  living  south  of  the  Philistine 
country  and  mentioned  with  the  Amalekites 
and  Gesliurites  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8). 

Gish'pa,  in  A.  V.  Glspa  [blandishment]. 

An  overseer  of  the  Nethinini  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Neh.  xi.  21). 

Giftah-he'plier.     See  (J.\th-hi:i'hek. 

Git'ta-im  [two  wine  presses]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  :}1,  33),  to 
which  the  Beerothites  fled  probai)ly  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  cruelty  (2  Sam.  iv.  3;  cp.  xxi. 
1,  2).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Git'tite  [of  Gath]. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gath  (2  Sam.  vi. 
10,  11;  XV.  18,  19,  22). 


Git'tith  [Gittite]. 

A  musical  term  (Ps.  viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv., 
titles).  It  is  the  feminine  form  of  the  He- 
brew adjective  for  Gittite,  and  it  denotes 
either  a  musical  instrument  in  use  in  Gath, 
or  a  vintage  song  to  the  tune  of  which  the 
psalm  should  be  sung,  or  a  march  of  the  Git- 
tite guard  (2  Sam.  xv.  18). 

Gl'zo-nite. 

The  designation  of  Hashem,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chrou.  xi.  34),  pointing  either 
ta  Ills  paternity  or  to  his  birthplace.  But 
neither  man  nor  place  with  a  name  like 
Gizoh  is  found  in  the  Bible;  and  perhaps 
Gizonite  is  a  (•i)rrui)tion  of  Gunito  (Septu- 
agiut,  Luciau's  text;  cp.  Num.  xxvi.  48). 

Giz'rite.     See  Gikzite. 

Glass. 

1.  A  mirror  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8;  Job  xxxvii. 
IB ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  all  A.  Y.) ;  see  Mirror. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Z'knkith  (Job 
xxviii.  17,  R.  V.,  where  A.  V.  has  crystal) 
and  of  Greek  ^  Union  and  its  adjective  (Rev. 
iv.  6  ;  XV.  2 ;  xxi.  18,  21).  It  is  probably  real 
glass.  Glass  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and  to  the 
Egyptians  long  before  the  exodus. 

Glean'ing. 

Gathering  the  grain  which  the  reapers 
have  failed  to  remove,  or  the  grapes  which 
remain  after  the  vintage  (Judg.  viii.  2;  Ruth 
ii.  2,  7,  9,  16;  Is.  xvii.  6).  For  the  benefit  of 
the  i)oor,  the  fatherless,  the  widow,  and  the 
stranger,  the  owner  was  instructed  by  the 
law  not  to  glean  his  harvest  field  or  vine- 
yard, nor  return  for  a  forgotten  sheaf,  nor 
gather  fallen  fruit  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  xxiii.  22; 
Deut.  xxiv.  19). 

Glede  [the  glider]. 

The  common  kite  (Deut.  xiv.  13).  The 
word  is  used  to  render  the  Hebrew  Ra'ah; 
which,  however,  is  a  copyist's  error  for 
Dii'iih ;  see  Daleth.  A  later  scribe  seems  to 
have  written  Dnyyah  on  the  margin  as  a  cor- 
rection, which  afterwards  crept  into  the  text 
(for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  corresponding 
list  in  Lev.  xi.),  and  is  rendered  kite  in  R.  V., 
vulture  in  A.  V. 

Gnat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Konops,  a  small 
insect  (Mat.  xxiii.  24),  abounding  in  marshes 
and  vexatious  by  reason  of  its  bite,  from 
which  the  Egyptians  protected  themselves  at 
night  by  sleeping  under  nets  (Herod,  ii.  95). 
It  is  evidently  .some  species  of  Culex,  a  genus 
known  by  its  hairy  antennse,  plumed  in  the 
males,  its  proboscis,  its  slender  body,  its  two 
gauzy  wings,  its  long  legs,  and  its  blood- 
sucking ])roi)ensities.  "To  strain  at"  in  the 
A.  V.  is  a  misi)rint  in  the  original  edition  of 
1611  for  "strain  oaty  The  earlier  English 
versions  have  "out,"  and  the  R.  V.  corrects 
the  error  of  A.  V.,  and  translates  "to  strain 
out  the  gnat,  and  swallow  the  camel."  To 
anxiously  strain  out  any  small  insect  which 


Goad 


203 


God 


lias  accidentally  fallen  into  the  water  one  is 
about  to  drink,  but  unconceruedly  to  swallow 
a  camel,  is  to  be  particular  about  minute  points 
of  ceremony  or  of  duty,  while  practicing  gross 
violations  of  the  moral  law. 

Goad. 

A  long  pole  sharpened  at  the  point  or  iron- 
tipped,  used  to  urge  cattle  forward  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  21).  With  one  Shamgar  slew  HOO  Philis- 
tines (Judg.  iii.  31).  "It  is  hard  for  thee  to 
kick  against  the  pricks"  (Acts  ix.  5,  A.  V.) 
is  the  metaphor  of  a  recalcitrant  animal  in- 
juring itself  against  the  ox  goad.  The  words 
of  the  wise  are  compared  to  goads  (Eccles. 
xii.  11). 

Go' ah,  in  A.  V.  Goath  [lowing]. 

A  place  near  Jerusalem  to  the  west  or  south 
(Jer.  xxxi.  39). 

Goat. 

The  rendering  of  quite  a  number  of 
Hebrew  words  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  of 
more  than  one  Greek  word  in  the  New : 
'Attud,  he  goat,  probably  as  leader  of  the 
flock  ;  Tai/inh,  he  goat,  perhaps  as  butting ; 
Saphir,  he  goat,  as  the  leaper  ;  'Es,  she  goat, 
also  a  goat  without  regard  to  sex  ;  Sa'ir,  he 
goat,  and  !^''irnh,  she  goat,  as  shaggy  ;  and  the 
Greek  words  Trnqos,  he  goat;  'Aix,  goat,  as 
the  springer;  ^Eriphos  and  ^Eriphion,  a  young 
goat,  kid.  Goats  were  tended  with  the 
sheep  by  the  same  shepherd  (Gen.  xxvii.  9; 
XXX.  32),  but  in  separate  companies  (Mat. 
XXV.  32).  Their  hair  w'as  woven  into  cloth 
(Ex.  XXV.  4  ;  XXXV.  2fi),  the  flesh  and  milk 
were  used  for  food  (Lev.  vii.  23;  Deut.  xiv. 
4 ;  Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  in  extremity  their 
hairy  skin  served  as  clothing  (Heb.  xi.  37). 
They  were  an  important  item  of  a  cattle 
owner's  wealth  (Gen.  xxx.  33,  43;  xxxi.  1; 
1  Sam.  XXV.  2;  2  Chron.  xvii.  11).  The  goat 
was  a  sacrificial  animal,  used  for  burnt  offer- 
ing and  sin  offering  (Gen.  xv.  9;  Ex.  xii.  5; 
Lev.  i.  10;  iv.  24;  Num.  vii.  17;  xv.  27;  Ps. 
Ixvi.  15  ;  Is.  i.  11 ;  Ezra  vi.  17  ;  viii.  3.5  ;  Heb. 
ix.  12).  The  domestic  goat  (Cnpra  hircus) 
belongs  to  the  great  family  of  Bov'uhe,  or 
hollow-horned  ruminants.  The  closest  af- 
finity is  believed  to  be  to  the  sheep,  and 
there  is  a  series  of  connecting  links  between 
the  two  animals.  One  of  the  few  ])oints  of 
difference  is  that  in  the  goat  the  horns  are 
simply  curved  backward.  Their  habits  are 
different.  In  Palestine  the  sheep  may  be 
seen  grazing  the  tender  herbage  and  grass, 
while  the  goats  browse  tender  twigs  and 
leaves.  Every  flock  of  goats  has  its  own 
stately  leader  (cp.  .Ter.  1.  8).  The  goat  was 
very  abundant  in  ancient  Palestine,  as  was 
to  be  expected  in  a  hilly  and  somewhat  dry 
country.  It  is  now  more  numerous  than  the 
sheep,  and  constitutes  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  country.  The  ordinary  goat  of  Syria  is 
black  in  color,  and  has  pendant  ears  a  foot 
long  hanging  down  below  the  recurved  horns. 
It  is  Linnaius'  Citpra  mambrica.  His  Capra 
hh-CHS,   variety  niuioiensin,   the  Mohair  goat, 


is  also  occasionally  bred  in  the  north  of 
Palestine. 

Goat,  Wild. 

An  animal,  in  Hebrew  Yn'el,  eminent.  Its 
refuge  is  among  the  high  hills  (Ps.  civ.  18) 
and  rucks  (.lol)  xxxix.  1),  En-gedi  being  its 
special  haunt  in  Palestine  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  2). 
It  is  a  .si)ecies  of  ibex  (Cnpra  beden),  called 
by  the  Arabs  beden.  It  is  of  a  much  lighter 
color  than  the  European  ibex.  Its  horns  are 
more  slender  and  recurved,  wrinkled,  and 
knotted  on  the  front  l^ice  only.  It  is  found 
in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  Moab,  and  in  the 
wilderness  of  Juda?a  near  the  Dead  Sea. 
Tristram  met  with  it  twice  at  its  favorite 
spot,  En-gedi,  and  found  its  teeth  fossil  in 
cave  breccia  on  Lebanon,  where  it  does  not 
now  occur.  Wild  goat  is  also  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  'Ali\o,  jierhaps  meaning  grace- 
ful neck  (Deut.  xiv.  5).  It  may  be  the  same 
species. 

Go'ath.     See  Goah. 

Gob  [small  pit,  cistern,  or  locust]. 

A  ])lace  at  which  war  was  waged  with 
the  Philistines  twice  in  the  reign  of  David 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  18,  19).  Site  unknown.  The 
text  is  uncertain.  In  1  Chron.  xx.  4  the  seat 
of  war  is  Gezer. 

God. 

The  English  word  God  is  derived  from  a 
root  meaning  to  call,  and  indicates  .simply  the 
object  of  worship,  one  whom  men  call  upon 
or  invoke.  The  Greek  word  which  it  trans- 
lates in  the  pages  of  the  N.  T.,  however, 
describes  this  object  of  worship  as  Spirit ;  and 
the  O.  T.  Hebrew  word,  which  this  word  in 
turn  represents,  conveys,  as  its  primary 
meaning,  the  idea  of  power.  On  Christian 
lips,  therefore,  the  word  God  designates  fun- 
damentally the  almighty  Spirit  who  is  wor- 
shiped and  whose  aid  is  invoked  by  men. 
This  primary  idea  of  God,  in  which  is 
summed  up  what  is  known  as  theism,  is  the 
product  of  that  general  revelation  which 
God  makes  of  himself  to  all  men,  on  the 
plane  of  nature.  The  truths  involved  in  it 
are  continually  reiterated,  enriched,  and 
deepened  in  the  Scriptures;  but  they  are  not 
so  much  revealed  by  them  as  ))resu])posed  at 
the  fouudati(m  of  the  s^iecial  revelation  with 
which  the  Scriptures  busy  them.selves — the 
great  revelation  of  the  grace  of  (Jod  to  sinners. 
On  the  i)lane  of  nature  men  can  learn  only  what 
God  necessarily  is,  and  what,  by  virtue  of  his 
essential  attributes,  he  must  do  :  a  special  com- 
munication from  him  is  requisite  ti>  assure  us 
what,  in  his  infinite  love,  he  will  do  for  the 
recovery  of  sinners  from  their  guilt  and  mis- 
ery to  the  bliss  of  communion  with  him.  And 
for  the  full  revelation  of  this,  his  grace  in  the 
redemption  of  sinners,  there  was  requisite  an 
even  more  profound  unveiling  of  the  mode 
of  his  existence,  by  which  he  has  been  ulti- 
mately disclosed  as  including  in  the  unity  of 
his  behig  a  distinction  of  persons,  by  virtue 
of  which   it  is  the  same   God    from    whom, 


God 


264 


God 


through  whom,  and  by  whom  aiv  all  thiiifis, 
who  is  at  once  tlie  Father  wlio  jiro\  ide.s,  the 
Son  who  aceomi>lishes,  and  the  Spirit  who 
applies,  redemption.  Only  in  the  uncovering 
of  this  supernal  mystery  of  the  Trinity  is 
the  revelatiou  of  what  God  is  completed. 
That  there  is  no  hint  of  the  Trinity  in  the 
general  revelation  made  on  the  plane  of  na- 
ture is  due  to  the  fact  that  nature  has  noth- 
ing to  say  of  redemption,  in  the  process  of 
which  alone  are  the  depths  of  the  divine  na- 
ture made  known.  That  it  is  explicitly  re- 
vealed only  in  the  N.  T.  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  not  until  the  N.  T.  stage  of  revelation 
was  reached  was  the  redemiition,  which  was 
being  prei>ared  throughout  the  whole  O.  T. 
economy,  actually  accomi)lished.  That  so 
ineffable  a  mystery  was  placed  before  the 
darkened  mind  of  man  at  all  is  due  to  the 
necessities  of  the  plan  of  redemption  itself, 
which  is  rooted  in  the  trinal  distinction  in 
the  Godhead,  and  can  be  apprehended  only 
on  the  basis  of  the  Trinity  in  Unity. 

The  nature  of  God  has  been  made  known 
to  men,  therefore,  iu  three  stages,  corre- 
sponding to  the  three  planes  of  revelation, 
and  we  will  naturally  come  to  know  him, 
first,  as  the  infinite  Si)irit  or  the  God  of  na- 
ture; then,  as  the  Redeemer  of  sinners,  or 
the  God  of  grace  ;  and  lastly  as  the  Father, 
Son.  and  Holy  Ghost,  or  the  Triune  God. 

1.  God,  the  Infinite  Spirit. — The  conviction 
of  the  existence  of  God  bears  the  marks  of 
an  intuitive  truth  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  uni- 
versal and  unavoidable  belief  of  men,  and  is 
given  in  the  very  same  act  with  the  idea  of 
.self,  which  is  known  at  once  as  dependent 
and  responsible  and  thus  implies  one  on 
whom  it  depends  and  to  whom  it  is  responsi- 
ble. This  immediate  ]ierception  of  God  is 
confirmed  and  the  contents  of  the  idea  de- 
veloped by  a  series  of  arguments  known  as 
the  "thcistic  proofs."  These  are  derived 
from  the  necessity  we  are  under  of  believing 
in  the  real  existence  of  the  infinitely  perfect 
Being,  of  a  sufiicic^nt  cause  for  the  contingent 
universe,  of  an  intelligent  author  of  the 
order  and  of  the  manifold  contrivances  ob- 
servable in  nature. and  of  a  lawgiver  and  judge 
for  dependent  moral  beings,  endowed  witli 
the  .sense  of  duty  and  an  ineradicable  feeling 
of  responsibility,  conscious  of  the  moral  con- 
tradictions of  the  world  and  craving  a  solution 
for  tiiem,  and  living  under  an  intuitive  jx-r- 
ce]ition  of  right  which  they  do  not  see  real- 
ized. The  cogency  of  these  proofs  is  cur- 
rei'tly  recognized  in  the  Scrijitures,  while 
they  add  to  them  the  sup(>rnatural  manifes- 
tations of  (Jod  iu  a  redemptive  jirocess,  ac- 
comiianied  at  evei-y  stage  l)y  miraculous 
attestation.  From  the  Iheistic  iiroofs,  how- 
t^ver,  we  learn  not  only  that  a  (iod  exists, 
!)ut  also  necessarily,  on  the  principle  of  a 
siidicitnt  cause,  very  much  of  the  naturi'  of 
the  God  which  they  provi'  to  exist.  The  idea 
is  still  further  develoi>ed,  on  the  princi])leof 
interpreting  by  the  highest  category  witliiu 


our  reach,  by  our  instinctive  attribution  to 
hinj,  in  an  eminent  degree,  of  all  that  is  the 
source  of  dignity  and  excellence  in  ourselves. 
Thus  we  come  to  know  God  as  a  personal 
Spirit,  infinite,  eternal,  and  illimitable  alike 
in  his  being  and  iu  the  intelligence,  seu.si- 
bility,  and  will  which  belong  to  him  as  per- 
sonal spirit.  The  attributes  which  are  thus 
ascribed  to  him,  including  self-existence,  in- 
dependence, unity,  uniqueness,  uuchange- 
ableness,  omnipresence,  infinite  knowledge 
and  wisdom,  infinite  freedom  and  power,  in- 
finite truth,  righteousness,  holiness  and  good- 
ness, are  not  only  recognized  but  richly  illus- 
trated in  Scripture,  which  thus  puts  the  seal 
of  its  special  revelation  upon  all  the  details 
of  the  natural  idea  of  God. 

2.  God,  the  Redeemer  of  Sinners. — While  re- 
iterating the  teaching  of  nature  as  to  the  ex- 
istence and  character  of  the  personal  Creator 
and  Lord  of  all,  the  Scrii>tures  lay  their 
stress  upon  the  grace  or  the  undeserved  love 
of  God,  as  exhibited  in  his  dealings  with  his 
sinful  and  wrath-deserving  creatures.  So 
little,  however,  is  the  consummate  divine 
attribute  of  love  advanced,  in  the  scriptural 
revelation,  at  the  expense  of  the  other  moral 
attributes  of  God,  that  it  is  thrown  into 
prominence  only  upon  a  background  of  the 
strongest  assertion  and  fullest  manifestation 
of  its  companion  attributes,  especially  of  the 
divine  righteousness  and  holiness,  and  is  ex- 
hibited as  acting  only  along  with  and  in  en- 
tire harmony  with  them.  God  is  not  repre- 
sented in  the  Scriptures  as  forgiving  sin  be- 
cadse  he  really  cares  very  little  about  sin  ; 
nor  yet  because  he  is  so  exclusively  or  pre- 
dominatingly the  God  of  love,  that  all  other 
attributes  shrink  into  desuetude  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  illimitable  benevolence.  He  is 
rather  represented  as  moved  to  deliver  sinful 
man  from  his  guilt  and  pollution  becau.se  he 
pities  the  creatures  of  his  hand,  immeshed 
in  sin,  with  an  intensity  which  is  born  of 
the  vehemence  of  his  holy  abhorrence  of  sin 
and  his  righteous  determination  to  visit  it 
with  intolerable  retribution  ;  and  by  a  mode 
which  brings  as  complete  satisfaction  to  his 
infinite  Justice  and  holiness  as  to  his  un- 
bounded love  itself.  The  biblical  presenta- 
tion of  the  (jocI  of  grace  includes  thus  the 
richest  development  of  all  his  moral  attri- 
butes, and  the  God  of  the  Bible  is  conse- 
quently set  forth,  in  the  com]ileteness  of  that 
idea,  as  above  everything  else  the  ethical 
God.  And  that  is  as  much  as  to  say  that 
there  is  ascribed  to  him  a  moral  sense  so 
sensitive  and  true  that  it  estimates  with  un- 
failing a('curacy  the  exact  lunral  character 
of  ever}'  perstm  or  deed  ]>resented  for  its 
contemplation,  and  responds  to  it  with  the 
precisely  ai)i)ropriate  degree  of  satisfaction 
or  rejjrobation.  The  infinitude  of  his  love 
is  cxhilntcd  to  us  jirecisely  in  that  while  we 
were  yet  sinners  he  loved  ns,  though  with 
all  the  force  of  his  infinite  nature  he  reacted 
against  our  sin  with  illiuutable  abhorrence 


Qod 


265 


Golan 


aud  indiguation.  The  mystery  of  grace  re- 
sides just  iu  the  imi)iilse  of  a  siu-hating 
God  to  show  mercy  to  such  guilty  wretches ; 
and  the  supreme  revelation  of  God  as  the 
God  of  holy  love  is  made  iu  the  disclosure  of 
the  uiode  of  his  procedure  iu  redemption, 
by  which  alone  he  might  remain  just  while 
justifying  the  ungodly.  For  in  this  pro- 
cedure there  was  involved  the  mighty  para- 
dox of  the  infinitely  just  Judge  himself  be- 
coming the  sinner's  substitute  before  his  own 
law  and  the  infinitely  blessed  God  receiving 
in  his  own  person  the  penalty  of  sin. 

3.  God,  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost. — 
The  elements  of  the  jjlau  of  salvation  are 
rooted  in  the  mysterious  nature  of  the  God- 
head, in  which  there  coexists  a  trinal  dis- 
tinction of  persons  with  absolute  unity  of 
essence ;  and  the  revelation  of  the  Trinity 
was  accordingly  incidental  to  the  execution 
of  this  plan  of  salvation,  in  which  the  Father 
sent  the  Son  to  be  the  propitiation  for  sin,  and 
the  Sou,  when  he  returned  to  the  glory 
which  he  had  with  the  Father  before  the 
world  was,  sent  the  S])irit  to  apply  his  re- 
dem])tion  to  men.  The  disclosure  of  this 
fundamental  fact  of  the  divine  nature,  there- 
fore, lagged  until  the  time  had  arrived  for 
the  actual  working  out  of  the  long-promised 
redemption  ;  and  it  was  accomplished  first  of 
all  in  fact  rather  than  in  word,  by  the  actual 
appearance  of  God  the  Son  on  earth  and  the 
subsequent  manifestations  of  the  Si)irit,  who 
was  sent  forth  to  act  as  his  representative  in 
his  absence.  At  the  very  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  the  three  persons  are  dramatically 
exhibited  to  our  sight  in  the  act  of  his  bap- 
tism. And  though  there  is  no  single  passage 
in  Scripture  in  which  all  the  details  of  this 
great  mystery  are  gathered  up  aud  expounded, 
there  do  not  lack  passages  in  which  the  three 
persons  are  brought  together  in  a  manner 
which  exhibits  at  once  their  unity  and  dis- 
tinctness. The  most  prominent  of  these  are 
perhaps  the  formula  of  ba])tism  in  the  triune 
name,  put  into  the  mouths  of  his  followers 
by  the  resurrected  Lord  (Mat.  xxviii.  19), 
and  the  apostolic  benediction  in  which  a 
divine  blessing  is  invoked  from  each  person 
in  turn  (2  Cor.  xiii.  14).  The  es.sential  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  and  together  make 
up  this  great  revelation  of  the  Triune  (rod 
are,  however,  most  commonly  separately  in- 
sisted upon.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
three  constitutive  facts :  (1)  that  there  is  but 
one  God  (Deut.  vi.  4;  Is.  xliv.  6;  1  Cor.  viii. 
4  :  James  ii.  19) ;  (2)  that  the  Father  is  God 
(Mat.  xi.  25  ;  John  vi.  27  ;  viii.  41 ;  Eom.  xv. 
«  ;  1  Cor.  viii.  6  ;  Gal.  i.  1,  3,  4  ;  Eph.  iv.  6; 
vi.  23  ;  1  Thes.  i.  1  ;  Jas.  i.  27  ;  iii.  9  ;  1  Pet. 
i.  2;  Jude  1)  ;  the  Sou  is  C4od  {John  i.  1,  18  ; 
XX.  2«  ;  Acts  XX.  28  ;  Eom.  ix.  5;  Heb.  i.  8; 
Col.  ii.  9;  Phil.  ii.  6;  2  Pet.  i.  1)  ;  and  the 
Spirit  is  God  (Acts  v.  3,  4  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11; 
Eph.  ii.  22),  and  (3)  that  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  are  personally  distinct  from  one 
another,  distinguished  by  personal  pronouns, 


able  to  send  aud  be  sent  by  one  another,  to 
love  and  honor  each  the  otlier,  and  the  like 
(John  XV.  26  ;  xvi.  13,  14  ;  xvii.  8,  18,  23;  xvi. 
14  ;  xvii.  1).  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is 
but  the  .synthesis  of  these  fiicts,  and,  adding 
nothing  to  them,  simjdy  recognizes  in  the 
unity  of  the  Godhead  such  a  Trinity  of  per- 
sons as  is  involved  iu  the  working  out  of  the 
plan  of  redemption.  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  work  there  is  implicated  a  certain  rela- 
tive subordination  in  the  njodes  of  operation 
of  the  several  persons,  by  which  it  is  the 
Father  that  sends  the  Son  and  the  Son  who 
sends  the  Spirit;  but  the  three  jiersous  are 
uniformly  represented  iu  Scripture  as  in  their 
essential  nature  each  alike  God  over  all, 
blessed  forever  (Eom.  ix.  5);  and  we  are 
therefore  to  conceive  the  subordination  as 
i-ather  economical,  i.  e.  relative  to  the  func- 
tion of  each  in  the  work  of  redemption,  than 
essential,  i.  e.  involving  a  diflerence  in  nature. 

B.    B.    W. 

Gog. 

1.  A  Eeubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

2.  The  prince  of  Eosh,  ISIeshech.and  Tubal 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  E.  V.),  who  is  prophetically 
described  as  invading  the  laud  of  Israel  in  the 
last  times,  and  being  defeated  on  the  moun- 
tains with  immense  slaughter  ( Ezek.  xxxviii., 
xxxix.).  He  and  his  peoi)le  and  his  allies 
serve  the  pro])het  as  a  type  of  heathenism 
contending  against  the  kingdom  of  God.  The 
name  was  probably  borrowed  from  Gyges,  the 
chief  of  a  Lydian  princely  family  called  the 
Mermnadfe.  He  belonged  to  the  royal  body- 
guard, aud  was  the  confidant  of  the  king. 
About  700  B.  c.  he  murdered  his  sovereign, 
of  the  rival  house  of  the  Heraclida',  aud 
took  possession  of  the  throne  of  Lydia.  He 
had  great  wealth,  and  made  notable  gifts  to 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  But  he 
warred  against  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor 
(Herod,  i.  7-14 ).  In  his  old  age  his  country  was 
invaded  by  the  Cimmerians.  He  defeated 
them  iu  battle  and  captured  several  of  their 
chiefs.  But  fearing  renewed  invasion,  he 
sent  presents  to  Ashurbanipal,  the  Assyrian 
king.  For  a  long  time  no  one  could  be  Ibund 
among  the  Assyrians  who  understood  the 
Lydian  language  spoken  by  the  ambassadors. 
At  lengtii  a  man  was  olitained  who  comiJrc- 
hended  what  they  said,  and  the  friendship 
of  Gyges  was  accepted.  In  a  short  time, 
however,  Gyges  aided  Egypt  in  its  revolt 
against  Assyria.  In  retaliation  the  Assyrian 
king  stirred  u))  the  Cimmerians  to  a  fresh 
invasion  of  Lydia,  in  which,  about  (i(i2  B.  v., 
Gyges  was  killed,  leaving  his  son  Ardys  to 
ascend  the  throne.     See  Gomee,  M.A.CiOO. 

3.  A  mystic  personage,  akin  in  character 
to  the  Gog  of  Ezekiel,  to  appear  immediately 
before  the  close  of  the  preseut  dispensation 
(Eev.  XX.  8-15). 

Goi'im.     See  Tidal. 

Golan  [exile,  emigration]. 

A  city  of  Bashan,  within  the  territory  of 


Gold 


266 


Goshen 


the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  assigned,  with  its  suburbs,  to  the  Ger- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh,  xxi.27;  1  Chron.  vi. 
71),  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Deut. 
iv.  4.'i  ;  Josh.  xx.  8  ;  xxi.  27).  Alexander  Jan- 
na'us  sustained  a  severe  defeat  near  this 
))lace,  and  on  a  later  campaign  demolished 
the  town  (War.  i.  4,  4  and  8).  The  town 
ga  w.  name  to  the  small  province  of  Gaulanitis, 
or  ( jaiilonitis,  as  the  name  was  also  pronounced 
(Aiiti(i.  viii.  2,  3,  various  Greek  texts).  This 
H'gion  was  situated  between  Hermon  and  tlic 
Yarmuk,  and  extended  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Jordan  eastward.  The  eastern 
liorder  has  not  been  determined.  The  dis- 
trict is  divisible  into  a  southern  and  more 
arable,  and  a  northern  and  more  rocky  half. 
It  was  surveyed  by  Schumacher,  who  with 
otlier  authorities  considers  that  the  site  of 
the  town  was  at  Sahem  ej-Jaulan,  about 
17  miles  east  of  the  .sea  of  Galilee,  where 
there  are  extensive  ruins.  Gaulonitis  is  now 
known  as  Jaulan.  It  is  a  table-laud  watered 
by  streams  from  Hermon  and  by  numerous 
springs,  and  with  j)astures  which  are  among 
tiie  richest  in  Syria;  yet  it  lies  desolate. 

Gold. 

A  jn-ecious  metal  anciently  obtained  in 
Havihih  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12)  ;  Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  2; 
I's.  Ixxii.  !,■>),  and  Ophir  (1  Kin.  xxii.  48;  2 
Chnm.  viii.  18;  J(.b  xxii.  24;  P.s.  xlv.  9).  It 
was  hivishly  used  for  overlaying  the  furni- 
ture of  the  tabernacle  and  the  tem])le,  and 
ornamenting  the  latter  edifice  itself  (Ex.  xxv. 
IH  ;  1  Kin.  vi.  22,  28).  It  was  made  into  idols 
(Ex.  XX.  2:5 ;  xxxii.  31  ;  Ps.  cxv.  4 ;  Is.  xl.  19 ; 
-Acts  xvii.  29),  crowns  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  chains 
(<ien.  xli.  42),  rings  (Song  v.  14),  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  2f)).  It  was  u.scd  for  coinage  at  a 
comi)aratively  early  date  (Ezra  ii.  ()9,R.  V.; 
cp.  .\cts  iii.  6  ;  xx.  33).  It  serves  as  a  sym- 
l)i')l  for  a  thing  of  gcniuine  worth  and  great 
value  :  Lam.  iv.  2  ;   Rev.  iii.  18). 

Gol'go-tha  [Greek  from  Aramaic  {inlgalta', 
Hebrew  (iiihjolefh,  a  skull].     See  t"Al,V.\RY. 

Go-li'ath  [(!xile,  or  an  exile]. 

The  giant  from  tlie  Pliiiistine  city  of  Gath 
who  was  slain  bv  David  (1  Sam.  xvii.  l-.'iS; 
xxi.  9,10;  xxii.' 10;  c]).  Josli.  xi.  22;  Num. 
xiii.  33) ;  probably  one  of  the  Anakim.  Per- 
liaps  aiiotiicr  giant  of  Galh,  besides  the  one 
slain  by  David,  bore  the  name  of  (^oliatli  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  19),  just  as  two  heroes  of  the  time 
were  (-ailed  Ellianan  ;  ))ut  see  Elhanan. 

Go'mer,  I.  [perfection]. 

Daughter  ul'  Dihlaini,  and  wife  of  Ilosea 
tlic  iiroi)liet  lllos.  i.  3). 

Go'mer,  II. 

.\  i)eople  descended  from  Jai)hetli,  and  in- 
lial)iting  the  north  (Cien.  x.  2,  3;  1  t'hron.  i.  r->, 
(>:  Ezek.  xxxviii.fi).  They  were  probably  the 
(  iinmeiiaiis  of  classical  history.  They  are 
irieiitioned  l)y  I  Innier  asju'oplcof  tlu^  far  north 
(<»dys.  xi.  11).  They  came  into  Asia  from 
the  regions  beyond  the  Caucasus  (Herod,  iv. 
11,  12),  settled  in  CajJiiadocia,  and  threatened 


the  Assyrian  empire,  but  were  defeated  by 
Esarhaddon.  Turning  westward,  they  overran 
])art  of  Asia  Minor,  fighting  more  than  one 
battle  with  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  name 
is  probably  preserved  in  the  Scripture  Gog. 
Him  they  killed.  They  were  afterwards 
driven  out  of  Asia  (Lydia)  by  Alyattes  (Herod, 
i.  16).  They  are  generally  considered  to  have 
been  identical  with  the  Cimbri  of  Roman 
times,  and  the  Cymry  of  Wales.  Cambria 
and  even  Cumberland  still  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  tlieir  name. 

Go-mor'rali,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gomorrha 
[accunuilation  or,  perhajis,  submersictn]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x.  19; 
xiii.  10).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Chedor- 
laomer  (xiv.  2,  8,  10,  11).  It  was  one  of  the 
cities  destroyed  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness by  tire  from  heaven  (Gen.  xviii.  20;  xix. 
24-28  ;  Dent.  xxix.  23  ;  Is.  i.  9  ;  xiii.  19;  Jer. 
xxiii.  14;  xlix.  18;  Amos  iv.  11  ;  Zeph.  ii.  9; 
Mat.  X.  15).  Conder  points  out  that  there  is 
a  great  bluff  called  Tubk  'Amriyeh,  and  near 
it  a  wady  called  Wady  'Amriyeh,  whose 
stream  falls  into  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  about  9  miles  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan.  The  con- 
sonants are  the  same  as  in  Gomorrah,  and  the 
modern  name  may  perhaps  echo  the  ancient 
name. 

For  the  vine  of  the  fields  of  Gomorrah 
(Dent,  xxxii.  32),  see  Vine. 

Go'pher  Wood. 

The  wood  of  which  the  ark  was  made  (Gen. 
vi.  14).  Geseuius  suggested  that  the  Hebrew 
gopher  is  an  altered  form  of  kopher,  pitch, 
and  refers  to  trees  of  tlie  pine  family,  and 
specially,  perhaps,  to  the  cypress,  the  three 
first  consonants  of  the  Greek  kiiparissos  being 
nearly  those  of  the  word  gopher. 

Gor'gi-as. 

A  Syrian  general  under  Antiochus  IV.  In 
16(i  B.  c.  he  led  a  detachment  of  troops  from 
Emmaus,  in  the  Philistine  ]ilain.  where  the 
main  army  was  encamped,  to  make  a  night 
attack  on  Judas  Maccabieus ;  but  Judas,  hav- 
ing learned  of  the  j)lan.  withdrew  his  forces 
and  led  them  to  a  successful  attack  on  (Jor- 
gias'  own  camp.  When  Gorgias  returned, 
his  followers  .saw  their  camp  in  flames  and 
tied  (1  Mac.  iii.  38-iv.  25).  A  little  more  than 
a  year  later  Gorgias  was  commanding  at 
Jamnia,  and  he  met  and  defeated  Joseiili  and 
Azarias,  who  in  the  absence  of  J\idas  had 
charge  of  the  troojis  in  Juda?a.  and  were  ad- 
vancing to  attack  the  town  (v.  55-62). 

Gor-ty'na. 

,\n  imiuirtant  city  in  the  southern  part  of 
Crete  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Go'shen. 

1.  A  district  of  Egypt,  adapted  for  flocks 
and  herds,  situated  in  the  delta,  a  few  miles 
to  the  northeast  of  On.  It  belonged  to  the 
uome  called  Arabia  (Gen.  xlvi.  34,  Septua- 
gint),  and  formed  i)art  of  the  land  of  Ramses 
(xlvi.  28;  xlvii.  11,  27,  Septuagint).     Thither 


Gospel 

Joseph  went  up  in  liis  chariot  to  meet  his 
father  wlio  was  coming  from  Canaan  (xlvi. 
28,  29).  The  Hebrews  were  allowed  to  set- 
tle there  (xlvii.  6),  and  the  mass  of  the  ])eople 
were  still  there  at  the  time  of  their  oppres- 
sion (Ex.  viii.  22;  ix.  6). 

2.  A  region  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
X.  41  ;  xi.  1(J).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  51).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Gos'pel. 

The  English  word  gospel  is  derived  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  godsjicl,  which  meant  good 
tidings.  This  etymology  is  found  in  the 
Onnulum,  Introduction,  line  I.IT.  Later 
it  became  godspel,  which  meant  God-story, 
i.e.  the  story  about  God,  i.e.  Christ.  The" 
word,  as  now  used,  describes  both  the  mes- 
sage which  Christianity  announces  and  the 
books  in  which  the  story  of  Chri.st's  life  and 
teaching  is  contained.  A  similar  transition 
in  meaning  was  experienced  by  the  Greek 
word  ennggelioii  (whence  the  Latin  evange- 
lium  aiul  our  evangel)  which  gospel  was  and 
is  used  to  translate.  In  the  N.  T.  it  never 
means  a  book,  but  the  message  which  Christ 
and  his  apostles  announced.  It  is  called  the 
gos])el  of  God  (Kom.  i.  1  ;  1  Thes.  ii.  2.  9; 
1  Tim.  i.  11);  the  gospel  of  Chri.st  (Mark  i. 
1 ;  Rom.  i.  l(j ;  xv.  19 ;  1  Cor.  ix.  12,  18  ;  Gal. 
i.  7)  ;  the  gosjiel  of  the  grace  of  God  (Acts 
XX.  24):  the  gospel  of  peace  (Ei)h.  vi.  15)  ; 
the  gos])el  of  your  salvation  (Ei)h.  i.  13) ; 
and  the  glorious  gospel  (2  Cor.  iv.  4).  It  was 
preached  by  our  Lord  (ISIat.  iv.  23;  xi.  5 ; 
Mark  i.  14*;  Luke  iv.  18;  vii.  22)  ;  by  the 
apostles  (Acts  xvi.  10;  Rom.  i.  15;  ii.  l(j ; 
1  Cor.  ix.  16,  etc.),  and  by  evangelists  (Acts 
viii.  25).  But  in  the  post-apostolic  age  the 
term  was  also  apjjlied  to  the  writings  in 
which  the  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus  was 
contained.  Each  one  of  them  was  called  a 
gospel  and  the  four  together  were  called  the 
gospel.  Our  present  English  usage,  there- 
fore, exactly  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
early  Christians  of  tlie  age  immediately  suc- 
ceeding the  apostolic. 

The  Four  Gospels. — Historical  evidence 
shows  that  our  four  gospels  have  been  attrib- 
uted from  the  earliest  times  to  Matthew, 
Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  respectively,  and  that 
from  the  very  beginning  of  the  post-ajiostolic 
age  they  were  received  by  the  church  as 
authoritative  documents  and  as  containing 
the  apostolic  testimony  to  the  life  and  teach- 
ings of  Christ.  In  the  second  century  they 
were  quoted,  commented  upon,  and  de- 
scribed ;  so  that  there  need  be  no  doubt  of 
their  authenticity.  An  examination  of  the 
N.  T.  epistles  also  shows  that  our  gospels  de- 
scribe Jesus  as  the  same  kind  of  person, 
doing  the  same  kind  of  works,  and  having 
the  same  history  to  which  the  epistles  allude. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  confidently  accepted 
as  trustworthy  reports.  The  first  three  have 
much  in  common  and,  in  general,  jire-seut  the 


267 


Gospel 


life  of  the  Lord  from  the  same  jioint  of  view. 
They  are  called  the  synoptic  gosjuls  (from 
the  Greek  suuopsis,  a  seeiug  together),  and 
in  particular  are  quite  different  from  John's. 
The  synoptics  take  for  their  chief  theme 
Christ's  ministry  in  Galilee;  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel gives  iiromincnce  to  his  labors  in  Judjea; 
though  his  betrayal,  arrest,  trial,  crucifix- 
ion, and  resurrection  are  so  important  that 
they  are  narrated  by  all.  The  only  jirior  in- 
cident recorded  by  all  the  evangelists  is  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand.  The  synoptics 
also  say  comparatively  little  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  while  John  esjiecially  records  the 
Lord's  self-testimony  to  it.  They  present 
mainly  Christ's  teaching  about  the  kingdom 
of  God,  his  parables,  his  instruction  of  the 
common  peoiile;  while  John  records  his 
teaching  about  himself  and  this  usually  in 
the  form  of  extended  discourses.  At' the 
same  time  the  Fourth  Gospel  assumes  and 
implies  the  other  three,  and  they  in  turn  are 
often  made  intelligible  only  by  the  facts 
which  John  records.  Thus  John  i.  15  imjilies 
the  fact  recorded  in  Mat.  iii.  11,  etc. ;  John 
iii.  24  the  fact  given  in  Mat.  iv.  12 ;  John  vi. 
2,  15,  the  whole  synoptic  story  of  the  Gali- 
la-an  ministrj%  etc.  So  in  turn  Christ's  re- 
ee])tion  in  Galilee  and  the  willingness  of 
Peter,  Andrew,  James,  and  John  to  leave  all 
and  follow  him  are  only  exi)licable  by  such 
events  as  are  recorded  in  John  i.  and  ii. ; 
and  the  sudden  rise  of  the  Sabbath  contro- 
versy in  the  synoptics  (see  Slark  ii.  23,  etc.) 
is  likewise  to  be  exi)laincd  by  the  events  of 
John  v.  Moreover,  while  the  synoptics  have 
the  same  general  point  of  view,  each  of  them 
has  its  individual  characteristics,  determined 
by  the  writer's  pnrjiose  and  the  readers 
whom  he  had  in  mind.  Matthew,  writing 
from  the  Jewish  point  of  view,  sets  Jesus 
forth  as  the  royal  Messiah.  He  constantly 
cites  in  ])roof  O.  T.  prophecies,  and  is  inter- 
ested to  give  Christ's  teaching  concerning 
the  true  kingdom  of  God  in  contrast  to  the 
false  views  of  current  Judaism.  Mark, 
writing  evidently  for  gentiles,  and  possibly 
for  the  Romans  in  particular,  represents 
mainly  Christ's  power  to  save  as  shown  in 
his  miracles.  Luke,  long  the  companion  of 
Paul,  sets  the  Lord  forth  as  the  gracious 
Saviour,  and  is  foud  of  exhibiting  his  favoi 
to  the  fallen,  the  outcast,  and  tlu'  poor.  So 
John  has  his  special  purpose,  which  is  to 
represent  Jesus  as  the  incarnate,  divine 
Word,  revealing  the  Father  to  tho.se  who 
would  receive  him.  None  of  the  gospels, 
however,  aims  at  being  a  complete  biography 
of  our  Lord.  They  are  collections  of  his 
acts  and  words,  made  for  the  purjiose  of  prac- 
tical and  doctrinal  instruction.  The  student 
must  construct  his  conception  of  the  history 
of  Jesus  out  of  the  materials  furnished  by 
the  gospels.  They  themselves  were  prepared 
with  other  objects  in  view. 

The  question   has  often   been  asked  from 
what  sources   the   four  evangelists  derived 


Gospel 


2G8 


Gospel 


their  information.  Matthew  and  John  were 
apostles  and  therefore  possessed  personal 
knowledge  of  the  events  they  record  or  were 
in  a  position  to  ohtain  it  from  those  who  had  it. 
But  Mark  also  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and 
Peter,  and  is  said,  by  very  early  tradition,  to 
have  embodied  in  his  Gospel  the  jireacliing  of 
Peter  about  Jesus.  Luke  himself  assures  us 
(i.  1-4)  that  his  knowledge  was  obtained  from 
"  eyewitnesses  ....  of  the  word  "  and  that  he 
had  made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the 
facts.  Thus  the  gospels  give  us  the  testi- 
mony of  the  apostles.  The  many  coinci- 
dences of  language  in  the  synoptics  confirm 
this.  If  any  itinerant  speaker  or  preacher, 
such  as  a  foreign  missionary  home  on  furlough, 
relates  at  different  places  incidents  of  liis  ex- 
perience abroad,  he  gradually  settles  into  a 
fixed  narrative  through  his  very  desire  to  be 
accurate,  repeating  the  same  stories  in  the 
same  form,  though  now  and  then  adding 
particulars  which  he  had  omitted  elsewhere. 
It  is  probable  that  the  apostles  and  early 
evangelists  acted  in  much  the  same  way  ;  so 
that  their  recital  became  largely  stereotyped. 
After  a  while  parts  of  this  narrative  were 
put  into  writing  for  use  in  the  newly  founded 
churches.  Thus  a  gospel  narrative  became 
current  which,  while  doubtless  differing  in 
extent  in  different  places,  had  much  of  its 
matter,  even  to  the  very  words,  in  common. 
The  verbal  coincidences,  therefore,  of  our 
synoptic  gospels  attest  that  they  give  us  the 
common  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus.  The 
Fourth  Gospel,  on  the  other  hand,  contains 
material  which  at  first  was  not  so  widely 
called  for,  but  which  John  finally  wrote,  out 
of  his  own  knowledge,  when  the  needs  of 
the  church  seemed  to  demand  it.  The  coin- 
cidences between  the  synoptics  have  raised, 
however,  the  further  question  whether  any  of 
them  have  directly  copied  from  the  others. 
This  question  is  often  called  the  synoptic 
l)r<)l)leni.  The  facts  which  enter  into  its  so- 
lution are  very  many  and  (complex.  While 
tlu!  three  have  much  in  common,  Matthew 
and  Luke  have  much  that  is  not  in  Mark, 
ami  each  of  them  has  much  that  is  not  in 
the  others.  Even  Mark  has  some  material 
peculiar  to  himself.  Moreover,  even  in  the 
sections  whi<;h  are  in  common  the  language 
of  one  evangelist  often  differs  as  remarkably 
as  in  other  ]ioints  it  agrees  with  that  of  his 
colleagues.  In  the  ancient  churcli  it  was 
thouglit  tliat  Mark  abbn>viated  Matthew  and 
Luke.  Many  modern  writers  think,  on  the 
other  hand,  tliat  Matthew  and  Luke  drew 
from  Mark  liis  Jiistorieal  narrative  [making 
its  language  fuudauieiital  to  tlieir  own  ac- 
count, arranging  its  material  to  conlurni  to 
their  own  purposes  in  writing,  and  adding 
matter  from  other  sources  oral  and  written. 
And  it  is  quiui  customary  to  conil)ine  with 
this  explanation  the  tlieory  thai  a  collection 
of  tlie  sayings  of  Jesus,  written  ]iossil)ly  ))y 
the  apostle  Matthew,  early  existed,  from 
wliich  also  the  two  evangelists  ilatthcw  and 


Luke  drew.  (.J.  r>.  D.).]  But  it  seems  to  be 
more  proViable  that  all  three  were  independ- 
ent, but  used  largely  the  language  of  the 
gospel  narrative  which  had  become  current; 
while  at  the  same  time  they  felt  free  also  to 
use  their  own  words  because  they  were  con- 
scious of  being  fully  acquainted  with  the 
facts.  In  attempting  to  trace  the  literary 
history  of  the  synoptics  we  should  not  forget 
also  the  promise  made  by  Christ  to  the  apos- 
tles, and  meant  doubtless  for  others  who 
might  be  employed  in  tlie  proclamation  of 
the  gospel,  "But  the  Comforter,  even  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whom  the  Father  will  send  in 
my  name,  he  shall  teach  you  all  things,  and 
bring  to  your  remembrance  all  that  I  said 
unto  you"  (John  xiv.  2(i,  R.  V.). 

To  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  of  Christ 
it  is  necessary  to  construct  a  harmony  of  the 
gospels.  This,  of  course,  should  be  done  with 
fidelity  to  the  chronological  indications,  few 
though  they  are,  which  the  gospels  contain. 
But  it  should  also  be  remembei'ed  that  the  in- 
dications of  time  and  relation  are  not  only 
few,  but  also  often  doubtful,  and  that,  there- 
fore, a  harmony  must  be  regarded  in  many 
points  as  merely  approximate.  Matthew's 
method  is  mainly  topical,  and,  therefore,  he 
seldom  provides  a  basis  for  a  harmony.  Mark 
appears  to  be  much  more  chronological,  and 
his  oi'der  may  generally  be  followed  ;  but 
there  is  much  that  he  does  not  give  at  all. 
Luke  follows  in  the  first  half  of  his  work 
nearly  the  order  of  Mark,  though  with  im- 
portant difierences,  and  he,  too,  is  often  top- 
ical in  his  method.  But  Johu's  Gospel  by 
noting  successive  feasts  which  Jesus  attended 
provides  the  general  framework  into  which 
the  other  material  .should  be  fitted.  It  is  on 
this  basis  that  the  following  outline  and  har- 
mony have  been  prepared :  We  believe  that 
the  feast  of  ,T(din  v.  1  was  a  imssover ;  that 
therefore  Christ's  ministry  included  four 
passovers  (John  ii.  13 ;  v.  1  ;  vi.  4 ;  xiii.  1),  at 
the  last  of  which  he  died.  The  ministry 
was  thus  about  three  years  and  a  quarter  in 
length, since  John  i.  shows  that  Christ  was  bap- 
tized a  few  months  before  his  first  passover. 
Others  however,  denying  that  John  v.  1  was 
a  passover,  make  the  ministry  two  and  a 
quarter  years  in  length.  On  this,  as  on 
many  similar  points,  absolute  demonstration 
is  impossil)le.  In  the  following  table,  more- 
over, the  dates  assigned  to  some  of  the  events 
must  likewise  be  regarded  as  open  to  ques- 
tion. It  ajjpears  clear  to  most  students  tliat 
Herod  tlie  (Jreat  died  about  April  1,  4  R.  c. ' 
If  so,  Christ  was  ]iro])ably  born  in  December, 
")  B.  c.,  or  .January,  4  B.  e.  We  assume  the 
date  to  be  December  25,  .'>  b.  c,  without,  how- 
ever, meaning  to  attirm  that  tlieie  is  any 
evidence  fr)r  the  (;xact  day  of  the  month. 
If  then,  when  he  was  baptized,  he  was  about 
thirty  (Luke  iii.  2:5),  his  baptism  is  probably 
to  be  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  A.  D.  26 
or  the  beginning  r)f  a.  d.  27.  We  assume  for 
it  January   A.   D.   27.     If  his  ministry  In- 


Gospel 


269 


Gospel 


eluded  four  passovers,  he  died  at  the  pass- 
over  of  A.  D.  30.  Many  complex  caleula- 
tious  tend  to  confirm  these  dates,  though 
they  are  not  capable  of  perfect  demonstra- 
tion. Our  view  assumes  that  "the  fifteenth 
year  of  Tiberius  Caesar  "  (Luke  iii.  1)  is  to  l)e 
dated  from  the  time  when  Tiberius  became 
co-regent  with  Augustus  in  the  empire  (A. 


D.  11-12).  At  that  time  he  became  in  the 
provinces  the  practical  ruler.  It  is  well 
known  that  our  common  Christian  calendar 
dates  the  birth  of  Christ  too  late.  The  fol- 
lowing harmony  nearly  agrees  with  Robin- 
son's ;  but  some  changes  in  his  arrangement 
have  been  introduced. 


Harmony  of  the  Foue 

Gospels 

Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

1.  Introductory  verses. 

i.  1-4 

2.  Prologue  to  the  Fourth 

i.  1-18 

Gospel. 

3.  ThegenealogyofChrist 

i.  1-17 

iii.  23'>-38 

4.  Annunciatiiin toZach- 

B.  c.  6 

The  temple. 

i.  0-25 

ariasdlMohutheBap- 

tist's  birth. 

5.  Anmineiation  to  Mary 

"    .5 

Nazareth. 

26-38 

of  Christ's  birth. 

6.  Mary's  visit  to  Elisa- 

A city  of  Judah. 

39-56 

beth. 

7.  Birth  of  John  the  Bap- 

tist. 

8.  Circumcision         and 

"           " 

57,.':.8 

., 

59-79 

naming  of  John. 

9.  Annunciation    to   Jo- 

u 

Nazareth. 

18-23 

seph  of  <  'hrist's  birth. 

10.  The  birth  (.f  Jesus. 

"     " 

Bethlehem. 

24,  25 

ii.  1-7 

11.  Annunciation   to    the 

"     " 

Near  Bethlehem. 

8-14 

shepherds. 

12.  Visit  of  the  shepherds 

"     " 

Bethlehem. 

15-20 

to  adore  Christ. 

13.  Circumcision  of  Jesus. 

"     4 

" 

21 

14.  Presentation    in    the 

"     " 

Jerusalem. 

22-38 

temple;  prophecies  of 

Simeon  and  Anna. 

15.  Visit  of  the  Magi. 

"     " 

Bethlehem. 

ii.  1-12 

16.  Flight  into  Egyi.t. 

Betlileliem  to  Egypt. 

13-15 

17.  Slaughter  of  the  chil- 

Bethlehem. 

16-18 

dren  by  Herod. 

18.  Return  from  Egypt  to 

"     " 

Egypt  to  Nazareth. 

19-23 

39 

Nazareth. 

19.  Life  of  Jesus  at  Naza- 

B. C.  4-A.  D. 

Nazareth. 

ii.  40-52 

reth  for  thirty  years, 

26 

but  with  one  record- 

ed visit  to  Jerusalem 

at   the    feast  of  the 

passover     when     12 

A.  D.  9 

years  of  age:  John  in 

retirement     in     the 

desert. 

i.  80 

20.  The  public  ministry  of 

A.  D.'  26 

At  the  Jordan. 

iii'.  1-12 

i!  1-8 

iii.  1-18 

19-28 

John  the  Baptist. 

21.  Jesus  liai)tizcd  and  wit- 

"    27 

"            " 

13-17 

9-11 

21-23* 

29-34 

nessed  liv  John. 

22.  The  temptation  of  Je- 

"    " 

Wilderness     of    Ju- 

iv. 1-11 

12,13 

iv.  1-13 

sus. 

d:ea(?). 

23.  John,  Andrew,  and  Pe- 

"    " 

Near  the  Jordan. 

35-42 

ter,  meet  Jesus. 

24.  Philip  and  Nathanael 

"     •' 

On  the  wav  to  Gali- 

43-51 

called. 

lee. 

2.5.  The  first  miracle  ;  wa- 

"    " 

Cana  of  Galilee. 

ii.  1-11 

ter  changed  to  wine. 

26.  Christ  goes  to  Caper- 

"    " 

Capernaum. 

...           ... 

12 

naum. 

' 

27.  The  first  passover; 

money  changers  driv- 
en from  tlie  temple. 

28.  Instruction    of    Nico- 

demus. 

29.  Jesus      preaches      in 

JudEca. 


.\pr.  A.D. 


Enrh/  Judxan  Ministri/. 
Jerusalem. 


"  Judsea. 


ii.  13-2:- 

iii.  1-21 
22 


Gospel 


270 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 


30.  Renewefi  testimony  of 

John  to  .It'sus. 

31.  Jesus  (Itparts  CorGare. 

32.  Interview  witli  woman 

of  Samaria. 
38.  Cure  of  nobleman's  son 
34.  Imprisonment  of  Jolin 

the  Baptist. 


Time. 


Place. 


A.  D.  27  Judaea. 

■  "      "  Judsea  to  Galilee. 
"      "  ;Near  Sychar. 

"27or28,Cana. 
.   .        I  Fortress    of   Machne- 
I     rus. 


Matthew, 


xiv.  3-5 


Mark. 


Lulfe. 


vi.  17-20  I  iii.  19,20 


35.  Commencement       of 

Christ's  public  worlc 
in  Galilee. 

36.  First  rejection  at  Naz- 

areth. 

37.  Call  of  Simon,  Andrew, 

James,  and  John. 

38.  Cure  of  demoniac   in 

the  synagogue. 

39.  Cure  of  Peter's  wife's 

mother. 

40.  Cure  of  many  on  the 

same  evening. 

41.  Circuit throughGalilee 

42.  Cure  of  a  leper. 

43.  Healing  of  paralytic. 

44.  Call  of  Matthew  (Levi); 

his  feast. 

45.  The    second    pass-  Apr.  ' 

over;  healing  of  im- 
potent man  at  pool 
of  Bethesda,  and  dis- 
cussion with  the  Jews,  i 

46.  Plucking  cars  of  corn'  " 

leads  tu  discussiun  of 
theSabhatli  ijuestidn. 

47.  Cure    on    Sabbath    of 

man  with  withered 
hand. 

48.  Plots    against    Jesus; 

extraordinary  enthu- 
siasm of  the  "people ; 
many  follow  him 
from  all  the  land. 

49.  Selection  of  the  twelve 

apostles. 
.W.  Sermon  on  the  mount. 

51.  Healing  of  centurion's 

servant. 

52.  CircuitthroughGalilee 

53.  Raising  of  widow's  son 

54.  ln<(uiry   of   John    the 

Baptist  abimt  Jesus, 
and    the    latter's  re- 
ply, etc. 
5.5.  Jesus    anointed    by  a 
sinful  Vvoman.      "       | 

56.  A       further       circuit 

through  (ialileewith, 
his  disciples.  I 

57.  Bi'ginning  of  the  day 

of  parables  (see  63); 
cure  of  a  demoniac; 
blasiihemy  of  Phari- 
sees reproved. 

58.  Pharisees'  desire  for  a 

sign  commented  on. 

59.  Christ's    mr)ther    and 

brethren  desire  to  see 

him. 
r.f).  Woes againstPharisees 
61.  Discourses  to  the  pco- 

T>le  on  Irnst    in  (iod. 

against    worldlincss, 

etc. 


Early  Gnlilsean  Minisfry. 
D.  28|Galilee.  iv.  12-17      i.  14,  15     iv.  14,  15 


Nazareth. 

Near  Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 


Galilee. 

lA  city  of  Galilee. 

[Capernaum. 


.lerusalem. 


18-22 

viii.  14, 15 

Ifi,  17 

iv.  2.3-25  ; 

viii.  2-4 

ix.  1-S 

9-13 


16-20 

21-28 

29-31 

32-34 

.3.3-;39 

40-45 

ii.  1-12 

13-17 


On  way  to  Galilee(?).   xii.  1-8    |      23-28 
Capernaum.  9-13    iii.  1-6 


Near  Capernaum. 


Capernaum. 

Galilee. 

Nain. 

Galilee. 


Capernaum. 


14-21  7-12 


13-19 


v.l-viii.  1 
viii.  -3-13 


xi.  1 
xi.  2-19 


xii. 22-37     iii.  20-30 


38-45 
46-50 


16-30 

V.  1-11 

iv. 31-37 

38,39 

40,41 

42-44 

V. 12-16 

17-26 

27-32 


Vi.  1-5 
6-11 
17-19 


20-49 
vii.  1-10 


vi).  11-17 
18-35 


36-50 
viii.  13 


xi.  14,  15, 

17-23 


16,  24-26, 

29-36 

27,  2)S ; 

viii.  19-21 

xi.37-.54 
xii.  1-59 


John. 


iii.  23-36 


iv.  1-3 
4-42 


V.  1-47 


Gospel 


271 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels.— Coniiumd. 


Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

62.  Remarks  on  theslaugh- 

A.  D.  28. 

Capernaum. 

xiii.  1-5 

ter  (if  the  (ialila-ans. 

63.  Parables  of  the  sower, 

"       " 

" 

xiii.  1-53 

iv.  1-34 

viii.  4-18; 

the    tares,    tlie    seed 

xiii.  18-21 

growing  seeretly,  the 

mustard     seed,     the 

- 

leaven,  the  hid  treas- 

ure,   the    pearl,   the 

dragnet,    and    other 

sayings. 

64.  The  three  inquirers. 

"       " 

Near  sea  of  Galilee. 

viii.  18-22 

ix.  57-62 

65.  The  tempest  stilled. 

'•       " 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

23-27 

kv4'i 

viii.  22-25 

66.  The  demoniacs  of  Ga- 

"       ** 

East  shore  of  sea  of 

28-34 

V.  1-20 

26-40 

dara  (or  Gerasa  i. 

Galilee. 

67.  Inquiry  of  John's  dis- 

"      "  Capernaum. 

ix. 14-17 

ii.  18-22 

V.  33-39 

ciples  and  the  Phari- 

sees about  fasting. 

68.  Raising      of      Jairus' 

" 

18-26 

V.  21-43 

viii.  41-56 

daughter,  and  cure  i if 

woman  with  bloody 

issue. 

69.  Cureof  two  blind  men. 

"       " 

" 

27-31 

70.  Cure  of  a  dumb  demo- 

•'      " 

'• 

32-34 

niac. 

71.  Second     rejection     at 

"       "  Nazareth. 

xiii.  54-58 

vi.  1-6" 

Nazareth. 

72.  The  twelve  sent  out. 

"  Galilee. 

ix.35-x.l, 
X.  5-xi.  1 

6''-13 

ix.  1-6 

73.  Herod's  inquiry  about 

A.  IX  29  (?) 

xiv.  1,  2, 

14-16, 

7-9 

Jesus,  with  which  is 

6-12 

21-29 

connected     the     ac- 

count of  the  recent 

murder  of  John  the 

Baptist. 

74.  The     twelve    return ; 

"        " 

Northeast  coast  of  sea 

13-21 

30-44 

10-17 

vi.  1-14 

Jesus     retires     with 

of  Galilee. 

them  across  the  sea : 

5000  fed. 

75.  Jesus  walks  on  the  wa- 

"       " 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

22-33 

45-52 

15-21 

ter. 

76.  Triumphal          march 

"        " 

Gennesai'et. 

34-36 

53-56 

through  Geimesaret. 

77.  Discimrse  on  the  Bread  Apr.  a.  d.  29 

Capernaum. 

22-71 

of  Lite  at  the  time  of 

the  third  passover.i 

78.  Reproof  of   Pharisaic       "       " 

XV.  1-20 

vii.  1-23 

traditions. 

79.  Daughter  of  Syrophoi- 

niciaii  healed. 

80.  Peaf  and  dumb  man 

healed  and  others. 

81.  The  4000  fed. 

82.  The  Pharisees  and  Sad- 

ducees  again  require 
a  sign. 

83.  Disciples  warned 

against  the  leaven  of 
the  Pharisees,  etc. 

84.  Blind  man  healed. 

85.  Peter's  confession. 

86.  Christ     foretells     his 

death   and  resurrec-' 
tion. 

87.  The  transfiguration. 

88.  Healing  of  the  demo- 

niac boy. 

89.  Christ  again  foretells 

his  death  and  resur- 
rection. 1 

90.  The  tribute  money.       I 

91.  Instructions   to  disci- 

ples on  humility,  etc., 


Later  Galilivan  Mivistri/. 
29      Region  of  Tyre  and  xv  21-28     vii.  24-30; 

sidon. 
"      ^The  Decapolis.  29-31  31-37' 

"       I     .'  "  3o_n,s    viii,  i_9 

Near  Magadan  [.A.  V.  39-xvi.  4  10-12: 

'     Mat,  Miiydaliil:   in 
Mark,  the  parts  of 
Daliiiainitha. 
"        Sea  of  Galilee.  i 


Bethsaida. 

Region    of   Csesarea 
Philipi)i. 


Galilee. 
Capernaum. 


5-12 


13-20 
21-28 


xvii.1-13 

11-21 


13-21 


22-26 

27-30  i     18-21 


31-ix.  1  !     22-27 


2-13  i     28-36 
11-29       37-43" 


DO  32     43''-45 


33-50 


46-50 


Gospel 


272 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Fouk  Gospels. — Continued. 
The  Last  Journeys  to  Jerusalem. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


92.  Final  departure  from 
Galilee ;  rejected  in 
Samaria. 

0-i.  The  seventy  instruct- 
ed and  sent  out. 

94.  Christ     attends     the  Oct 

feast  of  taberna- 
cles. 

95.  [The  woman  taken  in 

adultery]  bracketed  in 
R.  V. 

96.  Discussion  with  the 

Jews  during  the 
feast. 

97.  Jesus  apparently  re- 

tires from  Jerusalem 
and  the  seventy  re- 
turn to  him. 

98.  A  lawyer  instructed  ; 

parable  of  the  good 
Samaritan. 

99.  Jesus  at  the  house  of 

Martha  and  Mary. 

100.  The  disciples  taught 

how  to  i)rav.  I 

101.  The  feast  of  dedi-  Dec. 

cation;  blind  man 
lu'aU'd  :  parable  of 
tlie  sliejjlierd;  con- 
flict with  the  Jews ; 
Jesus  retires  to  Pe- 
r;ea,  beyond  Jordan. 

102.  Ministry  in  Perfea. 

103.  Parable  of  the  barren 

tig  tree. 
10-1.  Healing  infirm  wom- 
an on  the  Sabbath. 

105.  Teaching   and    jour- 

neying toward  Jeru- 
salem ;  warned 
against  Herod. 

106.  Dines  with  a  Phari- 

see ;  healing  of  man 
with  dropsy;parable 
of  the  great  supper. 

107.  Requirements  of  true 

disciples. 

108.  Parables  of  the  lost 

sheep  and  coin  and 
the  prodigal. 

109.  I'arable  of  the  unjust 

steward. 

110.  Pharisees    reproved; 

parable  of  tlie  rich 
man  and  Lazarus 

111.  Instructs  disciples  in 

fiirbearance,  faith, 
and  liumility. 

112.  The  ten  lepers. 


113.  The  suddenness  of  his 
advent. 

11-1.  Parable  of  the  impor- 
tunate widow. 

115,  Piirablc  (.f  the  I'hari- 
secand  the  iiiil)li('an 

110.  The  raising  Of  Laz- 
arus. 

117.  Counsel  of  Caiaphas; 

Jesus  again  retires. 

118.  Precepts   concerning 

divorce. 


Place. 


From  Galilee  to  Ju- 


Jerusalem. 


.ludsea. 


Bethany. 

Judsea. 

Jerusalem. 


30    Persea. 


Between  Samaria 
and  Galilee  (R.  V 
margin). 

Pertea. 


Hetliany. 
[Jerusalem.  Ephraim 

Peraa  (?). 


Matthew. 


xix.  1» 

xi.  20-2-1 


Marli. 


xix.  V>,  2 


xix. 3-12 


X.  lb 


Luke. 


ix.  51-56 
X.  1-16 


25-37 

38-42 
xi.  1-13 


xiii.6-9 
10-17 
22-35 

xiv.  1-24 

25-35 
XV.  1-32 

xvi.  1-13 
14-31 

xvii.1-10 

11-19 

20-37 

xviii.  1-8 

9-14 


John. 


vii.  2-52 


[53-viii. 
11] 

viii.  12-59 


Ix.  l-x.3? 


39-41 


xi.  1-46 
47-^ 


Gospel 


273 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 


124. 
125. 


126. 
127. 


Incidents. 


ChrLst  blesses  little 
childrfii. 

The  ricli  young  ruler, 
etc 

Parable  of  the  labor- 
ers in  the  vineyard. 

Third  prediction  of 
his  death  and  resur- 
rection. 

Ascent  to  Jerusa- 
lem; request  of 
Jiinies  and  Jolin. 

Two  blind  men  heal- 
ed near  Jericho. 

Conversion  of  Zac- 
chEtus. 

Parable  of  the  pounds 

Arrival  at  Bethany 
six  days  before  the 
passover. 


Time. 


Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Persea. 

xix.  13-15 

X.  13-16 

" 

16-30 

17-31 

" 

XX.  1-16 

" 

17-19 

32-34 

" 

20-28 

35-45 

Jericho. 

29-34 

46-52 

Bethany. 

'.   '. 

Luke. 


xviii.  15- 
17 
18-30 


31-34 


35-43 
xix. 1-10 

11-28 


John. 


xi.  55- 
xii.  1 


128. 
129. 
130. 

131. 
132. 


133. 


134 


135. 
136. 


137. 


139. 


Supper  at  Betliany; 
anointed  by  Mary; 
hostility  of  rulers. 

Triumphal  entry  into 
Jerusalem  ;  spends 
night  at  Bethany. 

Cursing  of  barren  fig 
tree ;  cleansing  of 
temple;  praises  of 
the  children ;  mira- 
cles. 

Lesson  of  the  fig  tree. 

The  sanhedrin  de- 
mand Christ's  au- 
thority; his  reply 
and  jiarables  of  the 
two  sons, the  wicked 
husbandmen,  and 
the  marriage  of  the 
king's  son. 

Question  of  the  Phar- 
isees (tribute  to 
Caesar);  of  the  Sad- 
ducees  (the  resur- 
rection); of  the  law- 
yer (the  great  com- 
mandment):Christ's 
question  (David's 
Lord).  t 

Warnings  against[ 
scribes  and  Phari-, 
sees. 

The  widow's  mite. 

Visit  of  the  Greeks; 
last  teachings. 

Christ's  prediction  of 
the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, the  future  of 
the  church,  and  the 
second  advent. 

Instnu'tious  to  watch: 
paraliles  of  ten  vir- 
gins and  talents ;  the 
last  judgment. 

Conspiracy  of  the 
rulers ;  treachery  of 
Judas. 


Preparations  for  the 
passover. 

18 


Saturday, 
Apr.  1, 
A.  D.  30 

Sundav, 
Apr.  2 

Monday, 
Apr.  3 


Tuesday, 
Apr.  4' 


Tuesday 

evening, 

Apr.  4 


Tuesday 
evening 
Apr.  4,  or 
Wednes- 
day, Apr.  5 
Thursday, 
Apr.  6 


The  Last  Week. 
Bethany. 


Mount  of  Olives,  Je- 
rusalem, and  Beth- 
any. 

Near  and  in  Jerusa- 
lem. 


On  the  way  to  Jeru- 
salem. 
Jerusalem, 


xxvi.  6-13    xiv.  3-9 


xxi.    1-11 
12-19 


20-22 


Mount  of  Olives. 


Jerusalem. 


Bethany  and  Jerusa- 
lem. 


xi.  1-11 
12-19 

20-25[26] 


23-32,  27-33 ; 

33-46 ;      xii.  1-12 
xxii.  1-14 


15-22,  13-17, 

23-33,  18-27, 

34-40,  28-34, 

41-46  35-37 


xxiii.1-39  38-40 
41-44 
xxiv.  1-31  xiii.  1-27 


45-48; 
xxi.  37,38 


XX.  1-8. 
9-19 


20-26, 
27-40, 


45-47 
xxi.  1-4 
xxi.  5-28 


2-11 
12-19 


xii.  20-50 


.32-XXV.46         28-37         29-36 


xxvi.  1-5,  xiv.  1.2,;  xxii.  1-6 
14-16  10,11 


12-16 


7-13 


Gospel 


274 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


141.  The  last  passover;    Thursday 


14'2. 
143. 


144. 
145. 


146. 
147. 

148. 
149. 

150. 
151. 

152. 
153. 

154. 

155. 
156. 

157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 

IRl. 

162. 

16:5. 

164. 
165. 
166. 


strife    of  tlic  ilis<-i-     cvi-ning 

pIt's.  .Vpr. 

The  feet  washing. 
The  traitdr  lununinc-      " 

ed;  Judas  withdraws. 
The  Lord's  Supper,      i     " 
Prediction  of  Peter's 

fall,  and  other  warn- 
ings. 
Last  discourses  with 

the    disciples    and 

prayer. 
Renewed    prediction 

of  Peter's  fall  and  of  j 

the  scattering  of  the 

disciples. 
The  agony  in  the  gar- 1    "  " 

den. 
The  arrest  of  Christ:!  Thursday 

dispersion  of  the  dis-'  night,  Apr. 

eiples.  1         6-7 

Preliminary     exami-     "  " 

nation  before  Annas. 
Examination    before     "  " 

sanhedrin;      mock-[ 

ery  of  Jesus.  1 

Peter's  denials.  '    "  " 

Final   condemnation  Karly  Fri- 
of  Jesus  by  the  san-  day  morn- 


ing, Apr.  7 


Friday, 
Apr.  7 


hedrin 
Jesus  led   to   Pilate. 

who  seeks  to  secure 

his  release. 
Jesus  before  Herod. 

Pilate  further  secies 
to  release  Jesus  :  the; 
Jews  demand  Carab- 1 
bas. 

Pilate  delivers  Jesus 
to  death :  scourging.' 

Pilate  again  seeks  to 
release  Jesus. 

Judas'  remorse  and 
suicide. 

Jesus  led  to  cruci- 
fixion. 

The  crucifixion. 

Incidents  at  the  cross. 


The  death  of  Jesus.         Friday, 
3.  P.M., Apr, 


Place. 


Matthew.     Mark.        Luke.        John 


The  upper  room  in   xxvi.  20 
Jerusalem. 


21-25 
26-29 


On  the  way  to  Geth-i      30-35 
semane.  ! 


Incidents     following 

his  death. 
Taking  down  from  the 

cross  :  burial. 
The  watch  at  the  sep- 

ulcher. 


Friday, 
Apr.  7 


Gethscmane. 


High-priest's   palace 
in  Jerusalem. 


The  governor's  resi- 
dence in  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Jerusalem. 

Governor's  residence 


Jerusalem. 


Near  Jerusalem. 


Jerusalem  and  vicin- 
ity. 
Near  Jerusalem. 


36-46 
47-56 

57,  59-68 

58,  69-75 
xxvii.  1 

2,  11-14 


26'>-:M 

3-10 

31-34 

3.5-38 
39-49 

50 

51-56 
57-61 
62-66 


xiv.  17 


18-21 
''•>_9..5 


26-31 

32-42 
43-52 

53,  55-65 

54,  66-72 
XV.  1» 

lh-5 
6-15" 


24-28 
29-36 


xxii.  14- 

18, 24-30 


19,20 
31-38 


39-46 

47-53 

63-65 

54-62 
60-71 


xiii.  1-20 
21-:55 


xlv.  1- 
xvii.  i;6 


xviii.  1 
2-12 


13, 14, 
19-24 


15-18, 
25-27 


xxiii.  1-5     28-38 


6-12 
13-25 


39,40 

xix.  1-S 

4-J6» 


26-33"    j  16'',  17 

33h,  34,  38'  18-24 

35-37,      I  25-29 
:i9-45'»     1 
46         ;         30 


38-41     1  45'-,  47-49 

42-47         50-56  31-42 


167.  Visit  of  tlie  women. 

168.  Visit  of  .lohu  and  I'e-i' 

ter  ;  return  of  .Maryj 
Magdalene  to  seimi-i 
cher  and  ('hrist'sap- 
pearanee  to  her. 

160.  Report  of  the  watch. 

170.  Interview  witli  twoi 
disciples  on  the  way 
to  Ennuaus.  '< 


-undav, 
Apr. -.1 


The  Rt'sKrirctioii. 


Jerusalem  and  vicin 
ilv. 


xxvin. 

1-UI 


xvi.  1-8    xxiv.1-11 

[xvi.  9-   I         12         XX.  1-18 
II]* 


[12,  13]* 


13-35 


Gospel 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. —  Continued. 


Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

171. 

('hrist  appears  to  the 
eleven    Thoniii.>>  be- 
ing absent. 

Sundav, 
Apr.  y 

Jerusalem. 

[xvi.  1-1]* 

xxiv.  36- 

49 

XX.  19-24 

172 

Christ,  a  week  later, 
again     appears     to 
them,  Thomas  being 
jiresent. 

Apr.  16 

25  29 

173. 

Appearance  to  seven 
disciples ;        Peter's 
restoration,  etc. 

A.  D.  30 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

xxi.  1-23 

171. 

The    great    commis- 
sion. See  1  Cor.  XV.  (i. 

.Mountain  in  (ialilee. 

xxviii. 
16-20 

[15-18]* 

17.'). 

The  ascension.      !?ee 
Acts.  i.  1-11. 

May  IS, 

A.   D.  oU 

Mount  of  ()li\es  to- 
ward Bethany. 

[19,20]* 

50-53 

176. 

St.     John's      closing 
words. 

XX.  30, 31  ; 
xxi.  24,  25 

*  Tlic  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark  are  in  R.  V.  spaced  from  the  preceding  because 
whetlier  they  originally  formed  part  of  Marl<'s  Gosjiel. 

(i. 

Index  for  Finding  any  Passage  in  the  Harmony. 

Maltliew. 


of  doubt 
T.  P. 


Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section.! 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i. 

1-17 

3      ' 

xii.              14-21 

48 

xxi.            20-22 

131 

18-23 

9 

22-37 

57 

23-xxii.  14 

132 

24-25 

10 

38-45 

58 

xxii.           1.5-46 

133 

ii. 

1-12 

15 

46-50 

59 

xxiii.           l-:i9 

134 

13-15 

16 

xiii.              1-53 

fi3 

xxiv.           1-31 

137 

16-18 

17 

54-58 

71 

32-xxv.  40 

138 

19-23 

18 

xiv.              1.2 

73 

xxvi.            1-5 

1 39 

iii. 

1-12 

20 

3-5 

34 

6-13 

128 

13-17 

21 

6-12 

73 

14-16 

l;!9 

iv. 

1-11 

13-21 

74 

17-19 

110 

12-17 

35 

22-33 

75 

20 

141 

lS-22 

37 

34-36 

76 

21-25 

M:'. 

23-25 

41 

XV.                  1-20 

78 

26-';9 

144 

V. 

1-Viii.  1 

50 

21-28 

79 

30-35 

117 

viii. 

2-4 

42       ! 

29-31 

80 

36-46 

148 

.5-13 

51 

32-38 

81 

47  .56 

149 

14,15 

39 

39-xvi.  4 

82 

57- 

151 

16,17 

40 

xvi.              5-12 

83 

.=8 

152 

18-22 

64 

13-20 

85 

.59-68 

1,51 

23-27 

65 

21-28 

86 

69-75 

1,52 

28-34 

6(1 

xvii.              1-13 

87 

xxvii.          1 

1.53 

ix. 

1-8 

4;; 

14-21 

88 

2 

154 

9-13 

44 

■  )•>   o;^ 

89 

3-10 

159 

14-17 

67 

24-27 

90 

11-14 

1.54 

18-26 

es 

xviii.            1-35 

91 

1.5-261 

1.56 

27-31 

69 

xix.             1"^ 

92 

26b-30 

1.57 

32-34 

70 

lb,  2 

102 

31 -;m 

160 

S5-X.  1 

Tl 

.3-12 

118 

3.5-38 

161 

X. 

2-4 

49 

13-15 

119 

39-49 

162 

5-xi.  1 

72 

16-30 

120 

.50 

l<i3 

xi. 

1 

.52 

XX.                1-16 

121 

.51 -.56 

164 

2-19 

54 

17-19 

122 

.57-61 

165 

20-24 

93 

20-28 

123 

K2-66 

1(;6 

25-30 

97 

29-34 

124 

xxviii.         1-10 

167 

xii. 

1-8 

46 

xxi.              l-U 

129 

11-15 

1C.9 

9-13 

47 

12-19 

130 

'                            16-20 

174 

Mark. 

Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 
20 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 
39 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

ii.                18-22 

Section. 

i. 

1-8 

i.                 29-31 

67 

9-11 

12  13 

21 

22 

.32-34 
35-39 

40 
41 

23-28 
iii.                1-6 

46 
47 

14^15 

35 

40-45 

42 

7-12 

48 

16-20 
21-28 

37 
38 

ii.                  1-12 
13-17 

43 
44 

1:^-19 
20-30 

49 
57 

Gospel 


276 


Gospel 


Index  for  Finding  any  Passage  in 

THE  Harmony. — Continued. 

Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

iii. 
iv. 

31-35 

1-34 

59 
63 

ix.               33-50 
X.                  1« 

91 
92 

xiv.            22-25 
26-31 

144 
147 

35-41 

65 

1" 

102 

32-42 

148 

1-20 

66 

2-12 

118 

43-52 

149 

21-43 

68 

13-16 

119 

53 

151 

1-6" 

71 

17-31 

120 

54 

152 

eo-is 

72 

82-34 

122 

55-65 

151 

14-16 

73 

35-45 

123 

66-72 

152 

17-20 

34 

46-52 

124 

XV.                 1^ 

153 

21-29 

73 

xi.                 1-11 

129 

lb-5 

154 

30-44 

74 

12-19 

130 

6-15» 

156 

45-52 

75 

20-25[26] 

131 

is^-ig 

157 

53-56 

76 

27-xii.  12 

132 

20-23 

160 

1-23 

78 

xii.             13-37 

133 

24-28 

161 

24-30 

79 

38-40 

134 

29-36 

162 

31-37 

80 

41-44 

135 

37 

163 

viii. 

1-9 

81 

xiii.              1-27 

137 

38-41 

164 

10-12 

82 

28-37 

138 

42-47 

165 

13-21 

83 

xiv.              1. 2 

139 

xvi.               1-8 

167 

22-26 

84 

3-9 

128 

9-11 

168 

27-30 

85 

10,11 

139 

12,13 

170 

31-ix.  1 

86 

12-16 

140 

14 

171 

2-13 

87 

17 

141 

15-18 

174 

14-29 

88 

18-21 

143 

19,20 

175 

30-32 

89 

Luke. 


i  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

1-4 

1 

viii.            26-40 

66 

5-25 

4 

41-56 

68 

26-38 

5 

ix.                1-6 

72 

39-56 

6 

7-9 

73 

57, 58 

7 

10-17 

74 

59-79 

8 

18-21 

85 

80 

19 

22-27 

86 

1-7 

10 

28-36 

87 

8-14 

11 

37-43> 

88 

15-20 

12 

43»'-45 

89 

21 

13 

46-50 

91 

22-38 

14 

51-56 

92 

39 

18 

57-62 

64 

40-52 

19 

X.                   1-16 

93 

1-18 

20 

17-21 

97 

19,20 

34 

25-37 

98 

21-23* 

21 

38-42 

99 

23i>-.S8 

3 

Xi.               1-13 

100 

1-13 

02 

14,15 

57 

14, 15 

35 

16 

58 

16-30 

36 

17-23 

57 

31-37 

38 

24-26 

58 

38,39 

39 

27,28 

59 

40,41 

40 

29-36 

.58 

42-44 

41 

37-54 

60 

1-1 1 

37 

xii.                1-59 

61 

12-16 

42 

xiii.              1-5 

62 

17-26 

43 

6-9 

103 

27-32 

44 

10-17 

104 

33-39 

67 

18-21 

63 

1-5 

46 

22-35 

105 

6-n 

47 

xiv.              1-24 

106 

12-16 

49 

25-35 

107 

17-19 

48 

XV.                1-32 

108 

20-49 

t>n 

xvi.               1-13 

109 

1-10 

51 

14-31 

110 

11-17 

53 

xvii.             1-10 

111 

18-35 

54 

11-19 

112 

36-.50 

55 

20-37 

113 

1-3 

.56 

xviii.           1-8 

114 

4-18 

63 

9-14 

115 

19-21 

59 

1.5-17 

119 

22-25 

65 

18-30 

120 

Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

xviii. 

31-34 

122 

35-43 

124 

xix. 

1-10 

125 

11-28 

126 

29-44 

129 

45-48 

130 

XX. 

1-19 

132 

20-44 

133 

45-47 

134 

XXI. 

1-4 

1.35 

5-28 

137 

29-36 

138 

37, 38 

130 

XXll. 

1-6 

139 

7-13 

140 

14-18 

141 

19,20 

144 

21-23 

143 

24-30 

141 

31-38 

145 

39-46 

148 

47-53 

149 

54-62 

152 

63-65 

151 

66-71 

153 

XXlll. 

1-5 

154 

6-12 

1.55 

13-25 

1.56 

26-33» 

160 

330-34 

161 

3.5-37 

162 

38 

161 

39^5* 

162 

45t> 

164 

46 

163 

47-49 

164 

50-56 

165 

xxiv. 

1-11 

167 

12 

168 

13-35 

170 

36-49 

171 

50-53 

175 

Gourd 


•277 


Governor 


Index  for  Finding  any  Passage  in  the  Harmoj^y .—Couthmed. 
John. 


Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

i. 

1-18 

9 

vii.               2-52 

94 

xviii. 

15-18 

1.52 

19-28 

20 

53-viii.  11 

95 

19-24 

150 

29-34 

21 

viil.            12-59 

96 

25-27 

1.52 

35-42 

23 

ix.            1-x.  38 

101 

28-38 

154 

43-51 

24 

X.                39-42 

102 

39, 40 

156 

ii. 

1-11 

25 

xi.                1-46 

116 

xix. 

1-3 

157 

12 

26 

47-54 

117 

4-16» 

158 

13-25 

27 

55-xii.  1 

127 

le*,  17 

160 

iii. 

1-21 

28 

xii.               2-11 

128 

18-24 

161 

•^2 

29 

12-19 

129 

25-29 

162 

23-36 

30 

20-50 

136 

30 

163 

iv. 

1-3 

31 

xiii.              1-20 

142 

31-42 

165 

4-42 

32 

21-35 

143 

XX. 

1-18 

168 

43-54 

33 

36-38 

145 

19-24 

171 

V. 

1-47 

45 

xiv.    1-xvii.  26 

146 

25-29 

172 

vi. 

1-14 

74 

xviii.            1 

148 

30,31 

176 

15-21 

75 

2-12 

149 

xxi. 

1-23 

173 

22-71 

77 

13,14 

150 

24-26 

176 

vii. 

1 

80 

Gourd. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kikai/on  in 
Jonah  iv.  6,  7.  9,  10,  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
substituting  Palma  Christi.  The  plant  so  desig- 
nated grew  up  in  a  night,  sheltering  the  proph- 
et Jonah  from  the  fierce  heat  of  the  Ninevite 
sun ;  but  its  decay  was  as  rapid  as  its  growth. 
The  Septuagint  translates  the  Hebrew  word 
by  the  Greek  kolol-unthe,  meaning  the  pump- 
kin (Cucurbifa  pepo),  which  may  be  consid- 
ered the  type  of  the  gourd  family  (Cucnr- 
hit(tceie).  A  native  of  Astraklian,  along  the 
northwestern  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  it 
may  well  have  been  introduced  into  the 
Ninevite  region  before  the  time  of  Jonah. 
It  is  in  favor  of  the  identification  that  it  is  a 
plant  of  rapid  growth.  But  the  Hebrew 
kikayon  is  very  like  the  Grseco-Egyptian  kiki, 
which  means  the  castor-oil  plant  (Ricinun  com- 
mnnin).  This  is  sometimes  called  Palma 
Christi  (Christ's  palm).  It  is  not,  however, 
a  palm,  but  a  euphorbiaceous  plant,  like  the 
little  milky  weeds  called  spurges.  It  is  a 
native  of  India,  but  was  cultivated  in  south- 
ern Asia  and  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  94).  It  at- 
tains a  height  of  from  8  to  10  feet,  growing 
to  a  considerable  height  in  a  few  days.  The 
stem  is  purplish-red  and  covered  with  a 
pearl-like  bloom,  the  leaves  are  peltate  and 
palmate,  the  flowers  are  in  racemes,  the  seed 
vessel  has  three  two-valved  cells,  each  one- 
seeded.  If  this  was  the  plant  which  shaded 
Jonah,  its  rapid  growth  was  miraculous. 

Gourd,  Wild. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Pak- 
ku'oth.  splitters,  bursters  (2  Kin.  iv.  39).  It  is 
the  fruit  of  a  wild  vine  growing  in  Palestine, 
which  flourishes  when  other  vegetation  is 
dead  or  dying  through  excessive  drought. 
A  son  of  the  prophets  gathered  a  lapful  of 
the  fruit  near  Jericho,  and  put  them  into  a 
pot  to  be  cooked,  but  the  moment  the  pottage 
of  which  they  constituted  the  chief  ingre- 
dient was  put  to  the  mouth  the  taste  betrayed 


that  there  was  death  in  the  pot ;  in  other 
words,  that  the  fruits  gathered  were  jjoison- 
ous  (38-41).  The  plant  was  pretty  clearly 
one  or  other  of  two  species  of  the  gourd  or- 
der, the  colocynth,  or  the  squirting  cucumber, 
probably  the  former.  The  colocynth  ( Citrnllns 
colocynthis)  is  a  prostrate  gourd-like  plant  with 
tendrils,  growing  in  southern  Spain,  in  north- 
ern, eastern,  and  southerti  Africa,  in  Arabia, 
India,  etc.  In  Palestine  it  is  wild  on  the  mari- 
time plain  and  in  the  Jordan  valley,  in  the 
latter  of  which  places  the  prophet  found  his 
wild  gourd  or  wild  vine.  It  may  be  seen  of 
a  lovely  emerald  green  when  all  vegetation 
near  has  withered  under  the  fiery  hot  wind 
of  summer.  If  the  traveler  i)lu(k  the  smooth 
gourd-like  fruits  and  cut  them  across  with 
his  penknife,  he  will  find  that  they  both  look 
and  smell  like  the  cucunil)er.  If  then  he 
put  them  to  his  li]>s,  he  will  feel  as  if  he  had 
touched  fire.  The  colocynth  is  a  valuable 
but  dangerous  medicine.  The  other  claim- 
ant, the  squirting  cucumber  (  KclxiUium  lujresle, 
formerly  Momordica  ehiierinin).  also  a  gourd- 
like plant  with  tendrils,  has  [irickly  fruits, 
which,  when  it  isrijie  and  the  stalk  is  loosened, 
burst  and  squirt  forth  their  i)oi.sonous  pulp,  a 
phenomenon  which  would  quite  agree  with 
the  etymology  of  the  word.  The  squirting 
cucumber  grows  in  waste  iilaces  and  by  the 
roadside  throughout  Palestine,  and  its  unfit- 
ness for  food  would  ]irobably  be  known  to 
the  young  companion  of  Elisha. 

Gov'ern-or. 

One  who  governs  a  land  by  authority  of  a 
supreme  ruler  to  whom  he  is  subordinate. 
Joseph  when  prime  minister  of  Egypt  was 
called  its  governor  ((4en.  xlii.  (i ;  xlv.  26). 
When  Nebuchadnezzar,  after  capturing  Jeru- 
salem, departed,  he  left  a  governor,  Gedaliah, 
behind,  to  rule  the  conquered  people  (Jer.  xl. 
.^v,  xli.  2,  etc.).  After  the  captivity,  the  Is- 
raelites were  ruled  by  Persian  governors; 
Zerubbabel,   Nehemiah,  and   others,  though 


Gozan 


278 


Greece 


Jews  by  birth,  being'  Persian  officials  (Neh. 
V.  14,  18  ;  Hag.  i.  14).  Foutius  Pilate  was 
governor  of  Judsea  when  our  Lord  was  cruci- 
tied,  and  is  so  called  {Mat.  xxviii.  14),  though 
his  specific  Eoman  title  was  procurator  (q.  v.). 

Go'zan. 

A  town  and  district  in  Mesopotamia  on  the 
river  Habor  (2  Kin.  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11;  xix. 
12;  1  tlhron.  v.  20;  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  In  an 
Assju-ian  inscription  the  town  Gozan  is  as- 
sociated with  Nisil)is.  Gozan  is  probably  the 
Gauzanitis  of  Ptolemy  and  the  Mygdonia 
of  Strabo.  It  was  a  province  of  Mesopotamia, 
situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Khabour 
river,  and  along  the  southern  slopes  of  mount 
Masius.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  Evvald, 
who,  governed  by  1  Chron.  v.  26,  thought  that 
the  river  of  Gozan  w-as  distinguished  from 
the  Habor,  and  found  it  in  the  Ozan,  which 
empties  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  formed  the  northern  boundary  of 
Media.  Ptolemy  mentions  a  town  of  Media 
called  Gauzania  iu  its  vicinity. 

Grape.     See  Vine. 

Grass. 

A  plant  belonging  to  the  endogenous  order 
GramiiKurse,  of  which  the  ordinary  grasses 
growing  in  fields,  or  the  cultivated  cereals, 
may  be  considered  as  typical  representatives. 
Popularly,  the  term  grass  is  extended  to 
many  other  endogenous  plants,  and  even  to 
various  exogens,  especially  those  possessing 
linear  leaves.  This  does  not  materially  differ 
from  the  meaning  of  the  word  grass  in  the 
book  of  Genesis.  In  chap.  i.  11,  12  the  veg- 
etable kingdom  is  divided  into  three  great 
classes:  grass,  herbs,  and  trees.  The  word 
gra.ss  is  used  in  a  more  limited  sense  when 
man's  brief  life  on  earth  is  compared  to 
grass,  which  in  the  morning  flourishes  and 
in  the  evening  is  cut  down  and  withers  (Ps. 
ciii.  1.");  cp.  also  xxxvii.  2;  xc.  5;  xcii.  7;  cii. 
11  :  Is.  xl.  (>,  7;  Mat.  vi.  30;  Luke  xii.  28). 

Grass'hop-per. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Arbeh, 
the  numerous  or  gregariou.s,  in  A.  V.  of  Judg. 
vi.  ij;  vii.  12;  .lob  xxxix.  20 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  23.  It 
is  undoubt(!dly  the  migratory  locust,  as  the 
K.  V.  makes  it,  and  as  even  the  A.  V.  has  it 
in  Ex.  X.  4  ;  Joel  i.  4.     See  Locust. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Haqah  in 
Lev.  xi.  22;  Num.  xiii.  33;  Ecc.  xii.  5; 
Is.  xl.  22.  It  is  very  small  (Num.  xiii.  .33) 
and  voracious  (2  (Jhron.  vii.  13,  where  it  is 
rendered  locu.st).  It  ]ierhai)s  derived  its 
nanu!  frcjm  its  covering  the  ground  or  hiding 
tlu>  sun.  On  the  margin  of  Lev.  xi.  22.  U.  V., 
it  is  admitted  that  it  is  unknown  wlictlu'r 
tlie  animal  was  a  grassliojipcr  or  a  locust. 
Tlic  grasshopjier  family,  now  called  Aoidiidir, 
ciMisists  of  U'a|)iug  <irtlioiiterous  insects,  with 
four-jointed  tarsi,  wing  cases  iu  r('i)osc  jilaced 
like  the  two  sloping  sich^s  of  a  roof,  and  long, 
tajicring  autenna\  ^Piie  tyjx'  is  the  great 
English  grasshojjper  (Locimfa  rindinsima). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gob  and 


Gohay,  creeper  from  the  earth  (Nah.  iii.  17). 
It  devours  the  grass  (Amos  vii.  1,  where  R. 
V.  renders  locust).  It  was  probably  an  in- 
sect of  the  locust  family  ;  but  of  which  species 
is  unknown. 

Grave. 

The  cavity  in  the  ground  in  which  a  body 
is  interred.  The  Jews  were  sometimes  buried 
in  graves  dug  in  the  earth  (Tobit  viii.  9,  18), 
but  more  commonly  in  caves  scooped  out  iu 
rocks  or  naturally  existing  (Gen.  xxiii.  9; 
Mat.  xxvii.60;  John  xi.  38).  See  Sepulcher. 

Grav-en  Im'age. 

An  image  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal  fash- 
ioned by  means  of  a  sharp  cutting  instru- 
ment as  distinguished  from  one  cast  iu  a 
mould  (Is.  XXX.  22 ;  xliv.  16,  17 ;  xlv.  20;  cp. 
Hab.  ii.  18,  19).  Sometimes,  however,  the 
image  was  first  cast  and  then  finished  by  the 
graver  (Is.  xl.  19;  xliv.  10).  Graven  images 
were  in  u.se  among  the  Canaanites  before  the 
Israelites  entered  the  country  (Deut.  vii.  5  ; 
xii.  3).  They  were  also  used  in  Babylon  and 
elsewhere  (Jer.  1.  38 ;  li.  47,  52).  The  second 
commandment  expressly  forbade  the  people 
of  God  to  make  them  (Ex.  xs.  4  ;  Deut.  v.  8 ; 
cp.  also  Lev.  xxvi.  1;  Deut.  xxvii.  15;  Is. 
xliv.  9;  Jer.  x.  14;  li.  17). 

Greaves.     See  Armor. 

Gre'cians. 

1.  The  people  of  Greece  (Joel  iii.  6). 

2.  Jews  who  spoke  Greek  as  distinguished 
from  those  who  used  Aramaic,  which  in  N.  T. 
times  was  populariy  called  by  the  Jews  He- 
brew (Acts  vi.  1  and  ix.  29,  in  E.  V.  Grecian 
Jews;  and  xi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  E.  V.). 
See  Hellenist. 

Greece,  in  A.  V.  of  Daniel  Gre'ci-a  [from 
Gniikoi,a,n  old  name  of  a  tribe  in  Epirus,-and 
of  the  Greeks  generally.  It  fell  into  disu.se, 
Hellenes  taking  its  place,  but  it  was  revived 
by  Sophocles]. 

A  small  but  highly  celebrated  country  in 
the  southeast  of  Europe.  Its  northern  limit 
was  never  perfectly  defined  ;  it  may.  how- 
ever, be  placed  at  the  Olympian  chain  of 
mountains.  On  the  south  it  was  bounded  by 
the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the  east  by  the  vEgean 
Sea,  now  the  Archipelago  ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Ionian  Sea,  now  regarded  as  ])art  of 
the  Mediterranean  ;  and  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
now  the  gulf  of  N'eriice.  Its  position  during 
the  time  when  the  Mediterranean  was  the 
highway  of  civilization  gave  it  unequaled 
advantages,  which  it  was  not  slow  to  seize. 

The  authentic  history  of  Greece  with  its 
first  written  records  dates  from  the  first 
Olympiad,  776  B.  i'.  Previous  to  that  time, 
and  iucluding  the  period  known  as  the  heroic 
age.  history  is  so  mingled  with  legend  that  it 
is  ditficuK  to  se]>arate  truth  from  myth.  It 
seems  certain,  however,  that  tjic  (ireekswere 
(lesceiuled  from  four  tril)es,  which  in  turn 
claimed  descent  fi-om  a  C(mimon  ancestor. 
Hellen.     Of  these   tribes,  the  ^Eolians   aud 


Greece 


279 


Greyhound 


the  Acliseans  played  a  proniiuent  part  during 
the  heroic  age,  Homer  sometimes  speaking 
of  the  whole  Greek  people  as  Acha>aiis.  The 
other  two  tribes,  the  Dorians  and  the  lonians, 
became  more  important  in  liistoric  times,  the 
Athenians  and  the  Spartans  being  descended 
from  them  respectively.  The  early  historic 
period,  from  776  B.  c.  to  500  b.  c,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  jieriod  of  individual  growth  by 
the  different  states  comprising  the  nation. 
These  states  were  theoretically  independent 
of  each  other,  hut  were  united  by  a  common 
language  and  literature,  by  national  games, 
and  a  general  national  development.  There 
were  also  frequent  though  changing  j)olitical 
alliances.  During  this  period  the  founda- 
tions of  Grecian  architecture,  art,  literature, 
and  philosophy  were  laid.  Greece  was  early 
within  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrews,  who  called  it  Javan.  that  is  Ionia 
(Gen.  X.  4)  :  but  it  was  known  merely  as  a 
country  at  the  ends  of  the  earth  (Is.  Ixvi.  19  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  13  ;  Joel  iii.  6).  About  the  year 
500  B.  c.  Greece  came  into  prominent  notice 
on  account  of  her  struggle  with  Persia,  at 
that  time  the  great  world-]iower.  As  early 
as  546  Gyrus  captured  Sardis,  the  capital  of 
Lydia.  The  fall  of  this  city  was  followed  by 
the  subjection  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  to 
the  Persian  yoke.  The  Hellespont  was  crossed 
by  the  Persians  in  the  reign  of  Darius,  and 
Macedonia  submitted  in  510.  But  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  rose  and  maintained  determined 
revolt  against  their  conquerors  during  the 
years  500  to  495  ;  and  the  Greeks  of  Europe 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Marathon  in  490, 
and,  after  sutfering  reverses  at  Thermopylte, 
inflicted  crushing  defeats  upon  them  at  Sala- 
mis  in  480,  and  at  Platsea  and  Mycale  in  479. 
The  struggle  with  Persia  resulted  in  drawing 
the  entire  nation  together  under  the  leader- 
ship of  one  state.  The  first  state  to  attain 
this  supremacy  was  Athens.  She  held  the 
leadership  for  70  years,  but  during  the  last 
28  years  of  that  time  the  energies  of  tlie  na- 
tion were  used  in  carrying  on  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  This  war.  which  liegan  in  a 
quarrel  between  Corinth  and  her  colonies, 
finally  drew  into  the  struggle  the  whole  naval 
and  military  strength  of  the  nation,  led  on 
one  side  by  Sparta  and  on  the  other  by  Athens. 
The  war'  resulted  in  the  downfall  of  the 
Athenian  power.  Then  followed  tlu'  period 
of  the  Spartan  supremacy,  followed  in  turn 
by  the  Theban  supremacy,  which  lasted  until 
3:"x8  H.  c.  when  all  Greece  fell  under  the 
power  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  and  became 
thenceforth  a  part  of  the  Macedonian  empire. 
It  is  under  the  rule  of  Alexander  the  Great 
that  (Greece  comes  into  direct  contact  for  the 
first  time  with  .Tudsea.  On  his  march  to  Per- 
sia Alexander  passed  through  .Tudsea,  which 
fell  iuto  his  hands  without  a  struggle.  See 
Alex.\nder.  From  this  time  Grecian  in- 
fluence s]iread  rajiidly  and  took  firm  hold  in 
the  ((luutrics  situated  iiround  tlie  eastern  end 
of  the  .^lediterranean  Sea.      Even  after  the 


Eoman  conquest  the  influence  of  the  Greek 
language,  culture,  and  i)hilosophy  remained 
paramount,  and  even  influenced  the  Jewish 
religion  itself.  In  the  time  of  Cliri.st  the 
Greek  language  was  sjioken  throughout  the 
civilized  woi-ld.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der, his  empii-e  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  gen- 
erals, who  parceled  it  out  among  themselves. 
At  first  Greece  proper  was  held  in  the  name 
of  his  infant  sou,  but  soon  Iw,  as  well  as  all 
members  of  Alexander's  family,  were  put  to 
death,  and  the  country  became  the  prey  of 
anyone  strong  enough  to  take  it,  until  it 
finally  fell  under  the  dominiou  of  Rome. 
The  last  struggle  against  Home  resulted  in 
the  battle  of  Leucopatra,  146  B.  v.,  and 
shortly  after  Greece  was  declared  a  Eoman 
province.  The  division  of  the  Eoman  i)ower 
into  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires  revived 
Greek  influence  for  a  time.  The  Eastern  em- 
pire survived  long  after  the  Western  empire 
fell,  but  finally  it  came  to  an  end  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinoi)le  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 
Some  of  the  a]iostlc  Paul's  most  earnest 
labors  took  ])lace  in  tireece,  notably  in  Athens 
and  Corinth,  besides  his  general  travels 
through  Achaia,  the  name  at  that  time  for 
ancient  Greece. 

Greek. 

1.  A  native  of  Greece,  or  one  of  the  Greek 
race  (Acts  xvi.  1;  xvii.  4).  When  Jew  and 
Greek  are  contrasted  in  the  N.  T.,  the  term 
Greek  is  used  for  a  foreigner  in  general,  the 
Greek  being  looked  on  as  the  highest  type 
of  gentile  (Rom.  i.  14,  16  ;   x.  V2). 

2.  After  the  Macedonian  conquest  of  the 
East  and  the  establishment  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  the  naiue  Greek  was  ap- 
plied, especially  by  Orientals,  to  all  who 
spoke  the  Greek  language  in  ordinary  life 
and  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  Greek  settlei-s 
in  the  kingdoms  ruled  by  Alexander's  suc- 
cessors. The  Greeks  who  wislied  to  see 
Jesus  (John  xii.  20)  were  foreigners,  but 
it  is  not  certain  that  they  were  of  (Jreek 
race. 

.3.  The  language  spoken  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  of  which  that  of  their  modern 
successors  is  only  a  develoi)meut  (Jolin  xix. 
20;  Acts  xxi.  37;  Rev.  ix.  11).  It  belongs  to 
the  Aryan  family  of  tongues,  having  attini- 
ties  with  the  Sanscrit,  with  Latin,  and  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  western  Euroiie.  It  ex- 
cels in  power  of  full  and  jn-ecise  expression. 
The  O.  T.  was  translated  into  it  before  the 
advent  of  Christ  (see  SKPTfAciNT) ;  Uie  N. 
T.  (Matthew  ])i)ssibly  excepted)  was  com- 
posed in  Greek  from  the  first. 

Grey 'hound. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Z'irzir,  well 
girt  or  well  knit  in  the  loins,  in  Prov.  xxx. 
31.  The  greyhound  is  figured  on  the  .\ssyrian 
monunnnits.  The  word  may.  however,  de- 
note the  war  horse  (R.  V.  margin)  as  orna- 
mented with  girths  and  buckles  about  the 
loins;  or  the  starling,  as  the  corresnouding 


Grinding 


280 


Habakkuk 


word    ill    Arabic,    Syriac,   and   ])ost-biblical 
Hebrew,  denotes. 

Grind'ing.     See  Mill. 
Grove. 

A  group  or  clump  of  trees.  In  tbe  A.  V. 
it  is  uniformly  a  mistranslation  of: — 

1.  The  Hebrew  word  ' Eshel  (Gen.  xxi.  33  ; 
cp.  1  Sam.  xxii.  6).  The  R.  V.  renders  this  a 
tamarisk  tree.     See  Tamarisk. 

2.  The  Hebrew  word  '"sherah,  with  its  two 
plurals  '"sheiim  and  '"sheroth  (Ex.  xxxiv.  13, 
and   elsewhere   except  Gen.   xxi.  33).     See 

ASHERAH. 

Guard. 

In  Oriental  countries,  where  tbe  king,  as  a 
rule,  is  despotic,  measures  which  give  otfense 
excite  hostility  against  him  personally.  This 
necessitates  that  he  should  be  continually  de- 
fended by  a  bodyguard  ;  and  such  a  military 
organization  is  more  than  useless  unless  com- 
plete dependence  can  be  placed  on  its  fidelity. 
Hence,  service  in  the  bodyguard  is  consid- 
ered specially  honorable,  and  its  captain  is  a 
high  officer.  Such  an  appointment  was  filled 
by  Potiphar  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36;  xli.  12),  by 
Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  22,  23;  1  Chron.  xviii. 
17),  by  Nebuzaradan  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8 ;  Jer. 
xxxix.  9,  10),  by  Arioch  (Dan.  ii.  14),  and 
others.  The  captain  of  the  guard  and  his 
men  were  often  employed  to  inflict  capi- 
tal punishment  on  political  or  other  offenders. 
In  Mark  vi.  27,  the  Greek  word  is  spekonla- 
tor,  spy.  Such  spies  constituted  a  division  in 
each  Roman  legion,  and  under  the  empire 
acted  as  the  bodyguard  of  a  general  and  were 
employed  as  messengers  and  to  seek  out  per- 
sons iiroscribed  or  sentenced  to  death. 

Gud'go-dah.     See  Hor-haggidgad. 

Guest. 

One  temporarily  entertained  in  the  house 
of  another,  even  though  it  be  for  a  few  hours 
only  at  a  feast  (1  Kin.  i.  41 ;  Zcph.  i.  7;  Mat. 
xxii.  10,  11).  Complete  strangers  were  re- 
ceived as  guests  and  shown  great  considera- 
tion (Gen.  xviii.  1-8;  xix.  3;  Ex.  ii.20;  Judg. 
xiii.  15 ;  xix.  20-24  ;  Job  xxxi.  32).  Important 
houses  had  a  guest-chamber  (Mark  xiv.  14; 
Luke  xxii.  11  ;  cp.  also  2  Kin.  iv.  10),  and  at 
Jerusalem  these  rooms  were  freely  jilact'd  at 
the  (lis|ios;il  of  Jews'visitiug  the  city  at  the 
annual  festivals  (Aboth,  34).  Hospitality  is 
enjoined  in  the  N.  T.  (Heb.  xiii.  2  ;  cj).  Mat. 
xxv. 43).  Ordinary  morality  dictates  that  one 
should  notbe  guest  in  the  house  of  a  notorious 
sinner;  but  iironiinent  I'harisees  went  so  far 
as  to  ai)ply  this  i)rinciple  indiscriminately  to 
the  accei)tance  of  hosjiitality  from  people  of 
the  publican  class  (Luke  v.  27-32;  xix.  7). 

Guilt'  Of'fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Gu'ni  [i)ainted  with  colors], 

1.  A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gt^n.  xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  48  ; 
1  Cliron.  \'U.  13). 

2.  A  (iadite  (1  Chron.  v.  15). 


Gur  [lion's  whelp  or  other  young  animal]. 

An  ascent  near  Ibleam,  where  Ahaziah, 
king  of  Judah,  was  smitten  by  order  of  Jehu 
and  mortally  wounded  (2  Kin.  ix.  27).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Gur-ba'al  [sojourn  of  Baal]. 

A  i)lace  inhabited  by  Arabs  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
7)  ;  itrobably  in  the  desert  to  the  southeast 
of  Judah. 

Gym-na'si-um,  in  A.  V.  Place  of  Exer- 
cise. 

A  public  place  in  Jerusalem  for  athletic 
exercise  and  exhibitions,  below  the  western 
cloi.ster  of  the  temple  (War  iv.  9,  12;  vi.  3, 
2;  6,  2),  below  the  palace  of  the  Asmonseans 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  11 ;  War  ii.  16,  3),  below  the 
citadel  or  acropolis  (2  Mac.  iv.  12,  27;  not  the 
Syrian  fortress  called  the  Acra,  which  was 
erected  later,  1  Mac.  i.  33).  It  was  situated 
near  the  council  house,  by  the  first  or  inner- 
most wall,  and  at  the  end  of  the  bridge 
which  led  from  the  temple  across  the  Tyro- 
poeon  valley  (War  v.  4,  2;  cp.  vi.  6,  2).  It 
was  erected  by  hellenizing  Jews,  under  the 
leadership  of  Jason,  by  permission  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  i.  10,  14  ;  2  Mac.  iv. 
7  seq.).  The  essential  features  of  a  gym- 
nasium were:  1.  An  open  court  for  boxing, 
wrestling,  pitching  quoits,  and  throwing  the 
javelin  (2  Mac.  iv.  14,  palsestra,  discus) ;  2. 
A  stadium  or  course  for  the  foot  race  ;  3.  A 
colonnade  for  a  place  of  recreation  and  for 
athletic  exercises  in  winter  (Antiq.  and  War, 
passim  xystos)  ;  4.  A  bathroom.  The  gym- 
nasium at  Jerusalem  was  condemned  by  strict 
Jews  becau.se  it  introduced  heathen  customs  ; 
led  Jewish  youth  to  wear  the  hat  of  Hermes, 
to  exercise  stark  naked  in  public,  and  to  be 
ashamed  of  the  mark  of  their  religion  ;  and 
infected  even  the  i)riests  and  caused  them  to 
neglect  their  official  duties  (1  Mac.  i.  14,  15  ; 
2  Mac.  iv.  13-17).  It  existed  until  the  over- 
throw of  the  city  by  Titus  ;  and  was  not  only 
resorted  to  for  athletic  sports,  but  was  also 
occasionally  used  for  popular  assemblies  (War 
ii.  16,  3). 


H. 


Ha-a-hash'ta-ri  [the  Ahashtarite]. 
A   Hezronite,  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv. 
6;  cp.  ii.  24). 

Ha-ba'iah,  and  Hobaiah  [Jehovah  hath 
hidden].  The  dilleience  Ixttteen  the  two 
forms  of  the  name  is  merely  one  of  traditional 
jironunciation. 

Father  of  certain  Jews  claiming  sacerdotal 
descent.  Their  names  not  being  found  in 
tile  register,  they  were  ]>ut  out  of  the  priest- 
hood (Ezra  ii.  61 ;  Neb.  vii.  (!3;  cp.  R.  V.). 

Ha-bak'kuk  [embrace,  or  perhaps  the 
name  of  a  garden   plant]. 

A  proi)het  of  Judah.  It  is  inferred  from 
his  i)salm  (chap.  iJi.)  and  from  the  directions 


Habakkuk 


281 


Hadad 


to  the  chief  musician  (19)  that  he  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  one  of  tlie  temple  singers  ; 
but  the  evidence  proves  nothing  (vp.  the 
titles  of  Pss.  iii.  and  lii.). 

The  book  of  Habakkuk  is  the  eighth  of 
the  minor  prophets.  It  consists  of  1.  A  fii'st 
complaint :  his  cry  to  God  against  violence 
and  wickedness  is  unheeded  (i.  "2-4);  iniquity 
is  triunipliant.  The  Lord's  response:  God  is 
raising  up  the  Chaldeans  (o-lO),  but  as  guilty 
the  Chaldeans  shall  be  punished  (11).  2.  A 
second  complaint:  God's  kingdom  indeed 
shall  not  perish,  and  the  Chaldeans  shall  be 
visited  with  judgment  (12) ;  but  yet  a  moral 
problem  remains:  God  allows  the  Ciialdeans 
to  waste  and  destroy  those  who  are  more 
righteous  than  they.  Shall  this  go  on  (13-17) '? 
The  Lord's  response:  the  Chaldeans  are 
putfed  up  anil  unrighteous  [that  fact  to  the 
eye  of  faith,  is  sufficient;  it  dooms  them  (cp. 
i.  11 ;  Is.  X.  12-16),  and  dooms  all  like  them]; 
but  the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith  (Hab.  ii.  1- 
4 1.  That  truth,  rightly  understood,  solves  the 
problem.  Moreover,  faith  in  the  certainty 
that  God  will  punish  wickedness  enables  the 
prophet  to  pronounce  five  woes  against  the 
great  world-power  for  five  forms  of  wicked- 
ness (.5-20).  8.  A  prayer  of  praise  (iii.  1-19), 
in  which  after  an  invocation  and  a  petition 
that  God  in  wrath  remember  mercy  (2),  the 
prophet  describes  God's  appearance  in  maj- 
esty and  the  ensuing  consternation  of  his 
enemies  (U-l.")),  and  expresses  the  quiet  con- 
fidence of  faith  in  God  (16-19). 

The  book  is  not  dated,  but  was  evidently  a 
production  of  the  Chaldean  period.  1.  The 
temple  is  still  standing  (ii.  20).  and  musical 
service  is  conducted  (iii.  19).  2.  The  rise  of 
the  Chaldeans  to  a  formidable  power  among 
the  nations  occurs  during  that  generation  (i. 
."),  6),  and  the  slaying  of  the  nations  by  the 
Chaldeans  had  already  begun  (6,  17). 

The  Chaldeans  had  been  long  known  to 
the  Hebrews.  They  attracted  renewed  at- 
tention by  their  successful  revolt  from  the 
Assyrians  in  625  b.  c.  ;  and  they  began  their 
great  career  of  subjugation  and  attained  to 
the  leading  place  among  the  powers  of  the 
world  on  the  overthrow  of  Nineveh  in  607 
B.  c,  and  by  their  victory  over  the  Egyp- 
tiaTis  at  Carchemish  in  60.").  Most  critics  ac- 
cordingly date  the  jn-ophecy  in  the  early  part 
of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  about  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  Carchemish.  It  may,  however,  ante- 
date the  fall  of  Nineveh  by  some  years ;  for 
not  only  had  the  Chaldeans  bestirred  them- 
selves in  623  B.  c,  but  events  before  the  fall 
of  Nineveh  in  607  B.  C.  indicated  the  Chal- 
deans as  the  coming  world-power;  their  sub- 
jugation of  Judah  had  long  been  predicted 
by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Mic.  iv.  10;  Is.  si. 
11;  xxxix.  6.  7);  and  their  fierce,  warlike 
character,  their  habitual  cruelty  and  rapacity 
in  war,  and  their  method  of  battle,  were 
known  to  all  nations.  There  was  thus,  even 
before  their  victory  at  Carchemish,  full  justi- 
fication for  the  declarations  made  in  i.  5-10. 


If  the  prophecy  was  uttered  before  the  Chal- 
dean success  at  Carcliemish,  Habakkuk  in  i. 
2-4  is  lamenting  the  carnival  of  wickedness 
which  he  witnessed  in  Israel  or  in  the  world 
at  large. 

Hab-az-zi-ni'ah,  in  A.  Y.  Habaziniah. 

A  Kecliahite  who  lived  long  before  Jere- 
miah (.ler.  XXXV.  3). 

Ha-ber'ge-on  [a  small  hauberk]. 

A  coat  of  mail  to  defend  the  breast  and 
neck  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  14;  Neh.  iv.  16;  in  R. 
V.  coat  of  mail).  In  Job  xli.  26.  Ii.  V.  on 
good  grounds  substitutes  pointed  shaft  in  the 
text,  and  places  coat  of  mail  in  the  mar- 
gin, Habergeon,  or  coat  of  mail,  is  also  used 
to  translate  a  difi'erent  Hebrew  word  of  un- 
certain meaning  in  Ex.  xxviii.  32  ;  xxxix.  23. 

Ha'bor  [joining  to]. 

A  river  of  Mesopotamia  to  which  cap- 
tives from  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  6;  xviii.  11;  1  Chron.  v.  26).  It  has 
been  identified  as  the  Khabour,  which,  flow- 
ing southward  through  Mesopotamia,  after  a 
course  of  190  miles,  falls  into  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Euphrates  at  Kerkisiyeli,  the  ancient 
Circesium.  Those  who  regard  Gozan  as  a 
river  identify  the  Habor  with  that  eastern 
branch  of  the  Tigris  above  Nineveh  which 
bears  the  same  name. 

Hac-a-li'ah,  in  A.  V.  Hachaliali  [Jehovah 
is  dark  (from  displeasure)]. 

The  father  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  i.  1). 

Hacli'i-lah  [dark,  gloomy]. 

A  hill  in  the  wilderness  of  Zii>h  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  1-3),  southeast  of  Hebron,  and  on  the 
south  of  the  desert,  not  far  from  Maon  (xxiii. 
19,  24-26).  David  concealed  himself  there 
whilst  fleeing  from  Saul,  and  there  Saul 
afterwards  encamped  when  engaged  in  his 
pursuit. 

Hacli'mo-ni  [wise]. 

The  founder  of  the  Hachmonite  family,  the 
members  of  which  are  called  sons  of  Hach- 
moni  (1  Chron.  xi.  11 ;  xxvii.  32),  or  simply 
Uachmonites  (cp.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8). 

Ha'dad,  I.  [sharjiness,  fierceness]. 

A  son  of  Ishnuiel  ((ien.  xxv.  15,  in  A.  V., 
following  present  Hebrew  text,  Hadar;  1 
Chron.  i.  30). 

Ha'dad,  II. 

1.  A  deity  worshijied  by  the  .^ramsans.  It 
occurs  in  ])roj>er  names,  as  in  Beuhadad, 
Hadadezer.  The  A.ssyrian  scribes  identified 
Hadad  with  their  own  weather-god  Eamnian, 
(.  e.,  Eimmon. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom,  son  of  Bedad,  and  of 
the  city  of  Avith.  He  smote  Midian  in  ilie 
field  of  Moab  (Geu.  xxxvi.  35,  36;  1  C:hrou.  i. 
46,  47). 

3.  A  king  of  Edom,  whose  city  was  Pan  or 
Pai  (1  Chron.  i.  50).  In  Gen.  xxxvi.  39  he  is 
called  Hadar.     See  D.\lp:th. 

4.  An  Edomite  ])rince,  who  escaped  from 
his  country  when  Joab,  at  the  head  of  the 
Israelite  army,  was  engaged  for  six  mouths 


Hadadezer 


282 


Hagar 


in  the  cruel  task  of  cutting  off  every  male  in 
Edom.  Hadad  was  then  a  little  thild.'iiid 
was  takeu  by  his  guardians  to  Egy]it.  The 
king  of  Egypt  received  him  with  much  kind- 
ness, assigned  him  a  house  and  land,  pro- 
vided him  with  food,  and  gave  him  an 
Eg.vptiau  princess,  sister  of  the  queen,  to 
wife.  But  after  the  death  of  David  and 
.loab,  the  great  foes  of  his  race,  he  returned 
to  Edom  and  became  an  adversary  to  Solo- 
mon (1  Kin.  xi.  1 1-22). 

Ha-dad-e'zer  [Hadad  is  a  help]. 

Son  of  Kehob  and  king  of  Zobah,  in  Syria 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3).  He  is  frequently  called  Ha- 
darezer,  the  latter  form  being  doubtless  an 
early  misreading  of  daleth ;  see  Daleth. 
When  going  to  recover  his  border  at  the  river 
Euphrates,  he  was  met  and  defeated  by  king 
David.  The  Syrians  of  Damascus,  who  after- 
wards arrived  to  as.sist  him,  shared  his  fate. 
From  Betah  and  Berothai,  cities  of  Hadad- 
ezer, David  took  much  lirass  or  copper.  Toi, 
king  of  Hamatli,  probal)ly  a  Hittite  by  race, 
liad  formerly  been  at  war  witli  Hadadezer, 
and  he  congratulated  David  on  his  victory 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3-13;  1  Cliron.  xviii.  3-lOj. 
Hadadezer  renewed  the  war  with  David,  be- 
came confederate  with  the  Ammonites,  and 
sent  his  army,  led  by  his  general,  Shobach, 
to  try  another  engagement  with  their  com- 
mon foe.  David  was  victorious,  and  Shobach 
was  among  the  slain.  The  dependent  kings 
wlu)  had  served  Hadadezer  now  made  peace 
with  David,  and  Hadadezer  is  heard  of  no 
more  (2  Sam.  x.  6-19 ;  1  Chron.  xix.  16-19). 

Ha-dad-rim'mon  [Hadad  and  Eimmon, 
two  Syrian  divinities],  liimmon  means  also 
a  ])ome,granate. 

A  city  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  near  Megiddo 
(Zech.  xii.  11).  .Terome  says  that  it  was  the 
place  in  his  day  called  Ma.ximianopolis.  This 
is  now  called  Kuinmaneh,  and  is  about  a 
mile  northwest  by  west  of  TaaTiach. 

Ha'dar.     See  Hadad,  I.  and  II. 

Ha-dar-e'zer.     See  Hadadkzkk. 

Had'a-shab  [new]. 

A  village  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  .ludah 
(.lo-ili.  XV.  37).      It  has  not  been  idenlitied. 

Ha-das'sah  [a  myrtle]. 

The  original  .Jewish  name  of  queen  Esther 
(Estli.  ii.  7).  Tlie  name  has  a  certain  simi- 
larity in  sound  to  tir.it  of  Atossi,  who  was  the 
mother  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  2).  But  the 
uoiiien  were  diderent.     lOsther  was  his()ueen. 

Ha-dat'tah.     See  Hazok-ii.\datt.\h. 

Ha'des.     See  Hkll,  1. 

Ha'did  [sharp,  jioinlt'd  ;  a  point]. 

.\  town  of  lienjaniin,  mentioned  in  con- 
Tiection  witli  Eod,  *.  c.  Lydda  ( lOzra  ii.  33; 
.\eli.  xi.  31)  :  periiaps  Huditi,  referred  to  by 
Tliothmes  III.  (  Karnak  list).  It  is  commonly 
iiUntilied  with  .Xdida,  a  town  built  upon  a 
hill  of  the  .Sjieplu'lah  and  (tverioolving  tho 
jilaiM   (1    Mac.  xii.  3S ;   xiii.    I.l;   .\nti(|.   xiii. 


6,  5).    Its  site  is  located  at  Haditheh,  3  miles 
east  of  Lydda. 

Had'lai  [frail]. 

A  man  of  Ephraim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Ha-do'ram. 

1.  An  Arabian  tri))e  descended  from  Jok- 
tan  ((ien.  x.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  the  king  of  Hamath  (1  Chroii. 
xviii.  10).     See  Joram  1. 

.3.  An  officer  over  Rehoboam'slevy  (2Chron. 
X.  18).     See  Adoniram. 

Ha'drach. 

A  country  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Damascus  and  Hamath  (Zech.  ix.  1),  and,  in 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  with  Zobah  also.  Its 
exact  situation  is  unknown. 

Ha'gab  [a  locust]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra 
ii.  46). 

Hag'a-bah  or  Hagaba  [a  locust] . 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim.  distinct 
from  that  of  Hagab  (Ezra  ii.  4o  ;  Neh.  vii. 
48). 

Ha'gar,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  both  times  Agar, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  [if  Hebrew,  flight]. 

An  Egyptian  bondwoman  of  Sarah,  prol)- 
ably  obtained  during  Abraham's  sojourn  in 
Egypt  (Gen.  xvi.  1 ;  cp.  xii.  10).  After  Ai)ra- 
ham  had  been  ten  years  in  Canaan,  and  the 
"promised  son  had  not  been  born  to  him. 
Sarah,  now  76  years  old,  despaired  of  sharing 
in  the  promise,  and  proposed  earthly  means 
to  secure  a  son  to  Abraham  and  obtain  the 
name  of  mother.  In  accordance  with  a  cus- 
tom of  the  times,  she  gave  her  maid  to  Abra- 
ham. When  Hagar  perceived  herself  to  be 
with  child  she  despised  her  mistress;  and, 
being  treated  by  her  harshly,  fled  into  the 
wilderness.  There  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
found  her  at  a  fountain  between  Shur  and 
Bered,  revealed  to  her  the  future  of  the  child 
.■jhe  was  to  bear,  and  bade  her  return  to  her 
mistress.  Hagar  called  the  name  of  the  place 
"the  well  of  the  living  one  who  seeth  me" 
(Gen.  xvi.  1-16).  She  then  returned  to  her 
mistress,  and  in  due  time  gave  birth  to  Ish- 
mael.  Some  fifteen  years  later  the  youth 
Ishmael  mocked  at  the  child  Isaac.  For  this 
otiense  Hagar,  with  a  skin  of  water  on  her 
shoulder,  and  Ishmael  (for  form  of  expression 
cp.  xliii.  1.5)  were  expelled  with  God's  ap- 
l)roval  from  the  fanuly  of  Abraham.  They 
wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beer-sheba 
until  the  water  was  spent.  The  exhausted 
boy  whom  she  had  been  supporting  she  cast, 
as  one  would  a  sick  ])erson  (Mat.  xv.  30), 
under  the  shade  of  a  l)ush,  and  .sat  down  a 
l>ow-shol  oir  that  she  might  not  see  him  die. 
Again  the  angel  of  the  Lord  intervened,  di- 
recting her  to  a  well  in  the  vicinity,  and  re- 
minding her  of  the  promise  concerning  the 
boy.  The  last  we  hear  of  Hagar  is  her  taking 
a  wife  for  her  son  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
wlu'uce  she  herself  had  originally  come  (xxi. 
1-21).     For  Gal.  iv.  21-31,  see  Ishmakl. 


Hagarene 


283 


Hair 


Ha-gar-ene',  Ha'gar-ite,  and  Ha'ger-ite. 

See  Hagritk. 

Hag'ga-i  [festal,  perliaps  as  born  on  a  fes- 
tival day]. 

A  prophet,  contemporary  with  Zechariah 
(Hag.  i.  1  with  Zech.  i.  1).  He  prophesied 
after  the  return  from  Babylon.  The  work 
on  the  temple  had  ceased  for  1.1  years,  and 
Haggai  was  largely  instrumental  in  arousing 
the  people  to  proceed  with  the  building 
(Ezra  V.  1,  2;  vi.  14). 

The  book  of  Haggai  is  the  tenth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  It  consists  of  four  prophecies  de- 
livered within  the  space  of  four  months  in  the 
second  yi'ar  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  .520  B.  c. 

1.  On  the  first  day  of  the  6th  month  the 
l)rophet  reproaches  those  who  left  the  temjjle 
in  ruins,  and  built  ceiled  houses  for  them- 
selves, and  he  points  out  that  God's  blessing 
is  withholden  from  their  ordinary  labor. 
In  cousequence  of  this  exhortation,  work  on 
the  temple  was  resumed  on  the  twentj--f<)urth 
day  of  the  same  month  (i,). 

2.  In  the  7th  month,  21st  day,  he  en- 
courages those  who  mourn  over  the  humble 
character  of  the  new  building  as  compared 
with  the  splendor  of  the  old  edifice.  He 
l>redicts  tliat  the  latter  glory  of  the  house 
shall  be  greater  than  the  former  glory,  for 
(xod  will  shake  the  nations  and  the  desirable 
things  of  all  nations,  their  silver  and  gold, 
shall  come  and  fill  the  house  with  glory,  and 
God  will  give  peace  in  that  place  (ii.  1-9  ; 
Hel).  xii.  2()-2S). 

3.  In  the  9th  month,  24th  day,  he  adds  a 
sequel  to  the  first  prophecy.  As  the  touch 
of  the  unclean  pollutes  the  clean,  so  their 
former  neglect  of  God  polluted  their  labor 
and  God  did  not  bestow  his  blessing.  But 
their  revived  zeal  for  God  will  be  accom- 
jtanied  bj'  fruitful  seasons  from  the  Lord  (ii. 
10  19). 

4.  On  the  same  day  he  adds  a  sequel  to  the 
second  prophecy.  When  the  Lord  shakes 
the  nations,  he  will  establish  Zerubbabel, 
who  represents  the  royal  line  of  David  (ii. 
20-23). 

Hag'ge-ri.     See  Hagri. 

Hag'gi  [festal  or  festival  of  (Jehovah)]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily (Gen.  xlvi.  !(> ;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Hag-gi'ah  [a  festival  of  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Chrou, 
vi.  30). 

Hag'gith  [festal]. 

One  of  David's  wives,  the  mother  of  Ado- 
nijah  (2  Sam.  iii.  4 ;  1  Kin.  i.  5). 

Ha'gri,  in  A.  V.  Haggeri. 

Rather  an  adjective  than  a  proper  name 
(1  Chron.  xi.  38);  see  Mibhar. 

Ha'grite ;  in  A.  V.  Hagarite,  and  once 
Hagerite,  and  once,  in  Ts.  Ixxxiii.  6,  Haga- 
renes,  in  wliich  passage  K.  V.  in  its  text  fol- 
lows A.  V. 

A  nomad  jjcoiilc  who  dwelt  throughout  all 


the  land  east  of  (iilead,  and  were  rich  in 
camels,  sheeji,  and  asses.  During  the  reign 
of  Saul  they  were  vanquished,  and  in  a  large 
measure  destroyed,  by  the  Israelite  tril)es  east 
of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  10,  18-22).  A 
Hagrite  had  charge  of  David's  flocks  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  31).  They  are  tlie  Agraoi  of 
the  (ireek  geographers.  It  is  questionable 
whether  their  name  is  at  all  connected  with 
the  town  Hejer  or  He j era,  in  the  Arabian 
desert  near  the  Per.sian  Gulf. 

Ha'i.     See  Ai. 

Hail. 

Small  globules  of  ice  formed  of  raindrops 
which  have  been  carried  into  a  cold  stratum 
of  the  atmosphere.  Hail  falls  not  merely 
in  cold  and  temperate  climates,  but  in  hot, 
nay,  even  in  tropical  latitudes,  where  snow 
and  ice  are  not  to  be  found,  excejjt  at  great 
elevations.  When  it  falls  in  the  warmer  re- 
gions, it  tends  to  be  larger  than  in  temperate 
countries,  as  raindrops  also  are  larger.  In 
all  i)laces  two  or  more  hailstones  can  unite  so 
as  to  make  an  irregularly  shaped  mass  of 
ice,  which,  when  large,  becomes  formidable 
by  the  momentum  with  which  it  descends. 
Hail  occasionally  falls  in  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  22- 
2.5)  between  December  and  April.  It  is  more 
frequent  in  Palestine  (Josh.  x.  11  ;  Hag.  ii. 
17).  The  area  affected  by  a  hailstorm  is 
generally  a  long,  narrow  line,  so  that  of  two 
places  near  each  other,  one  may  be  in  and 
the  other  out  of  the  storm.  Thus  Goshen 
might  escape  it,  whilst  the  adjacent  district 
of  Egypt  to  the  westward  might  be  in  its 
track  and  suffer  severely  (Ex.  ix.  2(3) ;  and  a 
pursuing  army  might  be  untouched  by  the 
storm,  and  yet  see  their  fleeing  foes  beaten 
down  by  the  falling  stones  (Josh.  x.  11). 

Hair. 

The  natural  covering  and  ornament  of  the 
head.  In  Egypt  men  ordinarily  shaved  the 
head,  but  when  mourning  let  the  hair  grow 
(Herod,  ii.  36;  iii.  12).  The  Assyrians  wore 
it  long  (i.  195),  falling  to  the  shoulders.  The 
Israelites  also  wore  it  tolerably  long  ;  but  cut 
it  to  pi'event  its  reaching  an  extreme  length 
(cp.  Xum.  vi.  5 :  2  Sam.  xiv.  26 ;  Antiq.  xiv. 
9,  4),  and  the  services  of  the  barber  were 
sometimes  employed  (Ezek.  v.-  1)  ;  but  they 
were  forbidden  to  cut  off  the  edge  of  the 
bair  from  about  the  temples,  so  as  to  round 
it  (Lev.  xix.  27),  for  that  was  a  significant 
heathen  custom  (Herod,  iii.  8).  Hebrew 
women  wore  the  hair  long  (Song.  vii.  5; 
Ivev.  ix.  8;  cp.  1  Cor.  xi.  15),  binding  it  up 
or  braiding  it  (Judith  x.  3 ;  xvi.  8 ;  1  Tim. 
ii.  9  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  3).  Oil  was  u.sed  for  the  hair 
by  both  men  and  women  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Mat. 
vi.  17).  Herod  the  Great,  in  order  to  con- 
ceal his  age,  dyed  his  hair  black  (Antiq.  xvi. 
8,  1).  The  priests  were  forbidden  to  make 
any  baldness  upon  the  head  (Lev.  xxi.  5), 
and  none  of  the  Israelites  Avas  allowed  to 
make  a  baldness  between  the  eyes  for  the 
dead   CDeut.   xiv.   1) :  for  it  was  a  disfigure- 


Hakkatan 


284 


Ham 


ment  of  the  body  which  God  had  created. 
The  captive  woman  who  was  chosen  by  a 
Hebrew  for  his  wife,  and  the  leper  in  the 
day  of  his  cleansing  were  required  to  shave 
the  head  for  purposes  of  purification  (Lev. 
xiv.  8,  9;  Deut.  xxi.  12).  The  Nazirite  also, 
when  the  time  of  his  service  was  ended, 
shaved  his  head  as  a  sign  of  the  fulfillment 
of  his  vow  (Num.  vi.  18).     See  Beakd. 

Hak'ka-tan  [the  small  or  the  younger]. 
Father  of  a  certain  Johanan  (Ezra  viii.  12). 

Hak'koz,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Koz,  once 
Coz,  the  first  syllable  being  omitted  since  it 
is  the  definite  article  [the  thorn]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  oif 
David  and  was  made  the  seventh  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  David  dis- 
tril)ut(d  the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  10). 
]'erha])s  it  was  members  of  this  family  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  but, 
failing  to  find  their  register  and  establish 
tlieir  genealogy,  were  put  from  the  priest- 
hood (Ezra  ii.  61,  62  ;  Neh.  vii.  63,  64).  They 
ajipear  to  have  eventually  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  establishing  their  right  to  the  office 
(Neh.  iii.  21 ;  cp.  Ezra  viii.  33). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  8). 

Ha-ku'pha  [bent,  bowed,  curved]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethiuim  (Ezra  ii. 
51  :  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'lah. 

A  district  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to  which 
captives  from  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  v.  26).  Prob- 
ably the  district  known  later  as  Chalkitis,  in 
Mesopotamia,  near  Gozan,  in  the  basin  of  the 
Habor  and  the  Saokoras  (Ptolem.  v.  18,  4). 
Those  who  identify  the  Habor  with  the  east- 
ern tributary  of  the  Tigris  bearing  that  name 
are  apt,  however,  to  identify  Halah  with  the 
province  of  Kalachene  (Strabo  xi.  8,  4 ; 
Ptolem.  vi.  1),  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Tigris  near  Adiabene,  north  of  Nineveh  on 
the  borders  of  Armenia. 

Ha'lak  [smooth,  bare]. 

A  mountain  in  the  south  of  Palestine  on 
the  way  to  mount  Seir  (Josh.  xi.  17  ;  xii.  7). 
Its  ideiiiity  has  not  been  established. 

Half'shek-el.     See  Monkv,  Tribute. 

Hal'hul  [perhaps,  opening]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .58).  The  Arabs  still  call  the  vil- 
lage llulhul  or  Halhiil.  It  is  3J  nnles  north 
of  Hebron.  It  is  a  place  of  ])ilgrimage,  being 
regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Gad, 

Ha'll  [necklace,  collar]. 

A  village  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josii.  xix.  25).  Guc'rin  suggests  Khurbet 
'Alia,  13  miles  northeast  of  Acre. 

Hal-i-car-nas'sus. 

A  city  of  Caria,  renowned  as  being  the 
biitliiilace  of  Herodotus  and  as  (containing 
the  mausoleum  erected  by  Artemisia,  wliich 
was  reckoned  one  of  the  .seven  wonders  of 


the  world.  Alexander  captured  and  almost 
totally  destroyed  the  city  in  334  B.  c.  It 
continued  to  exist,  but  did  not  thrive.  It 
contained  a  colony  of  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23 ; 
Antiq.  xiv.  10,  23). 

Hall. 

A  building,  or  large  room  in  a  building,  de- 
voted to  public  use.     In  A.  V.  it  denotes 

1.  The  court  of  the  high  priest's  palace 
(Luke  xxii.  55;  in  the  R.  V.  court). 

2.  The  official  residence  of  the  provincial 
governor,  with  its  court  where  he  sat  in 
judgment.  It  was  called  the  prsetorium 
(Mark  xv.  16;  also  Mat.  xxvii.  27;  John 
xviii.  28,  33 ;  xix.  9 ;  Acts  xxiii.  35,  where 
E.  V.  has  palace  or  prsetorium).     See  Pr.e- 

TORIUM. 

Hal-le-lu'jah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Alleluia, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification 
[praise  ye  Jehovah]. 

A  compound  word  used  by  the  writers  of 
various  i)salms  to  invite  ail  to  join  them  in 
praising  Jehovah  (R.  V.  margin  of  Ps.  civ.  35 ; 
cv.  45;  cvi.  1,  48;cxi.  l;cxii.  1 ;  cxiii.1,9;  cxv. 
18  ;  cxvi.  19  ;  cxvii.  2  ;  cxxxv.  1,  21  ;  first  and 
last  vers,  of  cxlvi.-cl. ;  cp.  A.  V.  margin  also). 
From  these  psalms  John  borrowed  the  term 
Alleluia  (Rev.  xix.  1,  3,  4,  6). 

Hal-lo'hesh,  in  A.  V.  once  Halohesh  [the 
enchanter,  the  wizard]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Shallum  (Neh.  iii.  12). 
With  Nehemiah  he  or  the  representative  of 
his  family  sealed  the  covenant  to  worship 
Jehovah  (x.  24). 

Haiti,!,  [meaning  uncertain;  if  Semitic, pos- 
sibly dark-skinned,  or,  perhaps  better,  hot]. 

The  j'oungest  son  of  Noah,  born  after  the 
latter's  five  hundredth  year  (Gen.  v.  32 ; 
vi.  10;  xi.  24);  cp.  Chronology  I.  3.  At 
the  time  of  the  deluge  he  was  married,-  but 
apparently  had  no  children  (Gen.  vii.  7;  1 
Pet.  iii.  20).  On  occasion  of  his  father's 
drunkenness  he  behaved  uudutifully  and 
incurred  a  curse  to  descend  upon  such  of  his 
posterity  as  exhibited  like  degraded  char- 
acter (Gen  ix.  22-27).  The  peoples  of 
southern  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Ca- 
naan were  largely  descended  from  Ham,  and 
in  part  were  made  his  sons  by  conquest  and 
annexation  (Gen.  x.  6-14). 

Ham,  II.  [Egyptian  kam,  black,  so  called 
froiiitiie  color  of  thealluvial  mud  of  theNile]. 

Iviivjit.  Used  in  the  Bible  only  in  poetry 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  51  ;  cv.  23,  27 ;  cvi.  22). 

Ham,  III.  [meaning  unknown.  The  initial 
Ilelnew  letter  is  ditferent  from  that  in  I. 
and  II.]. 

A  place  between  Ashteroth-karnaim  in 
Baslian  and  the  Moabite  country,  where 
Cliedorlaomer  defeated  the  Zuzini  (Gen.  xiv. 
5;  cp.  Deut.  ii.  10).  The  order  of  enumera- 
lidii  makes  it  ])ro))able  that  Ham  was  north 
of  Kiriatbaini  and  the  Arnoii  ;  but  Schwartz, 
followed  by  Tristram,  would  identify  it  with 
the  ruin  called  Hammat,  'Animah  or  Hamei- 


Haman 


285 


Hammou 


tat,  ou  the   east  side  of  the  Roman  road,  3 
miles  north  of  Rabbath  Moab. 

Ha'man  [okl  Persian  umana,  well-disposed  ; 
or  name  of  the  deity  Humba,  Humniau  (see 
Esther)]. 

Sou  of  Hanimedatha  (Esth.  iii.  1).  His 
father  bore  a  Persian  name,  bnt  Haman  was 
none  the  less  an  Agagite  (iii.  1  ;  ix.  24),  which, 
if  it  is  not  a  local  or  obscure  family  name, 
may  mean  that  he  was  of  Amalekite  descent 
and  of  the  royal  family  of  that  Arabian  tribe. 
Exalted  by  the  Persian  king  to  the  highest 
official  position,  he  received  ostentatious 
reverence  from  time-servers.  But  on  ac- 
count of  his  unprincipled  character,  perhaps 
also  for  other  reasons,  the  Jew  Mordecai 
deliberately  withheld  from  him  the  custom- 
ary signs  of  respect.  Haman  planned  re- 
venge ;  in  his  hate  plotting  the  destruction, 
not  of  Mordecai  only,  but  of  all  Jews  in  the 
empire.  His  ])lan  was  frustrated  by  Esther, 
prompted  by  Mordecai  ;  and  Haman  and  his 
sous  perished  (vii.  10  ;  ix.  7-10).    See  Esther. 

Ha'math,  in  A.  V.  once  Hemath  (Amos  vi. 
14)  and  once  Amathis  (1  Mac.  xii.  25),  [fortifi- 
cation, citadel]. 

1.  A  city  on  the  Orontes,  north  of  Hermon 
(Josh.  xiii.  5),  about  120  miles  north  of  Da- 
mascus. It  was  an  early  settlement  of  the 
Canaanites  (Gen.  x.  18).  Toi,  its  king,  con- 
gratulated David  on  his  victory  over  Hadad- 
ezer,  their  common  enemy  (2  Sam.  viii.  9,  10; 
1  Chrou.  xviii.  3,  9,  10).  Solomon  took  Ha- 
math,  with  the  district  subject  to  it,  building 
within  the  latter  store  cities  (2  Chron.  viii. 
3,  4).  It  soon,  however,  reverted  to  its  old 
inhabitants.  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel, 
captured  Damascus  and  Hamath,  which  stood 
in  close  relations  to  Judah,  and  kept  them 
for  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin.  xiv.  28).  About 
this  time  Amos  (vi.  2)  called  the  city  Ha- 
math the  great.  It  was  again  for  a  short 
time  free,  and  relying  upon  Judah  for  aid ; 
but  it  was  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  34  ;  xix.  13).  After  the  capture  of  Sa- 
maria by  the  Assyrians,  it  joined  with  the 
remnant  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  in 
revolt,  720  B.  C.  But  the  uprising  was  quickly 
suppressed  by  Sargon.  Colonists  from  Ha- 
math, who  brought  with  them  Ashima.  their 
god,  were  placed  by  the  Assyrians  in  Sa- 
maria (2  Kin.  xvii.  24,  30),  while  some  of  the 
exiles  of  Israel  seem  to  have  been  located  in 
Hamath  (Is.  xi.  11).  Afterwards  its  history 
becomes  merged  in  that  of  Syria,  and  it 
seems  to  have  become  subordinate  to  Damas- 
cus (Jer.  xlix.  23).  Ezekiel  prophesied  that 
the  restored  land  of  Israel  should  still  ex- 
tend northward  to  Hamath  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16, 
17,  20;  xlviii.  1).  Hamath  was  known  as 
Epiphania  during  the  period  of  Grecian  su- 
premacy (Antiq.  i.  fci,  2),  but  is  now  called 
Hama  or  Hamah. 

2.  The  district  ruled  by  the  city  (1  Mac. 
xii.  25).  One  of  its  towns  was  Eiblah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33). 


The  entering  in  of  Hamath,  that  is,  tojudge 
from  the  similar  ])hrase  elsewhere  (Gen.  xiii. 
10),  the  neighborhood  of  Hamath,  was  re- 
garded as  the  northern  border  of  Israel  (Num. 
xiii.  21 ;  xxxiv.  8  ;  1  Kin.  viii.  65).  To  people 
on  the  south  the  term  may  have  had  special 
meaning,  and  denoted  the  long  valley  of 
Ccelesyria,  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leba- 
non, through  which  the  road  to  Hamath  lay. 
Porter  considers  that  it  was  the  pass  between 
Lebanon  and  the  Nusairiyeh  mountains, 
about  60  miles  north  of  Beirut,  connecting 
the  inland  region  of  Syria  with  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

Ha'math-ites. 

The  people  of  Hamath  (Gen.  x.  18). 

Ha-math-zo'bali. 

The  neighbor  kingdoms  of  Hamath  and 
Zobah,  or  some  small  place  called  Hamath, 
belonging  to  the  Syrian  kingdom  Zobah.  It 
was  captured  by  Solomon  (2  Chron.  viii.  3). 

Ham'math,  in  A.  V.  once  Hematli  (1  Chron. 
ii.  55)  [warmth,  hot  springs]. 

1.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
35).  Probably  one  with  Hammoth-dor  and 
Hammon,  which  was  assigned  to  the  Levites 
(xxi.  .32  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  76).  and  to  be  identified 
with  Emmaus.  a  village  with  warm  baths  at 
a  little  distance  from  Tiberias  (Antiq.  xviii. 
2,  3  ;  War  iv.  1,  3).  It  is  now  called  Hum- 
mam  Ibrahim  Basha,  and  is  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  about  H  miles 
south  of  Tiberias.  The  water  is  sulphurous 
and  medicinal. 

2.  The  founder  of  the  house  of  Eechab,  a 
family  of  the  Kenites  (1  Chron.  ii.  55).  The 
A.  V.  has  here  Hemath. 

Ham-med'a-tha. 

An  Agagite,  father  of  Haman  (Esth.  iii.  1). 

Ham'me-lech  [the  king]. 

Father  of  Jerahmeel  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26,  A.  V. 
and  margin  of  E.  V.).  The  word  suggests, 
however,  that  Jerahmeel  was  of  royal  blood, 
son  of  the  king  (E.  V.). 

Ham'mer. 

A  tool,  called  in  Hebrew  Pattish,  and  used 
for  smoothing  metals  and  for  breaking  rocks 
(Is.  xii.  7;  Jer.  xxiii.  29).  It  serves  as  a 
figure  for  any  crushing  power.  Babylon  was 
the  hammer  of  the  wliole  earth  (Jer.  1.  23). 
God's  word  is  like  a  hammer  that  breaketh 
the  rock  in  pieces  (xxiii.  29).  Other  names 
for  an  implement  of  the  same  class  are  mnk- 
kubah  and  maH~ebeth,  used  for  driving  the 
tent  pin  (Judg.  iv.  21).  in  building  operations 
(1  Kin.  vi.  7),  and  in  the  manufacture  of  idols 
(Is.  xliv.  12;  Jer.  x.  4). 

Ham-miph'kad.     See  Miphkad. 

Ham-md'e-chetli,  in  A.  V.  Hammoleketh 
[the  queen]. 

A  sister  of  Gilead  (1  Chron.  vii.  It^).  Sev- 
eral tribal  families  of  Mauasseh  sprang  from 
her. 

Ham'mon  [warm,  sunny]. 

1.  A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix. 


Hammoth-dor 


286 


Hananiah 


28).  Perhaps  10  miles  soutli  of  Tyre  and 
about  a  mile  from  the  beach,  at  'Ain  Hamul, 
i  of  a  mile  from  Umm  el-'Amiid,  where,  as 
Eenan  has  shown,  Baal  Hammou  was  wor- 
shiped. 
2.  A  town  of  Naphtali.     See  H.4MMAth. 

Ham 'moth-dor  [warm  springs  of  Dor].  See 
Hammath. 

Ham-mu'el,  iu  A.  V.  Hamuel  [warmth  of 
tJod]. 

A  Simconite,  son  of  Mishma,  probably  of 
the  family  of  Shaul  (1  Chron.  iv.  26). 

Ham-o'nah  [abundance,  multitude]. 

Symlxilical  name  of  the  city  near  which 
Got;  is  to  be  defeated  (Ezek.  xxxix.  16). 

Ha'mon-gog  [multitude  of  (log]. 

A  Maine  to  be  given  to  a  certain  valley 
where  the  hosts  which  Gog  brings  with  him 
shall  be  slain  and  buried  (Ezek.  xxxix.  11, 
IT)).     Situation  unknown. 

Ha'mor,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Emmor,  an  imi- 
tation of  the  (ireek  [an  ass]. 

The  prince  of  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv.  20; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32;  Judg.  ix.  28):  a  Hivite,  a 
branch  of  the  Amorites.  and  a  jirince  of  that 
tribe,  at  least,  in  central  Palestine  (Gen. 
xxxiv.  2;  xlviii.22).  His  son  Shechem  ruined 
Diiuih,  and  both  father  and  son  fell  victims 
to  the  vindictiveness  of  her  brothers  Simeon 
and  Levi  (xxxiv.  1-31). 

Ham'ran.     See  Hemdan. 

Ha-mu'el.     See  Hammuel. 

Ha'mul  [pitied,  spared]. 

Younger  son  of  Perez,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  of  Judah  (Gen.  xlvi.  12  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  21  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  5). 

Ha-mu'tal  [akin  to  dew,  refreshing  like 
dew]. 

Daughter  of  Jeremiah  of  Libnah,  wife  of 
king  Josiah,  and  mother  of  the  kings  Je- 
hoahaz  and  Zedekiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31 ;  xxiv. 
18;  Jer.  Hi.  1). 

Han'a-mel,  in  A.  V.  Ha-nam'e-el  [per- 
hai)s,  (;od  liath  pitied]. 

Sou  of  Shalluni,  and  cousin  of  the  prophet 
.lereuiiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  7-15). 

Ha'nan  [gracious,  merciful]. 

1.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron. 
xi.  43). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  23). 

3.  A  son  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan 
(1  Chron.  viii.  38;  ix.  44). 

4.  A  prophet,  son  of  Igdaliah.  His  sons 
had  a  chamber  in  the  temi)le  (Jer.   xxxv.  4). 

.5.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Xelliiuim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returueil  from  ]ial)yh)n  with 
Zerubbabel  I  Ezra  ii.  46;  Neh.  vii.  49). 

6.  A  man,  jirobably  a  Lcvite,  whom  Ezra 
emj)loye<l  with  others  to  nuike  the  people 
understand  the  law  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He  seems 
to  have  .seaUnl  the  covt'uaut  (x.  10). 

7  and  H.  Two  chiefs  of  the  people,  wlioalso 
sealed  the  covenant  (22,  26). 


9.  A  .son  of  Zuccur,  appointed  assistant 
treasurer  by  Xehemiah  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Han'a-nel,  in  A.  V.  Ha-nan'e-el  [God 
hath  been  gracious]. 

A  tower  at  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxi.  38  ;  Zech. 
xiv.  10),  near  the  sheep-gate  and  the  tower 
of  Meah  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  xii.  39) ;  see  Jeku.sa- 

LEM,   II.  3. 

Ha-na'ni  [gracious]. 

1.  A  son  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  eight- 
eenth of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  musi- 
cians appointed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  25). 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
1)  and  himself  a  seer.  He  rebuked  king 
Asa,  and  was  by  his  orders  committed  to 
prison  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7). 

3.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah  who  brought 
him  news  regarding  Jerusalem  (Neh.  i.  2). 
He  and  the  governor  of  the  castle  were  after- 
wards given  charge  of  the  city  (vii.  2). 

4.  A  prie.st,  son  of  Immer,  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
20). 

5.  A  Levite  who  played  an  instrument  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Han-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious). 

1.  A  Benjamite.  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

2.  A  .son  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  six- 
teenth of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  musi- 
cians formed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4,  23). 

3.  One  of  king  Uzziah's  captains  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  11). 

4.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary,  the 
prince  Zedekiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12). 

5.  Son  of  Azzur  of  Gibeon.  In  the  fourth 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  he  prophesied  a  re- 
turn of  the  captives  after  two  years'  captiv- 
ity. Jeremiah  had  given  forth  a  different 
prediction.  As  a  penalty,  the  false  prophet 
was  doinned  to  death,  his  decease  occurring 
two  months  later  (Jer.  xxviii.  1-17). 

6.  Grandfather,  or  remoter  ancestor,  of 
Irijah,  the  captain  of  the  watch  who  arrested 
Jeremiah  on  the  charge  of  intending  to  desert 
to  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13-15). 

7.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  captive  called 
by  the  Chaldeans  Shadrach  (Dan.  i.  6,  7  ;  1 
Mac.  ii.  59). 

8.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel,  and  father  of 
Pelatiah  and  Jeshaiah  (1  C'hron.  iii.  19,  21)  ; 
perhaps  the  ancestor  of  Christ  called,  by 
transposition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
name,  .loanan  (fjuke  iii.  27,  R.  V.). 

9.  A  son  of  Hebai,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  bis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

10.  An  apotliecary  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  S). 

11.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  tlie 
dedication  of  the  wall  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

12.  A  chief  of  the  people,  who  with  Nehe- 
miah .sealed  the  covenant  (Neh,  x.  23). 


Handbreadth 


287 


Hara 


ir>.  The  governor  of  tlie  castle  and  joint 
ruler  with  Hauani,  Xehemiah's brother,  over 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  vii.  2). 

14.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jeremiah,  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim,  a  generation  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xii.  12). 

Hand'breadth. 

The  breadth  of  the  hand,  a  palm  (Ex.  xxv. 
25)  ;  see  Cubit.  It  is  used  by  the  psalmist 
figuratively  of  human  life,  especially  when 
life  closes  prematurely  (Ps.  x.xxix.  5). 

Hand'broad. 

Measuring  a  handbreadth  (Ezek.  xl.  43  ; 
in  R.  V.  handbreadth). 

Hand 'ker- chief. 

A  small  cloth  used  by  the  Romans  for  wip- 
ing the  hands  and  face.  The  Jews  adopted 
it  in  the  Eoman  period.  They  bound  it 
about  the  head  of  their  dead  (John  xi.  44  ; 
XX.  7;  in  English  version,  napkin).  Once 
in  Ephesus  handkerchiefs  were  carried  from 
the  body  of  the  apostle  Paul  unto  the  sick, 
and  their  diseases  departed  (Acts  xix.  12). 
The  man  who  received  one  pound  from  his 
lord  hid  it  in  such  a  cloth  (Luke  xix.  20 ;  in 
English  version,  napkin). 

Ha'nes  [hieroglyi)hic,  Su-Chenen  or  Clieven- 
su ;  Coptic,  Hues]. 

A  city  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxx.  4)  about  ,50  miles 
south  of  Memphis,  and  still  known  as  Ahnas. 
In  the  Grpeco- Roman  period  it  was  known  as 
Heracleopolis  magna.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Tahpanhes. 

Hang'ing. 

A  form  of  punishment  in  which,  after  the 
criminal  was  put  to  death,  his  body  was  sus- 
pended from  a  tree  or  post.  It  was  in  vogue 
in  Egypt  (Gen.  xl.  19,  22),  among  the  Israel- 
ites (Deut.  xxi.  22 ;  Josh.  x.  26 ;  2  Sam.  iv. 
12),  and  the  Persians  (Herod,  iii.  125 ;  ix.  78). 
The  hanging  intensitied  the  disgrace.  Among 
the  Israelites,  the  elevation  of  the  body  on 
the  tree  was  a  call  to  God  to  witness  that  the 
guilty  one  had  paid  just  and  sufficient  pen- 
alty, and  was  a  testimony  of  God's  abhor- 
rence of  sin.  But  while  it  remained  exposed, 
it  proclaimed  that  sin  had  been  committed  in 
Israel.  The  body  was  therefore  buried  out 
of  sight  at  nightfall  (Ueut.  xxi.  23;  Josh, 
viii.  29;  cp.  Gal.  iii.  13).  Suicide  was  some- 
times committed  by  hanging  which  caused 
strangulation  (2  Sam.  xvii.  23 ;  Mat.  xxvii. 
5).     See  Gallows. 

Han'i-el.     See  Hanxiel. 

Han'nah  [grace,  compassion]. 

One  of  the  two  wives  of  Elkauah.  She 
was  her  husband's  favorite,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence subjected  to  petty  annoyances  by 
the  rival  wife.  She  vowed  that  if  she  gave 
birth  to  a  man-child,  she  would  devote  him 
to  the  service  of  Jehovah.  Her  wish  was 
gratified ;  she  became  the  mother  of  the 
prophet  Samuel,  and  carried  out  her  vow  (1 
Sam.  i.  1-28).  Her  song  of  triumph  is  highly 
poetic,  and  was  probably  in  the  mind  of  the 


Virgin  ^lary  wlicn  she  expressed  her  grati- 
tude in  similar  jioctic  strains  on  learning 
that  she  was  to  give  birth  to  the  Sou  of  God 
(ii.  1-10;  Luke  i.  26-55). 

Han'na-thon  [regarded  with  favor]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
14).  Conder  identities  it  with  Kefr 'Anan,  11 
miles  N.  E.  by  X.  of'the  ruins  Rummaneh,  that 
is,  Eimmon  ( 13 1.  The  iilace  seems  too  remote. 

Han'ni-el,  in  A.  V.  Haniel  in  1  Chron.  vii. 
39  [favor  or  grace  of  God]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  Manassites  who,  when  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  enter  Canaan,  was 
appointed  on  the  committee  to  divide  the 
land  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

Ha'nocli,  in  A.  V.  once  Henoch  (1  Chron. 
1.33)  [initiated,  dedicated].  Exactly  the  same 
Hebrew  word  as  that  rendered  Enoch. 

1.  A  son  of  Midian,  and  a  descendant  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  4;  1  Chron. 
i.  33).  The  name  is  perhaps  jjreserved  in 
Hanakuya.  a  place  three  days'  journey  to  the 
north  of  Medina. 

2.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14;  Num. 
xxvi.  5;  1  Chron.  v.  3). 

Ha'nun  [enjoying  favor]. 
1.  A  king  of  the  Ammonites,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  David's  friend  Nahash.  The  He- 
brew king  therefore  sent  to  condole  with 
him  ou  his  father's  death,  and  congratulate 
him  on  his  own  accession.  Evil  counselors 
suggested  that  the  real  object  of  the  embassy 
was  to  spy  out  the  Ammonite  capital,  with 
the  view  of  afterwards  attempting  its  capture. 
Hauun,  therefore,  grossly  ill-treated  the  am- 
bassadors, shaving  oil'  half  their  beards  and 
cutting  off  tTieir  garments  in  the  middle. 
Knowing  that  the  outrage  would  be  resented, 
he  prepared  for  war.  He  obtained  the  Syr- 
ians as  his  allies,  but  was  defeated  (2  Sam.  x. 
1-xi.  1;  1  Chron.  xix.  1-xx.  3). 

2  and  3.  Two  Jews  who  repaired  portions 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  iii.  13,  30). 

Haph-a-ra'im,  in  A.  V.  Haph'ra-im.  an 
error  from  which  the  original  edition  of  A. 
V.  was  free  [two  pits]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  If  I). 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Afarea,  6  Roman 
miles  to  the  north  of  Legio.  At  this  distance 
northwest  of  Lejjun  is  the  ruined  site  of  Far- 
riyeh  ;  while  about  7  Roman  miles  east  north- 
east of  Lejjun  lies  the  village  el-'Afule. 

Hap-piz'zez,  in  A.  V.  Aphses  [the  disper- 
sion]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  eighteenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  15). 
Ha'ra  [mountainous  region]. 
A  place  in  Assyria  to  which  captives  from 
the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (1  Chron.  v.  26). 


Haradah 


288 


Hariph 


Sitii:iti()n  unknown.  Some,  believe  it  to  ben 
designation  of  Media,  namely  the  niotintain, 
or  a  eoirnjition  of  "monutaius"  of  Media. 

Har'a-dah  [terror]. 

An  eneamimient  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  after  being  turned  hack  from 
liilhinah  (Num.  xxxiii.  24).  Palmer  and 
Drake  identified  it  with  the  present  Jebel 
"Aradeh,  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  about  40 
miles  southwest  of  Elath.  Both  etymology 
and  situati<m  are  against  the  identification. 

Ha'ran.  I.  [meaning  unknown]. 

1.  A  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abra- 
ham. He  died  early,  in  his  native  place,  Ur 
of  the  C'haldees;  but  left  a  son.  Lot,  and  two 
daughters,  Milcah  and  Iscah  (Gen.  xi.  29). 

2.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei  (1 
C'hron.  xxiii.  9). 

Ha'ran,  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.,  Charran 
[road,  business]. 

1.  A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  about  240  miles 
west  by  north  from  Nineveh  and  280  north- 
northeast  of  Damascus.  It  was  a  commer- 
cial center;  and,  like  Ur  of  the  C'haldees, 
had  the  moou-god  for  its  y)atron  deity.  Terah 
and  Abraham  sojourned  in  it  for  a  time,  and 
Terah  died  there  (Gen.  xi.  31,  32;  xii.  4,  5). 
The  family  of  Nahor  settled  there,  and  Jacob 
for  a  time  resided  there  (xxiv.  24  ;  xxviii. 
10;  xxix.  5).  The  Assyrians  hunted  in  its 
vicinity  as  early  as  1100  B.  c. ;  and  they  long 
held  sway  over  it.  A  capture  of  the  city  by 
them  is  mentioned  (2  Kin.  xix.  12).  The 
Greeks  called  it  Karrhai,  and  the  Koraans 
Came.  In  53  B.  c.  the  Roman  triumvir 
Crassus,  the  colleague  of  Pompey  and  of 
Julius  Ciesar,  allowed  himself  to  be  out- 
maneuvered  and  defeated  near  Haran  by  the 
Parthian  general  Surena,  by  whose  repre- 
sentatives he  was  soon  afterwards  barbarously 
slain.  It  is  now  a  small  Arab  village,  still 
retaining  the  name  of  Harran,  situated  in 
upper  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Belik,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Euphrates,  about  240  miles  west 
by  north  from  Nineveh  and  82  east  from  the 
gulf  of  Scanderoon. 

2.  Son  of  Caleb  and  Ephah,  of  the  family 
of  Hezron  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

Ha'ra-rite  [inhabitant  of  a  mountain]. 

Possibly  it  means  a  mountaineer,  one  from 
the  hill  country  of  Judah  or  Ephraim  (Si- 
monis,  Gesenius,  Siegfried-Stade).  But  this 
designation  seems  too  general.  Probably,  to 
judge  from  the  context  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  33, 
it  means  an  inhabitant  of  a  hamlet  called 
Harar,  mountain,  from  its  location  on  some 
peak,  like  Gibeah,  hill,  and  its  inhabitants 
(ribeathites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11  ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
34,  3,-)). 

Har-bo'na  and  Harbonah  [Persian,  per- 
haps ass-driver]. 

A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuorus  (Esth.  i.  10; 
vii.  9). 


Hare. 

An  animal,  in   Hebrew 


Arni'hcth.   said    to 


chew  the  cud,  but  not  to  part  the  hoof,  and 
therefore  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  6 ;  Deut.  xiv.  7). 
The  opinion  of  the  Hebrews  that  the  animal 
chewed  the  cud  was  founded  on  a  peculiar 
movement  of  its  mouth.  Physiologically, 
however,  it  is  not  a  ruminating  animal,  but 
a  rodent,  and  is  so  arranged  by  modern  nat- 
uralists. The  common  hare  of  Palestine 
(Lepussi/riacHs)  is  two  inches  shorter  than  the 
European  hare  (L.  europsem),  and  bus  slightly 
shorter  ears.  It  frequents  wooded  and  culti- 
vated places.  The  common  hare  of  southern 
Judaea  and  the  Jordan  valley  (L.  judex  of 
Gray)  has  very  long  ears  and  light  tawny  fur. 
Tristram  enumerates  three  other  species  of 
the  southern  frontier:  L.  legyptincas,  the 
Egyptian  hare,  in  the  southeastern  ]iart  of 
Judsea;  L.  isabillinus,  in.  the  sandy  deaerts  oi' 
southeastern  Palestine  ;  and  L.  sinaiticus,  with 
fur  of  a  reddish  hue. 

Ha'rel  [the  mount  of  God]. 

A  portion  of  the  altar  described  by  Eze- 
kiel  (xliii.  1.")).  In  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  it  is 
rendered  altar,  and  in  that  of  the  R.  V'.  upper 
altar. 

Ha'reph  [picking,  plucking  off]. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  and  ancestor  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Beth-gader  (1  Chron.  ii.  51). 

Ha'reth.     See  Hereth. 

Har-ha'iah. 

Father  of  the  goldsmith  Uzziel  (Neh.  iii.  8). 

Har'Iias. 

An  ancestor  of  Shallum,  husband  of  Hul- 
dah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  Called 
Hasrah  in  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22.  The  two 
names  differ  in  Hebrew  in  the  second  H,  and 
not  merely  in  transposition  of  letters. 

Har'hur  [inflammation,  fever]. 

The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
some  of  whom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  51;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'rim  [flat-nosed,  snub-nosed,  or  conse- 
crated]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  constituted  the  third  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  8).  Probably  they  were 
members  of  this  family  who  returned  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  39  ;  Neh.  vii.  42).  A  father's 
house  among  the  priests  in  the  next  genera- 
tion after  the  exile  bore  this  name  (Neh.  xii. 
15) ;  see  Rkhum.  At  a  later  period  some  of 
this  family  were  among  those  who  had  mar- 
ried foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  21).  And  later 
still  a  jiriest  of  this  name,  doubtless  head  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  tiio  covenant  to  observe 
the  law  of  God  and  to  endeavor  to  prevent 
intermarriages  with  foreigners  (Neh.  x.  5). 

2.  Founder  of  a  non-priestly  family,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubl)abel  (Ezra  ii.  32;  x.  31  ;  Neh.  iii.  11 ; 
vii.  3.-)). 

Ha'riph   autumnal  rain]. 

Foiindt  r  of  a  fannly,  members  of  which 


Harlot 


289 


Harum 


returned  from  Biibyhm  with  Zerubhabel 
(Neh.  vii.  24).  A  prince  of  tliis  name 
sealed  the  covenant,  doubtless  as  representa- 
tive  of  the  family  (x.  19).  The  same  as 
Jorah  (Ezra  ii.  18),  which  also  means  au- 
tumnal rain. 

Har'lot. 

A  prostitute  (Gen.  xxxviii.  15  ;  Lev.  xxi. 
7  ;  Deut.  xxiii.  18  ;  Josh.  ii.  1 ;  Judg.  xvi.  1). 
To  play  the  harlot  or  to  go  a  whoring  after, 
often  means,  in  scriptural  usage,  to  go  with 
or  after  a  paramour  ;  in  a  figurative  sense, 
to  depart  from  Jehovah  and  give  the  affec- 
tions and  worship  to  other  gods  (Jer.  ii.  20  ; 
iii.  1  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  15,  Ki ;  xxiii.  5). 

Har-Mag'e-don.    See  Armageddon. 

Har'ne-pher  [perhaps,  panting]. 

An  Asherite,  sou  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
36). 

Ha'rod  [fear,  terror]. 

A  well  near  which  Gideon  pitched  while 
his  adversaries,  the  Midianites,  were  by  the 
hill  of  Moreh,  in  the  valley  (Judg.  vii.  1). 
It  is  commonly,  but  without  certainty,  iden- 
tified with  the  fountain  of  Jaliid,  on  the 
northwestern  side  of  mount  Gilboa,  about  a 
mile  east  by  south  of  Jezreel.  A  village  ap- 
pears to  have  stood  in  the  vicinity  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  25). 

Ha'rod-ite. 

All  inhal)itant  of  the  town  of  Harod  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  25). 

Har'o-eh.     See  Reaiah. 

Ha'ro-rite. 

Eather  Harodite  (q.  v.),  as  there  is  reason 
to  read  this  word  (1  Chron.  xi.  27;  cp.  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  25). 

Ha-ro'sheth  [carving,  artificers'  work  in 
wood  or  stone]. 

A  town  more  fully  called  Harosheth  of  the 
gentiles  or  nations.  Sisera  had  his  residence 
there  (Judg.  iv.  2,  13,  16).  Formerly  the 
site  was  sought  somewhere  west  of  the  waters 
of  Merom,  and  not  far  from  the  northern 
Hazor.  Now  it  is  more  commonly  located  at 
el-Harathiyeh,  a  small  village  on  the  north- 
ern bank  of  the  Kishon,  at  the  point  where 
the  stream,  hidden  among  oleander  bushes, 
passes  through  a  narrow  gorge  to  enter  the 
plain  of  Acre. 

Harp. 

Rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kinnor, 
emitter  of  a  tremulous  sound  ;  and  in  the  N. 
T.  of  the  Greek  word  Kithara,  lyre,  lute.  It 
was  a  stringed  musical  instrument  of  the 
harp  kind,  small  enough  to  be  carried  about 
(Is.  xxiii.  16),  and  was  played  with  the  fingers 
(1  Sam.  xvi.  23)  or  with  a  plectrum  (Antiq. 
vii.  12,  3).  It  was  played  by  Jubal,  an  ante- 
diluvian, of  the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  21), 
was  known  to  Laban  (xxxi.  27),  was  the  in- 
strument with  which  David  soothed  Saul 
during  his  fits  of  melancholy  madness  (1 
Sam.  xvi.  16).  The  pro])lietsand  others  used  it 
for  sacred  purposes  (1  Sam.  x.  5;  Ps.  xliii.  4; 

19 


xlix.4\anditw.isphiyedi!it"icteni])leorches- 
tra  (1  Chron.  xxv.  1,3);  see  Music.  It  was  em- 
ployed also  in  festive  entertainments  (Job 
xxi.  12).  Even  harlots  sometimes  carried  it 
about  with  them  (Is.  xxiii.  15,  16).  It  was 
the  instrument  whicli  the  captive  Jews  hung 
on  the  Babylonian  willows  (Ps.  cxxxvii.  2). 
Two  kinds  were  iu  u.se  in  Egypt ;  a  larger,  of 
the  height  of  a  man,  and  a  smaller,  which 


Ancient  Egyptian  Harp. 

was  easily  carried.  The  Hebrews  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  harp,  but  it  is  not  certain 
that  the  word  kinnor  really  means  harp. 
The  Seventy  regai-ded  it  rather  as  a  lyre  or 
lute,  than  a  harp,  for  they  render  the  Hebrew 
word  by  kithara. 

Har'row. 

An  implement  of  agriculture,  consisting 
of  a  wooden  frame  armed  with  teeth  of  wood 
or  iron  (2  Sam.  xii.  31).  It  is  drawn  over 
plowed  land  to  level  it  and  break  tlie  clods 
preparatory  to  sowing  the  seed,  and  to  cover 
the  seed  when  sown.  It  cannot  be  shown, 
however,  that  the  Hebrew  word  in  2  Sam. 
xii.  31  denotes  such  an  in-strument.  The 
Israelites  broke  the  clods  in  some  manner 
(Job  xxxix.  10;  Is.  xxviii.  24;  Hos.  x.  11), 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  used  a  har- 
row. The  modern  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
sometimes  turn  in  the  cattle  for  this  purpose. 
Har'sha  [artificer's  work,  enchantment]. 
Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  some 
of  whom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  52;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Hart. 

A  stag,  or  male  deer,  five  years  old,  and 
which  has  developed  its  sur-royal  or  crown 
antler.  It  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ayyal,  deer,  a  wild,  clean  animal  (Deut.  xii. 
15;  xiv.  5;  1  Kin.  iv.  23;  Ps.  xlii.  1  ;  Song 
viii.  14).    See  Deer. 

Ha'rum  [exalted,  high]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  Aharhel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 


Harumaph 


290 


Ha-ru'maph  [flat  of  nose]. 

Father  of  a  ciTtaiii  .Icilaiali  (Neli.  Hi.  10). 

Har'u-phite. 

TIr-  (IfsiKiiutiou  of  Shophatiah,  a  Benja- 
niitf,  who  Joined  David  at  Zikhifi  (1  C'hron. 
xii.  5).  The  Hel)ie\v  traditional  reading?  is 
Haripliite,  a  ineiul)er  of  tiir  family  of  Harii)h 
(cp  Neh.  vii.  -Jt-iW.  where  JIaripli  is  euuiuc- 
rated  with  15enjaniites). 

Ha'ruz  [sediUous,  in<lustrious]. 

Father-iu-hiw  of  king  Mauasseh  (2  Kin. 
xxi.  lit). 

Har'vest. 

The  period  of  harvest  in  ancient  Palestine 
may  lie  divided  into  two  ])ortions  :  that  of 
barley  and  that  of  wheat  harvest,  the  former 
preceding  the  latter  l)y  ai)out  a  fortnight 
(Kuth  ii.  23).  Its  beginning  was  consecrated 
by  tlie  bringing  of  the  sheaf  of  firstfruits 
(Lev.  xxiii.  10).  It  began  in  the  lowhmds 
before  tlie  crops  were  rii>e  on  the  liills.  In 
the  Init  Jordan  valley  barley  harvest  com- 
menced in  April,  when  the  Jordan  was  full 
(Josh.  iii.  15 ;  cp.  v.  10),  at  the  close  of  the 
rainy  season  (1  Sam.  xii.  17,  IH;  Prov.  xxvi. 
1 ).  Wheat  harvest  lingered  in  the  uplands  to 
tile  month  of  .Fiine.  It  was  a  hot  time  of  tlie 
year  (Prov.  xxv.  13  :  Is.  xviii.  4).  When  the 
harvest  was  completed,  and  the  produce  gath- 
ered in,  there  were  great  rejoicings  (Is.  ix.  3). 


Hashum 

Hebron,  and  inspector  for  the  country  west 
of  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  30;  cp.  xxiii.  12). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kemuel,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

5.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  during  the  reign 
of  Josiah  (2  t'hron.  xxxv.  9). 

().  A  Merarite  Levite,  who  joined  Ezra  at 
the  river  of  Aliava,  and  was  apparently  one 
of  the  twelve  who  were  entrusted  with  the 
treasure  which  was  being  conveyed  to  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  viii.  19,  24).  Probably  it  was  he 
who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  11).  and 
who  was  a  chief  Levite  and  one  of  the  tem- 
ple musicians  (Neh.  xii.  24). 

7.  Tlie  ruler,  in  Nehemiah's  time,  of  half 
Keilah.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  iii.  17). 

8.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Asaph  (Neh. 
xi.  22). 

9.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Hilkiah,  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  high 
priest  (Neh.  xii.  21 1. 

Ha-shab'nah. 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  2.'i). 
Hash-ab-ne'iah,  in  A.  V.  Hash-ab-ni'ab. 

1.  Father  of  a  certain  Hattush  (Neh.  iii. 
10). 

2.  One  of  those  Levites  who  by  theii;  ex- 
hortations ])re pared  the  returned  e.xiles  for 


Harvest  in  .\ncieiit  Egypt. 


Tiie  fi-asts  of  iinl(;avened  bread,  of  weeks  or 
harvest,  and  of  ingathering,  iiad  all  a  rela- 
tion to  the  season  of  reajiing.     See  Ykar. 

Has-a-di'ah  [.Fehovaii  hath  shown  kiiid- 
ne>>l, 

A  son  of  Zerubliabel  (1  Cliron.  iii.  20). 

Has-e-nu'ah.     See  IIassioniah. 

Hash-a-bi'ah   [.lehovah   hatli  imputed  or 

dcvixdl. 

1.  A  Merarite  Levite,  descended  through 
Ama/.iah.  and  an  ancestor  of  .Jediithun  (1 
Chron.  vi.  l")i.  IVriiaps  lie  is  tlie  d(!scendant 
of  Hiinni  inenlioned  as  anc(\slor  of  Slu'inaiah 
(ix.  1  I;  Neh.  \i.  1.".). 

2.  .V  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  .Feduthiin  and 
head  of  the  twelflli  company  of  musicians 
appointed  by  David  for  tlie  .sanctuary  (1 
Cliroii.  x\v.  ::,  I!i). 

:;.    .\    Koliiithite    Levite   of    the    niniilv    of 


sealing  tlie  covenant  with  .lelnivah  (Neh. 
ix.  r,).' 

Hash-bad'da-na,  in  A.  V.  Hash-bad'a-na. 

One  of  tliose  who  stood  beside  Ezra  when 
he  addressed  the  returned  exiles  (Neh.  viii.  4i. 

Ha'shem  [make  astonished  !  lay  waste  !]. 

A  (iizonite,  mentioned  in  the;  catalogue  of 
David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  34).  See 
Jashkn. 

Hash-mo 'nah  [iilace  of  fertility]. 

.\  caniiiing  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Xiiiii.  xxxiii.  29,  .30).  Exact  sit- 
uation unknown. 

Ha'shub.     See  IIassiiub. 

Ha-shu'bah  [esteemed,  inirposed]. 

A  son  of  Zeriibbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Ha'shum  [ricli,  wealtliy]. 

l''ounder  of  a  faniilv,  members  of  wliicli  re- 


Hashupha 


291 


Havilali 


turned  from  Babylon  with  ZtTubliabcl  fEzra 
ii.  19;  X.  83;  Nth.  vii.  22).  The  representa- 
tive of  the  family,  or  a  person  of  this  name, 
sup])orted  Ezra  while  the  latter  addressed  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  4),  and  then  sealed  the  cov- 
enant (x.  IS). 

Ha-shu'plia.     See  Hasupha. 

Ha-si-dse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Asideans  and  Assi- 
deans  [Greek  'Asidaioi,  from  Hebrew  H''sidiiii, 
the  pious]. 

A  part}'  among  the  Jews  who  lield  stren- 
uously to  the  old  faith  (1  Mac.  ii.  42).  They 
joined  Mattathias,  and  later  cooperated  with 
Judas  Maccabteus  in  most  of  his  plans  (ii. 
42 ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  6),  althoujih  contrary  to  his 
judgment  thev  souirht  peace  from  the  Syrians 
(1  Mac.  vii.  13). 

Has-mo-nse'an.     See  Asmon^ean. 

Has 'rah  [perhaps,  want].     See  Harhas. 

Has-se-na'ah,  and  without  the  definite 
article  Senaali  [perhaps,  thorny]. 

The  sons  of  Has.senaah  rebuilt  the  fish- 
gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  3).  Of  the  chil- 
dren of  Senaah,  some  three  thousand  return- 
ed from  Babylon  with  Zeruhbabel  (p]zra  ii. 
.3.") ;  Xeh.  vii.  38).  Whether  Senaah  is  a  man 
or  a  town  is  uncertain. 

Has-se-nu'ah,  in  A.  V.  Hasenuah,  and, 
withoutthearticle,  Senuall  [i)erhaps,  thorny]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Hodaviah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7). 

2.  Parent  of  a  certain  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  9). 
Has'shub,  iu  A.  V.  of  Nehemiah  HasLub 

[thoughtful]. 

1.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab.  He  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  111. 

2.  A  Jew  who  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  opposite  to  his  house  (  Neh.  iii.  23). 
It  was  probably  either  he  or  No.  1  who  signed 
the  covenant  (x.  23). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite,  father  of  Shemaiah 
(1  Cliron.  ix.  14;  Neh.  xi.  15). 

Has-soph'e-reth.     See  Sophereth. 

Ha-su'pha,  in  A.  V.  once  Hashupha  [made 
bare). 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  cajitivity  with 
Zeruhbabel  (Ezra  ii.  43;  Neh.  vii.  4(j). 

Hat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  word  Kor- 
bel,  binding,  wrap  (Dan.  iii.  21;  in  R.  V. 
mantle).     See  Clothing. 

Ha'thach,  iu  A.  V.  Hatach. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  Ahasuerus,  who  was 
aiipoiuted  to  attend  Esther  (Esth.  iv.  5,  10). 

Ha'thath  [terror]. 

A  son  of  Othniel  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

Hat'i-pha  [captive]. 

One  who  founded  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zeruhbabel  (Ezra  ii.  .^4;  Neh.  vii.  .56). 

Hat'i-ta  [engraving,  exploration]. 

A   porter  who  founded  a  familv.  members 


of  whicli  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babei  (Ezra  ii.  42  ;  Neh.  vii.  4.5). 

Hat'til  [tottering,  vacillating]. 

One  of  Solomon's  servants,  who  founded  a 
family,  the  members  of  which  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zeruhbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57 ;  Neh. 
vii.  59). 

Hat'tush  [congregated,  gathered  together] 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Shemaiah,  and 
family  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zeruhbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii. 
2,  7). 

3.  Head  of  a  father's  house,  of  the  sons  of 
David,  who  returned  with  Ezra  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  viii.  2). 

4.  A  son  of  Hashabneiah.  He  repaired  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

5.  A  priest  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  4). 

Hau'ran  [hollow  land,  so  called  because  a 
depressiou  or  because  of  the  multitude  of  its 
caverns]. 

A  region  south  of  Damascus  and  bordering 
on  Gilead  (Ezek.  xlvii.  IG,  18).  In  the 
Greco-Roman  period  it  designated  a  smaller 
district.  It  was  then  known  as  Auranitis.  ■ 
and  was  one  of  four  provinces,  having  Trach- 
onitis  on  the  north  and  (laulonitis  and  ap- 
parently Batanea  toward  the  northwest  (Aii- 
tiq.  xvii.  11,  4  ;  xviii.  4,  6;  War  i.  20,  4;  ii. 
6,  3;  17,  4;  iii.  3.  5).  It  thus  probably  con- 
sisted of  the  plain  lying  between  Gaulonitis 
and  the  present  Jehel  Hauran,  and  perhaps 
included  the  latter.  About  the  year  23  b.  c. 
Auranitis  with  Trachonitis  and  Batanea  was 
bestowed  on  Herod  the  Great  by  Augustus. 
When  Herod's  kingdom  was  divided,  these 
districts  constituted  the  major  part  of  Philip's 
tetrarchy  (Luke  iii.  1  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  11.  4).  The 
surface  is  flat,  broken  only  by  a  few  volcanic 
mounds.  The  soil  is  so  fertile  that  the  Hau- 
ran is  the  granary  for  the  whole  region  round. 
Many  towns  and  villages,  mostly  deserted, 
exist  within  its  limits,  some  of  them  "  the 
giant  cities  of  Bashan,"  as  they  have  been 
called,  built  of  basalt,  with  doors  of  the  same 
material. 

Hav'i-lah  [perhaps,  sandy]. 

A  district  of  Arabia,  peopled  in  part  bj'  a 
body  of  Cushites  and  in  part  by  a  body  of 
Joktanites,  a  Semitic  jieople  (Gen.  x.  7,  29;  1 
Chron.  i.  9,  23).  The  a.ssociation  of  Havilah 
with  Hazarmaveth  and  other  places  points  to 
a  locality  in  central  or  southern  Arabia.  To 
Havilah  belonged  the  river  Pishon  ;  and  the 
region  was  rich  in  gold,  aromatic  gum,  and 
precious  stones  (Gen.  ii.  11.  12).  These  pro- 
ductions strongly  indicate  the  mountainous 
district  to  the  north  of  Yeuiama ;  and  in  this 
neighborhood  Havilah  is  best  sought.  How 
far  beyond  these  mountains  the  boundaries 
of  Havilah  extended  is  not  clear.  From  the 
record  of  Saul's  warfare  with  the  Amalekites 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Arabian  desert 
for  several  hundred  miles  north  of  the  moun- 


Hawoth-jair 


292 


Hazar-shual 


tains  bore  the  naino  Havihih  (1  Sam.  xv.  ,  ; 
cp.  Gen.  XXV.  18).  Mij;rati<iiis  of  tlie  people 
would  also  carry  the  name  to  distant  local- 
ities, as  perbaps  to  the  coast  of  Africa  near 
the  straits  of  Hah  el-:Mandeb,  where  a  gulf, 
.\ii;:lites.  and  a  jieoiili'.  Abalitai.  are  traceable. 

Hav-voth-Ja'ir,  in  A.  V.Havotb-jair  [.Tair's 
circuit  of  villages  or  of  nomad  encami'ments]. 

I'nwalled  towns  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Hashan.  in  the  region  of  the  Argoh,  where 
tliis  tract  approaches  the  country  of  the 
(irshurites  and  Maacathites,  and  where  the 
Ixiinidaries  between  the  rugged  land,  Gilead, 
and  the  open,  sandy  land,  Kashaii,  insen- 
sibly merge  into  each  other  (Dcut.  iii.  4,  14). 
They  were  captured  by  Jair,  a  Manassite. 
Their  number  was  liable  to  fluctuation,  be- 
cause thev  lay  in  a  debatable  land,  and  for 
other  reasons" (1  Chron.  ii.  SU).  They  are  to 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  sixty 
walled  cities  in  the  heart  of  Bashan,  and 
likewise  in  the  Argob  (Deut.  iii.  4,  5;  1  Kin. 
iv.  13).  Since  the  boundary  between  (iilead 
and  Bashan  was  not  clearly  defined  by  na- 
ture, it  never  was  conventionally,  and  places 
on  this  undefined  border  are  referred  to  as  in 
(iilead  or  in  Bashan,  according  to  the  mo- 
nientarv  point  of  view  of  the  narrator.  The 
conquest  of  Bashan  by  the  Israelites  included 
tlie  caiiture  of  the  unwalled  towns  in  the 
Argob  on  this  invisible  border;  and  when 
their  capture  by  Jair  is  related  in  connection 
with  the  confi'uest  of  Og's  kingdom,  which 
was  carried  on  from  Edrei  in  Bashan  as  the 
center,  the  Havvoth-jair  are  described  as  in 
Bashau  (Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xiii.  .W).  When, 
however,  the  eastern  country  is  before  the 
mind  of  a  sojourner  in  tlie  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan or  in  Canaan  west  of  the  river,  he  nat- 
urally speaks  first  of  Gilead,  and  sometimes 
even  uses  that  designation  broadly  for  the  en- 
tire highland  east  of  the  river,  or  he  may 
siieak  of  a  concjuest  of  Gilead  which  was  not 
narrowly  confined  to  the  distinctively  rugged 
land.  From  this  point  of  view,  he  is  apt  to 
refer  to  the  towns  on  the  undefined  border 
of  Gilead  and  Baslian  as  in  (iilead  (I  Chron. 
ii.  21-23;  indefinitely,  Num.  xxxii.  40  seq. ; 
1  Kin.  iv.  13).  Tin-  Havvoth-jair  were  scat- 
tered over  this  indefinite  tract  in  the  Argob  ; 
and  hence,  according  to  the  shifting  point  of 
view,  even  of  one  and  tlu;  .same  narrator,  are 
mentioned  as  in  (iilead  or  in  Bashan.  Some 
of  them  were  doubtless  more  evidently  in 
the  o])en  land,  while  others  were  more  clearly 
in  Die  rugged  land. 

Hawk. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ne.%  flyer 
(Job  xxxix.  2()).  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(IjCV.  xi.  Ki;  Deut.  xiv.  I.')),  and  included 
more  than  one;  sjiecies  of  the  smaller  (in^da- 
toryl)irds  (iliid.).  It  comprehended  the  spar- 
row hawk  ( Arciintcr  uisiis}  and  the  k(^str(d 
(Fdho  liiiiiuiicuhtM).  The  former  abounds  in 
Lebanon  and  the  hilly  parts  of  (ialilee  in 
summer,  and  in  Juda'a  anil   the    Arabah  in 


winter ;  the  latter,  which  is  properly  a  fal- 
con instead  of  a  genuine  hawk,  is  abundant 
in  every  part  of  Palestine  throughout  the 
year. 

Haz'a-el  [God  hath  seen]. 

A  Syrian  courtier  whom  Elijah  was  directed 
by  Jehovah  to  anoint  king  over  Syria  (1  Kin. 
XIX.  1.5,  17).  Some  years  later,  between  845 
and  843  B.  c,  Bcnliadad  II.,  who  then  reigned 
over  that  country,  with  Damascus  for  his  cap- 
ital, bearing  that  Elisha  was  in  the  city,  sent 
Hazael  to  ask  the  prophet  whether  he  should 
recover  of  a  serious  illness  from  which  he 
then  suffered.  fZlisha  told  Hazael  that  his 
master  would  not  recover,  and  that  lie  him- 
self would  be  king  of  Syria,  and  would  per- 
petrate great  cruelties  on  the  people  of  Israel. 
He  replied,  "  But  what  is  thy  servant,  who 
is  but  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  great 
thing?"  Then,  returning  to  his  master,  he 
falsely  told  him  that  the  prophet  foretold  his 
recovery,  and  next  day  assassinated  him  and 
reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  viii.  7-15,  R.  V.). 
In  842  the  Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser  war- 
red against  Hazael  and  exacted  tribute.  In 
839  Shalmaneser  again  warred  with  him. 
Toward  the  close  of  Jehu's  reign  over  Israel, 
about  820,  Hazael  smote  the  country  of  the 
Hebrews  east  of  the  Jordan  (x.  32)  ;  and  in 
the  succeeding  reign,  crossing  the  river,  he 
mightily  oppressed  the  Israelites  (xiii.  4-7), 
invaded  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  took 
Gath,  and  was  only  deterred  from  attacking 
Jerusalem  by  a  rich  present  consisting  of  the 
dedicated  treasures  of  the  temple  (xii.  17, 18). 
He  died  shortly  after.  The  house  of  Hazael 
(Amos  i.  4)  is  Damascus. 

Ha-za'iah  [Jehovah  hath  seen]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  5). 

Ha-zar-ad'dar.    See  Addar. 

Ha-zar-e'nan  and  Hazar-enon  [village  of 
founlains]. 

A  village  on  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine,  near  Damascus  (Num.  xxxiv.  9 ; 
Ezek.  xlvii.  17 ;  xlviii.  1).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Ha-zar-gad'dah  [village  of  good  fortune]. 
A  town    in   the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27).     Exact  site  unknown. 
Ha-zar-hat'ti-con.  See  Hazer-h.\tticon. 

Ha-zar-ma'veth  [village  of  death]. 

A  body  of  Joktanites  who  peopled  a  dis- 
trict in  Arabia  ((tcu.  x.  26 ;  1  Chron.  i.  20). 
A  ri'gion  in  Arabia  Felix,  in  the  south  of  the 
])eninsula,  is  still  called  by  the  Arabs  Ha- 
dramaut,  which  corresponds  etymologically 
to  Ilazarmaveth.  The  place  is  mentioned  iu 
the  inscriptions  of  the  ancient  Saba;ans,  the 
people  of  Sheba. 

Ha-zar-shu'al  [fox  village]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  as- 
signed to  the  Simeouites  (Josh.  xv.  28;  xix. 
3;  1  Chron.  iv.  28).     It  was  occupied  after 


Hazar-susah 


293 


Heath 


the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  27).  Perliaps  tlie  ruin 
eth-Tha'li,  a  wurd  equivalent  to  Sluial. 

Ha-zar-su'sah,  iu  plural  Hazar-susim  [vil- 
lage of  a  mare  or  mares] . 

A  village  belonging  to  the  Simeonites  (Josh. 
xix.  5  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  31).  Tristram  places  it  at 
the  ruin  Susin,  10  miles  south  of  Gaza,  on 
the  caravan  route  to  Egypt.  Perhaps  it  is 
Susiyeh.  2  miles  east  by  north  of  Semua. 

Haz-a-zon-ta'mar,  in  A.  V.  once  Hazezon- 
tamar  (Gen.  xiv.  7).     See  En-gedi. 

Ha'zel. 

The  rendering  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  A.  V.  of  the 
Hebrew  Lns,  which  is  almost  certainly,  as  the 
R.  V.  makes  it,  the  almond  tree. 

Haz-e-lel-po'ni.     See  Hazzelelponi. 

Ha-zer-hat'ti-con,  in  A.  V.  Hazar-hatti- 
con  [the  middle  Hazer  or  village]. 

A  town  on  the  border  of  the  Hauran  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  16).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ha-ze'rim  [villages] . 

Habitations  of  the  Avvim  (Dent.  ii.  23) ; 
in  the  R.  V.  properly  translated  by  villages. 

Ha-ze'roth  [encampments]. 

An  encamping  ground  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness  beyond  Kibroth-hattaavah 
(Num.  xi.  35)  and  on  this  side  of  Paran  (xii. 
Ifi;  xxxiii.  17;  Deut.  i.  1).  It  was  there  that 
Miriam  and  Aaron  murmured  against  Moses 
(Num.  xi.  35-xii.  16).  'Ain  el-Hudera,  about 
36  miles  northeast  of  mount  Sinai,  was  sug- 
gested by  Burckhardt,  and  adopted  by  Robin- 
son and  others,  as  the  site.  The  identifica- 
tion rests,  however,  solely  on  the  similarity 
of  the  name,  and  is  uncertain.  Palmer  found 
at  the  spot  many  stone  circles,  which  evi- 
dently marked  the  site  of  an  encampment 
formed  by  a  pastoral  people. 

Haz-e-zon-ta'mar.    See  Hazazon-tamak. 

Ha'zi-el  [vision  of  God]. 

A  Gershouite  Levite,  sonof  Shimei  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  9). 

Ha'zo  [perhaps,  vision]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 
The  name  is  probably  preserved  in  the  hilly 
region  Hazu,  which  Esarhaddon  traversed, 
not  remote  from  the  Hauran. 

Ha'zor  [an  enclosure]. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  Canaanite  kingdom 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  ruled  over  in 
Joshua's  time  by  Jabin.  According  to  Jo- 
sephus,  it  was  situated  above  the  waters  of 
Merom  (Antiq.  v.  5,  1).  The  town  was  taken 
by  Joshua  and  burnt  (Josh.  xi.  1-13;  xii.  19). 
It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  assigned  to  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  36).  In  the  days  of 
Deborah  and  Barak  it  was  ruled  by  another 
king  Jabin.  On  the  defeat  of  his  general, 
Sisera,  he  attempted  to  continue  the  war 
against  the  Israelites,  but  was  ultimately 
overcome  and  slain  (Judg.  iv.  1-24  ;  1  Sam. 
xii.  9).  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  or  some 
other  Hazor  was  the  town  fortified  by  Solo- 
mon (1  Kin.  ix.  15),  but  it  was  certainly  the 


place  so  named  whose  inhabitants  were  car- 
ried into  captivity  to  Assyria  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  In  the  neighboring 
plain  Jonathan  defeated  Demetrius  (1  Mac. 
xi.  67;  in  A.  V.  Nasor ;  Anti(i.  xiii.  5,  7). 
Robinson's  identification  of  Hazor  with  Tell 
Khureibeh,  3J  miles  west  of  the  waters  of 
Merom,  is  the  most  probable  yet  proposed. 
Conder  locates  it  at  Jebel  Hadireh,  about  2 
miles  fiirther  west. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
called  also  Kerioth-hezron  (Josh.  xv.  25,  R.Y.). 
Exact  site  unknown.  Robinson  located  it  at 
Kureitein,  12  miles  south  of  Hebron.  Hazor, 
a  town  of  Judah  near  Kedesh,  is  mentioned 
in  ver.  23  ;  see  Hezron. 

3.  A  village  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  .33). 
Conder  identifies  it  with  the  ruin  Hazzur, 
4  miles  north-northwest  of  Jerusalem,  and 
directly  west  of  Beit  Hanina,  perhaps  Ana- 
niah  of  ver.  32. 

4.  A  region  in  the  Arabian  desert,  eastward 
of  Palestine.  Jeremiah  pro]>hesied  its  plun- 
dering by  Nebuchadnezzar  (xlix.  28-33).  Be- 
rosus  states  that  Nebuchadnezzar  conquered 
Arabia  (con.  Apion.  i.  19).  The  name  is  prob- 
ably a  collective  and  refers  to  the  settled  vil- 
lage life  of  the  community  in  contrast  to  the 
nomads.     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ha-zor-ha-dat'tah,  in  A.  Y.  punctuated  as 
two  places,  Hazor,  Hadattah  [if  the  second 
word  is  Aramaic,  the  name  means  new  vil- 
lage]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
ajiparently  near  Hazor  2.  Exact  site  un- 
known (Josh.  XV.  25). 

Haz'ze-lel-po'ni,    iu    A.    V.    Hazelelponi 

[give  shade,  thou  who  turnest  toward  me]. 

A  woman  of  Judah,  daughter  of  the  an- 
cestor of  the  men  of  Etam  (1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

He. 

The  fifth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  E  has  the  same  origin,  but 
is  a  vowel.  Where  he  preserves  its  power  as 
a  consonant  in  Hebrew  names,  and  properly 
at  other  times,  it  is  represented  by  h  in  the 
English  form  ;  as  in  Abraham. 

It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fifth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  since  each  verse  in  the  section 
begins  with  this  letter  in  the  original. 

Through  some  similarity  of  form  combined 

with  careless  writing  and  slight  eflacenient 

I   of  the  text,   it    was    sometimes    misread   as 

aleph  on  the  one  hand  and  tau  on  the  other. 

Head'band. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kishshur, 
encircle,  band  (Is.  iii.  20,  in  R.  V.  a  sash  ; 
Jer.  ii.  32,  in  E.  V.  attire).  It  is  an  article 
of  female  attire. 

Heath. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words  Mr'ac 
(Jer.  xvii.  6;  but  R.  V.  margin,  following 
the  Septuagint,  has  tamarisk),  in  Arabic,  ju- 
niper, J.  Oxycednis  (Post),  and  '"ro^er  (Jer. 
xlviii.  6)  ;  both  of  which  involve  the  idea  of 


Heathen 


2U4 


Heave  Offering 


nakedness.  Heath  is  a  shrub,  with  minute, 
narrow,  rigid  leaves.  Tlie  species  Erica  ver- 
ticillata,  a  low  shrub  with  raeenied,  i)ink, 
sweet-scented  flowers,  grows  on  the  western 
sloi)bS  of  Lebanon  (Tost).  Most  interpreters, 
however,  regard  the  word,  at  least  in  Jer. 
slviii.  (},  as  meaning  a  destitute  person,  since 
'a)-o'er  has  that  sense  in  I's.  cii.  17. 

Hea'then  [dweller  in  the  heath].  Tlie 
ivord  sugj^ests  the  fact  that  the  gospel  tirst 
rooted  itself  in  towns,  (he  inhabitants  of 
(vhich  became  Christians,  while  the  dwellers 
on  heaths  remained  worsliipers  of  false  di- 
vinitits.  The  word  Pagan,  from  Latin 
FiKjanKii,  belonging  to  a  village,  rustic,  has  a 
somewhat  sinular  reference. 

One  of  a  i)eoi)le  who  do  not  worship  the  God 
of  the  Bible,  especially  if  they  are  addicted  to 
idolatry.  It  is  a  frequent  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Goy  and  Greek  Etiiiios,  each  of  which 
means  nation  orjieople.  li.X.  emjdoys  the  word 
heathen  only  in  ().  T.  and  then  only  when 
the  character  of  the  gejitile  nations  is  clearly 
referred  to ;  as  in  speaking  of  the  abomina- 
tions of  the  heathen  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  30),  their  filthiness  (Ezra  vi.  21),  their 
ignorance  of  the  truth,  o]iposition  to  the  true 
religion,  barbarous  trami)ling  upon  it  and 
upon  the  people  of  God,  and  consequent  ex- 
posure to  the  righteous  indignation  of  Je- 
hovah (Ps.  Ixxix.  1,  (J,  10,  but  not  cxv.  2  ; 
also  in  Jer.  x.  2o;  I.,ani.  i.  3,  10;  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  2^,  2J>;  xxxvi.  «,  7,  15). 

Heav'en,  often  The  Heavens  [iirobably 
originally,  covering]. 

1.  The  sky,  the  expanse  around  the  earth. 
It  embraces  all  that  is  apart  from  the  earth 
((Jen.  ii.  1);  bene*'  heaven  and  earth  com- 
])rehend  the  universe  ((ien.  i.  1;  xiv.  19; 
xxiv.  3  ;  .(er.  xxiii.  24  ;  ]\Iat.  v.  18).  Beyond 
the  visible  firmament  was  the  primeval 
watery  mass  ((Jen.  i.7;  Ps.  cxlviii.  4) ;  which 
is  not  further  referred  to  in  the  account  of 
creation,  l)Ut  out  of  which  it  is  reasonable'  to 
believe  the  heavenly  liodies  were  formed. 
These  upjier  waters  remained  iii  Hebrew 
thought  along  with  other  coiiceptions.  In 
the  visible  heavens  are  the  stars  and  planets 
((Jen.  i,  14,  1."),  17;  Ezek.  xxxii.  7,  H).  In 
tiie  part  of  it  next  the  earth  is  the  atmo.s- 
phere,  in  which  clouds  float,  through  which 
birds  fly,  and  from  which  rain  descends  {(ien. 
i.  20;  vii.  11  :  viii.  2;  xxvii.  2H ;  2  Sam.  xxi. 
10;  l*s.  cxlvii.  H;  I.,ani.  iv.  If));  see  Fikm.\- 
.MENT.  The  Hebrews,  by  a  familiar  idiom, 
spoke  of  the  heaven  of  heavens  (Dent.  x.  14; 
1  Kin.  viii.  27  ;  I's.  exv.  Ki),  meaning  the 
heavens  in  their  widivst  extent.  The  later 
Jews  were  fond  of  dividing  the  heavens  into 
seven  different  strata.  No  lixed,  delinite 
conception  of  the.se  several  regions  ])revailed  ; 
but  fancy  was  allowed  fullest  freedom.  The 
bifihesl  was  regarded  as  Clod's  dwelling  itlace. 
Paul  dcsciibcs  Clirist  as  ascending  far  above 
all  the  heavens  (Kpli.  iv.  10);  and  he  relates 
an   experience,    whether  in   vision  or  realitv 


he  knew  not,  in  which  he  was  caught  up  into 
the  third  heaven  and  into  Paradise  (2  Cor. 
xii.  1-4). 

2.  The  place  where  God's  immediate  pres- 
ence is  manifested  {Gen.  xxviii.  17 ;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  14;  Is.  Ixvi.  1;  Mat.  v.  12,  16,  45,  48; 
xxiii.  9),  where  the  angels  are  {Mat.  xxiv. 
3(i:  xxviii.  2;  Mark  xiii.  32;  Luke  xxii.  43), 
and  where  the  redeemed  shall  ultimately  be 
(Mat.  V.  12  ;  vi.  20  ;  xviii.  10;  Eph.  iii.  15  ;  1 
Pet.  i.  4  ;  Rev.  xix.  1,  4).  Christ  descended 
from  heaven  (John  iii.  13),  and  ascended 
thither  again  (Acts  i.  11),  where  he  maketh 
interce.ssion  for  the  saints  and  whence  he 
shall  come  to  jud,ge  the  quick  and  the  dead 
(Rom.  viii.  33,  34;  Heb.  vi.  20;  ix.  24;  Mat. 
xxiv.  30;  1  Thes.  iv.  16). 

3.  The  inhabitants  of  heaven  {Luke  xv. 
18;  Rev.  xviii.  20). 

Heave  Of  fer-ing. 

ICvery  hallowed  thing  which  the  Israelites 
heaved,  i.  e.  levied,  took  up,  took  away,  from 
a  larger  mass  and  set  apart  for  Jehovah 
(Lev.  xxii.  12;  Num.  v.  9;  xviii.  8;  xxxi. 
2S,  29).  In  general  it  comprehended  1.  From 
the  most  holy  things,  the  portions  of  the 
meal  offerings,  sin  offerings,  and  guilt  oflFer- 
iugs  which  were  not  required  to  be  burned 
on  the  altar.  These  parts  were  perquisites 
of  the  priests,  and  were  eaten  by  them  in 
the  precincts  of  the  sanctuary  (Num.  xviii." 

9,  10;  cp.  Lev.  vi.  16).  2.  From  the  holy 
gifts,  Num.  xviii.  11-19,  (a)  The  heave  offer- 
ing of  all  wave  offerings.  It  was  assigned  to 
the  priest's  family,  for  use  as  food  by  all  the 
members,  male  and  female,  provided  they 
were  ceremonially  clean  {11).  {b)  The  first 
fruits  of  the  oil,  wine,  and  grain  (Num. 
xviii.  12;  cp.  24,  30;  Dent,  xviii.  4;  Neb.  x. 
39).  A  basketful  of  these  first  fruits  was 
presented  to  Jehovah  by  the  oflerer  and  then 
spread  as  a  feast  for  the  offerer  and  his  fam- 
ily as  the  guests  of  the  Lord  {Ueut.  xxvi.  2, 

10,  11;  cp.  xii.  6,  7,  11,  12).  Except  this 
basketful  the  whole  of  the  first  fruits  be- 
longed to  the  priestly  families,  but  could  be 
ciiten  by  those  members  only  of  the  house- 
hold who  were  ceremonially  clean  (Num. 
xviii.  13;  Deut.  xviii.  4).  {c)  Every  devoted 
thing  (Num.  xviii.  14).  (d)  The  flesh  of 
every  unredeemed  firstling  {15-18).  3.  The 
tithe  (21-24),  which  was  assigned  as  a  per- 
quisite to  the  liCvites. 

Particular  heave  offerings  were  1.  From 
peace  offerings  the  right  thigh  and  three 
cakes,  one  out  of  each  oblation  (Lev.  vii,  14, 
32-34).  2.  From  the  ram  of  consecration, 
used  at  th(!  induction  of  the  priests  into 
odice,  the  right  thigh  (Ex.  xxix.  27).  It  be- 
longt'd  to  a  jjcace  offering,  and  accordingly 
was  given  to  the  priests  (28) ;  but  at  the  in- 
duction of  Aaron,  the  first  of  the  priestly 
line,  it  was  burnt  (22-25  ;  Lev.  viii.  25-28). 
3.  From  the  first  dough,  made  from  the 
new  nu^al  of  the  year,  a  cake  (Num.  xv. 
20,  21). 


Heber 


29o 


Hebrews 


He'toer  [union,  society,  fellowship]. 

1.  A  son  of  Bei-iah,  grandson  of  Asher, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  17; 
Num.  xxvi.  4.5). 

2.  A  Kenite,  desi'endaiit  of  Moses'  brother- 
in-law  or  father-in-law  Hobab,  and  the  hus- 
band of  Jael,  who  slew  Sisera  (Judjr.  iv.  11- 
24). 

.">.  A  man  re.iiistercd  with  Judah,  de- 
scended from  Ezra,  and  ancestor  of  the  men 
of  Socoh   (1   Chron.  iv.   18). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaha- 
rairn  through  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  17). 

For  two  others  bearing  this  name  in  A.  V., 
see  Ebkk. 

He'brew  [pertaining  to  the  other  side  or  to 
Eber]. 

1.  According  to  biblical  history,  the  He- 
brews were  men  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xiv.  13  with  xii.  5  ;  Josh. 
xxiv.  2,  3;  and  see  Euphrates).  The  name 
may  have  denoted  this,  or  it  may  have  been 
originally  a  patronymic  formed  from  Eber, 
and  have  designated  all  his  descendants,  in- 
cluding the  Israelites  (Gen.  x.  21),  until  the 
increasing  prominence  of  the  Israelites  led  to 
restricting  its  use  to  them  :  see  Eber.  He- 
brews in  the  plural  was  applied  to  the  Is- 
raelites (Gen.  xl.  15 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  6  ;  xiii.  3  ;  2 
Cor.  xi.  22).  In  N.  T.  times  it  was  used  spe- 
cially of  those  Jews  who  spoke  Hebrew  or 
rather  Aramaic  in  distinction  from  the  Hel- 
lenists, their  fellow-countrymen  who  spoke 
Greek  (Acts  vi.  1).  An  Hebrew  of  the  He- 
brews was  a  thorough  Hebrew  ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  person  of  Hebrew  parentage  both 
on  the  father's  and  the  mother's  side  (Phil, 
iii.  5). 

2.  The  language  spoken  by  the  Hebrews 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  26,  28;  Is.  xxxvi.  11,  13),  and 
called,  poetically,  the  language  of  Canaan 
(Is.  xix.  18).  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
Abraham  found  it  in  Canaan,  instead  of 
bringing  it  with  him  from  Chaldea  ;  and  the 
tablets  from  Tell  el-Amarua  and  the  Moabite 
stone  have  shown  that  at  least  the  Canaanites 
and  the  Moabites,  if  not  even  the  adjacent 
tribes,  spoke  a  language  not  very  ditferent 
from  Hebrew.  It  belongs  to  the  Semitic 
group  of  languages.  Like  the  most  of  them, 
it  is  read  from  right  to  left,  not,  like  English, 
from  left  to  right.  Its  alphabet  consists  of 
twenty-two  consonants.  Their  names  are 
found  in  Ps.  cxix.,  which  is  divided  into 
groups  of  eight  verses.  In  each  of  these 
groups  a  several  letter  of  the  alphabet  domi- 
nates, beginning  each  verse.  Originally  the 
language  was  written  without  vowel-points, 
these  not  being  introduced  earlier  than  the 
sixth  century  A.  D.,  or  perha]>s  even  a  little 
later.  They  were  the  work  of  certain  Jewi,sh 
doctors  called  Afasorites,  whose  headmiarters 
were  at  Til)erias.  With  the  exception  of  ]ior- 
tions  of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  and  a 
few  verses  elsewhere  in  Aramaic,  the  wliole  of 
the  O.  T.  was  written  oi'iginallv  in  Hebrew. 


Languages  have  their  periods  of  growth, 
comparative  perfection,  and  then  decay.  Two 
stages  are  traceable  in  Hebrew  ;  these  are 
generally  called  its  golden  and  its  silver  age. 
The  first  extended  from  the  commencement 
of  the  Hebrew  nation  to  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, the  second  from  tlie  captivity  till  the 
language  cea.sed  to  be  sjioken.  During  the 
golden  age,  while  the  Jews  were  generally 
independent,  their  language  remained  com- 
jiaratively  pure.  During  the  silver  age  it 
was  corrupted  by  a  continually  increasing  in- 
tlu.x  of  Aramaic,  till  the  latter  tongue  super- 
seded it  altogether.  The  Aramaic  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  had  taken  the  place  of  the 
genuine  Hebrew  as  the  colloquial  language 
( Mark  v.  41),  and  had  usurped  its  name  ;  and 
Aramaic  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, or  the  Hebrew  tongue,  or  the  Hebrew, 
or  sini])ly  Hebrew,  in  John  v.  2 ;  xix.  13,  17, 
20;  Acts  xxi.  40;  xxii.  2:  xxvi.  14;  Eev.  ix. 
11. 

He'brews,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

Tht'  fourteenth  of  the  N.  T.  epi.stles  as  they 
are  arranged  in  the  English  Bible.  That  it 
was  addresst'd  to  Jewish  Christians  is  clearly 
shown  by  its  contents.  T(>  no  others  would 
its  arguments  be  so  appropriate.  They  were 
in  danger  of  returning  to  Judaism  through 
the  pressure  of  outward  trial  and  opposition 
(ii.  1 ;  iii.  12  ;  iv.  1,  11  ;  v.  12  ;  vi.  6  ;  x.  23- 
25,  29).  They  had  been  early  converts  (v.  12) 
and  had  received  the  gospel  from  its  tirst 
preachers  (ii.  3).  They  had  long  ago  been 
persecuted  (x.  32-34)  and  had  often  minis- 
tered to  the  saints  (vi.  10;  x.  34).  There  is 
no  reference  to  gentile  members  in  their 
churches,  and  their  danger  lay  in  a  return 
not  so  much  to  the  law  as  to  the  ritual. 
These  allusions  best  suit  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians of  Palestine,  and  to  them  doubtless, 
with  j)erhaps  other  Jewish  believers  of  the 
East,  the  epistle  was  addressed. 

Its  authorship  has  always  been  disputed. 
Even  in  the  ancient  church  opinion  was  di- 
vided, though  the  canonicitj'  and  authority 
of  the  book  were  recognized.  The  early 
eastern  church  received  it  as  Pauline,  though 
it  was  felt  to  be  unlike  the  rest  of  Paul's 
epistles,  and  theories  were  advanced  to  ex- 
plain the  diti'erence.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
e.  (J.,  thought  that  perhaps  Luke  translated  it 
from  a  Hebrew  original.  In  the  early  west- 
ern cliurches  its  Pauline  authorship  was 
doubted  and  denied,  and  Tertullian  attrib- 
uted it  to  Barnabas.  For  a  while  indeed  in 
the  western  churches  its  history  becomes 
obscure,  so  far  as  our  information  goes ;  but 
finally  the  eastern  opinion  became  the  uni- 
versally accepted  one.  The  book  is  anon- 
ymous. Chap.  ii.  3,  however,  seems  to  imply 
that  the  author  was  not  an  apostle.  It  certainly 
implies  that  he  was  not  one  of  the  original 
apostles,  and  it  is  unlike  Paul  to  represent 
himself  as  receiving  the  gospel  from  others 
(cp.    Gal.    i.    11-24).'    From    xiii.    IS,    19  we 


Hebrews 


Hebron 


learn  that  the  writer  was  well  known  lo  his 
reaflers  and  was  unhaiiiiily  seiiaratcd  fnni 
them.  In  xiii.  23  the  reference  to  Tiniotliy 
is  not  siiffieient  to  indicate  the  author,  nor 
does  tiie  (■xj)ression  "they  of  Italy  "  (xiii. 
24  1  i)rove  his  locality,  thoiijih  the  natural  in- 
ference is  that  he  was  in  Italy.  Tlie  evi- 
dence of  the  contents  and  style  also  im- 
presses different  minds  in  diflerent  ways.  It 
certainly  is  not  a  translation  of  a  Hebrew 
original.  Its  doctrine  has  much  in  common 
with  I'aiil.  though  the  truth  is  i)Ut  in  a 
sligiitly  (iiU'crcnt  way.  Its  language  has  a 
large  classic  element  in  it.  and  its  style  has 
seemed  to  most  critics  unlike  the  a])ostle's, 
being  smoother,  often  more  elegant,  and  less 
impetuous.  The  omission  of  any  address 
also  is  unlike  Paul's  usage  elsewhere  ;  and  the 
author  seems  to  have  used  exclusively  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  O.  T.,  while  Paul 
constantly  shows  his  familiarity  with  the  He- 
brew as  well.  There  is  still  room,  therefore, 
for  difference  of  ojiinion  as  to  the  author. 
Various  suggestions  have  been  nuidc  by  those 
who  deny  that  Paul  wrote  it.  Lutherguessed 
Apollos.  The  luost  ])lausible  view,  if  Paul 
be  not  the  autlutr,  is  that  which  attributes  it 
to  Barnabas,  who  has  at  least  some  ancient 
testimony  in  his  favor,  and  who  in  The  Acts 
appears  as  the  mediator  between  the  Jewi.sh 
Christians  and  Paul,  much  as  this  epistle 
seeks  to  establish  its  Heiirew  readers  in  a 
doctrine  which  is  thoroughly  Pauline.  The 
following  analysis  will  exhibit  the  thought 
of  the  epistle  : 

(1 )  The  author  begins  by  stating  the  supe- 
riority of  Christianity  to  all  juevious  and 
possible  revelation  because  of  the  sujierior 
dignity  of  Christ  to  all  previous  and  jiossible 
organs  of  revelation  (i.),  a  I'act  which 
should  warn  us  not  to  forsake  the  gosjiel  (ii. 
1-4).  Nor  should  the  humiliation  of  Christ 
appear  a  difficulty,  since  ju.st  by  it  he  be- 
comes our  Saviour  and  high  jiriest  (ii.). 
Chi-ist,  therefore,  is  of  superior  dignity  even 
lo  Moses  (iii.  l-tJ).  and  the  warnings  against 
unbelief  in  the  older  revelation  which  were 
addressed  to  Israel,  are  doubly  aiiplicable 
against  unitelief  in  the  final  reveliilion  of 
the  gospel  (iii.  7-iv.  13). 

(21  The  epistle  then  unfolds  the  value  of 
Christ's  high-]iriestiy  (jlhce  (iv.  ]4-l(i)  :  ex- 
jilaining  its  nature  and  showing  that  Christ 
(lid,  and  that  it  was  ])redicted  he  would, 
exercise  it  (v.) ;  and,  after  gently,  yet 
vig<irously,  rebuking  them  for  their  lailure 
to  grasp  the  full  truth  of  the  gosjiel  (vi.), 
uiifoMing  the  sniieriority  of  Christ's  ])riest- 
hood,  as  ty])ilied  in  Alelchizedek,  to  the 
levilical.  the  conse(|uent  abrogation  of  the 
Inllirwilh  its  ritual,  and  the  ali-sutliciency 
of  Christ's  (vii.). 

(3)  Then  the  ejjistle  shows  that  Cliiist's 
]ii'ies(hood  must  now  be  necessarily  exercised 
in  lie;i\  <  II.  so  that  his  invisibility  should  be 
no  difliculty  to  t  liem.  In  this  hea\  enly  niin- 
islrv    (  iirist    I'lilfills   llic   t\i'rs,    reali/.es    the 


promises  and  remedies  the  imperfections  of 
the  earthly  ritual  (viii.  1-x.  18). 

(4)  The  fourth  .section  (x.  19-xii.  29)  urges 
them  to  live  uj)  to  these  truths  by  an  endur- 
ing faith.  The  writer  exhorts  to  renewed 
confidence  in  Christ  and  to  the  maintenance 
of  their  Christian  associatiens  (x.  Ifl  25) ;  de- 
picts the  hoi)elessness  which  would  follow 
apostasy  (x.  2()-31)  ;  incites  them  by  recall- 
ing their  formerzeal  (x.  32-39),  theexani])les 
of  the  Hebrew  heroes  of  faith  (xi.)  and  <!' 
Christ  him.self  (xii.  1-3)  ;  and  bids  them  con- 
sider their  trials  as  but  the  chastening  of  the 
Lord  preparatory  to  a  glorious  salvation  (xii. 
4-29). 

(5)  In  eh.  xiii.  are  added  some  specific  ex- 
hortations. 

This  epistle  is  the  only  one  in  which  the 
title  of  priest  is  applied  to  Christ,  though 
of  course  the  substance  of  the  doctrine  is 
elsewhere  taught :  it  represents  Christianity 
as  the  completion  and  goal  of  the  old  dispen- 
sation ;  the  clear  announcement  of  that  way 
of  salvation  previously  taught  by  type  and 
ritual.  It  gives  the  argument,  therefore, 
most  likely  to  establish  Hebrews  in  the  faith, 
and  without  it  the  N.  T.  teaching  would  be 
obviously  incomplete. 

The  ei)istle  was  apparently  written  in 
Italy  outside  of  Rome,  such  being  a  plausible 
inference  from  xiii.  21 ;  was  known  to  Clem- 
ent of  Kome,  a.  d.  96 ;  iind  was  ])robal)ly 
written  A.  D.  6.^-(l8,  while  the  tem])le  was 
still  standing  (xiii.  10-14).  G.  T.  p. 

He'bron  [union]. 

1.  A  Levite,  sou  of  Kohath  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  iamily  (Ex.  vi.  18;  1  Chron.  vi. 
2) ;  see  Hebronites. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48,  54),  called  originally  Kirjath- 
arba,  meaning  either  city  of  four,  because 
consisting  of  four  separate  hamlets,  or  city 
of  the  croucher  (Gen.  xxiii.  2  ;  Josh.  xx.  7/  ; 
see  Area.  It  was  built  seven  years  before 
Zoan,  in  Egypt  (Num.  xiii.  22),  and  existed 
at  least  as  early  as  the  days  of  Abraham, 
who  for  a  time  resided  in  its  vicinity,  under 
the  oaks  or  terebinths  of  Mamre  (Gen.  xiii. 
18  ;  XXXV.  27).  Sarah  died  there,  and  Abra- 
ham bought  the  cave  of  Machi)elah  for  a 
sepulcher.  He  i)iirchased  it  from  the  Hit- 
tites  who  then  occujiied  the  town  (xxiii.  2- 
20 1.  Lsaac  and  Jacob  for  a  time  sojourned  at 
Hebron  (Gen.  xxxv.  27;  xxxvii.  14).  It  was 
visited  liy  the  sjiies,  who  found  Anakiin 
among  its  inhabitants  (Num.  xiii.  22).  Its 
king,  Holiani.  was  one  of  the  four  kings  who 
allied  themselves  with  Adoni-zedek  against 
Joshua,  but  who  were  defeated,  ca])tured, 
and  slain  (Josh.  x.  1-27).  Hebron  itself  was 
afterwards  taken,  and  its  inhabitants  de- 
stroyed (3(i-.'?9).  Thisaccount  issu))iilement(>(l 
by  xi.  21,  22,  where  it  is  recorded  tliatat  (hat 
time  Joshua  cut  ott' the  Anakim  from  Hebron. 
Debir,  Anab,  and  all  the  hill  country,  and 
Utleiiy    (tesiroyed    their    cities.     After    this 


Hebron 


297 


Hebron 


first  general  campaign,  however,  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  old  population  gradually  re- 
turned from  their  hiding  i)huesand  retreats, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  i'ew  years  rebuilt  many 
of  the  ruined  towns.  Among  tliose  who  thus 
returned  were  remnants  of  tlie  three  families 
of  Anakim  who  had  dwelt  at  Hebron.  Here 
they  were  found  reestablished  after  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  (xiv.  10,  12).  Caleb  claimed 
that  district  as  his  own  ;  and  when  the  tribe 
of  Judah  took  possession  of  its  allotted  terri- 
tory after  the  death  of  Joshua,  Caleb  retook 
Hebron  (Judg.  i.  10-15  ;  and,  ajiparently  by 
anticipation,  Josh.  xv.  13-19).     Hebron  had 


the  Edomites  occupied  the  south  of  Judah, 
Hebron,  among  otlier  i)laces,  fell  into  their 
hands.  It  was  recaiiturcd  from  them  by 
Judas  Maccal)a-us,  having  then  a  fortress 
with  towers  and  being  the  head  of  other 
towns  (1  Mac.  v.  65).  It  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T.  Hebron  is  ncjw  called  el-Khulil 
er-Rahman.  It  is  one  of  the  iiklest  towns  in 
the  world  which  is  still  inliabited,  instead  of 
being  simply  a  ruin.  Hebron  is  situated  in 
a  valley  and  on  an  adjacent  slope,  3040  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  is  19  miles 
south-southwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  13V  south- 
southwest  of  Bethlehem.     It  has  no  walls  at 


Hebron  and  Sacrtd  Entlosure  mu  the  Cave  of  Machpelah,  viewed  frdiii  tlie  .\ortii 


dependent  villages  (Josh.  xv.  54).  was  as- 
signed to  the  priests,  and  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  10-13;  1 
Chron.  vi.  54-57).  David  sent  thither  part 
of  the  recaptured  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam. 
XXX.  31),  and  afterwards  reigned  in  it  for 
seven  and  a  half  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  1-3,  11,  32  ■ 
V.  1-5,  13  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  27) 
several  of  his  sons  being  born  there  (2  Sam 
iii.  2-5;  1  Chron.  iii.  1-4  ;  xi.  1-3 :  sii.  23-38) 
Abner  was  buried  there  (2  Sam.  iii.  32),  and 
the  head  of  Ish-bosheth  was  placed  in  the 
same  grave  (iv.  1-12).  It  was  at  Hebron  that 
Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  (xv. 
7-10).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  10).     When,  during  the  captivity, 


present,  but  possesses  gates.  The  houses, 
which  are  of  stone,  are  well  built,  with  flat 
roofs,  domed  in  the  middle.  It  was  formerly 
divided  into  three  quarters,  but  has  so  in- 
creased since  1S75  as  to  have  required  six 
more.  The  population  is  believed  to  be 
about  10,000,  most  of  them  Mussulmans,  the 
remainder  chiefly  Jews.  In  the  center  and 
lowest  part  of  the  town  are  two  large  pools, 
which  collect  the  rain  water  from  the  adja- 
cent hills  (2  Sam.  iv.  12).  There  is  a  famous 
mosque,  the  precincts  of  which  are  called  el- 
Haram  (the  enclosure).  Within  the  enclosure 
is  a  cave,  believed  to  be  that  of  Machpelah 
(see  Machpel.\h).  The  oak  or  terebinth  of 
Abraham  has  been  shown  at  two  places  ;  that 


Hebronites 


298 


Helkath 


wliich  now  exists  is  a  genuine  oak  (Quercus 
lisendovuccifera)  (see  Mamke).  There  are 
twenty-five  springs  of  water  and  ten  large 
wells  near  Hebron,  with  vineyards  and  olive- 
groves. 

:{.  A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28.  A.  V.), 
hut  its  Hebrew  name  is  different  from  that 
of  Hebron  in  Judah;  see  Ebron. 

He'bron-ites. 

The  (Icsctndaiits  <if  Hebron  tlie  Kohath- 
ite  I  Num.  iii.  :.'7  :   1  Cliron.  xxvi.  oO,  IJl). 

He'gai  and  He'ge. 

One  of  the  cluimberlains  of  king  Aliasue- 
rns.  He  was  the  keeper  of  the  women  (Esth. 
ii.  :},  8,  15). 

Heifer. 

A  young  eow  (Gen.  xv.  9  ;  Deut.  xxi.  3  ;  1 
Sam.  xvi.  2) ;  see  Cmv  and  I'leification. 

Heir. 

Inheritance  early  became  a  custom.  Abra- 
ham was  aciiuainted  with  it  (Gen.  xv.  3,  4). 
Ouly  sons  of  a  legal  wife,  not  those  of  a  con- 
cubine, had  tlie  right  of  inheritance.  Ish- 
niacl,  son  of  the  Ixmdwoman,  might  not  in- 
licrit  with  the  son  of  the  free  woman  (xxi. 
10)  ;  and  Abraham  dismissed  with  ]>resents 
the  sons  whom  he  had  begotten  by  concu- 
l)ines  (xxv.  5,  6).  Still  all  of  Jacob's  sons 
w<'re  accorded  equal  rights.  Daughters  some- 
times inherited  like  sons  (Job  xlii.  1.5).  B,v 
the  Mosaic  law  a  man's  projjerty  was  divided 
on  his  death  among  his  sons,  the  eldest  ob- 
taining double  the  jjoriion  assigned  to  his 
younger  brothers  (Deut.  xxi.  15-17).  When 
there  wi're  no  sons,  the  i)roiierty  went  to  the 
daughters  (Num.  xxvii.  1-K),  who,  however, 
were  required  to  abstain  from  marrying  out 
of  their  own  trilial  family  (Num.  xxxvi.  1- 
12  ;  Tob.  vi.  1(1-12).  If  circumstances  de- 
manded that  a  man  of  other  family  marry  a 
sole  heiress,  the  children  of  such  a  marriage 
ajijiear  to  have  taken  the  name  of  the  mother's 
father  (1  Chron.  ii.  :M-41  ;  Ezra  ii.  (il).  Fail- 
ing both  sons  and  daughters,  tlie  iulieiitance 
went  to  tlie  father's  brother,  and  after  him 
to  the  nearest  of  kin  (Num.  xxvii.  9-11). 
(ireek  and  Koman  rule  introduced  new  cus- 
toms, and  made  testaments  and  testators 
familiar  to  the  Jews  (Heb.  ix.  1(1,  17).  In  a 
tiguralive  sense,  believers  are  heirs  of  God 
and, joint  heirs  with  Christ  (Koni.  viii.  17). 

He'lah  [scuin,  rust,  vi'rdigris]. 

( )ne  of  the  two  wives  of  Ashhur,  tlic  ances- 
tor of  the  men  of  Tekoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  7). 

He 'lam. 

A  iilace  east  of  Jordan,  where  David  de- 
ftali'd  lladarezer,  king  of  Svria  (2  Sam.  x. 
I(i  1!»).  Evvald  and  otiiers  doubtfully  iden- 
tify it  with  Alaniatlia.  a  town  mentioned  by 
I'lolcmy  as  west  of  the  I'aii>hrates,  near  Nice- 
I'boi  iiim. 

Hel'bah  [fatness,  a  fertile  region]. 

\  city  witliin  the  territory  of  Asher,  from 
which  the  Canaanitcs  were  not  driven  out 
'.ludg.  i.  31).     Site  unknown. 


Hel'bon  [fat,  fertile] . 

A  city  of  Syria,  celebrated  for  its  wines 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  It  is  commonly  identified 
with  Helbun,  13  miles  north  of  Damascus. 
The  village  is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley 
shut  in  bv  steep,  bare  clitfs  and  long,  shelving 
banks  2000  to  3000  feet  higli.  The  bottom 
of  the  glen  is  occupied  hy  orchards,  and  far 
up  the  mountain  slopes  are  terraced  vine- 
yards. Along  the  terraces  and  in  the  valley 
iielow  are  extensive  ruins.  The  wine  was 
celebrated  in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia 
(Strabo  xv.  735;  Nebuchadnezzar  1  E.  65, 
32). 

Hel'dai  [durable,  transitoriness]. 

1.  A  Netophathite,  descended  from  Othniel. 
He  was  David's  captain  for  the  twelfth 
month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  15).  Doubtless  the 
person  called  Ileled  in  xi.  .30. 

2.  An  exile  who  returned  from  Babylon 
(Zech.  vi.  10),  called  also  Helem  (ver.  14). 

He'leb  [fatness]. 

The  name  given  to  Heled  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
29.  It  may  possibly  be  the  original  name, 
but  probably  arose  from  the  mistake  of  an 
early  copyist,  which  is  quite  intelligible  and 
common. 

He'led  [endurance,  transitory  life]. 

The  son  of  Baanah,  a  Netophathite,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  30). 
See  Heleb  and  IIeldai. 

He'lek  [smoothness,  portion,  lot]. 

A  son  of  Gilead,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
familv  of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  30;  Josh. 
xvii.'2). 

He'lem,  I.  [blow,  stroke]. 

An  Asherite,  brother  of  Shamer  (1  Chron. 
vii.  35),  and  probably  the  person  called 
Hotham  in  ver.  32. 

He'lem,  II.  [dream,  or,  perhaps,  manly 
vigor]. 

The  same  as  Heldai  2  (Zech.  vi.  10  with  14). 

He'leph  [permutation,  change,  exchange]. 

\  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33). 
Van  de  Velde  identified  it  with  Beit  Lif,  in 
the  moiiulains  of  Galilee,  midway  between 
Kadesh  and  Kas  el-Abiad. 

He'lez  []ierhai)s,  alertness]. 

1.  A  I'altite  or  Pelonite,  David's  captain  for 
the  seventh  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  10).        « 

2.  .\  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hez- 
ron  (1  Chron.  ii.  .39). 

He'li  [Greek  form  of  Eli,  probably  eleva- 
tion]. 

The  father  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus. 
This  belief  is  founded  on  the  Greek  text, 
which  represents  Jesus  as  "  being  son  (as  was 
sui>posed  of  Joseph)  of  Hell"  (Luke  iii.  23). 

Hel'kai  [smooth]. 

A  jiriot,  head  of  the  father's  house  Mcrai- 
oth  (Neb.  xii.  15). 

Hel'katli  [smoothness,  a  part  (of  a  field),  a 
field]. 

A    town    on    the   boundarv  line  of  Asher 


Helkath-hazzurim 


299 


Hemam 


(Josh.  xix.  25),  assigned,  with  its  suburbs,  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (xsi.  31).  Called  in 
1  (!hron.  vi.  75  Hukok,  which  is  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  text,  ^'a^  de  Velde  and 
Ro})insoii  d<nihtf'ully  identify  it  with  Yerka, 
8't  miles  east  by  north  of  Acre. 

Hel-kath-haz'zu-rim  [field  of  the  sharp 
knives]. 

A  name  given  to  the  scene  of  the  combat, 
at  the  pool  of  Gibeon,  between  twelve  Ken- 
janiites  of  Ish-bosheth's  party  and  the  same 
number  of  David's  men  (2  Sam.  ii.  16). 

Hell. 

1.  The  place  of  the  dead.  It  is  one  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  Sh''ol  and  the  Greek 
'Aides  (Ps.  xvi.  10  with  Acts  ii.  27).  R.  V. 
of  O.  T.  places  Sheol  either  in  the  text  or  on 
the  margin  ;  in  the  prophetical  books,  on  the 
margin  with  hell  generally  in  the  text,  and 
in  Deut.  xxxii.  22;  Ps.  Iv.  15;  Ixxxvi.  13,  on 
the  margin,  with  j)it  in  the  text.  In  N.  T. 
it  puts  Hades  in  the  text.  The  two  words 
are  also  rendered  grave  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35 ; 
Is.  xxxviii.  10,  18;  Hos.  xiii.  14;  and  A.  Y. 
of  1  Cor.  XV.  55,  in  R.  Y.  death).  The  ety- 
mology of  the  words  is  in  doubt.  Sheol 
may  mean  the  insatiable  (cp.  Prov.  xxvii. 
20,  R.  V. ;  XXX.  15,  16).  Hades,  when  pro- 
nounced without  the  aspiration,  means  the 
unseen.  Both  words  denote  the  place  of 
the  dead.  The  evidence  is  not  all  in,  but 
it  may  be  safely  aifirmed  that  for  centuries 
tlie  Hebrews  shai-ed  the  common  Semitic  con- 
ception of  Sheol.  This  conception  was  vague 
and  undefined.  There  was  consequently  room 
for  the  imagination  to  play,  and  fancy  was 
fond  of  supplying  all  manner  of  details;  and 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  fancies 
with  faith  The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  other 
Semites,  thought  of  Sheol  as  beneath  the 
earth  (Num.  xvi.  30,  33;  Ezek.  xxxi.  17; 
Amos  ix.  2).  They  pictured  it  as  entered 
through  gates  (Is.  xxxviii.  10),  a  dark,  gloomy 
region,  where  the  inhabitauts  pass  a  conscious, 
but  dull,  inactive  existence  (2  Sam.  xxii.  6  ; 
Ps.  vi.  5  ;  Ecc.  ix.  10).  They  regarded  it  as 
the  place  whither  the  souls  of  all  men  with- 
out distinction  go  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35  ;  Ps.  xxxi. 
17;  Is.  xxxviii.  10),  where  punishments  may 
be  sutFered  and  rewards  enjoyed,  and  from 
which  a  return  to  earth  was  not  an  impos- 
sibility (1  Sam.  xxviii.  8-19;  Heb.  xi.  19). 
It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  in 
authoritative  Hebrew  doctrine  Sheol  was 
open  iind  naked  to  God  (Job  xxvi.  6 ;  Prov. 
XV.  11),  that  God  was  even  there  (Ps.  cxxxix. 
8),  and  that  the  spirits  of  his  people,  and  their 
condition  in  that  abode,  were  ever  under  his 
watchful  eye.  This  doctrine  of  Ciod's  knowl- 
edge of  his  people  after  death,  presence  with 
them,  and  unceasing  love  for  them,  involved 
the  blessedness  of  the  righteous  and  the  woe 
of  the  wicked  after  death,  and  two  places  of 
a))ode  for  them,  the  righteous  being  with  the 
J>ord  and  the  wicked  being  banished  from  his 
]iresence.     This  doctrine  lay  also  at  tlie  l>asis 


of  the  related  teaching  of  the  eventual  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  and  the  life  everlasting. 
The  doctrine  of  future  glory,  and  even  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  was  cherished 
in  O.  T.  times  (Job  xix.  2.5-27;  Ps.  xvi.  8-11  ; 
xvii.  15  ;  xlix.  14,  15  ;  Ixxiii.  24  ;  Dan.  xii.  2,  3). 
A  foundation  for  it  was  early  afforded  by  the 
translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  and  it  was 
fostered  by  centuries  of  intimate  association 
with  the  Egyiitians,whohad  congruous  teach- 
ing regarding  the  future  life  and  the  relation 
of  morality  in  the  present  life  to  happiness 
beyond  the  grave.  But  it  remained  for  Christ 
to  bring  immortality  to  full  light,  and,  by  re- 
vealing the  bliss  of  the  saved  soul  even  out 
of  the  body  in  his  jjresence,  to  dispel  all  gloom 
from  the  future  abode  of  his  saints  (Luke 
xxiii.  43;  John  xiv.  1-3  ;  2  Cor.  v.  6-8;  Phil, 
i.  23).     See  Paradise. 

2.  The  place  of  woe.  In  this  sense  it  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Greek  Gehenna  in  Mat. 
V.  22,  29,  30;  x.  28;  xviii.  9:  xxiii.  15,  33; 
Mark  ix.  47  ;  I^uke  xii.  5,  and  Jas.  iii.  6.  This 
word  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Ge- 
hinnom,  valley  of  Hinnom,  where  children 
were  burnt  to  Molech.  From  the  horrible 
sins  practiced  in  it,  its  pollution  by  Josiali, 
and  perhaps  also  because  offal  was  burnt  in 
it,  the  valley  of  Hinnom  became  a  type  of 
sin  and  woe,  and  the  name  passed  into  use  as 
a  designation  for  the  place  of  eternal  pun- 
ishment (Mat.  xviii.  8,  9;  Mark  ix.  43). 
From  the  scenes  witnessed  in  the  valley 
imagery  was  borrowed  to  describe  the  Ge- 
henna of  the  lost  (Mat.  v.  22;  cp.  xiii.  42; 
Mark  ix.  48).  In  2  Pet.  ii.  4,  "  to  cast  down  to 
hell  "  is  the  rendering  of  the  verb  tnrtaroo, 
meaning  "to  cast  down  to  Tartarus."  The 
Tartarus  of  the  Romans,  the  Tartaros  of  the 
Greeks,  was  their  place  of  woe,  situated  as 
far  below  Hades  as  Hades  was  below  heaven. 
Though  the  etymologies  are  different,  Ge- 
henna and  Tartarus  are  essentially  the  same 
in  meaning.  Each  is  the  place  of  i)unish- 
ment  for  the  lost. 

Hel'len-ist. 

One,  not  of  the  Greek  nation,  who  spoke 
Greek.  The  term  is  used  specially  of  Jews,  in 
whatever  i)art  of  the  world  they  lived,  who  had 
adopted  the  Greek  tougne,  and  with  it  often 
Greek  practices  and  opinions  (R.  V.,  margin 
of  Acts  vi.  1  and  ix.  29).  The  text  calls  them 
Grecian  Jews;  the  A.  Y.  simply  Grecians. 

Hel'met.     See  Akmor. 

He'lon  [perhaps,  strong]. 

Father  u{  Eliab,  prince  of  Zebulun  (Num. 
i.  9;  ii.  7;  vii.  24,  29;  x.  16). 

Hem. 

The  edge,  border,  or  margin  of  a  garment 
(Ex.  xxviii.  33,  34 ;  xxxix.  24,  25,  26,  in  the 
R.  Y.  skirts;  and  Mat.  ix.  20;  xiv.  36.  iu  the 
R.  Y.  borders).  The  Jews  attached  a  certain 
sacredness  to  the  hem.  fringe,  or  border  of 
their  garments. 

He'mam.     See  Homam. 


Heman 


300 


Hermes 


He'man  [faithful]. 

1.  A  sage  whose  re]nitati()n  for  wisdom  was 
high  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  31).  He 
l)elonged  to  the  tribe  of  Jndah  (1  Cliron.  ii.  6). 
He  composed  a  meditativt']>salni  (I's.  Ixxxyiii.. 
aeeording  to  its  second  and  doubtless  original 
title). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  reign,  a  son  of  Joel, 
a  grandson  of  tlie  i)rophet  Samuel,  of  the 
LevJte  family  of  Korah  (1  Cliron.  vi.  :« ;  xv. 
17).  In  addition  to  singing,  he  was  appointed 
to  sound  a  hrazen  cymbal  (19).  He  rose  to  a 
prominent  place  among  David's  musicians 
(.xvi.  41.   12). 

Ee'matli.     See  Hamath  for  Amos  vi.  14, 
A.  v.,  and  IIammath  for  1  Chron.  ii.  55,  A.  V. 
Hem'dan  [])leasant,  desirable]. 
A   Horite,  the  eldest  son  of  Dishon  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  :i()).    In  the  parallel  passage,  1  Chron. 
i.  41,  the  Hebrew  text  and  K.  V.  have  Ham- 
ran,  which   A.  V.   erroneously  represents  by 
Anirani.     The  two  Hebrew  words  ditlVr  only 
in  the  third  consonant.    The  diiference  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  a  scribe  who  confounded 
resh  and"  daleth   ((j.  v.).     Whether  Hemdan 
or  Ham  ran  was  the  original  form  cannot  be 
dt-tirmined  at  present. 
Hem'lock.     See  Gall  2  and  Wormwood. 
Hen,  I.     See  Cock. 
Hen,  II.  [grace,  favor,  kindness]. 
A  son  of  Zephaniah  (Zech.  vi.  14).    Rut  on 
the  margin   of  K.  V.  Hen   is  translated,  the 
pas.sage  reading  thus,  "for  the  kindness  of 
the  son   of  Zephaniah,"  in  which  case  that 
s<m's  name  disappears. 
He'na. 

A  city  captured  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  34  ;  xix.  1.3  :  Is.  xxxvii.  13).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Sepharvaim,  and 
is  accordingly  sought  for  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Haliylouia.  Heua  is  c<iinmoiily  identified 
with  tlie  ancii-nt  town  of  Ana,  at  a  ford  over 
the  Eujihrates,  about  160  miles  northwest  of 
Uagdad.  Extensive  ruins  still  exist  at  the 
sjiot.  The  two  names,  however,  are  radically 
diflVrent.  Auiither  conjecture  ]ilaces  it  on 
an  inland  in  the  iMiphrati'S,  where  the  As- 
syrian iiiscriiitions  locate  a  certain  Anat. 
Hen'a-dad  [proliably,  favor  of  Hadad]. 
Founder  of  a  Lcvitical  family,  wliose  sons 
supported  Zeruhbabcl  at  the  time  the  founda- 
tions of  the  temj)le  were  being  laid  (Ezra  iii. 
J)),  and  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusilem  (Neh.  iii.  IS). 

Hen'na  [rersian  henna.  Aral)i<'  hiiumt']. 
The  itiidering  (if  the  Hebrew  Kiipher,  cov- 
ering, ill  the  Septuagint  and  in  K.  \'.  of  Song 
i.  14  and  iv.  l.'{.  It  is  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
caniiibire.  Henna  is  a  ])lant  of  the  Lythrariex 
or  loosestrife  order  ( I.ausuniii  (illxi  or  inrrmin), 
with  opiiosite  entire  leaves,  and  flagrant,  yel- 
low and  white  (lowers  in  corymbs  or  clusters 
(.Song  i.  14).  Tlie  (ireeks  called  it  kiipyos, 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  wliere  it  grew.  In 
I'alestine  its  special  seat  was  the    virtually 


tropical  region  of  En-gedi  (Song  i.  14)  and 
Jericho  (War  iv.  8,  3).  The  leaves  and  young 
twigs  are  made  into  a  tine  powder,  converted 
into  paste  with  hot  water,  and  used  by  ori- 
ental women  and  wealthy  men  to  dye  the 
finger  and  toe  nails  and  the  soles  of  the  feet 
a  reddish  orange  color.  Some  Egyptian 
mummies  are  found  with  these  parts  dyed 
in  the  same  manner. 

He'noch.  See  Enoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  3,  A. 
v.,  and  Hanoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  33,  A.  V. 

He'pher  [pit,  well]. 

1.  A  town  west  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xii. 
17).  The  name  belonged  to  a  district  also, 
probably  near  Socoli  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 

2.  A  son  of  Gilead,  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  32 ;  xxvii.  1 ; 
Josh.  xvii.  2). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Ashhur  of  Tekoa 
(1  Chron.  iv.  6). 

4.  A  Mecherathite,  and  one  of  David's 
worthies  (1  Chron.  xi.  30).  See,  however, 
remarks  under  Ur,  II. 

Heph'zi-bah  [my  delight  is  in  her]. 

1.  Mother  of  king  Manasseh  (2  Kin.  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  symbolical  name  to  be  given  to  Zion 
(Is.  Ixii.  4). 

He'res  [sun]. 

1.  An  eminence  in  the  district  of  Aijalon 
(Judg.  i.  35).  The  meaning  and  a  comparison 
with  Josh.  xix.  41,  42  render  the  opinion 
probable  that  mount  Heres  is  essentially 
identical  with  the  town  Ir-shemesh,  that  is 
Beth-shemesh. 

2.  A  pass  east  of  the  Jordan  (Judg.  viii. 
13,  R.  v.). 

3.  An  Egyptian  city.     See  On. 
He'resh  [artificial  work,  artifice,  silence]. 
A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

Her'e-sy  [Greek  'airesis,  taking  (especially 
of  a  town)  ;  a  sect  (Acts  v.  17 ;  xv.  5)]. 

1.  A  party,  sect,  or  faction;  strong  party 
spirit,  even  when  this  is  not  produced  on  one 
side  or  the  other  by  departure  from  sound 
doctrine  (1  Cor.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  R.  V.  sects, 
factions ;  Gal.  v.  20,  on  margin  of  R.  V.  par- 
ties). 

2.  A  doctrine  or  a  sect  consequent  upon  de- 
parture from  sound  doctrine  (2  Pet.  ii.  1,  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  sects  of  perdition). 

He'reth,  in  A.  V.  Hareth,  the  Hebrew  paus- 
al  form. 

A  forest  in  .Tndah,  in  which  David  for  a 
time  lurked  while  bis  life  was  being  sought 
by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5). 

Her 'mas. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutations  (liom.  xvi.  14). 

Her'mes. 

1.  The  (ireek  god  corresponding  to  the  Ro- 
man Mercury  (Acts  xiv.  12,  R.  V.  margin). 
See  MiOKccRV. 

2.  A  Christian  (not  the  .same  as  Hermas) 
at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutations 
(Rom.  xvi.  14). 


Hermogenes 


301 


Herod 


Her-mog'e-nes  [sprung  from  Hermes]. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia,  who  finally,  with  many  others,  turned 
away  from  the  apostle  Paul  (2  Tim.  i.  15). 

Her'mon  [mountain  peak  or  sacred  moun- 
tain]. 

A  mountain  called  by  the  Sidonians  Sirion, 
a  coat  of  mail,  and  by  the  Amorites  Senir  or 
Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  8,  9).  The  last  name  be- 
longed especially  to  a  part  of  the  mountain. 
Another  name  for  it  was  Sion,  elevated  (iv. 
48).  It  constituted  the  northeastern  limit 
of  the  Israelite  conquests  under  Moses  and 
Joshua  (Deut.  iii.  8,  9 ;  Josh.  xi.  3,  17 ;  xii. 
1,  5;  xiii.  5,  11 ;  1  Chron.  v.  23).  It  figures 
in  Hebrew  poetry,  being  coupled  with  Tabor 


R.  V. )  ;  or  perhaps  the  word  in  this  passage 
is  a  common  iiouu  and  means  peaks  of  Pal- 
estine. The  summit  of  the  mountain  is  cov- 
ered with  snow  all  the  year  round,  wavy 
white  furrows  descending  from  tlie  crest  in 
the  lines  of  the  several  valleys.  The  proper 
source  of  the  Jordan  is  in  Hermon.  Some 
one  of  its  solitary  recesses  rather  than  the 
summit  of  Tabor  was  probably  the  scene  of 
our  Lord's  transfiguration.  Hermon  is  now 
called  Jebel  esh-Slieik. 

Her'mon-ites. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  mount  Hermon 
(Ps.  xlii.  6,  A.  V.  ;  in  K.  V.,  the  Hermonsi. 

Her'od. 

The  name  of  several  rulers  over  Palestine 


/" 


-/i/r^J'^£,c^^^ 


Jlount  Hermon. 


(Ps.  Ixxxix.  12),  Zion  (cxxsiii.  3).  and  Leba- 
non (Songiv.  8),  really,  however,  overtopping 
them  all.  It  constitutes  the  southern  end  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  chain,  and  rises  to  the  ele- 
vation of  9166  feet  above  the  sea.  It  may  be 
seen  from  many  parts  of  Palestine.  From  the 
plain  of  Tyre,  the  north  peak  seems  higher 
than  the  southern  one,  and  the  center  more 
depressed  than  either.  Having  these  peaks 
it  is  described  as   the  Hermous  (Ps.  xlii.  6, 


and  the  adjacent  regions  or  portions  of  them. 
Three  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  by  the 
name  of  Herod  and  one  by  the  name  of 
Agrippa. 

1.  Herod  the  Great. — He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  Idumaean  Antipas,  or 
Antipater,  by  his  wife  Cyprus,  who  was  of 
the  same  race  (Autiq.  xiv.  1,  3;  7,  3). 
Thus,  neither  by  the  father's  nor  by  the 
mother's    side    was    Herod    a    real     Jew, 


Herod 


802 


Herod 


though  the  Idumseans,  who  had  heen 
coiKiucrcd  125  B.  c.  by  John  Hyrcanus, 
iind  <M(m]H'lled  to  be  circiinicised  and  adojjt 
Judaism,  had   now  lioconu'   noiniiially  Jews. 

Antijiatcr  was  made  proeiirator  of  Jnda-a 
by  Ciesar  in  47  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiv.  S,  Ij  and  5). 
He  had  five  children,  Pliasaelus,  Herod, 
Jcseph,  Plieroras.  and  a  daujihter  Salome  (7, 
3).-^  Pliasaelus,  the  eldest  .son,  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Jerusalem  and  vieiiiity  by  his 
fatlier,  and  Galilei' was  committed  to  Herod, 
who  was  then  25  years  old  (9,  2).  After  the 
murder  of  Antipater,  43  B.  c,  Marc  Antony 
visited  Syria  and  ajipointed  the  two  brothers 
tetrarchs,  committing  the  ])ublic  afl'airs  of 
the  Jews  to  them  (1:3,  1).  They  were  after- 
wards sorely  pressed  by  Antigonus.  last  king 
of  the  Maccaba'an  family,  and  the  Parthians. 
Pliasaelus  fell  iiit^)  tlieir  hands  and  committed 
suicide  to  avoid  being  jnit  to  death  by  them 
(13,  10).  The  Romans  were  now  induced  by 
Antony  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Herod;  and 
war  ensued  with  Autigonus  and  the  Par- 
thians. in  tlie  coiirseof  which  Herod's  brother 
Josej)!!  was  slain  in  battle  (15,  10),  Jerusalem 
was  caittured  and  Herod  became  king  of 
JucUea  in  37  b.  c. 

The  surviving  children  of  Antipater  were 
now  Herod,  Plieroras,  and  Salome.  Salome 
married  her  uncle  Josejili  (Aiitiij.  xv.  3,  5; 
War  i.  22,  4).  After  he  had  been  jiut  to  death 
for  adultery,  34  B.  c,  she  married  Costobarus, 
an  Iduma'an  of  good  family  whom  Herod 
made  governor  of  Idunia-a  and  Ciaza  (An- 
tiq. XV.  7,  0;  War  i.  24,  (i).  She  divorced 
him  (Antiq.  xv.  7,  10),  and  against  her  will 
was  married  to  Alexas,  a  friend  of  Herod's 
(\Var  i.  28,  (i).  During  the  whole  of  Herod's 
reign,  she  engaged  in  intrigues  against  mem- 
bers of  his  family;  hut  she  was  faithful  to 
him,  and  he  bequeathed  to  her  Jamuia,  Ash- 
dod,  and  Pha.saelis  near  Jericho  (Antiq. 
xvii.  (i,  1;H,  1:  11,  3).  She  accompanied 
Herod's  .son  Archelaus  to  Kome,  wlu-n  he 
went  thither  to  oblain  imjierial  sanction  to 
ascend  the  throne.  Her  ostensible  pur])ose 
wa.s  to  assist  him  in  prosecuting  liis  claim, 
but  her  real  object  was  to  thwart  him  (War 


ii.  2,  1-4).  She  died  about  A.  D.  10,  when 
Marcus  Ambivius  was  procurator  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Pheroras,  the  youngest  of  the 
four  sons  of  Antipater  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  4), 
lived  nearly  as  long  as  Herod.  He  was  part- 
ner in  the  kingdom,  had  the  title  of  tetrarch, 
and  enjoyed  the  revenue  accruing  from  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (War  i.  24,  5). 
He  was  more  than  once  accused  of  plotting 
the  death  of  Herod,  and  matters  came  to  a 
crisis  shortly  before  the  latter's  death  ;  but 
Pheroras  died  without  being  brought  to  trial 
(Antiq.  xvii.  3,  .3). 

Herod  the  Great  had  ten  wives  from  first 
to  last  (Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3;  War  i.  xxviii.  4). 
His  first  wife  was  Doris,  a  woman  of  an  ob- 
scure family  in  Jerusalem.  She  bore  him 
one  son,  Antipater,  who  took  an  active  part 
in  the  events  of  Herod's  reign,  plotting 
against  his  younger  half-brothers  to  secure 
the  kingdom  for  himself.  Herod,  just  be- 
fore the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  by  which  he 
became  king,  married  his  second  wife,  the 
beautiful  and  chaste  Mariamiie,  granddaugh- 
ter of  Hyrcanus.  She  bore  him  three  sons, 
Alexander,  Aristobulus,  and  the  youngest  son 
who  died  childless,  and  two  daughters, 
Cyprus  and  Salampsio.  Mariamne  was  put 
to  death  in  29  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xv.  7,  4).  About 
24  B.  o.  he  married  Mariamne.  daughter  of 
Simon,  whom  he  raised  to  the  high-priesthood 
(xv.  9,  3;  xviii.  5,  4).  Herod  also  took  to 
wife  his  two  nieces,  whose  names  are  not 
given  and  who  died  childless,  Malthace  a 
Samaritan.  Cleoiiatra  of  Jeru.salem,  Pallas, 
Phffidra,  and  Elpis.  With  the  two  unnamed 
nieces  and  last  three  of  known  name  history 
is  not  sjiecially  concerned.  The  descendants 
of  the  others  are  more  important.  Of  Mari- 
amne, Simon's  daughter,  Herod  was  born  ; 
Malthace  became  mother  of  Archelaus,  Herod 
Antipas,  and  a  daughter  Olympias  ;  and  Cleo- 
patra bore  Herod  and  Philip. 

The  domestic  troubles  of  Herod  began 
early  in  his  reign  in  the  hatred  which  he 
incited  in  the  beloved  Mariamne  toward 
himself ;  and  they  culminated  in  the  last  dec- 
ade of  his  reign,  when  his  sons  had  reached 


*  .Xntipater. 

I  t'rociinitnr  of  .hulsea, 
47-«  B.  c. 


Phasaelus. 


Herod  the  Great. 

I  Kins  of  Judapiv, 
M-i  B.  c. 


I 

Joseph. 


Pheroras. 


Salome. 


Antitiater.    Alexander  and  .Vristobulus.  Herod 
Kliiiii  .■>  II.  c  Both  sluiii  iilioiil  7  I  B.  c.  Elh 


I  I 

Archelaus  and  Herod  Antipas.    Herod  and  Philip, 


:licli  of  .IllrlH-: 

-A.   I>. 


Herod. 

Kiiip  of  f'lnlri.<i, 
A.  I..  *I-18. 


Ilerod  Agrippa  I. 

IKiiiK  of  .Tiiilsa, 
A.  1>.  41-4-4 


ptiarcli  of  Gali- 
lee, 4b.  C.-A.  D  .TO. 

Herodias. 


Ti'tiaicti  of 
country  east 
of  Galilee, 
b.c.-a.  I).  'S.i. 


Heroil  .\gripi)a  II. 

King  of  (.'bulcis, 

A.  r.  .511-.^:!. 

Afterwdids  nilei- ot  I'liilit.'R 

former  tetiarrhv  nml  :iil|a- 

centrecioDs.    l>Ud  ad.  lUO. 


Bernice. 


Drusilla. 


Herod  the  Great  liad  .seven 
other  cliilrirpn,  two  sons 
and  five  daughters,  but 
they  did  not  phiy  a  prom- 
inent part  In  llie  lii-story. 


Herod 


303 


Herod 


manhood.  The  domestic  history  eveutually 
revolves  about  the  eight  young  men,  Antip- 
ater,  son  of  Doris;  Ak'xander  and  Aristo- 
bulus,  sons  of  Marianine  ;  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamue,  Simon's  daiigliter  ;  Archelaus  and 
Antipas,  sons  of  Malthace  ;  and  Herod  and 
Philip,  sons  of  Cleopatra.  Alexander  mar- 
ried Glyphyra,  daughter  of  Arehelaus,  king 
of  Cappadoeia.  Two  sons  were  horn  to 
them  whose  history  is  not  important  (Antiq. 
xvi.  1,  2  ;  War  i.  24,  2).  Aristobulus  mar- 
ried his  first  cousin,  Bernice,  daughter  of 
Herod's  sister,  Salome,  and  became  the  father 
of  five  children,  several  of  whom  played  an 
important  part  later  in  the  history.  Of 
these  two  young  men,  sons  of  the  beloved 
Mariamne,  Antipater,  the  firstborn  of  Herod, 
■was  jealous.  His  jealousy  was  aroused 
against  his  half-brothers  by  the  evident  in- 
tention of  his  father  to  overlook  his  right  as 
firstborn  in  their  favor  (War  i.  22,  1),  and  he 
and  his  clique  at  court  poisoned  the  mind  of 
Herod  against  them.  At  length,  about  7  or  (i  b. 
c,  Herod  had  them  put  to  death,  named  An- 
tipater his  heir  and  api)ointed  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne,  Simon's  daughter,  next  in  succes- 
sion (Antiq.  xvi.  11,  7  ;  xvii.  3,  2  ;  War  i.  29, 
2).  This  order  conformed  to  birth,  his  sons 
Archelaus  and  Antipas,  Herod  and  Philip, 
being  doubtless  younger  than  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne.  Antiiiater  next  accused  Herod's 
sister,  Salome,  and  his  sons,  Archelaus  and 
Philip,  who  were  in  Rome  being  educated, 
of  plotting  the  murder  of  Herod  ;  hut  the 
crime  charged  against  Salome  was  brought 
home  to  himself.  He  and  his  uncle  Phe- 
roras,  Herod's  brother,  were  accused  of  seek- 
ing the  king's  life.  Pheroras  died,  but 
Antipater  was  cast  into  prison.  Herod's  sus- 
picions were  thereby  aroused  that  Antipater 
had  falsely  accused  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
bulus, who  had  already  been  executed,  and 
he  altered  his  will,  appointing  Antipas  to  be 
his  successor,  and  passed  over  Archelaus,  the 
elder  brother,  and  Philip,  as  he  still  held 
them  in  suspicion  (War  i.  32,  7).  Soon  after- 
wards he  ordered  Antipater  to  be  slaiu  and 
altered  his  will  again,  giving  the  kingdom  to 
Archelaus,  making  Antipas  tetrarch  of  Gali- 
lee and  Persea,  and  Philip  tetrarch  of 
Batanea,  Trachouitis,  and  Auranitis,  and 
bestowmg  several  cities  on  his  sister  Salome 
(Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1  ;  War  i,  33,  7).  Herod's 
disposition  of  his  afl'airs  was  observed  at  his 
death,  except  that  Archelaus  was  finally  con- 
firmed by  the  emperor  Augustus  not  as  king 
but  as  ethuarch  of  Judtea  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4 
and  5). 

Herod,  son  of  Simon's  daughter,  Mariamne, 
married,  or  had  married,  Herodias,  daughter 
of  his  half-brother,  the  dead  Aristobulus. 
She,  however,  left  him  and  marrii^d  another 
half-brother  of  his,  Herod  the  tetrarch.  and 
her  former  husband  disappears  from  history. 
So  does  Herod,  son  of  Cleopatra  and  brother 
of  Philip,  the  tetrarch.  See  Hekodias  and 
Philip.     Aristobulus,  as  already  mentioned, 


hid  married  his  cousin,  Bernice,  daughter  of 
Salome,  and  had  begotten  five  children 
(War  i.  28.  1).  They  were  Hertid,  Agrii)pa, 
Aristobulus.  Herodias,  and  Mariamne.  Herod 
married  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Olympias, 
daughter  of  Herod  the  Great  aud  the  Sama- 
ritan Malthace  ;  Agrippa  married  Cyprus, 
daughter  of  Salampsio  and  Phasaeliis  the 
younger,  son  of  Herod  the  Great's  brother, 
Phasaelus;  Aristobulus  married  .Jotajie, 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Emesa ;  Herodias 
married  two  uncles  in  succession,  as  already 
noted  ;  and  Mariamne  married  Antipater, 
.son  of  Doris  (Antiq.  xviii.  5.  4  ;  War  i.  28,  .">: 
cp.  4).  Three  of  these  children  of  Aristo- 
bulus are  persons  of  note — namely,  Herod, 
Agrippa,  and  Herodias.  Herodias  was  the 
woman  who  crowned  her  infamies  by  telling 
her  daughter  to  demand  tlie  head  of  John  the 
Baptist  in  a  charger.  Herod  was  made  king  of 
Chalcis,  and  after  his  wife's  death  took  his 
niece,  Bernice,  Agrippa's  daughter,  to  wife. 
Agrijipa  became  king  Agri]ipa  I.  He  mar- 
ried, had  one  son  and  three  daughters.  Three 
of  these  children  are  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Agrippa  II.  and  the  two  notorious  women, 
Bernice  and  Drusilla. 

Besides  this  domestic  history  of  the  rise  of 
the  family  to  power  and  the  intrigues  among 
its  members,  there  is  the  political  history  of 
Herod's  reign.  Soon  after  he  had  been  made 
ruler  in  Galilee,  which  was  in  47  or  4(i  b.  c, 
he  came  in  contact  with  the  sanhedrin 
through  his  summary  execution  of  some 
robbers  without  the  sanhedrin's  formal  per- 
mission. He  was  summoned  for  trial  and 
appeared  with  an  armed  body  guard,  intimi- 
dating the  council.  He  was  acquitted  for 
lack  of  evidence.  Herod  sought  to  be,  for 
his  own  interest,  on  good  terms  with  the  suc- 
cessive representatives  of  the  warring  fac- 
tions into  which  the  Eoman  people  were  then 
divided.  He  obtained  a  generalship  from 
Sestus  Caisar,  president  of  Syria,  a  relative 
of  the  great  Julius  Caesar ;  aud  then,  after  a 
time,  gained  the  favor  of  Cassius,  the  most 
malignant  of  the  great  dictator's  as.sassius. 
Then  he  cast  in  his  lot  with  Marc  An- 
tony, one  of  the  murdered  man's  chief 
avengers  ;  nor  was  even  this  his  last  chauge 
of  sides.  About  41  B.  c.  Herod  was  made 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  by  Antony,  and  having, 
after  fresh  vicissitudes,  gone  to  Home  iu  40  b. 
c,  as  a  fugitive  rather  than  a  visitor,  his 
l)atron  induced  the  Eoman  senate  to  appoint 
him  king  of  the  Jews.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  37  B.  c.  that,  with  the  assistance  of 
Sosius,  a  general  of  Antony's,  he  succeeded 
in  taking  Jerusalem,  and  commencing  his 
actual  reign.  By  his  marriage  at  this  time 
with  Mariamne.  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus 
and  daughter  of  Alexander,  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus, he  became  allied  with  the  royal  As- 
mona*au  family.  He  now  endeavored  to 
further  strengthen  his  position  by  the  re- 
moval of  possible  rivals.  The  principal  mem- 
bers of  the  party  of  Antigonus,  forty-five  in 


Herod 


304 


Herod 


nnmhor.  worn  snii<rlit  out  and  i>ut  to  death. 
Soon  afterwards  Marianiiie's  brother,  Aristo- 
bulus,  a  l)c)y  of  seventeen,  whom  Herod  had 
just  rai>ed  to  the  liifjh-iiriestliood.  was 
drowned  in  a  bath  liy  Herod's  onhrs,  within 
a  year  after  his  elevation  to  the  ])ontiticate  ; 
and  al)out  'Al  B.  c.  licr  grandfather,  although 
eighty  years  old,  was  jmt  to  death  (Antiq. 
xv.  1,'2;  3,  '.i;  (i,  2).  Ilentd's  attention  was 
ealled  from  these  atrocities  by  the  new  crisis 
wiiieh  had  arisen.  His  patron  Antony  was 
totally  defeated  by  Octavius  in  the  sea  fight 
at  Aetiuni  on  September  2,  31  B.  c.  The  ])0- 
sition  of  Herod  was  now  critical,  but  he 
made  a  manly  and  judicious  speech  to  the 
victorious  Octavius,  and  was  forgiven  for  his 
partisanship  toward  Antony.  He  was  given 
the  friendship  of  the  man  he  had  otfended, 
and  retained  it  through  most  of  his  life,  be- 
sides having  his  dominiotis  increased  (xv.  6, 
5-7  ;  10,  3).  The  murder  of  a  wife's  brother 
and  her  grandfather  did  not  tend  to  increase 
her  attachment  to  her  husband,  and  by  and 
by  variance  arose  between  Herod  and  Alari- 
amne.  It  increased,  till  it  culminated  at 
length  in  the  queen's  being  falsely  accused 
and  executed.  Remorse  followed  in  due 
course,  and  almost,  if  not  altogether,  deprived 
the  king  of  reason  (Antic),  xv.  7.  7  ;  xvii.  6,  ,5 ; 
War  i.  22,  5;  33,  5).  Partly  to  divert  his 
mind  from  gloomy  remembrances,  partly  to 
l)lease  Octavius,  now  the  em]>er(ir  Augustus, 
he  built  theaters  and  exhibited  games,  both 
of  these  acts  being  inconsistent  with  .Tndaism. 
He  also  rebuilt,  enlarged,  and  beautified  a 
place  named  Strato's  Tower,  calling  it,  after 
liis  imperial  patron.  Cspsarea.  H  ultimately 
became  the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine  ( Antit). 
XV.  H,  ry  ■  9,  fi  ;  cp.  Acts  xxiii.  2.3,24).  Then, 
♦•o  conciliate  the  Jews,  he,  between  19  and 
11  or  9  B.  c,  rebuilt  and  beautified  the  tem- 
]tle.  The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  took  place  at 
the  clo.se  of  Herod's  life,  after  he  had  re- 
moved his  rivals  from  other  families  by  vio- 
lent deaths,  and  when  his  domestic  troubles 
were  at  their  height.  He  had  slain  his  sons 
Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  and  more  re- 
ciMitly  Antipaler,  for  jjlotting  against  his  life; 
and  now  he  was  told  that  a  child  of  David's 
line  had  just  been  born  to  be  king  of  the 
Jews.  The  slaughter  of  the  infants  who 
came  into  the  world  about  tlie  same  time 
and  place  was  such  a  nu'thodof  meeting  the 
difliculty  as  would  suggest  itself  to  one  with 
Herod's  j)ro]iensity  to  bloodshed  (Mat.  ii.  1- 
19).  It  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of  his  life. 
Seized  at  length  with  loathsome  and  mortal 
disease,  he  rejjaired  to  Callirhoe,  the  hot 
Mill)hur  si)rings  of  the  Zerka,  the  water 
tiom  which  runs  into  the  eastern  ]iart  of  the 
1  lead  Sea.  They  came  to  be  called,  in  con- 
s((|Ui'nce,  by  many,  the  baths  of  Herod  ;  but 
they  did  not  do  the  king  much  good  (Anti(|. 
xvii.  (i,  5).  He  felt  that  he  was  dying,  and 
that  there  would  b«"  rejoicing  when  he  i)assed 
away.  He  therefore  told  his  sister  Salome  and 
licr  husband  Alexas  to  shut  u\t  the  ]Min(i|ial 


Jews  in  the  circus  at  Jericho,  and  put  them  to 
death  whenever  he  expired,  that  there  might 
1)0  mourning  at,  though,  of  course,  not  for, 
his  death.  Then,  about  4  B.  c,  he  passed 
away,  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age  and 
the  thirty-fourth  of  his  reign,  counting  from 
the  time  when  he  actually  obtained  the  king- 
dom. When  news  of  his  demise  arrived,  the 
circus  prisoners  were  set  free,  and  the  death 
of  the  tyrant  was  welcomed  as  a  relief  in- 
stead of^  being  attended  by  mourning,  lamen- 
tation, and  woe  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  5 ;  8,  2). 

2.  Hekod  the  Tktrarch.— a  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  his  Samaritan  wife  called 
Malthace.  He  was,  therefore,  half  Idunifean 
and  half  Samaritan,  iicrhaps  without  a  single 
drop  of  Jewish  blood  in  his  veins.  He  was 
called  indifferently  Antipas  and  Herod 
(Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3  ;  xviii.  5,  1  :  H,  2  :  War  ii. 
9,  1),  and  it  is  customary  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  other  Herod's  of  the  family  as 
Herod  Antipas.  He  was  the  full  brother  of 
Archelaus,  and  was  younger  than  Archelaus 
(Antiq.  xvii.  H,  1  ;  War  i.  32,  7  ;  33,  7).  He  was 
educated  with  him  and  his  half-brother  Philip 
at  Eome  (Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3).  By  the  second 
testament  of  his  father,  the  kingdom  was 
bequeathed  to  him  (6,  1)  ;  but  by  his  father's 
final  will  he  was  appointed  tetrarch  of 
Galilee  and  the  kingdom  was  given  to 
Archelaus  (8,  1).  On  his  father's  death  he  com- 
peted with  his  brother  for  the  kingdom,  but 
received  only  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee  and 
Perpea  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,4;  Luke  iii.  1).  He 
erected  a  wall  around  Sepphoris,  and  made  ii 
his  metropolis.  Betharamphtha  in  Penea  be 
walled,  and  built  a  palace  there.  It  was  named 
Tvivias  and  .Julias,  after  .Augustus'  daughter 
(Antiri.  xviii.  2, 1)  ;  see  Beth-haran.  He  also 
built  Tiberias  (3).  He  married  a  daughter 
of  Aretas,  king  of  the  Nabatlijean  Arabs, 
whose  capital  was  Petra  ;  but  afterwards.while 
lodging  at  Rome  with  Herod  Philip,  his  half- 
brother,  he  indulged  a  guilty  passion  for  his 
entertainer's  wife,  Herodias,  and  arranged 
to  divorce  his  lawful  consort  and  take 
Herodias  instead.  This  immoral  transaction 
was  carried  into  effect.  Herodias  was  a  mas- 
culine woman,  Herod  a  weak  man  ;  she  was 
his  evil  genius,  and  made  a  tool  of  him,  as 
Jezebel  had  done  of  Ahab.  Aretas  resented 
the  injury  inflicted  uiwu  his  daughter,  and 
he  commenced  a  war  against  Herod  and 
waged  it  successfully  (5,  1).  Herodias  was 
the  prime  mover  in  the  murder  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Mat.  xiv.  1-13  ;  Anti(j.  xviii.  5,  2). 
Because  of  his  cunning,  the  tetrarch  was 
describi'd  by  our  Lord  as  that  fox  (Lukexiii. 
."{],  32).  But  the  tetrarch  had  a  following, 
for  mention  is  made  of  the  leaven  of  Herod 
(Mark  viii.  1."))  ;  see  Herodians.  When  the 
fame  of  .lesus  began  to  spread  abroad,  the 
uneasy  conscience!  of  Herod  made  him  fear 
that  John  had  risen  from  the  dead  (Mat.  xiv. 
1,  2).  H(!  was  jire.sent  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  <if  the  crucifixion,  and  .lesus  was  sent 
to  him  by  Pilate.     He  thought  that  now  he 


Herod 


305 


Herod 


would  have  the  opportuniDv  of  seeing  a  mir- 
acle performed,  but  he  was  disappointed,  and 
with  his  men  of  war  set  Jesus  at  naught. 
The  same  day  he  was  reconciled  to  Pilate, 
whereas  thev  had  before  been  at  variance 
(Luke  xxiii.7-12,  1.') ;  Acts  iv.  27).  The  ad- 
vancement of  Herodias'  brother  Agrippa  to 
be  king,  while  her  husband  remained  only 
tetrarch,  aroused  the  envy  of  this  ]>roud 
woman,  and^she  prevailed  upon  Herod  to  go 
with  her  to  Rome  and  ask  for  a  crown. 
Agrippa,  however,  sent  letters  after  them  to 
the  em])eror  Caligula,  accusing  Herod  of  be- 
ing secretly  in  league  with  the  Parthians, 
and  Herod  was  in  consequence  banished  to 
Lyons  in  Gaul,  A.  D.  39,  where  he  died 
(Antiq.  xviii.  7,  1,  2 ;  War  ii.  9,  6,  Greek 
text). 

3.  Herod  the  King. — Josephus  calls  him 
simply  Agrippa.  Both  names  are  generally 
combined,  and  he  is  designated  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  to  distinguish  him  from  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
before  whf>m  Paul  was  tried.  Agrippa  I.  was 
the  son  of  Aristobulus,  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Mariamne,  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  educated  in  Rome  with  Drusus,  son 
of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  and  Claudius  (Antiq. 
xviii.  6,  1  and  4) ;  but  the  death  of  Drusus 
and  lack  of  funds  led  to  his  return  to  Judaea 
(2).  In  A.  D.  37  he  made  another  journey  to 
Rome  to  bring  accusations  against  Herod  the 
tetrarch  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  3 ;  War  ii.  9,  5).  He 
did  not  return  when  his  business  was  trans- 
acted, but  remained  in  the  metropolis,  culti- 
vating the  acquaintance  of  people  who  might 
be  of  Tise  to  him  in  the  future.  Among 
others,  he  ingratiated  himself  with  Caius,  son 
of  German icns,  who  shortly  became  the  em- 
peror Caligula  (Antiq.  xviii.  fi,  4 ;  War  ii.  9, 
5).  For  rash  words  spoken  in  favor  of  Caius, 
Tiberius  cast  him  into  chains ;  but  six  months 
later  Caius  became  emperor,  and  appointed 
Agrippa  to  be  king  of  the  tetrarchy  which 
his  late  uncle  Philip  had  governed,  and  also 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias  (Antiq.  xviii.  (i, 
10).  In  A.  D.  39  the  emperor  banished  Herod 
the  tetrarch,  and  added  his  tetrarchy,  which 
was  Galilee,  to  the  kingdom  of  Agrippa  (7, 2). 
Agrippa  left  his  kingdom  for  a  time,  and  re- 
sided at  Rome  (8,  7).  During  this  sojourn  at 
the  capital  he  prevailed  u])on  the  emperor  to 
desist  from  his  determination  to  erect  his 
statue  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (8,  7  and 
8).  When  Caligula  was  assassinated,  and 
Claudius,  against  his  own  will,  chosen  in  his 
room,  Agrippa,  who  was  then  at  Rome,  acted 
as  negotiator  between  the  senate  and  the  new 
emperor,  whom  he  persuaded  to  take  otiice. 
As  a  reward,  Agrippa  had  Judtea  and  Sa- 
maria added  to  his  dominions,  which  now 
equaled  those  of  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq. 
xix.  3-5  ;  War  ii.  11,  1-5).  He  commenced 
to  build  a  wall  about  the  northern  suburb  of 
Jerusalem,  so  as  to  include  it  in  the  city,  but 
was  ordered  to  abandon  the  work  (Antiq.  xix. 
7,  2).  He  slew  James,  the  brother  of  John. 
with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  1,  2),  imprisoned 
20 


Peter  '3-19  ,  and  at  Cassarea,  immediately 
after  he  had  accepted  divine  honor,  was  mis- 
erably eaten  up  of  worms  (20-23;  Antiq.  xix. 
8,  2).  He  died  A.  D.  44,  in  the  fifty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  leaving  four  children,  of 
whom  three  are  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Agrippa,  Bernice,  and  Dru.silla  (Warii.  11,6). 
4.  Agrippa,  commonly  known  as  Herod 
Agrippa  II.  He  was  son  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  and  consequently  great-grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  and  was  the  brother  of  the  noto- 
rious women  Bernice  and  Drusilla  (War  ii. 
11,  6).  At  the  time  of  his  father's  death, 
A.  D.  44,  he  was  17  years  old,  and  residing  at 
Rome,  where  he  was  being  brought  up  in  the 
imperial  household  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  1  and  2). 
The  emperor  Claudius  was  dissuaded  from  ap- 
pointing him  to  the  throne  of  his  father  on 
account  of  his  youth,  and  Judsea  was  placed 
under  a  procurator.  Agrippa  remained  in 
Rome.  He  successfully  seconded  the  efibrts 
of  the  Jewish  ambassadors  to  obtain  the  im- 
perial permission  to  retain  the  official  robes 
of  the  high  priest  under  their  own  control 
(xx.  1,  1).  When  his  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  died  about  a.  d.  48,  Claudius  pres- 
ently bestowed  his  .small  realm  on  the  west- 
ern slope  of  Anti-Lebanon  on  Agrippa  (5,  2 ; 
War  ii.  12,  1 ;  14,  4  ;  cp.  i.  9.  2),  so  that  he  be- 
came king  Agrippa.  He  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  Jewish  commissioners  who  had  come 
to  Rome  to  appear  against  the  procurator 
Cumanus  and  the  Samaritans,  and  he  pre- 
vailed upon  the  emperor  to  grant  them  an 
audience  (Antiq.  xx.  6,  3 ;  War  ii.  12.  7).  In 
A.  D.  52  Claudius  transferred  him  from  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  to  a  larger  realm  formed 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  which  contained 
Batanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Gaulonitis.  the 
tetrarchy  of  Lysanias,  and  the  province  of 
Abilene  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  1 ;  War  ii.  12,  8).  His 
constant  companionship  with  his  sister  Ber- 
nice about  this  time  began  to  create  scandal 
(Antiq.  xx.  7,  3).  In  A.  D.  54  or  55  Nero 
added  the  cities  of  Tiberias  and  Tarichese  in 
Galilee  and  Julias  in  Persea  with  its  depend- 
ent towns  to  his  dominion  (8,  4).  When  Felix 
had  been  succeeded  by  Festus  as  procurator 
of  Judaea,  Agrippa  went  to  Csesarea  to  salute 
him,  accompanied  by  Bernice.  Paul  was 
then  in  confinement.  Festus  laid  his  case 
before  the  king,  and  on  the  morrow  the  apos- 
tle was  permitted  to  plead  his  cause  before 
the  procurator,  the  king,  and  Bernice.  He 
was  entirely  successful  in  clearing  himself 
(Acts  XXV.  13-xxvi.  32).  Soon  afterwards 
Agri])pa  built  an  addition  to  the  palace  of  the 
Asmonaeans  at  Jerusalem  (Antiq.  xx.  8.  11). 
Later  still  he  enlarged  and  beautified  Caesarea 
Philippi,  and  established  theatrical  exhibi- 
tions at  Berytus  (9,  4).  When  the  troubles 
which  culminated  in  the  Jewish  war  began, 
Agripi>a  endeavored  to  dissuade  the  Jews 
from  making  armed  resistance  to  Fadus  the 
procurator  and  the  Romans  (War  ii.  16,  2-5; 
17,  4  ;  18,  9  ;  19,  3).  When  the  war  broke  in 
its  fury,  he  fought  by  the  side  of  Vespasian, 


Herod,  Palace  of 


306 


Heron 


and  was  wounded  at  tlie  siege  of  Ganiala  (iii. 
9,  7  and  H;  10,  10;  iv.  1,  3).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  he  removed  with  Ueruice 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  invested  with  the  dig- 
nity of  pnetor.     He  died  A.  D.  100. 

Her'od,  Pal 'ace  of. 

A  palace-fortress  erected  by  Herod  the 
Great  about  the  year  24  or  23  B.  c.  (Antiq. 
XV.  J).  1  and  3).  It  stood  at  the  northwe.st 
corner  of  the  upper  city,  adjoined  the  tow- 
ers of  Hipiiicus,  Pliasaelus,  and  Mariamue 
on  tlicir  soutli,  and  formed  with  them  a 
stronghold  which  excitfd  the  admiration  of 
even  the  Eonians  (War  v.  4,  4  ;  5,  8;  vi.  8,  1 ; 
9,  1).  Its  site  is  the  modern  citadel  by  the 
Jaffa  gate.  The  three  towers  were  built  of 
white  stone.  Hijipicus  was  square,  with  sides 
2.5  cubits  in  length.  To  the  height  of  30  cubits 
it  consisted  of  solid  masonry  ;  over  this  was 
a  reservoir,  20  cubits  deep ;  and  over  this 
again  a  two-story  house,  25  cubits  in  height, 
snrmotiiited  by  battlements  2  cubits  high 
with  turrets  3  cubits  higher.  The  entire  al- 
titude of  the  tower  was  80  cubits.  Phasaelus 
was  larger.  Its  stock  was  a  cube  of  solid 
maso7iry  measuring  40  cubits  in  each  direc- 
tion, surmounted  by  a  cloister,  and  that  in 
turn  by  a  jialatial  tower.  Its  entire  height 
was  about  90  cubits.  It  was  completed  about 
the  year  10  n.  c.  (Antiq.  xvi.5,  2).  Mariamne 
had  half  the  dimensions  of  Phasaelus,  save 
that  it  was  50  cubits  high.  It  was  magnifi- 
cently adorned  by  Herod  as  befitted  a  tower 
named  in  honor  of  his  wife.  The  palace 
lirojx'r  on  the  south  of  these  towers  was  en- 
tirely walled  about  to  the  height  of  '■'>()  cubits, 
and  was  further  lu-otected  by  turrets  which 
surniduntcd  the  wall  and  stood  at  etiual  dis- 
tances from  each  other.  Within  were  open 
courts  with  groves  of  trees,  and  numerous 
apartments,  ainotig  which  two  were  conspic- 
uous for  size  and  beauty,  and  were  called 
Ca'sareuni  and  Agriii])ium,  ai'ter  Herod's 
friends  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  3  ;  10,  3  ;  War  i.  21,  1 ;  v. 
4,  4).  The  palace  was  occu])ied  by  Sabiuus,  the 
procurator  of  Syria  (Anti(i.  xvii.  10,  2  and  3; 
War  ii.  3,2  and' 3).  In  it  Pilate  erected  gold- 
en shields  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius; 
and  it  is  exju-e.ssly  called  the  house  of  the  pro- 
curators (Pliilo,  de  legal,  ad  Caium,  xsxviii. 
and  xxxix.).  The  luocurator  Florus  took  up 
bis  (juarters  in  this  building,  erected  his  tri- 
bunal before  it,  and  sentenced  men  to  scourg- 
ing and  crucitixicm  (War  ii.  14,  H  and  9).  It 
was  burned  by  the  seditious  Jews  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  with  the  Pomaiis.  The 
tliree  mighty  towers,  however,  withstood  the 
llames,  and  were  allowed  by  the  coiKpU'ror  to 
stand  as  a  witness  to  the  kind  of  city  the  Ro- 
mans had  overthrown  (War  ii.  17,  8  ;  vii.  1, 1). 

He-ro'di-ans. 

A  .!(  \vi>li  party  in  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
who  were  evidently  jiarlisans  of  the  Ilerod 
family.  The  Herodswere  not  of  i)ro]ier  Jew- 
ish descent,  and  they  had  sujijilanteil  a  royal 
family   not    meiely   .lewish,   but    of  ju-icstly 


blood  and  rank.  They  also  supported  theii 
authority  by  trying  to  please  their  Roman 
patrons.  If  theHerodiaus  took  the  part  of 
the  Herods  in  these  two  respects,  then  they 
were  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  Pharisees, 
with  whom,  however,  they  combined  at  Jeru- 
salem to  entangle  our  Lord  by  the  ensnaring 
question  about  paying  tribute  to  Caesar  (Mat. 
xxii.  16  ;  Mark  xii.  13) ;  and  earlier  in  Galilee 
had  joined  in  jtlotting  against  his  life  (Mark 
iii.  6;  cp.  Mark  viii.  15).  Another  view  is 
that,  condoning  the  Herods'  Idumseau  de- 
scent, the  Herodians  supported  them  mere- 
Ij'  as  the  representatives  of  national  against 
foreign  rule,  in  which  case  their  union  with 
the  Pliarisees  would  be  quite  natural. 

He-ro'di-as. 

Daughter  of  Aristobulus,  and  half-.sister  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  She  was  married  to  Herod, 
the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mariamne,  the 
high  priest  Simon's  daughter.  This  hu.sband 
is  called  Philip  in  the  N.  T.,  but  is  not  en- 
titled a  tetrarch  (Mat.  xiv.  3;  Mark  vi.  17). 
He  was  a  different  person  from  Philip  the 
tetrarch.  It  is  customary  to  s])eak  of  him  as 
Herod  Philip,  which  was  probably  his  full 
name.  SeePHiiJP4,  His  half-brother,  Herod 
the  tetrarch,  indulged  a  guilty  passion  for  her, 
and  divorcing  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  king 
Aretas  of  Arabia,  married  Herodias  while  her 
first  husband  was  still  alive  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  1. 
4 :  6,  2 ;  7,  2  ;  War  ii.  9.  6).  John  the  Baptist 
reproved  the  guilty  pair,  on  which  Herodias 
plotted  his  death,  and  when  her  daughter 
Salome  had  gained  Herod's  favor  by  dancing 
before  him  at  a  gatheiing  of  the  dignitaries 
of  his  tetrarchy,  extorted  from  him  a  i)romise 
to  give  her  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  The 
king  was  sorry,  but,  for  his  oath's  sake,  com- 
plied with  her  wishes  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12 ;  Mark 
vi.  17-29;  Luke  iii.  19,  20;  cp.  Prov.  vi.  26). 
On  the  banishment  of  the  tetrarch,  Herodias 
went  with  him  into  exile  (Antiq.  xviii.  7,  2  ; 
War.  ii.  9,  6). 

Herodias'  daughter  Salome  married  Philip, 
the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod  the  Great.  After 
his  death  she  married  her  first  cousin,  Aris- 
tobulus, sou  of  king  Agrippa' s  brother  Herod 
and  great-great-grandson  of  Herod  the  Great 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4). 

He-ro'di-on. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  whom  Paul  called  his 
kinsman,  and  to  whom  he  sent  a  salutation 
(Rom.  xvi.  11). 

Her'on. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"naphah 
(Lev.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  R.  V.  ibis;  Deut. 
xiv.  18).  The  bird  so  designated  was  held  to 
be  typical  of  a  family,  for  it  is  followed  by 
the  words  "after  its  kind."  The  heron  fam- 
ily {A  rdeiiliv),  is  placed  under  the  Grnllatores  or 
Waders.  The  birds  which  it  includes  are 
generally  of  large  size.  They  have  a  long 
bill,  long  bare  legs  adapted  for  wading,  a 
large  hind  toe,  and  large  wings,  their  flight, 
however,  being  comparatively  slow.     Their 


Hesed 


307 


Hezekiah 


food  is  principally  fish  and  reptiles.  The 
family  contains  the  herons,  the  egrets,  etc. 
The  biift"-backed  heron  {Anien  biibulcitu),  often 
called  the  white  ibis,  is  the  most  abundant. 
These  birds  live  and  breed  in  vast  numbers 
in  the  swamps  of  lake  Huleh,  and  they  asso- 
ciate with  cattle  in  the  pastures,  where  sev- 
eral purple  ibises  may  usually  be  seen  with 
them.  The  common  heron  (Arden  cineren) 
occurs  on  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes,  on  the 
Kishon,  and  on  the  scacoast  of  Palestine. 
With  it  are  found  also  the  purple  heron  {Ardea 
purpurea)  and  several  egrets. 

He'sed  [pity,  mercy]. 

Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors  (1 
Kin.  iv.  10). 

Hesh'bon  [reason,  intelligence]. 

The  city  of  Sihon,  the  Amorite  king,  but 
apparently  taken  originally  from  the  Aloabites 
(Num.  xxi.  25-30,  34).  It  was  assigned  by 
Moses  to  the  Reubenites,  and  after  the  con- 
quest was  rebuilt  by  the  men  of  that  tribe 
(xxxii.  37 ;  Josh.  xiii.  17).  But  it  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  between  Reuben  and  Gad  (Josh, 
xiii.  26),  came  to  be  possessed  by  the  latter, 
and  was  assigned  as  a  town  of  Gad  to  the 
Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  39:  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  The 
Moabites  held  it  in  Isaiah's  and  Jeremiah's 
times  (Is.  xv.  4 ;  xvi.  8,  9  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  2,  33, 
34).  Later  still  it  was  in  the  possession  of 
Alexander  Jannseus  and  Herod  the  Great 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4  ;  xv.  8.  5).  It  is  still  known 
as  Hesban,  a  ruined  city  standing  on  an  iso- 
lated hill,  with  the  remains  of  a  wall,  an 
archway,  and  a  temple.  The  sides  of  the  val- 
ley which  commences  just  west  of  the  hill 
are  honeycombed  with  caves  and  sepulchers. 
A  great  reservoir,  a  little  eastward  from  the 
ruins  of  Heshbon,  is  probably  one  of  the  pools 
which  were  outside  the  town  walls  (Song 
vii.  4). 

Hesh'mon  [fatness,  fertile  soil]. 
A  town  in  the  extreme  south   of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27). 

Heth.     See  Cheth  and  Hittites. 

Hetli'lon  [perhaps,  a  hiding  place]. 

A  place  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Pales- 
tine, as  ju-ophesied  by  Ezekiel,  near  the  en- 
tering in  of  Hamath  (Ezek.  xlvii.  15;  xlviii. 
1;  cp.  Num.  xxxiv.  8).     Not  identified. 

Hez'e-ki.     See  Hizki. 

Hez-e-ki'ali,  in  A.  V.  once  Hizkiah  (Zeph. 
i.  1),  once  Hizkijah  (Neb.  x.  17).  in  A.  V.  of 
N.  T.  Ezekias,  the  Greek  form  [strength  or 
a  strong  sui)pcirt  is  Jehovah  ;  or,  in  the  longer 
Hebrew  form  in  2  Chron.  xxviii.  27  ;  Hos.  i.  1, 
etc.,  Jehovah  doth  strengthen]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah.  He  was 
a.ssociated  with  his  father  in  the  government 
in  728  B.  c.  From  the  fact  that  Ahaz  was  not 
buried  in  the  royal  sepulcher,  Neteler  has 
argued  that  he  had  been  smitten  with  some 
disease  which  was  regarded  as  a  divine  judg- 
ment on  his  siu.     Being  incapacitated  for  ac- 


tive participation  in  the  affairs  of  state.  Heze- 
kiah  was  made  active  ruler.  Hezekiah  is 
said  to  have  begun  to  reign  at  the  age  of  25, 
but  the  number  seems  to  be  corrupt.  He  was 
a  devoted  servantof  Jehovah,  and  commenced 
his  reign  by  repairing  and  clean.sing  the  tem- 
ple, reorganizing  its  religious  services  and  its 
officers,  and  celebrating  a  great  passover,  to 
which  he  invited  not  merely  the  two  tribes, 
but  the  ten  (2  Chron.  xxix.  1-xxx.  13).  He 
removed  the  high  places,  cast  down  the  images, 
and  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen  serpent  which 
Moses  had  made,  but  which  had  become  an 
object  of  idolatrous  worship.  He  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Philistines,  and  in  other 
ways  became  great  and  prosperous.  In  his 
fourth  regnal  year,  724  b.  c,  Shalmaneser 
commenced,  and  in  722  B.  c.  Sargon  com- 
pleted, the  siege  of  Samaria,  carrying  the  ten 
tribes  into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xviii.  9,  10).  In 
714  B.  c,  according  to  the  nitthod  of  reckon- 
ing already  employed  by  the  Hebrew  annalist, 
began  the  series  of  Assyrian  invasions  which 
formed  a  marked  feature  of  Hezekiah's  reign 
and  terminated  disastrously  for  Assyria.  The 
biblical  account  of  these  events  is  presented 
as  a  connected  narrative.  It  falls  into  three 
sections :  the  beginning  of  the  invasions  about 
714  (2  Kin.  xviii.  13  ;  Is.  xxxvi.  1 ;  probably  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  1-8  ;  cp.  invasion  of  Philistia  in 
711,  Is.  XX.  1) ;  the  main  campaign  of  701,  in 
its  first  stage  (2  Kin.  xviii.  14-16),  and  in  its 
final  stage  (17-xix.  35  ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  9-21 ; 
Is.  xxxvi.  2-xxxvii.  36)  ;  and  the  end  of  the 
troubler  in  681  (2  Kin.  xix.  36,  37  ;  Is.  xxxvii. 
37,  38).  Sargon  was  still  on  the  throne  of 
Assyria  in  714  ;  but  he  had  placed  his  son  Sen- 
nacherib in  high  military  position  before  that 
date,  and  Sennacherib  may  have  led  the 
troops  of  his  father  which  in  720  or  715  and 
the  beginning  of  714,  probably  at  the  latter 
date,  "subjugated  Judah"  according  to  the 
Assyrian  account,  when  the  main  army  of 
Assyria  was  waging  war  to  the  north  and  east 
of  Assyria.  Apparently  immediately  after 
the  beginning  of  these  invasions,  in  714. 
Hezekiah  was  sick,  probably  from  a  carbun- 
cle, and  nigh  unto  death  ;  but  was  granted  a 
new  lease  of  life  for  fifteen  years  (2  Kin.  xx. 
1-11;  Is.  xxxviii.).  To  inquire  into  the  sign 
which  Hezekiah  received  at  this  time  was 
the  ostensible  object  of  an  embassy  from 
Merodach-baladan,  king  of  Babylon.  The 
real  object  was  to  i)ersuade  Judah's  king  to 
join  the  great  confederacy  which  was  being 
secretly  formed  against  the  Assyrian  power. 
Hezekiah  was  quite  elated  by  the  coming  of 
the  Babylonian  ambassadors,  and  displayed 
to  them  his  financial  resources ;  but  the 
prophet  Isaiah  warned  him  that  the  peo- 
ple of  Judah  would  be  carried  cai)tive  to 
that  same  place  from  which  the  ambassa- 
dors had  come  (2  Kin.  xx.  12-19;  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  31;  Is.  xxxix.  1-8).  Hezekiah  joined 
the  confederacy.  Sargon,  who  was  an  able 
general,  broke  in  upon  the  allies  before  their 
plans  were  matured.     His  expedition  against 


Hezekiah 


308 


Hiddekel 


Aslidod,  <-on(inct('d  by  his  tartau  (Is.  xx.  1), 
took  place  in  711.  and  was  occasioned  by  the 
refusal  of  Philistia,  Jiidali,  Edom,  and  Moab 
to  pay  tribute.  In  710  he  dethroned  Mero- 
dai'li-baladan  and  made  liiniseU'  kinj;  of  Baby- 
lonia. In  70.")  Sariion  was  niurdi'red,  and  liis 
son  Senuacheribascended  the  Assyrian  throne. 
This  (diangc  of  rulers  was  the  signal  for  new 
uprisings.  To  ((Uell  revolt  in  the  west,  Sen- 
nacherib advanced  as  far  as  the  country  of 
the  riiilistines  in  701,  conciuering  Phoenicia 
on  the  way  and  receiving  envoys  from  Asli- 
dod, Amnion,  Moab,  and  Edom  suing  for 
])eace.  Many  towns  still  held  out,  and  Sen- 
nacherib proceeded  against  .loiipa,  Beth- 
dagon,  AshkeUm,  and  other  jjlaces.  Turning 
eastward,  he  captured  Lachish,  pitching  his 
camp  there,  and  receiving  tribute  from  the 
terrified  Hezekiah.  This  tribute  consisted 
of  thirty  talents  of  gold,  three  hundred,  or, 
according  to  the  Assyrian  scribe  who  perhaps 
computes  by  a  lighter  standard,  eight  hun- 
<lred  talents  of  silver.  Besides  this,  accord- 
ing to  the  Assyrian  report,  were  precious 
stones,  costly  woods,  articles  of  ivory,  daugh- 
ters of  Hezekiah,  women  of  the  palace,  and 
others.  To  obtain  the  ])recious  metaks,  Heze- 
kiah stripped  the  doors  and  pillars  of  the 
temple  of  their  plating.  News,  however, 
readied  Sennacherib  while  still  at  Ijachish 
of  an  alliance  between  the  Philistine  towns 
and  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  21, 
24),  and,  unwilling  to  have  so  strong  a  for- 
tress as  .Jerusalem  in  his  rear,  he  sent  a  de- 
tachment from  his  army  to  garrison  the  city. 
Hezekiah  had  heard  of  the  advance  of  the 
southern  army,  and  of  the  sturdy  resistance 
of  Ekron  to  the  Assyrians.  His  faith  in 
Jehovah  also  revived  under  tlie  exhorta- 
tions of  Isaiah,  and  he  refu.sed  to  admit 
the  Assyrian  troojjs  into  the  city.  In  the 
meantime  the  Assyrian  king  liad  broken 
camp  at  Lachish  aiul  fallen  back  on  Libnah 
(2  Kin.  xix.  «).  Hearing  of  Hezekiah's  new 
attitiule  of  defiance,  he  dis])atched  messen- 
gers with  threatening  letters  to  him,  vowing 
future  vengeance;  and,  not  daring  to  meet 
the  Egyptians  and  Ethioi)ians  while  Ekron 
and  .Jerusalem  were  in  his  rear,  he  retreated 
to  Eltekeb.  There  the  battle  took  place.  The 
Egyptians  were  repulsed,  but  the  spoils  of 
victory  were  inconsiderable.  Sennacherib 
now  turned  hisattention  to  the  hostile  towns 
iu  the  vicinity.  His  devastation  and  his  ad- 
vance toward  .Icrusalem  were  only  terminated 
by  the  sudden  plague  which  smote  his  army, 
whereby  in  one  night  185,000  of  his  warriors 
perished  (2  Kin.  xix.  ;{.'>,  :«)).  See  Senna- 
CUKKIR  Besides  I.saiab,  Hosca  and  Micah 
were  contemporaries  of  Hezekiah  (IIos.  i.  1; 
Mic.  i.  1).  The  king  died  alicml  (iiis,  leaving 
his  son  Mana.sseh  toa.scend  the  throne  (2  Kin. 
XX.  21  ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  :5;i). 
,2.  An  ancestor  of  the  i>roi)het  Zephaniah 
(Zeph.  i.  1  :  in  A.  V.  Hizkiali). 

.'5.  A  son  of  Neariah,  akin  to  the  royal  fam- 
ily of  .liidah  ( 1  (broil,  ill.  :.':;). 


4.  A  man  of  whose  descendants  through 
Ater  some  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  16  ;  Neh.  vii.  21).  Probably  it  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  his  family  who  signed  the  cov- 
enant under  Nehemiah's  rule  (Neh.  x.  17;  in 
A.  V.  Hizkijah). 

He'zi-on  [vision]. 

Father  of  Tabrimmon  and  grandfather  of 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18). 

He'zir  [a  swine,  a  pig]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David 
and  became  the  seventeenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  15). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Hez'rai  [enclosed]. 

A  Carmelite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  35).  In  1  Chron.  xi.  37  called 
Hezro,  a  difference  doubtless  due  to  an  an- 
cient scribe's  confusion  of  jod  and  vau.  See 
Vau. 

Hez'ro.     See  Hezrai. 

Hez'ron,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esrom  (Mat.  i. 
3),  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification  of 
the  name  [shut  in,  surrounded]. 

1.  A  ]>lace  on  the  southern  boundary  line 
of  Judah,  not  far  from  Zin  and  Kade.sh-barnea 
(Josh.  XV.  3) ;  perhaps  the  town  Hazor  (ver. 
23).  It  was  near  enough  Addar  to  be  coupled 
with  it  in  the  form  Hazar-addar  (Num.  xxxiv, 
4).  For  Kerioth-hezrou  (Josh.  xv.  25,  E.  V.), 
see  Hazor  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  the 
Hezronite  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14; 
Num.  xxvi.  6  ;  1  Chron.  v.  3). 

3.  Son  of  Perez,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  12  ; 
Num.  xxvi.  21 ;  Euth  iv.  iS:  1  Chron,.  ii.  5). 

Hid'dai  [joyful]. 

A  man  from  the  brooks  of  Gaash.  He  was 
one  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30).  Called 
in  1  Chron.  xi.  32,  Hurai. 

Hid'de-kel  [Hebrew ;  in  Assyrian  idiklat, 
Old  Persian  t'xjra,  Greek  tigris]. 

The  river  Tigris,  which  goeth  in  front  of 
Assyria  (Gen.  ii.  14,  R.  V. ;  Dan.  x.  4).  It  is 
still  called  Hiddekel  by  a  large  portion  of  the 
people  living  near  its  banks.  Its  principal 
sources  in  central  Armenia  spring  from  the 
southern  slope  of  Anti-Taurus.  The  western 
flows  by  Diarbekr,windiugforabove  150  miles. 
The  two  eastern,  known  as  BitlisChaiand  Boh- 
tan  Chai,  rise  .south  of  lake  Van,  and  are  about 
100  miles  long.  After  the  junction  of  these 
streams  the  river  proceeds  nearly  east-south- 
east, through  the  Kurdistan  mountains,  grad- 
ually increased  l)y  variousaffluents,  esi>ecially 
the  greater  and  lesser  Zab  and  the  Diyalah 
from  the  eastern,  with  smaller  feeders  from 
the  western  side,  finally  joining  the  Euphra- 
tes. In  anti(|uity,  it  emptied  through  its 
own  mouth  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  its 
course  it  passes  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  which 


THE  ALTAR  AND  A  SACRIFICIAL  PLATFORM 

Viewed  from  the  east.     Tlie  altar  is  rectan.^ular  and  measures  approximately  nine  feet  from  n( 
and  three  feet  high,  with  four  broad  steps  on  the  side  toward  the  cou 


rth  to  south,  by  six  feet  wide 


Viewed  from  the  south, 
KintlHc^H  of  Pruftimr 


COURT  OF  THE  GREAT  HIGH  PLACE  AT  PETRA 


ennlh  forty-seven  feet,  width  twenty  feet.     In  tlie  center,  cut  from  tlie  native  rock  is  a  platform  four 
feel  ten  inches  Ions;,  two  feet  seven  inches  wide,  and  four  inclR-i  hinh 
l.M„„. 


Hiel 


309 


High  Places 


lie  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank,  nearly  op- 
posite Mosul  on  its  right  side.  Lower  down 
it  separates  Bagdad  into  two  portions;  and 
afterwards  passes  the  ruins,  first  of  Ctesiphon, 
the  Partliian  capital,  and  then  those  of  Seleu- 
cia,  whicli,  under  the  Greek  dynasty,  became 
the  rival  of  Babylon.  The  whdle  course  of 
the  Tigris  to  the  junction  with  the  Euphrates 
is  1146  miles,  only  a  little  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  sister  stream. 

Hi'el  [probably,  God  livetli]. 

A  native  of  Bethel,  who,  in  Ahab's  reign, 
fortified  Jericho,  bringing  down  on  himself 
the  fulfillment  of  .Joshua's  imprecation.  His 
eldest  son  died,  perhaps  was  sacrificed,  when 
the  foundation  of  the  city  was  laid,  and  his 
youngest  son  when  the  gates  were  set  up  (1 
kin.  xvi.  34  with  Josh.  vi.  26). 

Hi-e-rap'o-lis  [sacred  city]. 

A  city  in  .\sia  Minor,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lycos  near  the  confluence  with  the  Meander. 
Not  far  distant  were  Colossfe  and  Laodicea 
(Col.  iv.  13).  It  was  a  seat  of  worship  of  the 
Syrian  goddess  Atargatis,  and  was  celebrated 
for  its  warm  baths.  It  is  now  called  Pambuk- 
Kalah-si. 

Hig-ga'ion  [a  deep  sound;  meditation]. 

A  musical  term  occurring  in  Ps.  ix.  16.  The 
word  is  used  elsewhere  in  the  sense  of  solemn 
sound,  meditation  (Ps.  xix.  14;  xcii.  3;  Lam. 
iii.  63). 

High'  Pla-ces. 

Loc.ilities  selected  as  shrines  for  the  wor- 
ship of  God  or  of  false  divinities,  or  the  shrines 
themselves.  They  were  established  on  lofty 
heights  (Num.  xxii.  41 ;  1  Kin.  xi.  7  ;  xiv.  23), 
witbin  or  near  towns  (2  Kin.  xvii.  9;  xxiii. 
5,  8),  and  even  in  valleys  (.Ter.  vii.  31;  cp. 
Ezek.  vi.  3).  The  Canaanites  possessed  them, 
and  the  Israelites  were  strictly  enjoined  to  de- 
stroy them  when  they  entered  Canaan  (Num. 
xxxiii.52;  Dent,  xxxiii.  29;  cp.  ancient  high 
places  excavated  at  Gezer,  Tell  es-Safiyeh, 
Taanach ).  The  Moabites  also  had  high  places 
(Num.  xxi.  28;  xxii.  41;  Josh.  xiii.  17,  see 
the  name  Bamoth-baal ;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer.  xlviii. 
35).  Immorality  was  common  on  the  way 
to  those  shrines  (Jer.  iii.  2;  cp.  2  Chron. 
xxi.  11). 

A  suitable  area,  of  a  size  determined  by 
circumstances,  was  prepared  by  leveling  the 
ground.  On  it  stood  an  altar  (1  Kin.  xii.  32), 
which,  as  at  Petra,  might  be  a  part  of  the  liv- 
ing rock  left  standing,  with  steps  to  approach 
it,  when  the  spot  was  leveled.  Near  the  altar 
was  a  wooden  Asherah  ;  and  not  far  ofi' was  a 
pillar  or  a  row  of  pillars,  consisting  of  unhewn 
stones,  six  feet  or  more  in  length,  set  on  end, 
as  at  Gezer  and  Petra  (1  Kin.  xiv.  23;  Jer. 
xvii.  2;  see  Asherah  and  Pillar).  Hou.ses 
were  often  connected  with  these  sanctuaries 
(1  Kin.  xi).  31;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  19\  for  shelter- 
ing the  idol  (2  Kin.  xvii.  29,  32),  and  pre- 
sumably for  other  purposes  also.  Benches 
around  the  sides  of  the  area  or  a  chamber 


aflForded  a  place  for  the  worshipers  to  sit  and 
partake  of  the  sacrificial  feast  (1  Sam.  ix.  12, 
13,  22).  Priests  were  attached  to  the  high 
place  (1  Kin.  xii.  32;  2  Kin.  xvii.  32),  who 
burnt  incense  and  ottered  sacrifice  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  2;  cp.  iii.  3 ;  xi.  8). 

At  times  the  worship  of  Jehovah  M'as  con- 
ducted by  the  Israelites  on  high  places;  but 
this  was  forbidden  by  law,  which  insisted 
upon  one  altar  for  all  Israel.  The  purpo.se 
of  this  law  was  to  foster  the  national  spirit 
and  guard  against  schism,  to  prevent  the 
people  from  worshiping  at  idolatrous  shrines, 
and  losing  or  corrupting  the  religion  of 
Jehovah,  and  to  secure  the  support  of  a 
national  sanctuary  which  would  enable  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  to  be  conducted  on  a 
scale  of  magnificence  commensurate  with  his 
glory,  and  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  tlie 
pomp  displayed  at  the  heathen  temples.  The 
worship  of  Jehovah  at  other  altars  was  legit- 
imate only  during  the  time  that  the  national 
sanctuary  had  temporarily  ceased,  during 
tl'.e  i>eriod  when  Jehovah  had  forsaken  Shi- 
loh  and  the  temple  was  not  yet  erected  (Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60,  61,  67-69;  1  Kin.  iii.  2,  4;  2 
Cliron,  i.3).  Altars  and  sacrifices  elsewhere 
than  at  Jerusalem  were  also  legitimate  in  the 
northern  kingdom  when  the  pious  were  pre- 
cluded from  attendance  at  Jerusalem,  and 
could  not  worship  Jeliovah  at  all,  unless  ac- 
cording to  the  primitive  law  (1  Kin.  xviii. 
30-32);  see  Altar.  Solomon,  sinfully  com- 
plying with  the  wishes  of  his  heathen  wives, 
erected  high  places  in  the  mount  of  Corrup- 
tion for  Ashtoreth,  Cliemosh,  and  Milcom  or 
Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  Jeroboam,  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  the  national 
sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  made  a  house  of 
high  places  at  Bethel  and  ordained  priests  (1 
Kin.  xii.  31,  .32;  xiii.  33),  purposing  the  ado- 
ration of  Jehovah,  but  by  idolatrous  symbols 
(xii.  28-33;  xiii.  2).  These  places  were  de- 
nounced by  the  pi'ophets  (xiii.  1,2;  Hos.  x. 
8).  Not  merely  at  Bethel,  but  at  other  cities 
in  Samaria,  did  schismatic  high  places  exist 
(1  Kin.  xiii.  32;  2  Kin.  xvii.  32;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  3).  The  action  of  Asa  and  Jehosha- 
phat  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah  with  regard 
to  high  places  was  ineflfective  (1  Kin.  xv.  14 
with  2  Chron.  xiv.  3 ;  xv.  17;  1  Kin.  xxii.  43 
with  2  Chron,  xvii.  6).  Jehoram,  Jehosha- 
phat's  son,  made  high  places  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxi.  11).  So  did 
Ahaz,  and  that  too  for  the  worship  of  false 
divinities,  where  he  sacrificed  and  burnt  in- 
cense (xxviii.  4,  25).  Hezekiah  broke  them 
down  (2  Kin.  xviii.  4,  22),  but  they  were  re- 
erected  by  Manasseh  (xxi.  3  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
3),  and  again  removed  by  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
5,  8,  13).  The  high  places  were  denounced 
by  the  prophets  (Ezek.  vi.  3),  and  emphasis 
was  laid  on  the  fact  that  Zion  was  Jehovah's 
dwelling-place,  his  sanctuary  and  holy  moim- 
tain  (Is.  ii.  2.  3;  viii.  18;  xviii.  7:  xxxiii. 
20 ;  Joel  ii.  1 ;  iii.  17,  21 ;  Amos  i.  2  ;  Mic.  iv. 
1,  2). 


High  Priest 


310 


High  Priest 


High'  Priest. 

'i'he  supreiuc  pontiti"  aud  the  representa- 
tivi'  of  the  Uiitioii  befure  Jehovah.  Aarou 
was  appoiuted  to  this  office  after  the  estab- 
lishmeut  of  the  coveuant  at  Siuai  and  after 
the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  had  been  au- 
thorized (Ex.  xxvii.  21 ;  xxviii.).  The  refer- 
ence in  Ex.  xvi.  33,  34,  where  Moses  bids 
Aaron  lay  up  a  pot  of  manna  before  the  Lord, 
is  not  an  anticipation  of  this  call  ;  for  the 
command  was  probably  issued  by  Moses  at  a 
later  time,  at  least  it  was  obeyed  by  Aarou  at 
a  later  time,  and  is  recorded  here  because  the 
entire  story  of  the  manna  is  related  here 
(31-35).  The  first  hint  that  it  was  important 
for  the  sons  of  Aaron  to  be  admitted  to  the 
privilege  enjoyed  by  the  elders  of  Israel  was 
given  after  the  coveuant  had  been  proclaimed 
(Ex.  xxiv.  1,  9).  The  distinction  accorded 
them,  however,  did  not  suggest  the  national 
priesthood  to  them.  Aaron  was  not  the  priest 
of  the  nation  at  this  time.  He  was  the  prophet 
of  Moses.  The  addition  of  his  sous  to  the 
commission  appointed  to  witness  a  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  glory  might  suggest  that  Aaron's 
present  office  was  to  be  inherited  by  his  sons. 
At  any  rate  it  foreshadowed  their  call  to 
future  work.  The  k-gal  head  of  the  house 
of  Aaron  held  the  office  of  high  priest ;  aud 
the  succession  was  probably  determiued  by 
l)rimogeniture,  unless  legal  disabilities  inter- 
fered (Lev.  xxi.  l()-23).  Political  considera- 
tions, also,  not  infrequently  played  a  part  in 
his  selection  (1  Kin.  ii.  26,  27,  35).  His  age 
when  he  might  assume  office  was  twenty,  ac- 
cording to  tradition.  Aristobulus,  however, 
officiated  when  he  was  seventeen  (Autiq.  xv. 
3,  3).  He  must  govern  his  conduct  by  special 
laws  (Lev.  xxi.  1-15).  His  duties  were  the 
oversight  of  the  sanctuary,  its  service,  and  its 
treasure  (2  Kin.  xii.  7  seq. ;  xxii.  4)  ;  the  per- 
i'orinaiu-e  of  the  service  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment, when  he  was  obliged  to  enter  the  holy 
lit'  lidlies,  and  the  consultation  of  God  by  Urim 
and  Thuniniim.  Besides  these  distinguishing 
duties,  he  was  qualified  to  discharge  any 
])riestly  fmictiiin  ;  and  it  was  cu.stomary  for 
liim  to  otl"er  the  sacrifices  on  Sabbaths,  new 
moons,  and  annual  festivals  (War  v.  5, 7).  He 
presided  also  over  the  sanhedrin  when  relig- 
ious questions  were  before  that  body  (Mat. 
xxvi.  57;  Acts  v.  21).  His  otlicial  garments, 
besides  tlie  raiment  of  white  linen  which  he 
wore  in  common  with  other  priests  (q.  v.) 
were— 1.  Breastplate:  square,  made  of  gold, 
aufl  blue.  ])uri)le,  scarlet,  and  fiiu;  twisted 
linen,  set  with  four  rows  of  iirecious  stones, 
three  in  a  row,  each  inscribed  with  the  name 
of  a  tribe.  Within  the  breastplate  were  the 
Urim  and  Thummini  (((.  v.).  2.  Ejihod  :  an  em- 
broidered vestment  of  the  same  rich  materials 
as  tiie  lireastplate.  It  was  intendt'd  lor  the 
front  and  back  of  tlu'  ))o(ly,  and  was  made  in 
two  ])arts  clas])ed  together  at  the  shoulder 
by  onyx  stones.  Each  stone  bore  the  names 
of  six  tribes.  The  ejjhod  carried  on  its  front 
tlie  breasti)late,  and  was  bound   about  the 


waist  by  a  girdle  of  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet, 
aud  fine  twisted  linen.  3.  Kobe  of  the  ephod  : 
which  was  longer  than  the  ephod.  and  worn 


High  Priest. 

Drawn  from  llie  biblical  description. 

underneath  it,  entirely  blue,  sleeveless,  and 
adorned  below  with  a  fringe  of  alternate  pome- 
granatesaiid  golden  liells;  see  Bell.  4.  Miter: 
a  cap  or  turban,  made  of  linen  aud  surmounted, 
in  later  times  at  least,  by  another  of  blue, 
and  tliis  in  turn  by  a  triple  crown  of  gold. 
A  gold  plate,  bearing  the  inscription  Holiness 
to  Jehovah,  was  fastened  to  the  front  by  a 
blue  ribbon  (Ex.  xxviii. ;  Ecclus.  xlv.  8-13 ; 
Autiq.  iii.  7,  1-6 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  x.  20).  The  high 
priest  wore  this  official  garb  when  discharg- 
ing his  peculiar  duties,  except  that  on  the 
day  of  atonement  he  laid  it  aside  while  he 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  to  make  atonement 
for  the  priesthood  aud  the  sanctuary.  The 
mode  of  consecration  is  described  in  Ex.  xxix. 
Among  other  ceremonies  the  sacred  oil  was 
poured  upon  his  head  (7;  Lev.  viii.  12;  Ps. 
cxxxiii.  2),  and  hence  by  way  of  distinction 
he  is  designated  the  anointed  priest  (Lev.  iv. 
3,  5,  16;  xxi.  10  ;  Num.  xxxv.  25).  The  com- 
mon priests  seem  to  have  been  consecrated  by 
having  the  oil  sprinkled  on  their  garments 
only  (Ex.  xxix.  21  ;  Lev.  viii.  .30) :  but  rab- 
binical tradition  makes  the  diffi^rence  consist 
in  the  quantity  of  oil  used.  It  was  poured 
abundantly  on  the  head  of  the  high  iiriest 
aud  sparingly  upon  the  heads  of  the  ordinary 
priests.  At  first  the  high-priesthot)d  was  for 
life,  but  Herod,  aud  afterwards  the  Romans, 
jealous  of  the  power  which  a  life  tenure  of 
the  office  gave  to  the  high  priest,  made  and 
unmade  the  pontifls  at  will.  Jesus  is  the 
High  Priest  of  our  profession,  of  whom  the 
Jewish  dignitary  of  the  same  designation  was 
only  the  type  (Heb.  iii.  1-3;  viii.  1-6;  ix.  24- 
2H).  For  the  chief  priests  of  the  N.  T.,  see 
Priests,  end  of  the  article. 


High  Priest 


311 


High  Priest 


The  Line  of  the  High  Peiests. 

I.  From  the  EstahtUhment  of  the  Aaronic  Priesthood  to  the  Exile.— The  biblifal  catalogues  are  two 
(1  Chron.  vi.  1-15;  Ezra  vii.  1-5),  each  of  which  omits  liulcs  of  the  genealogy,  as  is  quite  usual  in 
Hebrew  genealogical  tables. 

Levi. 


i 
Gershon. 


I 
Kohath. 


Merari. 


Amram. 


Izhar. 


Hebron. 


Uzziel. 


I 
Aaron. 


I 
Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  13). 


Miriam 


Nadab. 


Abihu. 


Eleazar. 

I 

Phinehas. 

I 

Abishua. 

I 

Bukki. 


Uzzi. 


Zerahiah. 


Meraioth. 


Amariah. 


Ithamar. 


Eli,  succeeded  Abishua  or  Uzz.i  (.\ntiq.  viii.  1,  3:  v. 
I  U.  5). 

1  I 
Hophni.            PMnehas,  officiated  during  the   hfetinie  of 
I  liis  father,  wlio  by  reason  of  age 
resigned  tlie  office  to  him  (An- 
I  tiq.  V.  11.  ^). 


Ark  in  the  country  of  the  Philistines  seven 
months  (1  Sam.  vi.  1)  ;  then  in  Kirjatli- 
jearim  twenty  years  (1  Sam.  vii.  2),  until 
the  second  battle  of  Ebenezer,  and  for 
years  afterwards,  until  David  removed  it. 


Ahitub. 


Ichabod. 


Ahijah,    in    Shiloh    wearing  | 

ephod  (1  Sam.  xiv.    Ahimelech  fl  Sam.  xxii.  9, 11, 12). 

3,18).  Ark  or  ephod  Priest  at  Nob,  sliowbread 


Ahitub. 

In  default  of  a  son  of  Ahim- 
elech in  Saul's  reign  to  take 
charge  of  the  tabernacle,  the 
duty  devolved  upon  theliead 
of  the  other  priestly  line. 

ZadOk,  perhaps  1  Chron.  xii.  27,  28. 


(LXX. ;  cp.  ver.  19) 
taken  temporarily 
to  Gibeah. 


and  ephod  mentioned  (1 
Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  4,  6,  9). 
Slain  with  85  otliers  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  11-18).  Nob 
put  to  the  sword  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  19). 


Abiathar,  escaped  and  fled  to  David  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
20)  ;  with  an  ephod  (xxxiii.  6,  9 ;  xxx.  7). 
Ark  removed  from  Kirjath-jearim  and  de- 
posited in  tlie  liouse  of  Obed-edom  (2  Sam. 
vi.  1-11  ;  1  Chron  xiii.  13,  14).  Transferred 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  12  seq.). 
Zadok  and  Abiathar  the  priests  assist  (1 
Chron  xv.  11,  12).  Arlc  placed  in  a  tent 
and  an  altar  erected  (2  Sam.  vi.  12.  17;  cp. 
vii  2).  Zadok  and  Aliimelech,^on  of  Abia- 
thar, are  named  as  the  priests  during  a  cer- 
tain period  of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  viii.  17; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  16).  The  date  is  uncertain; 
it  is  not  improbably  after  Absalom's  revolt. 

Zadok,  and  the  Levites  bearing  tlie  ark,  and  Abiathar  follow  David 

in  his  flight  (2  Sam.  xv.  24  seq.).  Zadok  and 
Abiatliar  are  called  the  priests  (2  Sam.  xv. 
Sft;  xvii.  15;  xix.  11;  xx.  25).  Their  sons 
who  serve  as  messengers  are  Ahitnaaz  and 
Jonathan  respectively  (2  Sam.  xv.  27, 36).  In 
the  attempt  to  debar  Sidonion  from  tlie  suc- 
cession and  advance  Adonijah, 

Zadok  is  loyal  to  David  (1  Kin.  i.  8).  Abiathar  favors  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  7), 

Zadok  and  Ahimelech,  son  of  Abiathar, 
superintend  the  division  of  the  priests  into 
courses  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  They  do 
this  as  the  active  heads  of  their  respective 
fathers'  houses.  In  consequence  of  a  second 
conspiracy  in  favor  of  Adonijali,  made  after 
Siilrimiin  liad  ascended  the  throne, 

Zadok  is  put  into  the  room  of  Abiathar  (I  Kin.  ii.  20,  35). 


High  Priest  312  High  Priest 

liy  the  deposition  of  Aliiuthar,  the  house 
of  Eli  falls  (1  Kill.  ii.  27),  anU 
Zadok  is  sole  high  priest. 

Ahimaaz. 

A  7131*1  a.Yi 

Amariah,  thief  priest  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  about  853  B.  c.  (2  C'hron.  xix.  11). 
Jehoiada,  in  the  reigns  of  Athaliah  and  Joash,  dying  in  the  reign  of  Joash  at  the  age  of  ^30 

years  (J  Kin.  xi.  4-l'J;  xii.  2;  2  Chron.  xxii.  10  seq. ;  xxiv.  16). 
Zechariall,  »on  of  jehoiada,  perhaps  high  priest,  slain  by  Joash  between  819  and  805  B.  C.  f2  Chron. 

xxiv.  20,  22). 

Johanan.  ,  ^  tt    ■  ,  ,-,  r^,  •  i,> 

Azariah,  «ho  oflic  iated  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  about  "50  B.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (1  Chron.  vi.  10; 
2  Chron.  .\xvi.  17). 

Urijah,  about  7S2  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xvi.  10). 

Azariall,  about  727  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  10, 13). 
Amariah. 
Abitub. 

MeraiOth  (l  Chron.  Ix.  ll ;  Neh.  xi.  11). 

Zadok. 

Shallum  "i  Meshullam  (l  Chron.  vi.  12;  ix.  11).  . 

Hilkiah,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah,  622  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  ii.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8,  9). 

Azariah. 

Seraiab. 

J'^bOZadak,  who  was  carried  captive  to  Habylonia  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  587  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 
Juterval  uf  tifty  years  during  the  exile. 

II.  From  the  Exile  to  the  Maccahsean  Priests. 

Jeshua,  son  of  Jehozadak,  who  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel,  and  was  high  priest  from  at  least 
538  to  5211  B.  c.  (Kzra  ii.  2 ;  iii.  2 ;  Neh.  xii.  10 ;  ZecU.  i.  7  ;  iii.  1 ;  vi.  11). 

JOiakim  (Neh.  xii.  10,  12),  in  the  days  of  [Aitajxerxes  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  1). 

Eliashib,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  .\rtaxerxes,  44(j  B.  c,  and  still  in  office  after  433  B.  c.  (Neh.  iii.  20;  xii.  10; 
"xiii.  4,  0). 

Joiada. 

Jonathan  (Neh.  xii.  ll),  or  rather  Johanaii  (22,  23).  in  (ireek   John,   high  priest,  as  early  as  411    b.  c. 

(Elephantine  papyri)  and  in  the  reign  of  Artaxer.\es  [jNInenion]     (Antiq.  xi. 

7,  1  ;  cp.  5,  4),  who  occupied  the  throne  from  405  to  :162  B.  c. 
Jaddua,  high  priest  when  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jerusalem,  .332  i!.  c.  and  died  about  the  same  time  as 

Alexander,  323  B.  c.  (Neh.  xii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  4  and  5  and  7). 
Onias,  in  Hebrew  perhaps  Coiiiah,  contemporary  of  Alius,  who  was  kjbg  of  Ijparta  from  about  309  to  205  B.  C. 

(1  Mac.  xii.  7,  20  ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  7). 
Simon  the  Just,  son  of  Onias. 

Eleazar    son  of  Unias  and  brother  of  Simon,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Pliiladelphus,  who  reigned  from  285  to 

247  (Antiq.  xii.  2,  5). 
Manasseh,  uncle  of  Eleazar  (.\ntiii.  xii.  4,  1). 
Onias  II.,  son  of  Simon  the  Just,  in  the  time  of  i'tolemy  Euergetes,  who  reigned  from  247  to  222  (Antiq.  xii. 

4,1), 
Simon  II.,  son  of  Onias  IT.  (Antiq.  xii.  4,  10). 
Onias  III.,  son  of  .Simon  II.,  in  the  time  of  Seleucus  IV.,  called  Philopator,  who  reigned  from  187  to  175  B.  c 

(2  Mac.  iii.;  .Vntiq.  xii.  4,  10). 
Joshua,  in  Creek  JeSUS,  son  of  Simon  II.,  who  assumed  the  name  JaSOn,  induced  Antiochus  Epiplianes 

who   reigned   from   175   to   1H4  B.  c,  to  depose  Onias   (2  Blac.  iv.  7,  20-35).     Aftei 

holiliiig  otlicc  aliout  three  years.  .Tason  was  supplanted,  about  171  B.  c,  by 
MenelaUS,  called  also  Onias,  son  of  Simon  ll.  (.Vntni.  .\ii   5.  1 ;  xv.  3,  1)      According  to  2  Mac.  iv.  23,  he  was 

the  lirotber  ol  Simon  the  lieiijamite.     Meiielaus  held  otlice  ten  years  (Antiq.  xii.  9, 

7  I,  and  was  \int  to  death  in  tlie  time  of  Judas  Maixalianis  (2  Mac.  xiii.  .3-8). 
Jakim,  with  the  Greek  name  ol  AlclmUS,  who  was  not  of  the  high-priestly   line,  although  of  the  stock  of 

Aaron,  put  in  office  by  Demetrius.  Itil  B  c,  and  retained  oflice  three  years  (1  Mac. 

vii.  ."i-lt,  12-25;  ix.  1,  54-50;  Antiq.  xii.  9,  7;  xx.  10,  1). 

Vacancy  of  seven  years  (Anticj.  xx.  lo,  1). 

III.  The  Marcnhiran  Prvst-kivgs. 

Jonathan,  of  the  priestly  family  of  Joarih  (1  Mac.  iii.  1  ;  1  Chron.  xxiv.  7),  made  high  priest  in  1.52  B.  c.  by 
Alexander  Halas,  who  was  contending  for  the  Syrian  throne  (1  Mac.  x.  18-21),  and 
held  oflice  fur  seven  years  in  round  numbers  (Antiq.  xx.  10,  1). 

Simon,  bis  biother.  for  eight  years. 

John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon,  tor  thirty  years. 

AristOhulUS,  son  of  llyn-anns,  for  one  year. 

Alexander  Jannseus,  son  ol  llvn-anus,  lor  twenty-seven  years. 

Hyrcanus,  s.n  of  .\lcxander,  lor  iiiio'  years. 

AristObulUS,  son  of  Alexander,  for  tbiee  years  three  months. 

Hyrca.nus,  a  second  time,  for  twenty-tour  yeais,  from  03  B.  c. 

Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  for  three  years,  three  months,  until  Ilerod  the  Great  took  possession  of  Jeru- 
salem in  '.','  u.  c.  (.-Vntiip  xiv.  10,  4;  xx.  10,  1). 

IV.  Prom  the  Arremnn  of  Herod  the  Ureal  until. Jeriisnlem  was  titken  by  ra?i.s.— During  this  period  there 
were  twi-nty-cight  higli  priests  (.\i)tiq.  xx.  10,  I),  one  being  generally  removed  to  make  way  for  his 
sticci'ssor. 

AppointiMl  by  Herod  the  flreat,  king  from  37  to  4  B.  r. : 

Hananel,  in  ii.itinize(i  (jieeu  Ananelus  (Antiq.  xv.  2,  4). 

Aristobulus,  gmndHon  of  llyicanus,  foi-  one  year,  about  35  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xv.  3,  1  and  3). 
Hananel,  a  s.'i,,nd  time  (.\ntiq  xv. ;i,  3). 

Jesus,  son  of  Phabes  (.\nti(i.  xv.  9,  3). 


Hilen 


313 


Hinnom,  Valley  of 


Simon,  eon  (if  Bdi'tlius  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  8),  from  about  24  to  5  b.  c. 

Matthias,  boh  of  Theoplnlus  and  son-iii-Iaw  of  Boetliiis  (Antiq.  xvii.  4,2). 

Joazar,  son  of  Bocllms  (Antiq   xvii.  6,  4;  13,  1). 
Appointed  by  Archelaus,  who  ruled  from  4  b.  c.  to  a.  D.  6: 

Eleazar,  son  of  Boetlms,  who  did  not  abide  long  in  office  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  1). 

Jesus,  sou  of  Sie  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  1). 
Appointed  by  Quiriniiis,  president  of  Syria: 

Annas,  or  AnanUS,  son  of  Seth,  wlio   obtained  the  oflHce  in  a.  n.  C  or  7.  Joazar,  whom  the  multi- 
tiuk'  liad  made  high  piiest,  being  put  down  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1  ;  cp.  1,  1). 
Appointed  by  Valerius  (Jratus,  procurator  of  Judsea  a.  d.  14-25: 

Ismael,  son  of  Phabi,  who  held  office  but  a  sliort  time  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Eleazar,  son  of  Annas,  for  one  year  (.\ntiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Simon,  son  of  Camitlius,  for  one  year  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Josepll  Caiaphas,  son-in-law  to  Annas,  from  about  A.  D.  18  to  30  (Jolin  xviii.  13:  Antiq.  xviii.  4,  3). 
Appointed  l)y  Vitellius,  president  of  Syria  : 

Jonathan,  son  of  Annas,  in  A.  D.  :!0  (Antiq.  xviii.  4,  2  and  3 ;  cp.  xix.  G,  4;  xx.  8,  5). 

Theophilus.  son  of  Annas,  in  A.  u.  37  (Antiq.  xviii.   5,  3). 
Appointed  liy  kinir  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  who  reigned  from  a.  d.  41  to  44 : 

Simon  CantheraS,  son  of  Boethus  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  2). 

Matthias,  scin  of  Annas  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  4). 

Elionaeus,  son  of  Cantheras  (Antiq.  xix.  8,  1). 
Appointed  by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  who  died  in  A.  D.  48: 

Joseph,  son  of  (amydus  (Antiq.  xx.  1,  3). 

Ananias,  son  of  Nedebicus  (Antiq.  xx,  5,  2),  sent  in  bonds  to  Rome  during  the  procuratorship  oi 
Ounianus,  but  acquitted  and  still  in   office  in  a.  d.  57,  two  years  before  Felix  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Fcstus  (Acts  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  1,  27). 
Appointed  by  king  Agrippa  11. : 

Ismael,  son  of  Phabi  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  8),  about  A.  r.  59,  who  went  to  Rome  and  was  detained  there  as 
liostage  (xx,  8,  II). 

Joseph,  called  Cabi,  son  of  the  former  high  priest  Simon  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  11). 

Annas,  son  ot  .Annas,  for  three  months  in  A.  D.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Jesus,  si>n  of  Daniiianis  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Jesus,  Sim  of  Ga lii'l  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  4 ;  cp.  War  iv.  5,  2). 

Matthias,  son  of  Tln'ophilus.  appointed  about  A.  D.  04  (.\ntiq.  xx.  9,  7). 
Made  high  priest  by  the  people  during  the  war: 

Phanas,  orPhannlaS,  son  of  Samuel  (Antiq.  xx.  Id;  War  iv.  3,  8). 


Hl'len.     See  Holon  1. 

Hll-kl'ah  [portion  of  Jehovah  (cp.  Job 
xxxi.  2),  or  Jehovah  is  the  portion  (cp.  Ps. 
xvi.  5)]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Amzi,  descended  from 
Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  45.  4(3). 

2.  Another  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Hosah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

3.  Father  of  Eliakim,  who  was  over  the 
household  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Kin.  xviii. 
18,  26;  Is.  xxii.  20;  xxxvi.  ?,). 

4.  A  priest,  father  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  i.  1). 

5.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary  Gem- 
ariah  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

6.  The  high  priest  contemporary  with  Jo- 
siah,  who  aided  the  king  in  his  reformation 
of  religion,  and  found  the  book  of  the  law 
(2  Kill.  xxii.  4-14  ;  xxiii.  4  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  13; 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  9-22).     See  Josiah. 

7.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zeruhbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  21). 

8.  One  of  those  who  stood  by  Ezra  when 
he  read  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Hill. 

A  conspicuous  natural  elevation  of  land. 
The  name  is  generally  applied  to  a  natural 
eminence  smaller  than  a  mountain  and  larger 
than  a  mound  ;  but  the  terms  are  relative, 
the  same  height  being  sometimes  known  by 
both  names  (Is.  xxxi.  4),  or  called  a  moun- 
tain in  one  locality  and  a  hill  in  another 
(Rev.  xvii.  9).  Hill  is  chiefly  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  Gih'ah  and  the  Greek  Bounos. 
Not  infrequently  it  is  also  employed  in  the 


A.  v.,  and  much  less  frequently  in  the  R.  V. 
(Ps.  ii.  6:  iii.  4  ;  xv.  1  ;  xxiv.  3;  xlii.  6;  Mat. 
V.  14  ;  Luke  iv.  29),  to  translate  Hebrew  Har 
and  Greek  '  Oros,  which  are  usually  rendered 
mountain. 

Hil'lel  [he  hath  i)raised]. 

Father  of  Abdon  the  judge  (Judg.  xii.  13, 
15). 

Hin. 

A  Hebrew  liquid  measure,  containing  about 
one  gallon  and  three  pints,  U.  S.  wine  meas- 
ure (Ex.  xxix.  40;  Antiq.  iii.  8,  3).  See 
Measure. 

Hind. 

A  female  stag,  in  Hebrew  'Ayyalah  (Gen. 
xlix.  21 ;  Job  xxxix.  1  ;  Ps.  xviii.  33  ;  Prov.  v. 
19;  Song  ii.  7  ;  Jer.  xiv.  5).     See  Hakt. 

Hinge. 

In  ancient  times  in  the  East  heavy  doors 
turned  on  pivots,  which  were  constructed  on 
the  upper  and  lower  corners  of  one  side  and 
inserted  in  sockets.  The  socket  is  probably 
more  especially  referred  to  in  1  Kin.  vii.  50. 
See  also  Prov.  xxvi.  14. 

Hin'nom,  Val'ley  of;  known  also  as  the 
valley  of  the  sou  of  Hinnom  or  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Hinnom. 

A  valley  at  Jerusalem,  near  the  gate  of 
potsherds  (Jer.  xix.  2;  not  east  gate  as  in 
A.  v.).  The  boundary  between  .Tudah  and 
Benjamin  pas.sed  from  En-rogel  by  the  val- 
ley of  the  son  of  Hinnom  to  the  southern 
side  of  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  which  faces  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom from  the  west,  and  is  at  the  outermost 


Hippopotamus 


314 


History 


part  of  the  vale  of  Rephaim  (Josh.  xv.  8; 
xviii.  It)).  If  the  term  "shoulder  of  the  Jebu- 
site  (the  same  is  Jerusalem)  "  ineludes  the 
hill  on  the  west  of  the  Tyropa>on  valley,  and 
not  merely  the  temple  hill  ;  in  other  words, 
if  the  term  denotes  the  plateau  which  juts 
out  southward  between  the  great  encircling 
wadies,  and  which  was  not  only  crowned  by 
the  citadel  of  the  Jebusites,  but  also  occupied 
by  their  dwellings  without  the  walls  and  by 
their  (ieltls,  then  the  description  in  the  Book 
of  Joshua  identifies  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
with  at  least  the  lower  part  of  the  valley 
which  bounds  Jerusalem  on  the  south,  and 
is  now  known  as  the  wady  er-Kababeh,  near 
its  junction  with  the  ravine  of  the  Kidron. 
At  the  liigh  jjlace  of  Tophet,  in  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  parents  made  their  children  pass 
through  the  fire  to  Molech.  Ahaz  and  Ma- 
nasseh  were  guilty  of  this  abomination  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  3;  xxxiii.  C).  Jeremiah  fore- 
told that  God  would  visit  this  awful  wicked- 
ness with  sore  judgment,  and  would  cause 
such  a  destruction  of  the  people  that  the  val- 
lev  would  become  known  as  the  valley  of 
slaughter  (vii.  31-34;  xix.  2,  6;  xxxii.  35). 
Josiah  defiled  the  high  place  to  render  it  un- 
fit for  even  idolatrous  rites,  and  thus  to  stop 
the  sacrifices  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10).  From  the 
horrors  of  its  fires,  and  from  its  pollution  by 
Josiah,  ])erhaps  also  because  offal  was  burnt 
there,  the  valley  became  a  type  of  sin  and 
woe,  and  the  name  Ge-hinnom,  corrupted  into 
Gehenna,  passed  into  use  as  a  designation  for 
the  place  of  eternal  punishment. 

Hip-po-pot'a-mus  [Greek  'ippojMtamos, 
river  iiorsc].     >See  Kkhemoth. 

Hi'rah  [luibility]. 

An  Adullamite,  a  friend  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xsxviii.  1,  12). 

Hi'ram ;  in  Chronicles  Hu'ram,  except  in 
the  JIet)rewtext  of  2  Chron.  iv.  11";  ix.  10 
[])robal)ly  consecration].  In  Hebrew  the  name 
is  also  written  Hirom  (1  Kin.  v.  10, 18  ;  vii.  40, 
K.  V.  margin). 

1.  A  king  of  Tyre.  According  to  the  cita- 
tion which  Josephus  makes  from  the  Phoeni- 
cian historian  Dios,  and  from  the  Tyrian  an- 
nals which  Menander  translated,  Hiram  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Abibaal,  reigned  f  hirty-four 
years,  and  died  at  the  age  of  ■''■i  (Aiitiq.  viii. 
5,  3;  con.  Aj)ion.  i.  17,  1<M).  He  enlarged  the 
city  of  Tyre  by  constructing  an  embankment 
on  the  eastern  side,  built  a  causeway  to  con- 
nect the  city  with  the  island  on  which  the 
teiiiiile  cif  .(ui>iter  or  I5aal-s;unem  stood,  dedi- 
cated a  golden  pillar  in  this  temjile,  rebuilt 
old  siinctuari('s,  roofing  them  with  cedars  cut 
on  Lebanon,  and  erected  temples  to  Hercules 
and  .Astarte.  He  was  a  friend  of  both  David 
and  Solomon  (1  Kin.  v.  1  ;  2  Chron.  ii.  :!). 
Some  tinu!  after  David  had  cai)tured  the 
stronghold  of  Zion,  Hiram  sent  an  embassy 
to  him  ;  and.  when  David  desired  a  palace, 
Hiram  furnished  the  cedar  timber  and  the 
masons  and  carpenters  (2  Sam.  v.  11).     This 


was  evidently  before  the  birth  of  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  vii.  2,  12 ;  xi.  2).  When  Solomon  as- 
cended the  throne,  Hiram  sent  congratula- 
tions. For  a  consideration  he  furnished  cedar 
and  fir  for  building  the  temple,  and  skilled 
workmen  to  assist  in  preparing  the  timber 
and  stone  (1  Kin.  v.  1-12  ;  2  Chron.  ii.  3-16). 
He  also  advanced  120  talents  of  gold  (1  Kin. 
ix.  14),  and  joined  Solomon  in  sending  to 
Ophir  for  the  precious  metal  (1  Kin.  ix.  26-28  ; 
2  Chron.  ix.  21).  In  partial  payment  for  his 
contributions,  he  was  offered  twenty  towns  in 
Galilee,  which  however  he  refused  (1  Kin. 
ix.  10-12  ;  2  Chron.  viii.  1, 2) ;  see  Cabul.  The 
chronological  statements  of  Josephus  and  the 
Bible  have  never  been  reconciled.  Josephus' 
statement  that  the  temple  was  begun  in  Hi- 
ram's eleventh  year  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1)  or 
twelfth  (con.  Apion.  i.  18)  need  not  receive 
serious  consideration  ;  for  it  is  probably  a 
calculation  of  his  own,  and  not  a  citation 
from  the  archives.  Either  the  thirty-four 
years  assigned  as  the  duration  of  Hiram's 
reign  or  the  text  of  1  Kin.  ix.  9-12  may  be 
corrupt.  The  passage  in  Kings  is  parallel  to 
2  Chron.  viii.  1,  and  this  latter  passage  does 
not  require  the  assumption  that  Hiram  lived 
to  the  end  of  the  twenty  years  W'hereiu  the 
temple  and  the  royal  palace  were  built. 

2.  An  artificer,  whose  father  was  a  Tyrian 
and  his  mother  a  widow  of  Naphtali  (1  Kin. 
vii.  13,  14),  but  by  birth  a  woman  of  Dau  (2 
Chron.  ii.  14).  He  executed  the  bronze  or 
copper  work  in  connection  with  Solomon's 
temple,  as  the  pillars,  the  laver,  the  basins, 
the  shovels  (1  Kin.  vii.  13-46;  2  Chron.  ii. 
13,  14).  The  title  father  (2  Chron.  ii.  13  ;  iv. 
16)  probably  denotes  a  master  workman  or  a 
counselor. 

History. 

Biblical  history  is  the  record  of  that  series 
of  events  which  form  the  basis  for  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Bible  (cp.  Mark  x.  2-9;  Rom. 
XV.  4  ;  1  Cor.  x.  11).  It  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods:  1.  An  account  of  the  creation 
of  the  universe,  showing  God's  relation  to 
the  world,  and  introducing  human  history. 
2.  A  sketch  of  human  history,  showing  God's 
relation  to  the  human  race,  and  introducing 
the  hi.story  of  the  chosen  people.  3.  The  his- 
tory of  the  chosen  people,  showing  God's 
dealing  with  them  and  the  preparation  for 
the  advent  of  Christ.  4.  The  history  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Christian  church, 
which  is  to  reach  all  nations.  Inter-biblical 
history  falls  between  sections  3  and  4. 

1 .  An  Account  of  the  Ckeation  of  the 
Univeksk,  showing  (iod's  relation  to  the 
world,  and  introducing  human  history  (Gen. 
i.  l-ii.3).  See  Creation  and  Saiu'.ath.  The 
great  doctrine  is  that  God  is  the  creator  and 
lord  of  all  things.  It  denies  materialism  and 
atheism.  In  implying  that  (iod  is  personal 
and  omnipotent,  it  makes  reascmable  his  super- 
natural manifestation  in  human  history. 

2.  A  Sketch  of  Himan  History,  show- 


History 


315 


History 


ing  God's  relation  to  the  human  race  and  in- 
troducing the  history  of  the  chosen  people 
(Gen.  ii.  4-xi.  2(j).  The  events  of  this  period 
fell  almost  entirely  under  human  observa- 
tion, and  were  capable  of  transmission  by 
human  testimony.  The  period  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  the  flood.  The  narrative 
is  symmetrical ;  ten  generations  before  the 
flood,  from  Adam  to  Noah  inclusive,  and  ten 
generations  after  the  flood,  from  Shem  to 
Abraham  inclusive  (v.  ;  xi.  10-26).  The  post- 
diluvian period  is  divided  into  two  parts  at 
Peleg,  in  whose  days  the  earthwas  divided. 
From  Shem  to  Peleg  inclusive  are  five  gen- 
erations, and  from  Reu  to  Abraham  inclusive 
are  five.  In  the  antediluvian  period  are  de- 
tailed the  covenant  with  Adam,  its  failure 
through  man's  disobedience,  the  downward 
course  of  man  in  sin,  his  punishment  by  a 
flood,  and  the  deliverance  of  Noah.  In  the 
postdiluvian  period  are  related  the  new  and 
unconditioned  covenant  with  Noah,  the  new 
command  laid  upon  mau.  the  increasing  popu- 
lation, the  growing  independence  of  men 
from  God,  their  punishment  by  confusion  of 
speech,  and  dispersion.  The  genealogy  of  the 
Sethitic-Semitic  line  to  Abraham  is  recorded, 
and  at  the  same  time  its  common  origin  with 
the  other  families  of  the  earth  is  made  plain. 
The  locality  where  the  recorded  events  oc- 
curred was  the  basin  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates rivers ;  at  least,  every  definite  geo- 
graphical reference  is  to  this  region  (ii.  14 ; 
viii.  4 ;  x.  10 ;  xi.  2,  28).  From  this  center 
the  people  spread  on  all  sides,  especially 
toward  the  west  and  southwest,  where  the 
course  of  migration  was  not  blocked  by  great 
mountains  (x.).  By  the  close  of  the  period 
the  inhabited  world,  so  far  as  it  was  within 
the  sphere  of  history,  extended  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  the  mountains  of  Elam  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  east,  westward  to  the 
isles  of  Greece  and  the  opposite  shore  of 
Africa,  and  from  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  north  to  the  Arabian  Sea 
on  the  south.  The  length  of  the  period  from 
Adam  to  Abraham  was  at  the  lowest  calcula- 
tion 194()  years,  but  it  may  have  been  much 
longer  ;  see  Chkonology.  This  period,  longer 
than  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the 
birth  of  Christ,  was  remarkably  barren  in 
miracles,  in  the  scriptural  meaning  of  that 
word ;  see  Miracle.  With  the  personal  his- 
tory of  man  began  those  theophanies,  rare 
indeed  though  thej'  were  (Gen.  iii.  8  seq.), 
which  are  important  in  the  history  of  revela- 
tion. During  this  period  man  made  progress 
in  civilization.  He  had  been  created  with 
capacity,  and  was  commanded  to  subdue  na- 
ture. He  advanced  from  the  unclothed  state, 
passing  beyond  rude  garments  of  leaves  and 
afterwards  of  skins  (ii.  25  ;  iii.  7,  21)  to  woven 
clothing ;  from  a  food  t)f  fruits  that  grew  of 
itself  to  food  obtained  l)y  agriculture  and 
herding  (i.  29  ;  iv.  2)  :  from  uiu'ertaiu  abodes 
to  movable  tents,  settled  habitations  (iv.  17, 
20),  and  large  cities  built  of  brick  (xi.  3,  4) ; 


from  the  family  to  the  tribe  and  the  kin.g- 
dom  (x.  10)  ;  from  no  implements  to  tools  of 
metal  and  instrumeuts  of  music  (iv.  21,  22). 
In  this  i)eriod  also  simple  speech  became  di- 
versified dialects  and  languages  (x.  5  ;  xi.  1, 
(3,  9).  Mau  recognized  the  duty  of  walking 
before  God  in  holiness  of  life  (iii.  2,  3,  10;  iv. 
7  ;  v.  22 ;  vi.  9) ;  distinguished  between  clean 
and  unclean  animals  (vii.  2  ;  viii.  20) ;  erected 
altars  and  worshiped  God  by  bloody  and 
bloodless  oflerings  (iv.  3,  4  ;  viii.  20) ;  and 
prayed  to  God  in  his  character  of  Jehovah 
(iv.  26).  Religion,  however,  sufi'ered  deca- 
dence (vi.  2,  5),  and  idolatry  became  wide- 
spread (Josh.  xxiv.  2).  See  especially  Gen- 
esis, Eden,  Adam,  Satan,  Serpent,  Abel, 
Cain,  Enoch,  Flood,  Noah,  Babel. 

3.  The  History  of  the  Chosen  Pp:ople, 
showing  God's  dealing  with  them,  and  the 
preparation  for  the  advent  of  Christ.  This 
period  ditt'ers  from  the  preceding  in  the  shift- 
ing of  the  central  locality  from  the  valley  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to  Palestine.  Canaan 
becomes  the  center  of  the  history.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  period,  regarded  as  having  begun 
with  Abraham's  birth,  vvas  reckoned  by  Usher 
at  1996  years,  and  so  stands  on  the  margin  of 
many  editions  of  the  English  version.  There 
are  certainly  errors  in  this  calculation ;  but 
whether  they  equalize  themselves,  or  whether 
the  total  length  should  be  several  centuries 
more  or  less,  cannot  be  determined  as  yet 
from  the  biblical  and  other  data.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  this  period,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions later,  besides  the  ordinary  ways  in 
which  God  reveals  himself  to  man  and  to  the 
prophets,  he  appeared  in  theophanies.  This 
period  also  embraces  three  of  the  four  great 
miracle  epochs;  namely,  at  the  deliverance 
of  the  people  from  Egypt  and  their  establish- 
ment in  Canaan  under  Jloses  and  Joshua, 
during  the  mortal  struggle  between  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah  and  Baal  worship  in  the 
time  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  and  during  the 
Babylonian  captivity.  These  miracle  epochs 
were  separated  from  each  other  by  centuries 
during  which  there  were,  with  extremely 
rare  exceptions,  no  miracles.  This  period 
may  conveniently  be  divided  into  sections 
according  to  the  progressive  stages  in  the 
outward  development  of  the  peojile  of  God. 

I.  An  independent  tribe  in  Canaan  under 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The  patriarch 
was  the  priest  and  responsible  ruler  of  the 
tribe.  The  history  is  reviewed  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Abraham,   Dreams,  Visions,  The- 

OPHANY,   MeLCHIZEDEK.  IsAAC,  JaCOB. 

II.  A  fulk  of  twelve  tribes  for  a  long  time  in 
Egyptian  bondage.  See  Egypt,  Joseph,  Pha- 
raoh, Miracle,  Exodus,  Marah,  Manna, 
Quail,  Rephidim. 

III.  A  nation,  constituted  at  Sinai,  and  inde- 
pendent. Led  to  Sinai  the  peoi>le  became  a 
nation  by  accepting  the  covenant  which  God 
proposed,  and  which  was  contained  in  ten 
commandments,  and  formed  the  constitution 
of  the  nation.     Jehovah  is  king,  who  hence- 


History 


516 


History 


forth  dwells  in  the  tabernacle  in  the  midst 
of  his  people,  reveals  his  will  to  prophet 
and  priest,  and  exercises  the  legislative,  ju- 
dicial, and  executive  othces  through  laws 
which  he  reveals,  judgments  which  he  pro- 
nounces, and  otficials  whom  he  raises  up. 
The  nation  was 

111.  1.  A  brotherhood  of  hvelve  tribes  under  a 
religious  constitution,  and  with  a  cummon  sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xix.-l  Sam.  vii.).  The  high  priest 
was  the  chief  representative,  and  was  aided 
by  prophets  and  occasional  leaders,  like  Moses. 
See  Sinai,  Theocracy,  Tent  of  Meeting, 
Tabernacle,  Leviticus,  Camp. 

Leaving  Sinai  the  Israelites  journeyed  to 
Kadesh.  On  account  of  their  lack  of  faith, 
they  were  turned  back  into  the  wilderness, 
where  they  sojourned  thirty-eight  years;  see 
Numbers,  Wilderness  of  the  Wander- 
iNci,  Korah.  At  length  they  encompassed 
the  land  of  Edom,  and  found  a  crossing  at 
the  head  of  the  Arnou  valley.  The  conquest 
of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  followed  ; 
see  SiHON,  On.  The  camp  was  then  pitched 
in  the  Jordan  valley  ;  see  Shittim,  Balaam, 
Baal-peor,  Midian,  Deuteronomy.  On 
the  death  of  Moses,  the  Jordan  was  crossed 
and  Canaan  conquered  and  possessed ;  see 
JO.SHUA,  Canaan,  Shiloh.  After  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan,  Joshua 
died,  and  was  succeeded  at  intervals  by  other 
lursdus  of  ability  and  iniluence,  fifteen  in 
number,  who  led  the  people  against  their 
enemies  and  exercised  governmental  func- 
tions ;  see  Judges,  Samuel.  Uniiying  forces 
were  at  work  during  the  times  of  the  judges, 
and  a  national  feeliug  existed  and  sometimes 
manifested  its  strength  ;  but  still  Hie  people 
too  often  allowed  natural  barriers  and  petty 
jealousies  and  local  interests  to  separate  them. 
There  are  bright  exami)les  of  godliness  and 
filial  jiiety,  but  along  with  these  is  the  specta- 
cle of  a  peo])le  easily  .seduced  to  idolatry  ;  see 
Judges.  During  this  entire  period  the  weak- 
nesses and  defects  of  the  human  ]>arties  to  the 
covenant  were  disclosed.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  period  lack  of  faith  in  CJod 
was  shown  at  Kadesh,  the  existence  of  tribal 
jealousy  was  uuinifested  in  the  rebellion  of 
Korah  and  his  comjiany  against  the  liigb- 
jiriesthood  of  Aaron  and  the  i)()litical  su- 
preniacy  of  Moses,  and  the  nadiiuss  of  the 
peoi)le  to  lai)se  into  idolatry  became  ai)]iarent 
in  the  atl'air  of  the  golden  calf  and  in  their 
ensnarement  by  the  seductions  of  Baal-iieor. 
The  great  ]iolitical  blunders  of  tlie  jx-riod 
wen'  the  league  made  by  .losbua  with  the 
(iibeonites,  and  the  failure  of  Israel  to  oc- 
cui>y  Jerusalem.  These  defects  and  bluiulers 
were  of  far-reaching  conseciuence  in  the  his- 
tory of  Israel. 

111.  2.  A  iiiotiarrh;/  of  tvclrc  tribes.  The 
people  had  failed  to  foster  llie  centralizing 
influences  which  their  religion  designedly 
provided,  allowed  senseless  tribal  jealousies 
to  sunder  them,  and  accustomed  themselves 
to  turn  from  God  to  idols.     The  tiireatening 


attitude  of  neighboring  nations  made  them 
realize  the  need  of  organization,  a  strong 
government,  and  a  military  leader.  Samuel 
was  old.  They  turned  away  from  the  good 
provision  which  God  had  made,  but  which 
they  had  neglected,  and  demanded  an  earthly 
king.  By  the  side  of  the  high  priest  and  the 
prophet  there  was  now  a  permanent  earthly 
ruler,  with  supreme  political  power,  instead 
of  the  judges  whom  God  was  wont  to  raise 
up.  Saul  was  the  first  king,  but  on  account 
of  his  overestimate  of  his  position,  his  fail- 
ure to  recognize  the  superior  functions  of  the 
high  priest  and  prophet,  he  was  denied  the 
privilege  of  founding  a  dynasty  ;  and  finally 
his  willful  transgression  of  God's  explicit 
command  led  to  the  rejection  of  him  from 
being  king,  to  the  withdrawal  of  God  and 
God's  prophet  from  him,  and  the  choice  of 
David ;  see  Samuel.  Books  of,  S.iUL,  David. 
Under  David  the  twelve  tribes  were  reunited 
after  seven  years  of  civil  war,  Jerusalem  was 
taken  from  the  Jebusites  and  made  the  po- 
litical and  religious  capital,  the  borders  of 
the  kingdom  were  extended  by  conquest  far 
to  the  northeast  of  Damascus,  and  the  ac- 
quired country  was  laid  under  tribute.  Depu- 
ties were  j)laced  in  Edom  also.  See  Jerusa- 
lem. David  was  succeeded  by  Solomon,  under 
whom  the  tein])le  was  erected,  Jerusalem 
greatly  embellished  and  its  fortifications  ex- 
tended, and  the  fame  of  Israel  enhanced. 
But  his  exactions  made  the  people  discon- 
tented, and  on  his  death  the  failure  of  his 
son  to  discern  the  gravity  of  the  situation 
incited  ten  tribes  to  revolt  from  the  house 
of  David.  See  Solomon,  Eehoboam.  Israel. 
111.  3.  A  monarchy  consisting  chiefly  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  ten  tribes  having  revolted  and 
formed  a  rival  schismatic  apostate  kingdom. 
The  causes  which  led  to  this  revolt  were  long 
standing  and  many  ;  see  Israel.  The  king- 
dom of  Judah  possessed  the  greater  strength. 
It  had  material  strength  :  the  stronger  natural 
position,  the  capital,  the  organized  govern- 
ment, and  the  worship  to  which  the  people 
were  accustomed.  It  bad  moral  strength  ; 
the  consciousness  of  adhering  to  the  legiti- 
mate line  of  kings,  which  has  ever  been  a 
mighty  force  in  history,  the  true  religion 
with  its  elevating  influence,  the  sense  of  loy- 
alty to  Jehovah,  and  a  line  of  godlier  kings. 
It  had  the  providential  care  of  God,  who  was 
preserving  the  knowledge  and  worship  of 
himself  among  men,  and  was  preparing  the 
way  for  his  Messiah.  The  religious  history 
of  Judah  during  this  jieriod  was  marked  by 
a  decline  in  the  days  of  Hehoboam  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  22),  and  again  in  the  days  of  his  son 
Abijam  (xv.  :i),  ajid  yet  again  in  the  days  of 
Jehoram  and  .Vlia/.iah  (2  Kin.  viii.  27).  The 
cause  of  this  religious  declension  was  the  cor- 
rujition  introduced  by  Solomon  and  intermar- 
riage with  idolaters.  Reboboam's  mother  was 
an  Annnouitess,  for  whom  Solomon  had  built 
a  high  i)lace  to  Milcom,  and  who  had  sacrificed 
to  this  iibominatiou  of  her  people.     Jehoram 


History- 
was  son-in-law  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  Each 
of  these  periods  of  religious  decay  was  fol- 
lowed by  reformation,  the  first  under  king 
Asa  and  the  second  under  Jehoash,  but  Jeho- 
ash  himself  afterwards  turned  away  from  the 
Lord,  and  another  religious  revival  became 
necessary,  only  to  be  followed  by  tbe  domi- 
nance of  idolatry  later  under  the  pernicious 
influence  of  Ahaz.  The  encroachments  of  the 
Assyrians  on  the  Hebrew  people  began  in  this 
period.  The  divided  nation,  largely  degen- 
erate in  religion,  was  not  in  condition  to  offer 
effective  resistance  ;  and  by  slow  but  steady 
advance,  which  began  in  the  days  of  Ahab, 
the  Assyrians  pushed  their  conquest  until 
they  had  overthrown  the  northern  kingdom. 
See  Israel,  Samari.\.  Sargon. 

III.  4.  The  monarchy  of  Judah  sole  survivor. 
The  southern  kingdom  was  now  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  the  Assyrians,  and  later  of 
their  successors,  the  Babylonians  ;  see  Heze- 
kiah,  Sennacherib,  Manasseh,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  religious  condition  also 
of  the  people  was  not  good,  although  great 
prophets,  like  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Micah 
were  laboring  to  advance  the  truth.  Its 
kings,  with  the  exception  of  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah,  did  not  render  true  and  steadfast 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  and  the  people  were 
like-minded.  There  was  an  idolatrous  party 
in  the  state  which  had  been  triumphant  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Idolatry  was  deep-rooted 
among  the  people,  and  the  reforms  of  any 
king  affected  the  nation  only  superficially. 
Foreign  idolaters  were  also  in  the  land.  The 
nation  drifted  to  destruction.  The  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  visited  Jerusalem  at  brief 
intervals  during  the  course  of  two  decades, 
several  deportations  of  Jews  to  Babylonia  took 
l)lace,  and  the  city  was  taken  and  burned  in 
587  B.  c.  The  Hebrew  people  had  failed  to 
conserve  the  elements  of  national  strength, 
and  to  abide  under  the  shadow  of  the  Al- 
mighty, and  they  fell.     See  Judah. 

IV.  A  subject  people. — 1.  Judah  in  the  Baby- 
lonian e.tUe.    See  Captivity. 

IV.  2.  Judah  in  Palestine.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  over  Babylon,  5.38  B.  c,  Cyrus 
issued  an  edict  which  permitted  the  Jews  to 
return  to  Palestine  and  rebuild  the  temple. 
Forty-three  thousand  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity and  returned  under  Zerubbabel.  This 
colony  was 

(rt)  A  province  of  the  Persian  empire,  subor- 
dinated to  the  province  Beyond-the-river.  It  re- 
mained such  for  two  hundred  years.  Tvdce 
it  enjoyed  local  governors  of  its  own,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Persian  monarch  ;  see  Zerub- 
babel and  Nehemiah.  But  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  its  civil  affairs  were  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Persian  satrap  be- 
yond the  river.  He  had  authority  to  ap- 
point a  deputy  for  Judah,  and  to  call  on  the 
Jews  for  men  or  money.  But  the  local  ad- 
ministration was  left  to  the  high  priest,  and 
he  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  po- 
litical as  well  as  the  religious  head  of  the 


317  History 


nation.  Immediately  on  the  return  of  the 
exiles  from  Babylon  the  foundations  of  the 
temple  were  laid.  The  work  was  pushed  on 
under  the  exhortatidus  (jf  the  proiihcts  Hag- 
gai  and  Zechariali  dcsiiite  intcrruiitinns  and 
opposition,  and  the  building  was  conijileted  in 
515  E.  c.  The  walls  were  erected  under  the 
supervision  of  Nehemiah  by  authority  of 
Artaxerxes  in  445  b.  c.  ;  see  Jerusalem. 
At  this  time  also  Ezra  the  priest  was  in  the 
city,  zealous  for  the  law  of  God,  and  success- 
fully laboring  for  the  purity  of  religion  ;  see 
Ezra  and  Canon.  About  365  b.  c.  there  was 
a  dispute  between  two  brothers  about  the 
high-priesthood,  which  ended  by  one  killing 
the  other  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple. 
In  connection  with  this  affair  Bagoses,  general 
of  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  entered 
the  temple  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1).  In  March  or 
April,  334  B.  c.  Alexander  of  Macedon  crossed 
the  Hellespont,  defeated  the  Persian  satraps, 
then  marched  on,  and  the  next  year  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Persian  monarch  Darius 
Codomannus  at  Issus,  a  defile  near  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  laid 
Syria  at  his  feet,  and  entered  Jerusalem. 
After  an  almost  uninterrupted  career  of  con- 
quest, extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  Pun- 
jab, Alexander  died  at  Babylon  in  June,  323 
B.  c.    See  Alexander. 

(b)  Judxa  subject  to  Egypt.  Ptolemy  Soter 
wrested  Palestine  from  Syria,  to  which  it  had 
fallen  after  Alexander's  death,  in  320  B.  c, 
and  the  Ptolemies  retained  it,  except  for  oc- 
casional brief  periods,  until  198  B.  c,  when 
the  cruelty  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  drove  the 
Jews  to  seek  the  protection  of  Antiochus  the 
Great ;  see  Ptolemy.  During  these  122  years 
the  Jews  were  governed  by  their  high  priest 
subject  to  the  king  of  Egypt.  At  this  time  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek 
at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.     See  Versions. 

(c)  Judiea  subject  to  Syria.  Antiochus  the 
Great  wrested  Palestine  from  Egypt  in  198 
B.  c.  by  his  victory  over  Ptolemy  Philopator 
at  Paneas.  The  Syrians  not  only  supported 
the  Grecian  party  among  the  Jews  which  at- 
tempted to  hellenize  the  nation,  but  they  also 
endeavored  by  force  to  impose  idolatry  upon 
the  Jews.  The  sacrilegious  tyranny  of  the 
Syrians  became  intolerable  to  the  pious  por- 
tion of  the  nation,  and  led  to  the  Maccabiean 
revolt  in  16G  b.  c.  See  Gymnasium,  Jason, 
Antiochus. 

A  period  of  independence  under  the  Mac- 
cabfen  priest-kings  followed  ;  see  Maccabees. 
It  lasted  from  166  B.  ,c.  until  Pompey  took  Je- 
rusalem in  63  B.  c. ;  but  the  Maccabees  were 
allowed  to  hold  the  throne  until  40  B.  c,  wlien 
Herod  the  Great  was  appointed  king  of  Judsea 
by  the  Roman  senate.  He  began  his  actual 
reign  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  37  B.  c. 
During  this  period  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
cees  became  recognized  parties,  exerting  great 
political  and  religious  influence.  See  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees,  Council. 

(d)  Under  the  Romans.     During  this  period 


History  318 

the  affairs  of  Judsea  were  administered  by 
appointees  of  the  Romans  ;  first  by  Herod  the 
Great,  then  by  Archelaus,  and  afterwards 
by  ])rocurators,  except  from  A.  D.  41-44,  when 
Herod  Agrii)pa  I.  reigned  as  king ;  see  Jud^a, 
Herod,  PKocrKATOK.  The  mahvdministra- 
tion  of  these  officials  exasperated  the  people 
and  drove  them  to  revolt.  Obstinate  war 
raged  from  A.  D.  filH  until  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  A.  D.  70.  The  remnant  of  the  Jewish 
people  wlio  remained  in  Pale.stine  were  de- 
nied access  to  their  capital,  and  had  no  longer 
national  existence.  While  the  Jews  still  con- 
stituted a  nation  under  the  Romans,  in  the 
days  of  Herod  the  king,  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
was  born  and  a  new  period  of  biblical  his- 
tory began. 

4.  The  History  of  the  Establishment 
OF  the  Christian  Church,  which  is  to  reach 
all  nations. — I.  Christ's  preparation  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  his  Church,  by  example,  teach- 
ing, and  redemption.  See  Jesus,  Gospel, 
Apostles. 

II.  The  Church  amon(j  the  Jetrs.  The  church 
was  founded  by  the  risen  Christ.  Ten  days 
later,  at  Pentecost,  the  promised  Spirit  was 
given,  and  the  church's  work  was  initiated 
by  Peter's  sermon,  increase  of  believers,  and 
baptism ;  see  Pentecost.  Holy  Spirit, 
Tongues,  Baptism,  Church.  During  the 
next  few  years,  six  perhaps,  the  church  ex- 
perienced the  difficulties  incident  to  the  im- 
perfections of  believers  and  to  jier.secution ; 
but  it  grew  steadily  in  purity  and  numbers. 
See  Ananias,  Deacons,  Stephen.  The  per- 
secution which  arose  on  the  death  of  Stephen 
scattered  the  brethren  abroad,  and  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  and  Syria 
began.  The  gospel  was  carried  to  Samaria 
and  to  the  cities  on  the  seacoast  from  Gaza  to 
Cffi.sarea.  See  Philip.  For  the  purpose  of 
persecuting  the  believ<'rs  who  were  now  found 
in  the  Jewish  colony  in  Damascus,  Saul  went 
thitlu'r,  and  was  converted,  and  was  told  that 
he  was  to  be  a  teacher  of  the  gentiles.  The 
vision  of  Peter  at  Jopjia,  and  its  cojujilement 
in  the  conversion  of  Corni^lius  and  bis  bap- 
tism with  the  Holy  Sjiirit,  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  cluirch  to  the  truth,  already  theoreti- 
cally known,  tliiit  the  Holy  Sjiirit  is  for  all 
believers,  .few  and  gentile.  See  Cornelius. 
At  Antioch  Jewish  believers  from  the  West, 
who  had  been  driven  from  Jerusalem  by  the 
persec'Ution  which  had  ari.sen  on  the  death 
of  Ste|ihen,  began  to  preach  Jesus  to  the 
Greeks  also  (Acts  xi.  20.  R.  V.),  and  now  the 
followers  of  Jesus  began  to  be  called  ('hris- 
tians,  no  longer  being  identified  with  the 
Jews.  The  church  was  now  ready  to  under- 
take the  evangelization  of  the  gentiles;  the 
truth  of  the  eciuality  of  all  bi'lievers  was 
known,  a  man  had  been  raised  ii)!  to  work 
among  the  gentiles,  and  the  first  beginnings 
hnd  been  iiiaile. 

III.  '/'/((■  ( 'h iirrh  nmiwti  Jrirs and (lejitiles.  Paul 
:iihI  liaruahas.  called  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  be- 
gan the  evangelization  of  Jews  and  gentiles  in 


Hittites 


Asia  Minor.  The  question  about  the  obliga- 
tions of  gentile  converts  arose.  The  council 
at  Jerusalem  took  a  firm  stand  for  Christian 
liberty,  refused  to  impose  circumcision  and 
the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  upon  gen- 
tile converts,  and  only  insisted  upon  certain 
moral  duties  and  certain  matters  of  expe- 
diency which  it  was  necessary  to  emphasize 
on  account  of  the  state  of  public  opinion. 
The  rights  of  gentile  Christians  were  now 
secure.  On  a  second  missionary  journey, 
Paul,  under  the  direction  of  the  Spirit,  came 
to  Troas,  and  was  called  by  a  vision  to  extend 
his  labors  to  Europe,  and  the  evangelization 
of  Europe  from  Philippi  to  Rome  ensued.  See 
Paul,  John,  Peter. 

Hit'tites. 

A  people,  known  also  as  children  of  Heth, 
and  connected  by  blood  or  conquest  with 
Canaan  (Gen.  x.  15;  xxiii.  3).  For  centuries 
they  occu]>ied  the  region  extending  from 
northern  I'alestine  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
numbered  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  Hamath 
and  Carcbemish  among  their  important  cities 
(Josh.  i.  4 ;  1  Kin.  x.  29).  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Abraham,  bodies  of  them  had  taken 
up  their  abode  in  Canaan  proper,  and  appar- 
ently had  adopted  the  language  of  Canaan. 
Abraham  met  with  them  at  Hebron,  and  it 
was  from  a  Hittite  that  he  purchased  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  1-20;  xxv.  9).  Esau 
married  two  Hittite  wives  (xxvi.  34,  35 ;  xxxvi. 
2).  The  spies  sent  out  by  Moses  found  the 
Hittites  occupying  the  mountains  (Num.  xiii. 
29).  They  took  part  in  the  war  against  the  in- 
vading Hebrews  under  Joshua  (Josh.  ix.  1,  2). 
They  were  also  among  the  tribes  which  aided 
Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  in  the  great  battle  in 
which  he  was  so  signally  defeated  by  Joshua 
at  the  waters  of  Merom  (xi.  3).  The  man  who 
betrayed  Luz,  or  Bethel,  built  a  second  I^uz 
in  the  land  of  the  Hittites  (Judg.  i.  26).  After 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua,  Hittites 
still  remained  in  the  country,  intermarriages 
taking  place  between  them  and  the  Israelites 
(iii.  5,  ()).  One  of  David's  followers  was  Ahim- 
elech  the  Hittite  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  6).  Uriah, 
against  whom  David  sinned  so  deeply,  was 
of  the  same  race  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,  17,  21).  In  the 
reign  of  Solomon  the  Hittites  and  other  tribes 
who  remained  in  the  land  had  levied  on  them 
a  tribute  of  bond-service  (1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21  ;  2 
Chron.  viii.  7,  H).  Hittite  women  were  in 
Solomon's  harem  (1  Kin.  xi.  1).  The  Hit- 
tites were  the  Kheta,  or  Khita,  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments,  the  yatti  of  the  Assyrian 
inscrijitiotis,  and  the  Keteioi  of  Homer  (Odys- 
sey xi.  .521).  From  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
sources  and  Hittite  remains  we  learn  that 
when  the  jiower  of  the  Hittites  was  at  its 
height,  their  sway  or  their  influence  was  para- 
mount from  the  Archii)elago  to  the  Euphrates, 
their  northern  or  northeastern  capital  being 
Carcbemish,  on  that  river,  and  their  southern 
or  southwestern  one  Kadesh,  on  the  Onmtes. 
For  fi  ve  bund  red  years  they  carried  on  a  strng- 


Hivites 


319 


Hodiah 


gle,  with  intervals  of  peace,  with  the  Egyp- 
tians, fighting  great  battles  with  Thothmes 
III.,  in  the  sixteenth  century  b.  c,  and  with 
Seti  1.  and  Ramses  11.  The  siege  of  Kadesh 
by  the  latter  Egyptian  monarch  was  cele- 
brated in  an  epic  by  the  poet  Pentaur.  For 
four  hundred  years,  beginning  1100  B.  c,  they 
carried  on  a  contest  with  the  Assyrians,  gen- 
erally holding  their  own  against  that  great 
power,  till,  in  717  B.  c,  Sargon,  the  Assyrian 
king,  captured  Carchemish,  and  terminated 
their  empire.  Sculptures,  doubtless  Hittite, 
with  hieroglyphics  not  yet  satisfactorily  read, 
have  been  found  at  Carchemish,  at  Hamath, 
and  throughout  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Hittites  were  a  sturdy  race  of  men.  They 
are  generally  represented  as  beardless.  They 
wore  pointed  hats  and  loose  tunics.  Their 
shoes  were  tilted  up  at  the  tips,  and  fastened 
by  a  large  bandage  round  the  foot  and  ankle. 
They  are  like  the  shoes  still  worn  by  the 
peasantry  of  Asia  Minor,  and  are  the  best 
preservative  for  the  feet  when  the  country 
is  covered  with  snow.  The  Hittites  also  wore 
long  gloves,  covering  the  forearm,  with  one 
compartment  for  the  thumb  and  another  for 
the  four  fingers.  These  are  believed  to  be  a 
survival  of  the  time  when  the  Hittites  lived 
among  the  snowclad  range  of  Taurus  and  the 
Armenian  mountains. 

Hi'vites. 

One  of  the  races  of  Canaan  before  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
X.  17  ;  Ex.  iii.  17  ;  Josh.  ix.  1).  They  scattered 
into  several  communities.  A  body  of  them 
dwelt  at  Shechem  in  the  time  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  18  with  xxxiv.  2),  and  their  descend- 
ants still  had  influence  in  the  city  several 
generations  after  the  conquest  (Judg.  ix.  28). 
A  body  of  them  also  dwelt  in  Gibeon  and  its 
vicinity.  They  obtained  a  treaty  of  peace  from 
Joshua  by  stratagem,  but  on  their  deceit  being 
discovered,  they  were  made  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water  (Josh.  ix.).  They  had 
also  an  extensive  settlement,  probably  their 
principal  one,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  from 
mount  Hermon  to  the  entering  in  of  Hamath 
(Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Judg.  iii.  3).  In  these  northern 
mountain  regions  they  had  villages  of  their 
own  as  late  as  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
7).  Those  of  Palestine  proper  were,  with  the 
other  Canaanites  who  remained  in  the  land, 
required  to  render  bond-service  to  Solomon 
in  connection  with  his  extensive  building 
operations  (1  Kiu.  ix.  20-22). 

Hiz'ki,  in  A.  V.  Hezeki  [my  strength,  or  a 
strong  supi)ort  is  (God)]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii. 

17). 

Hiz-ki'ali.     See  Hezekiah  2. 

Hiz-ki'jah.     See  Hezekiah  4. 

Ho'bah  [lover]. 

The  father-in-law  of  Moses,  according  to 
the  traditional  vowel  points  of  the  Hebrew 
text  (Judg.  iv.  11).     But  the  father-in-law  of 


Moses  was  Eeuel.  or,  to  call  him  by  what  ap- 
pears to  liaA-e  been  his  honorary  title,  Jethro, 
his  excellency.  Hobab  is  definitely  stated  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Reuil  (Num.  x.  29 \  and 
if  the  traditional  vocalization  is  ignored,  and 
regard  paid  to  the  Hebrew  text  only,  the 
Hebrew  words  may  equally  well  be  translated 
"  Hobab  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses"  (Judg. 
i.  16;  iv.  11,  R.  V.).  Moses'  father-in-law 
Reuel,  or  Jethro,  visited  Moses  in  the  camp 
at  Rephidim  and  returned  to  his  own  land 
(Ex.  xviii.  1,  5,  27).  A  year  later,  when  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  advance  from  Sinai, 
Moses  urged  Hobab,  the  son  of  Reuel,  to  ac- 
company them  and  aid  them  with  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  desert.  Hobab  finally  consented 
(Num.  X.  29  ;  Judg.  i.  16  ;  iv.  11).  After  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  his  family  settled  in 
Jndah,  south  of  Arad,  and  were  still  there 
in  the  time  of  Saul  and  David  (Judg.  i.  16; 
1  Sam.  XV.  6;  xxvii.  10 ;  xxx.  29).  Hobab  be- 
longed to  the  Kenites  (Judg.  i.  16;  iv.  11),  a 
family  of  the  Midianites. 

Ho'bah. 

A  town  on  the  left,  that  is  to  the  north,  of 
Damascus.  Hobah  was  the  extreme  limit  to 
which  Abraham  pursued  the  defeated  eastern 
kings  (Gen.  xiv.  1.5).  Wetzsteiu  mentions  a 
place  of  this  name  between  Tadmor  and 
Horns. 

Hod  [majesty]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zopbah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Hod-a-vl'ali,  in  A.  V.  once  Ho-da'iah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  24)  [Jehovah  is  his  praise,  or  be 
hath  praised  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  descended  through 
Shecaniah  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

2.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  half-tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

3.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  ix.  7). 

4.  A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family,  some 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  40).  He  is  called  Judah  (iii.  9),  vir- 
tually a  synonymous  name,  and  through  a 
slight  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Hode- 
vah,  or,  as  traditionally  read,  Hodeiah  (Neh. 
vii.  43  and  R.  V.  margin). 

Ho-de'lah.    See  Hodaviah  4. 

Ho'desh  [new  moon]. 

A  wife  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

Ho-de'vah.     See  Hodaviah  4. 

Ho-di'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  Nehemiah  Ho-di'jah 
[splendor  of  .Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  who  was  reckoned  as  belonging 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  perhaps  because  of  his 
marriage  with  the  sister  of  Naham  (1  Chron. 
iv.  19,  R.  v.).  A.  V.  does  not  give  a  correct 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

2.  One  of  the  l.evites  employed  by  Ezra  to 
explain  the  law  to  the  ])eop]e  (Neh.  viii.  7), 
and  to  assist  on  the  day  of  penitence  and 
prayer  (ix.  5).  He  was  probably  one  of  tlie 
two  Levite  Hodiahswho  sealed  the  covenant 
(x.  10  or  13). 


Hoglah 


320 


Homam 


Hog'lah  [a  partridge]. 

A  (liui^htt  T  ofZelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33). 

Ho  ham. 

A  king  of  Hebron,  who  entered  into  a 
league  against  Josbua,  and  was  defeated,  cap- 
tured, and  executed  (Josh.  x.  1-27). 

Holm  Tree. 

The  evergreen  oak  (Qiiercus  ilej-),  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Tii:.ah,  liard  tree,  in 
the  only  ]iassage  where  it  occurs  (Is.  xliv.  14; 
in  A.  V.  cypress).  The  two  Greek  translators, 
A(iuila  and  Theodotion,  render  it  by  wild 
oak,  and  the  Vulgate  by  ilex. 

Ho'lon  [probably  .sandy]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  51),  given,  with  its  suburbs,  to  the 
priests  (xxi.  In).  Called  also  Hilen  (1  Chron. 
vi.  58).     Not  identified. 

2.  A  Moabite  town  (Jer.  xlviii.  21),  perhaps 
Horon. 

Ho'ly. 

The  ordinary  Hebrew  word  for  holy  is 
Kudosh,  separated.  It  is  represented  in  the 
N.  T.  by  the  Greek  word  \4(iios.  It  is  used 
for  what  is  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a 
sacred  use,  as  the  utensils  and  ministers  of 
the  sanctuary,  and  certain  days  (Ex.  xx.  8; 
XXX.  31 ;  xxxi.  10  ;  Lev.  xxi.  7  ;  Num.  v.  17  ; 
Neh.  viii.  9  ;  Zech.  xiv.  21)  ;  for  what  is  sep- 
arated from  ceremonial  defilement  (Ex.  xxii. 
31 ;  Lev.  xx.  26)  or  immorality  (2  Cor.  vii. 
1 ;  1  Thes.  iv.  7),  including  false  worship  and 
heathen  practices  (Lev.  xx.  6,  7;  xxi.  6).  In 
a  larger  sense  God  is  holy,  for  he  is  separated 
from  all  other  beings  by  his  infinite  perfec- 
tions, by  his  being,  wisdom,  jjower,  holiness. 
Justice,  goodness,  and  truth,  the  glory  of 
which  fills  the  earth  (Is.  vi.  3).  Even  holy 
angels  ascribe  holiness  to  him  (Is.  vi.  3  ;  Kev. 
iv.  8  :  xvi.  5). 

Ho-ly  Ghost'. 

The  Si)irit  of  God,  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
word  spirit  now  more  correctly  expresses  the 
idea  than  docs  the  term  ghost,  which  has  nar- 
rowed its  meaning,  and  commonly  denotes  a 
disembodied  s])irit  wandering  on  earth.  The 
name  Holy  Sj)irit  is  used  three  tini<>s  onlv  in 
theO.  T.  ("Ps.  li.  11  ;  Is.  Ixiii.  10,11),  but  there 
are  numerous  references  to  his  work.  The 
Si>irit  of  God  is  the  divine  ]irinciple  of  ac- 
tivity everywhere  at  work  in  tlu^  world,  ex- 
ecuting the  will  of  God.  The  Spirit  is  sent 
forth  bv  God  (I's.  civ.  20,  30)  and  given  bv 
God  (Xiiin.  xi.  20:  Is.  xlii.  1.  5i.  The  Spirit 
l)rooded  over  chaotic  matter  in  the  beginning 
and  is  everywhere  i)resent  (Gen.  i.  2;  Ps. 
cxxxix.  7),  and  is  tlius  immanent  and  the 
energy  in  cosmical  jiroccsses  (Job.  xxvi.  13; 
Is.  lix.  19):  is  the  source  of  iihysical,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  life  ((Jen.  vi.3;  .lob  xxxii. 
8;  xxxiii.  4:  xxxiv.  14  ;  I's.  xxvii.  .3;  civ.  30; 
cp.  Is.  xlii.  5)  :  is  able  to  jiroducc  sni)ernatural 
effects  (1  Kin.  xviii.  12:  2  Kin.  ii.  Ki).  He 
abides  with  the  ptoi.le  ofCJod  (Is.  Ixiii.  1 1  ; 
Hag.  ii.  5),  and  bestows  varied  ]iowers  for  the 
Work  ol'llie  kingdom,  strength  (.hidg.  iii.  10; 


vi.  34;  xi.  29;  xiii.  25:  xiv.  G,  19;  xv.  14;  1 
Sam.  xi.  6:  xvi.  13;  1  Chron.  xii.  18),  skill 
(Ex.  xxxi.  3),  wisdom  (Num.  xi.  17.  25; 
xxvii.  18),  in  short,  everything  needful  for 
the  work  of  the  kingdom  (Is.  xi.  2 ;  Zech. 
iv.  ()).  He  instructed  the  people  of  God  (Neh. 
ix.  20)  by  inspiring  the  prophets  (Num.  xxiv. 
2  ;  1  Sam.  x.  ti ;  Hos.  ix.  7  ;  Mic.  iii.  8  ;  Zech. 
vii.  12).  He  works  upon  the  heart  of  the 
individual  child  of  God.  It  was  foretold  that 
this  work  would  be  especially  powerful  and 
widespread  in  the  Messianic  period,  when  the 
Spirit  shall  be  poured  out  on  the  people  of 
God  (Is.  xliv.  3),  will  give  to  them  a  new 
heart  and  a  new  spirit  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  26), 
produce  sorrow  for  sin  (Zech.  xii.  10) ;  yea, 
be  poured  out  on  all  flesh  (Joel  ii.  28).  The 
Spirit  is  grieved  when  men  resist  his  holy 
work  (Is.  Ixiii.  10;  cp.  Ps.  cvi.  33).  Jesus 
promised  that  on  his  departure  the  Sjiirit 
should  come  and  dwell  with  every  believer, 
clothe  with  i)ower,  guide  and  teach  the 
church,  bear  witness  of  Christ  and  glorify 
him,  convict  the  world  of  sin,  righteousness, 
and  judgment  (Luke  xxiv.  49;  John  vii.  37- 
39;  xiv.  25,  26  ;  xv.  26;  xvi.  7-14;  Acts  i.  8). 

The  N.  T.  treats  of  Messianic  times  and 
the  dispensation  of  the  Sjiirit,  find  conse- 
quently the  Sjiirit  is  mentioned  much  oftener 
in  the  N.  T.  than  in  the  O.  T.  All  the  attri- 
butes of  the  Sjiirit  revealed  in  the  O.  T.  are 
disclosed  in  the  N.  T.  in  exercise.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Spirit  advances  beyond  the  teach- 
ing of  the  O.  T.  chiefly  in  becoming  more 
definite  in  respect  to  his  personality.  Though 
the  word  spirit  is  neuter  in  Greek  and  femi- 
nine in  Hebrew,  yet  the  S]iirit  is  sometimes 
called  who,  not  which,  the  masculine  form 
of  the  i)ronoun  being  used  (Eph.  i.  13, 14  ;  cj). 
cautiously  John  xvi.  13).  The  Spirit  further 
speaks  in  the  first  person,  using  the  pronouns 
1  and  me  (Acts  x.  19,  20 ;  xiii.  2) ;  is  associated 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the  baiitisnia! 
formula  and  the  apostolic  benediction  (Mat. 
xxviii.  19;  2  Cor.  xiii.  14);  can  be  grieved 
(Eph.  iv.  .30;  cp.  Rom.  viii.  26). 

Memorable  acts  of  the  Spirit  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  dispensation  are  the 
miraculous  conception  of  Jesus  bv  the  Holv 
Ghost  ( Mat.  i.  18-20) ;  the  descent  of  the  Spirit 
upon  Jesus  at  his  baptism,  in  the  form  of  a 
dove  visible  to  him  and  to  John  the  Baptist 
(Mat.  iii.  16  ;  Mark  i.  10;  .John  i.  32),  and  the 
effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  likeness  of 
tongues  of  fire  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  accomjmnying  gift  of  languages  (Acts  ii. 
4).    See(!oi),  Inspiration,  Pentecost. 

Ho'ly  Place.    See  Tabernacle,  Temple. 

Ho-ly  Spir'it.    See  Holy  Gho.st. 

Ho'mam  [jiossibly  destroyer]. 

Scm  of  Lotan,  and  grandson  of  Seir  (1 
Chron.  i.  39).  The  name  appears  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  22  as  llemam.  The  difference  in  He- 
brew is  trifling,  and  is  donblless  due  to  a  mis- 
rending.  The  latter  name  has  jod  where  the 
loniier  has  van  ((j.  v.). 


Homer 


321 


Hor 


Ho'mer  [a  heap]. 

A  measure  for  dry  substances  and  liquids. 
It  contained  ten  liaths  or  ephahs  (Ezek.  xlv. 
11,  14)  and  one  hundred  omers  (Ex.  xvi.  '.i6). 
It  held  about  thirty-six  pecks,  U.  S.  measure. 
Sec  Ephah,  Measure. 

Hon'ey. 

A  sweet,  thick  fluid  collected  by  bees  from 
flowers  and  fruit  and  deposited  in  the  cells 
of  a  comb  (Judg.  xiv.  8 ;  Ps.  xix.  10) ;  much 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  (Gen.  xliii.  11 ; 
2  ^m.  xvii.  29),  and  eaten  as  found  in  the 
comb  or  as  prepared  in  various  ways  (Ex. 
xvi.  31 ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  26).  Wild  honey  was  de- 
posited by  bees  in  rocks,  trees,  and  other 
places  (Deut.  xxxii.  13;  Judg.  xiv.  8  ;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  25  ;  Mat.  iii.  4).  Because  it  acts  like  a 
leaven,  producing  fermentation,  honey  might 
not  be  used  in  oiferings  made  by  tire  unto 
the  Lord  (Lev.  ii.  11).  An  artificial  honey 
or  syrup  was  prepared  from  dates  (War  iv. 
8,  3). 

Canaan  was  described  as  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  8,  17). 

Hook. 

The  Hebrews  and  contemporary  peoples 
used  hooks  of  various  kinds  : 

1.  Curtains  were  hung  by  meaus  of  hooks, 
those  employed  about  the  tabernacle  being 
made  of  gold  and  silver  (Ex.  xxvi.  32,  37; 
xxvii.  10). 

2.  By  meaus  of  flesh  hooks  meat  was  lifted 
from  the  pot  (Ex.  xxvii.  3;  1  Sam.  ii.  13,  14), 


in  fishing  (Job  xli.  1 ;  Hab.  i.  15).    See  Fish- 
ing. 

4.  A  large  hook  was  thrust  through  the 
mouth  of  a  fish  or  other  aquatic  animal,  and 
attached  by  a  cord  to  a  stake,  when  it  was  de- 
sired to  keep  it  alive  (Job  xli.  2;  Ezek.  xxix. 
4).  A  similar  hook  was  used  for  leading  about 
lions  and  other  beasts  (2  Kin.  xix.  28;  Ezek. 
xix.  4,  in  A.  V.  chains;  cp.  xxxviii.  4),  and 
for  a  like  purjiose  were  inserted  in  the  lips 
of  captives  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin).    See  illustration  under  Blindness. 

5.  Pruning  hooks  were  used  by  vinedress- 
ers (Is.  ii.  4  ;  xviii.  5). 

Hoph'ni  [pertaining  to  the  fist]. 

A  sou  of  Eli.  He  and  his  brother  Phinehas 
discharged  the  priest's  office  in  the  old  age 
of  Eli,  but  showed  tliemselves  unworthy  of 
the  sacred  otdce  by  scandalous  behavior.  Eli 
mildly  remonstrated  when  summary  proceed- 
ings were  required  ;  and,  in  consequence,  the 
divine  judgment  was  pronounced  against  him 
and  his  house.  When  it  was  resolved  that 
the  ark  of  God  should  be  taken  to  the  battle- 
field, Hophni  and  Pliiuehas,  who  as  officiating 
priests  were  its  custodians,  accomjianied  it, 
and  were  both  slain  in  the  disastrous  battle 
which  followed  (1  Sam.  ii.  22-iv.  22). 

Hor  [mountain]. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  border  of  the  Edomitt' 
country,  where  Aaron  died  aud  was  buried 
(Num.'  XX.  22-29  ;  xxxiii.  37-39,  41  ;  Deut. 
xxxii.  50).     Josephus  says  that  it  was  one  of 


Mount  Hor  of  Tradition. 


and  on  firmly  fixed  hooks  slain  animals  were 
hung  up  (Ezek.  xl.  43,  but  the  meaning  of 
the  word  rendered  hook  in  this  passage  is 
disputed). 

3.  Hooks  resembling  thorns,  and  sometimes 
called  so  in  Hebrew  (Amos  iv.  2),  were  used 
21 


the  mountains  surrounding  Petra  (Antiq.  iv. 
4,  7).  Tradition  has  settled  on  Jebel  Harun, 
meaning  Aaron's  mountain,  a  great  two-top- 
ped eminence  of  sandstone,  about  4800  feet 
high,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Arabah, 
nearly  midway  between  the  southern  extrem- 


Horam 


322 


Hormah 


ity  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  northern  end  of 
th'e  gulf  of  Akaha.  It  is  the  liighcstand  wild- 
est of  the  whole  Edoniite  range.  Pelra  is 
close  by,  to  the  west ;  but  the  ruined  city 
is  not  visible  from  the  summit.  On  its  sum- 
mit stanils  a  tomb,  nominally  that  of  Aaron  ; 
hut  the  uiii)er  i)art  of  it,  at  least,  is  only  a 
modern  .Mohammedan  mosque.  The  tradi- 
tion, however,  is  open  to  serious  question.  It 
appears  to  rest  on  the  false  identification  of 
Kadesh  with  Petra.  .lebel  Harun  is  in  the 
midst  of  Edoiu,  and  not  on  its  border,  as  was 
Hor.  If  Edom  extended  to  the  gulf  of  Aka- 
ba  (Deut.  ii.  8),  the  Israelites  could  not  reach 
the  traditional  mountain  without  crossing 
Edom,  which  they  were  forbidden  to  do. 
Jebel  Madara,  about  15  miles  northeast  of 
Kadesh,  has  been  suggested,  and  satisfies  the 
conditions.  Still,  if  Madara  is  really  writ- 
ten in  Araliic  with  the  letter  dal  (Seetzen),  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  name  echoes  Moserah 
(Num.  xxxiii.  37  with  Deut.  x.  6). 

2.  A  mountain  on  the  northern  boundary 
of  Palestine,  between  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  the  entering  in  of  Hamath  (Num.  xxxiv. 
7,  b).  It  was  probably  a  prominent  peak  of 
Lebanon. 

Ho'ram  [elevation]. 

A  king  of  Gezer,  defeated  and  slain  by 
Joshua  (.Josh.  x.  33). 

Ho'reb  [dry,  desert]. 

The  mount  of  God  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1 ;  xviii.  5),  where  the  law  was 
given  to  Israel  (Deut.  iv.  10-15;  v.  2;  1  Kin. 
viii.  fl  ;.xix.  8).  The  names  Horeb  and  Sinai 
are  used  almost  interchangeably  (for  example, 
llort-b  in  Ex.  xvii.  G;  Deut.  i.  6;  1  Kin.  viii. 
»;  xix.  8;  2  Chron.  v.  10;  but  Sinai  in  Ex. 
xix.  11;  xxiv.  Ki ;  xxxi.  18;  Lev.  vii.  .38; 
XXV.  1  ;  Deut.  xxxiii.  2;  Judg.  v.  5).  This 
pluMionuMion  has  been  variously  explained. 
It  has  been  held  that  the  two  terms  did  not 
denote  exactly  the  same  tiling.  Horeb  has 
been  regarded  as  tiu^  name  of  the  range,  and 
Sinai  as  a  jtromini-nt  jieiik  (Hengstenberg, 
Robinson) ;  or  Moreb  is  thought  of  as  a  lower 
part  or  peak  of  mount  Sinai  (Gesenius)  ;  or 
Iloreb  was  the  north(^rM  and  lower  portion 
(tf  the  range,  while  Sinai  was  The  southern 
portion,  especially  its  highest  point.  On  liie 
otliin'  hand,  the  two  tcTms  have  been  held  to 
denote  the  same  object ;  and  Ewald  believed 
Sinai  to  be  tlie  older  name  of  the  mountain 
aflcrwards  called  Horeb  (cp.  ,Tudg.  v.  5i.  On 
this  theory  the  eiioice.  between  tlie  names 
would  depend  on  individual  jireference,  on 
the  date  of  the  records  used,  or  upon  the 
writer's  mood  (study  Ex.  xi.x.  1,  2*  in  the 
context  xviii.  13-xix.  G;  and  xix.  ll**  in  the 
context  9-13). 

Ho'rem  [enclosed,  sacred]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (.Tosh.  xix.  38). 
Not  identified.  Tliere  is  no  reason  to  think 
of  Ilura  or  Kurah,  .3'.  miles  west  by  north  of 
Yarun,  nor  of  Ilarah,  C)\  miles  north  by  east 
of  Yarun. 


Ho'resh  [a  dense  wood  or  thicket]. 

A  locality,  ])robal'>ly  at  the  time  overgrown 
with  bnsh,"where  David  lurked  (1  Sam.  xxiii. 
16,  R.  V.  margin).  In  the  text  the  word  is 
rendered  wood. 

Hor-hag-gid'gad,  in  A.  V.  Hor-liagidgad 
[mountain  or  cavern  of  Gidgad,  i.  e.  perhai)s, 
thunder]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  32).  The  same  as 
Gudgodah  (Deut.  x.  (i,  7;  cp.  Num.  xxxiii. 
31-33).  Site  unknown.  It  must  not  be  iden- 
tified With  wady  Ghndaghid,  for  the  names 
are  entirely  diiferent  in  etymology. 

Ho'ri  [cave-dwellerl. 

1.  A  Horite  tribe  descended  from  Lotan, 
and  called  by  the  general  name  of  the  stock 
to  which  it  belonged  (Gen.  xxxvi.  22). 

2.  Father  of  Shaphat  the  spy  (Num.  xiii.  5). 
Ho'rite,  in  A.  V.  of  Deut.  Ho'rims. 
Cave-dwellers,    the    aborigines    of   mount 

Seir,  and  hence  called  the  children  of  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  They  were  defeated  by 
Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies  (Gen.  xiv.  6). 
They  were  governed  by  chieftains  (xxxvi.  29, 
30).  They  were  subsequently  destroyed  by 
the  posterity  of  Esau  (Deut.  ii.  12,  22). 
Hor'mah  [a  devoted  place,  destruction]. 

1.  A  region  to  the  south  of  Canaan,  in  Seir, 
north  of  both  Kadesh  and  mount  Hor.  When 
the  Israelites  after  their  loss  of  faith  presumed 
to  advance  from  Kadesh  toward  Canaan,  the 
Amalekites  and  Canaauites  came  down,  smote 
them,  and  drove  them  as  far  as  "  the  desola- 
tion," as  the  district  was  called  from  its  dev- 
astation some  thirty-eight  years  later  (Num. 
xiv.  45;  Deut.  i.  44).  On  the  second  depar- 
ture of  the  Israelites  from  Kadesh,  after  the 
lapse  of  these  thirty-eight  years,  while  they 
were  encamped  at  mount  Hor,  the  Canaanites 
under  the  king  of  Arad  again  attacked  Ihem 
and  made  some  captives.  Israel  vowed  their 
destruction  if  Jehovah  would  aid,  devastated 
their  cities,  and  called  the  wasted  region 
Hormah,  desolation  (Num.  xxi.  1-3). 

2.  The  town  Zephath,  called  Hormah  after 
its  devotion.  It  was  situated  in  the  south 
country,  toward  the  border  of  Edom,  near 
Ziklag,  and  was  allotted  to  Judah,  but  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  (Josh.  xv. 
30 ;  xix.  4).  After  the  death  of  Joshua,  Ju- 
dah assisted  Simeon  to  take  the  town.  It 
was  inhabited  hy  Canaanites;  and  had  either 
escaped  destruction  when  the  region  was  first 
devastated  in  fulfillment  of  the  vow  (Num. 
xxi.  2),  or  it  had  been  rebuilt  by  fugitives 
who  returned.  At  any  rate,  it  was  still  in- 
cluded in  the  old  vow ;  and  it  was  now  de- 
voted to  destruction,  man  and  beast  Avere 
slain,  and  the  town  was  lienceforth  called 
Hormah  (Judg.  i.  17).  Joshua  had  already 
defeated  its  king  (called  prole]itically  king 
of  Hormah),  wlu),  it  may  be  judged,  was  ab- 
sent from  his  city,  assisting  men  of  his  own 
race  at  Hebron  at  the  time  of  his  defeat,  as 
the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  the  king  of  Gezer 


Horn 


323 


Hosah 


were  away  from  their  cities  when  Joshua 
smote  tlieni  (Josh.  xii.  14  ;  cp.  x.  10,  88).  After 
the  town  had  been  devoted,  it  was  inhabited 
by  Siuieonites  (1  Chron.  iv.  30).  It  was  hos- 
pitable to  David  when  he  lived  as  an  outcast, 
and  to  his  friends  there  David  sent  of  the 
spoils  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  30). 

Horn. 

Part  of  Palestine,  especially  its  southern 
portion,  being  a  pastoral  country,  the  Israel- 
ites were  exceedingly  familiar  with  the  horns 
of  animals.  In  early  times  they  converted 
them  into  trumpets  (Josh.  vi.  13),  or  into 
Hasks  for  such  substances  as  oil  (1  Sam.  xvi. 
1.  13;  1  Kin.  1.  39).  When  God  exalts  the 
horn  of  an  individual,  the  meaning  is  that 
he  confers  great  power  and  jjrosjierity  (1  Sam. 
ii.  10:  Ps.  Ixxxix.  24)  ;  but  when  one  exalts 
or  lifts  up  the  horn,  it  means  that  he  indulges 
in  arrogance  and  insolence  (Ps.  Ixxv.  4,  5). 
Horn  denotes  political  power,  the  image  being 
drawn  from  bulls  which  push  with  their  horns 
(Ps.  cxxxii.  17;  Jer.  xlviii.  25),  and  in  pro- 
phetic language  signifies  a  kingdom  (Dan. 
vii.  8,  11,  21 ;  Zech.  i.  18,  19)  or  kings  (Rev. 
xvii.  12,  16). 

Horns  of  the  altar  were  projections  resem- 
bling horns  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  altar 
of  burnt  ottering  (War  v.  5,  6).  They  were 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  (Ex. 
xxix.  12;  Lev.  iv.  7),  and  the  bodies  of  the 
victims  otfered  in  sacrifice  appear  to  have 
been  bound  to  them  (Ps.  cxviii.  27),  and 
offenders  clung  to  them  for  safety  from  pun- 
ishment (1  Kin.  ii.  28). 

Horn  was  also  used  to  denote  a  peak  (Is.  v. 
1,  R.  V.  margin).  The  horns  of  Hattiu  are 
the  traditional  mount  of  Beatitudes. 

Hor'net. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  f^ir'ah, 
according  to  the  ancient  versions.  The  hornet 
{Vespa  criibro)  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
wasp,  but  larger  and  more  formidable.  Either 
the  commou  hornet  or  a  closely  allied  species 
is  common  in  Palestine.  Hornets  were  to  be 
sent  to  drive  out  the  Cauaanite  nations  be- 
fore the  Israelites  (Ex.  xxiii.  28;  Deut.  vii. 
20  :  .Tosh.  xxiv.  12;  Wisd.  xii.  8).  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  hornet  is  here  used  in  a  literal 
or  a  figurative  sense.  In  favor  of  the  former 
it  may  be  alleged  that  ^Elian  relates  that  the 
Phaselites  were  driven  from  their  territory 
by  hornets,  and  in  favor  of  the  latter  that  we 
have  no  detailed  account  of  the  Canaanites 
being  thus  expelled.  If  used  figuratively, 
the  sting  of  the  hornet  would  stand  for  the 
terror  produced  in  Canaanite  minds  by  the 
approach  of  the  irresistible  Israelite  armies. 

Hor-o-na'im  [two  caverns  or  ravines]. 

A  ]\Ioabite  city  at  the  foot  of  a  declivity, 
and  a,pparently  not  far  from  Zoar  (Is.  xv.  5  ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  3,  r,'.  34  ;  Moabite  Stone  31 ).  Doubt- 
less the  town  Oronse  which  Alexander  Jan- 
npeus  took  from  the  Arabians,  and  his  sou 
Hyrcanus  restored  to  Aretas  ( Antiq.  xiii.  15, 
4  ;  xiv.  1,  4).     Situation  unknown. 


Hor'o-nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Horonaim  or, 
more  probably,  of  Beth-horon  (Neh.  ii.  10, 19). 

Horse. 

The  horse  was  early  subdued  by  man.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  its  rider  in  the  time  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xlix.  17).  Mountainous  Palestine  was 
not  well  adapted  for  its  use,  and  in  early 
times  it  was  priucii)ally  employed  in  the 
maritime  plain  and  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel. 
There  were  many  horses  in  Egypt  (xlvii.  17  ; 
Ex.  ix.  3 ;  Egyptian  records  from  18th  dy- 
nasty onward).  When  the  exodus  took  place 
Pharaoh's  pursuing  army  was  equijiped  with 
chariots  and  horses  (xiv.  9;  xv.  19).  They 
existed  also  in  the  force  of  the  northern  Ca- 
naanites led  by  Sisera,  .labin's  commander- 
in-chief  (Judg.  iv.  15;  V.  22).  In  Deut.  xvii. 
16,  the  king  who  was  to  be  elected  when 
monarchy  was  established  among  the  Israel- 
ites was  forbidden  to  multiply  horses,  not- 
withstanding which  prohibition  Solomon  im- 
ported them  in  great  numbers  from  Egypt, 
paying  for  each  animal  150  shekels  of  silver 
(a  little  more  than  $97).  He  afterwards  ex- 
ported them  to  the  kings  of  the  Hittites  and 
those  of  the  Syrians  (1  Kin.  x.  28,  29 ;  2 
Chron.  i.  16,  17;  ix.  28).  Horses  afterwards 
became  common  in  Israel  and  Judah  (2  Kin. 
ix.  18;  Is.  ii.  7),  and  were  used  in  battle  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  4  ;  2  Kin.  iii.  7  ;  ix.  33).  Foreign 
kings  rode  on  horseback  (Esth.  vi.  8),  while 
it  was  considered  lowly  in  a  sovereign  to  sit 
upon  an  ass  (Zech.  ix.  9j,  and  accorded  with 
the  simple  manners  of  the  early  Hebrew 
patriarchs,  judges,  and  kings  (Gen.  xxii.  3; 
Judg.  X.  4;  xii.  14;  1  Kin.  i.  33).  Horses 
were  sometimes  dedicated  to  the  sun  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11).  They  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  projihecies  of  Zechariah  (Zech.  i.  8  ;  vi. 
2,  3  ;  X.  5  ;  xiv.  20),  and  in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation (Rev.  vi.  2,  4,  5,  8;  xix.  11,  etc.). 

Horseleech. 

A  large  leech  (Hiemopsis  sanfiuisuga),  com- 
mon in  Palestine.  The  leech  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews  by  the  name  '"liiJ^ah,  to  the  Ara- 
mseans  '"Inka,  to  the  Arabs  'alalfiit,  from  its 
adhering  to  the  flesh  (Prov.  xxx.  15).  It  is 
noted  for  its  insatiable  apijetite  for  blood.  In 
the  proverb  it  is  used  figuratively.  Its  two 
insatiable  daughters  are  perhaps  named  in  the 
first  line  of  ver.  16.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
substitutes  vampire.  The  blood-sucking  vam- 
pires (Desmodidx),  which  are  confined  to  the 
warmer  parts  of  South  America,  are  not 
meant ;  but  certain  female  specters,  which 
are  super.stitiously  believed  to  haunt  graves 
and  suck  human  blood.  The  ground  for  this 
interpretation  is  that  in  Arabic  'anhik  is  the 
name  of  a  demon,  and  'aluk  is  equivalent  to 
ghoul. 

Ho'sah  [fleeing  for  refuge]. 

1.  A  porter  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xvi.  38;  xxvi.  10). 

2.  A  frontier  village  of  Asher,  not  far  from 
Tyre,  and  apparently  south  of  that  city  (Josh. 


Hosauna 


324 


Hosea 


xix.  29).  Not  identified.  Conder  suggests 
the  ruin  'Ezziyat  el-Foka,  atxmt  7  miles 
south  by  east  «f  Tyre,  and  2'<  inland  from 
the  Mediterranean.  The  names,  however, 
are  quite  dissimilar. 

Ho-san'na  [save,  we  pray]. 

A  short  prayer  to  Jehovah  for  deliverance, 
taken  from  I's.  cxviii.  25.  It  was  an  acclama- 
tion of  the  ]ieo|ile  when  they  marched  around 
the  altar  at  the  feast  of  taberuacles,  and  most 
of  the  jjiayers  used  at  that  festival  began  with 
it.  It  was  taken  up  by  the  multitude  of  the 
disciples  at  the  triumiihal  entry  of  Jesus  into 
Jerusalem,  when  they  hailed  him  as  tlie  sou 
of  David  icp.  Mat.  x.xi.  9,  l.")  with  Ps.  cxviii. 
25,  -ifi). 

Ho-se'a,  in  A.  V.  of  X.  T.  Osee,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Greek  form  [save].  Identically 
the  same  word  as  Oshea  or  Hosliea  (Num. 
xiii.  8,  16),  the  first  name  of  Joshua,  and  as 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xv.  :{0). 

A  prophet,  son  of  Beeri,  wliose  ]>redic- 
tions  were  uttered  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Ilezekiali,  kings  of  Ju- 
dah,  and  .leroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel  (Hos. 
i.  1).  Assuming  that  Hosea  prophesied  during 
as  many  as  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  Jero- 
boam's reign,  and  that  he  lived  to  see  tiie 
ovt^rthrow  of  Samaria  in  7"22  b.  c,  his  min- 
istry extended  over  a  period  of  forty  years. 
Hosea  was  doubtless  a  citizen  of  the  northern 
kingdom,  for  he  speaks  of  ''our  king"  and 
''the  land,"  meaning  northern  Israel,  with- 
out feeling  the  need  of  a  restrictive  adjec- 
tive (i.  2;  vii.  5) ;  and  he  prophesied  to  the 
people  of  that  kingdom.  He  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Isaiah,  who  labored  in  Judah  (i.  1 
with  Is.  i.  1)  ;  he  began  his  prophetic  activ- 
ity in  the  reign  of  the  second  Jeroboam, 
when  Jeroboam  and  Uzziah  were  contempo- 
raries, that  is,  before  71!)  B.  c,  doubtless  some 
years  l)efore  Isaiah  api>eared,  and  he  ceased 
much  earlier  than  did  Isaiah.  Ilosea  was 
also  a  contemjjorary  of  Amos  in  the  northern 
kingdom,  and  of  Micah  who  prophesied  in 
Judah. 

The  book  of  Hosea  is  the  first  of  the  min(u- 
prophets,  not  only  in  the  order  of  their  ar- 
rangement, but  prol)ably  also  iu  thi;  order 
of  time.  It  consists  of  two  jjortions,  chapters 
i.-iii.  and  iv.  xiv.  The  first  i)art  belongs  to 
the  earlier  period  of  the  prophet's  ministry  ; 
for  the  llrst  chapter  at  least  dates  from  the 
reign  of  tin;  second  .leroboam,  or  within  six 
mouths  after  its  close,  before  the  destruction 
of  tlie  bouse  of  Jehu  (i.  2-4).  These  first 
three  chapters  furnish  the  key  to  the  whole 
book,  in  which  the  unfaithfulness  of  Israel 
to  Jehovah  (luring  tiie  enliri!  national  his- 
tory is  pressed  home  on  the  conscience  (iv. 
l-v.7;  vi.  4-vii.  10;  viii.-xi.l,  the  necessity 
of  chastisement  is  shown,  and  the  uiujuench- 
able  lov(i  of  Jehovah  for  his  erring  people  is 
earnestly  taught  (vi.  1  '■',;  xii.-xiv.).  In 
chapters  i.-iii.  the  unfaithfulness  of  Israel 
and  the  Lord's  patience  and  forbearance  are 


set  forth  under  the  analogy  of  an  adulterous 
wife.  Regarding  the  account  of  the  prophet's 
marriage  interpreters  have  been  divided  in 
opinion  from  ancient  times.  Is  the  story  of 
the  unfaithful  wife  an  allegory  or  a  fact  ?  It 
is  argued  that  it  was  allegorical  and  not  real, 
because — 1.  It  is  inqiossible  that  God  would 
have  commanded  a  prophet  to  enter  such  a 
revolting  alliance,  and  one  which  was  apt  to 
lessen  his  influence  with  the  better  part  of 
the  people,  as  a  marriage  with  a  woman  of 
impure  life  would  do.  2.  The  law  of  Moses 
forbade  a  priest  to  marry  an  unchaste  woman 
(Lev.  xxi.  7);  and  as  the  prophets  were  also 
a  sacred  class,  although  not  bound  by  the 
strict  priestly  laws,  God  would  scarcely  direct 
them  to  enter  into  wedlock  with  the  unclean. 
3.  The  action  of  the  first  chapter,  if  real, 
would  require  years  for  its  performance,  in- 
volving not  only  the  prophet's  marriage,  but 
also  the  birth  of  several  children  ;  and  the 
symbolic  lesson  would  be  lost.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  narrative  is  held  to  be  the  story 
of  domestic  tragedy  in  real  life  and  the 
command  which  is  recorded  in  chap.  i.  2, 
directing  the  prophet  to  take  "a  wife  of 
whoredom,"  is  regarded  as  meaning  not  a 
woman  already  steeped  in  sin,  but  one  who 
was  as  yet  innocent  in  act.  After  her  mar- 
riage with  Hosea,  she  revealed  a  deeply 
seated  projiensity  to  impurity,  proved  un- 
faithful to  her  marriage  vows,  and  was  di- 
vorced (ii.  2).  The  '"  children  of  whoredom  " 
are  understood  to  be  either  the  prophet's 
own  sons  and  daughters  who  inherited  the 
mother's  evil  tendencies,  or  else  the  offspring 
of  an  adulterous  union  whom  the  prophet 
acknowledged  for  his  own.  Eventually  by 
God's  direction  the  prophet  took  the  woman 
back  from  her  life  of  shame  and  restored  her 
to  her  former  position  of  wife  (iii.l) ;  and  thus 
typified  God's  readiness  to  restore  apostate, 
idolatrous,  sinful  Israel  to  favor.  Several 
objections  lie  against  this  theory.  1.  The 
words  she  "bare  him  a  son  "  (i.  3)  are  in- 
conijiatible  with  the  interpretation  that  the 
prophet  acknowledged  a  bastard  child.  2. 
The  words  of  chap.  ii.  2  are  spoken  by 
Jehovah  to  the  Israelites,  as  appears  further 
on  ;  and  not  spoken  by  the  prophet  to  his 
children.  3.  Not  the  woman,  but  a  woman, 
is  alluded  to  in  chap.  iii.  1  :  whereas  the  ex- 
jiression  should  properly  be  definite,  if  it  re- 
terre<l  toa  woman  wlio  had  already  been  men- 
tiom'd  in  cha]i.  i.  All  difficulties,  exegetical 
or  moral,  disapjiear  on  the  theory  that  the 
account  is  an  allegory.  Such  allegorical  re- 
citals or  acted  stories  were  common  in  pro- 
])hetic  teaching  (.ler.  xxv.  15-29;  Zech.  xi. 
■1-17).  I'.ut  whether  allegorical  or  actual, 
the  adulterous  woman  and  her  equally  adul- 
terous children  symbolize  Israel  and  its 
tribes  iu  their  unfaithfulmss  to  Jehovah,  at- 
tachment to  other  goils,  and  alliaiu'es  with 
the  nations  (cji.  Is.  xlvii.  H,  9;  Luke  xix.  441. 
The  .second  part  of  the  book  of  Hosea,  con- 
sisting of  chapters  iv.-xiv.,  is  not  a  series  of 


Hosea 


325 


Hosea 


discourses,  nor  even  one  continuous  sermon, 
but  is  a  summary  of  his  proplietic  teacliiug, 
prepared  by  him  towards  the  close  of  liis 
ministry.  The  propliecy  thus  contains  the 
gist  of  his  pul)liu  addresses.  He  may  liave 
used  notes,  but  they  were  scarcely  needed. 
His  memory  sufficed.  The  sharp,  pithy  say- 
ings with  which  he  had  barbed  his  arrows, 
and  the  striking  similes  by  which  he  showed 
up  the  true  character  of  the  sins  of  his  day, 
were  not  apt  to  be  forgotten  by  him ;  and 
frequent  speech  upon  the  same  themes  gave 
a  stereotyped  form  to  the  material  as  it  lay 
in  the  prophet's  mind,  and  preserved  the 
rhythm  and  fervor  of  impassioned  public  ad- 
dress to  living  men.  At  the  end  of  his  life 
he  set  down  in  writing  bits  from  his  sermons, 
such  descriptions  and  warnings  and  exhorta- 
tions as  were  universal  and  eternal  in  their 
application. 

The  prophecies  of  chapters  iv.-xiv.  were 
for  the  most  part  uttered  originally  when 
Assyria  was  filling  the  heart  of  Israel  with  a 
great  dread.  Not  a  few  striking  and  signifi- 
cant public  events  occurred  during  the  years 
of  Hosea's  prophetic  activity  to  which  he 
makes  no  reference  at  all  in  the  written 
summary  of  his  teaching,  or  only  the  vaguest 
and  most  general  allusions ;  such  as  the  glory 
of  Jeroboam's  reign  and  the  extension  of 
Israel's  borders  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2"),  28),  the  mur- 
der of  Zechariah  by  Shallum  and  the  latter's 
assassination  by  Menahem  ixv.  10,  14),  the 
invasions  of  fialilee  by  Tiglath-pileser  (xv. 
19,  29).  Still  there  are  occasional  indications 
of  date  for  particular  passages.  If,  for  in- 
stance, Tiglath-pileser  completely  denuded 
the  country  of  its  inhabitants,  when  he  de- 
ported the  two  tribes  and  a  half  from  the 
region  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  2<)), 
then  the  words  of  the  prophet  concerning 
Gilead,  as  a  city  of  them  that  work  iniquity, 
were  first  spoken  before  the  year  I'S.i  B.  c. 
(Hos.  vi.  8;  and  xii.  11,  but  this  latter  pas- 
sage may  refer  to  the  past).  The  butchery 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Beth-arbel  (x.  14)  has 
been  often,  and  quite  appropriately,  regarded 
as  an  event  of  Shalnianeser's  reign,  727-722 
B.  c.  If  it  does  belong  to  the  history  of  Shal- 
maneser  the  words  of  the  prophet  were  ut- 
tered about  72.5  B.  c.  The  frequent  references 
of  the  prophet  to  the  dallying  of  the  govern- 
ment, now  with  Assyria  and  now  with  Egypt, 
comport  best  with  the  course  that  marked 
Israel's  politics  at  the  time  of  Pekah  and 
Hoshea(v.  13;  vii.  11:  viii.  9;  xiv.  3 ;  par- 
ticularly xii.  1  with  2  Kin.  xvii.  3,  4)  ;  and 
accordingly  it  is  probable  that  the  rebuke 
of  Israel  for  its  foreign  policy  was  uttered 
during  the  reigns  of  its  last  two  kings. 

The  paragraphs  into  which  chapters  iv.- 
xiv.  are  divided  in  the  R.  V.  form  units  of 
thought  complete  in  themselves.  They  are 
grouped  together  in  suitable,  though  often 
subtle,  logical  connection  with  each  other ; 
but  they  do  not  flow  in  smooth,  continuous 
discourse. 


1.  Chapter  iv.  1-vi.  3.  The  thought  that 
binds  the  various  ntlerances  together  is 
sin  and  the  need  of  repentance.  The  people 
are  arraigned  for  gross  iniquity  (iv.  1-1!>). 
and  the  princes  and  priests  as  being  the 
leaders  in  sin  (v.  1-15).  The  arraignment  is 
followed  by  a  beautiful  exhortation  to  re- 
pentance and  the  promise  ol  God's  return  in 
favor  (vi.  !-'.'>). 

2.  Chai)ter  vi.  4  -  x.  15.  The  unifying 
thought  is  the  grievous  punishment  that 
must  come  for  heinous  sin.  P^itful  repent- 
ance does  not  satisfy  God  (vi.  4-11).  The 
immoral  life  and  shameless  excess  of  the 
mighty  is  manifest  to  God  (vii.  1-7)  Israel's, 
stupidity  and  folly  in  seeking  aid  from  the 
powers  of  the  world.  For  its  foolishness  it 
shall  be  chastised  (8-16).  The  invader  is 
near  because  of  Israel's  idolatry  and  schism 
(viii.  1-7).  Israel  has  drawn  judgnieiit  upon 
itself  by  dallying  with  Assyria,  by  religious 
abuses,  and  by  trusting  in  human  means 
(8-14).  Israel's  infidelity  (ix.  l-!>),  and  con- 
sequent punishment  ( 10-17 ).  Israel,  fiourish- 
ing  like  a  vigorous  vine,  only  increases  its 
idolatry  ;  but  judgment  shall  spring  up  as 
abundant  and  as  destructive  as  the  noxious 
weed  (x.  1-8).  Israel's  sin  compared  to  that 
of  Gibeah  (9-11).  As  one  sows,  so  shall  one 
reap  (12-15). 

3.  Chapter  xi.  1-xiii.  16,  a  passage  charac- 
terized by  yearning  and  expostulation.  Je- 
hovah's love  for  Israel  is  the  unquenchable 
love  of  a  father  for  his  child,  even  for  a 
wayward  child  (xi.  1-11).  Jacob  relied  upon 
his  own  strength  and  shrewdness  at  first, 
but  finally  importuned  God  and  prevailed  ; 
therefore  turn  from  earthly  alliances  to  thy 
God  (xi.  12-xii.  6  [Heb.  xii.  1-7]).  Ephraim, 
a  dishonest  tradesman,  and,  having  become 
rich,  excuses  himself  of  sin  ;  but  Jehovah 
will  cast  him  out  of  his  home,  he  who  saved 
Israel  from  Egypt  will  now  punish  (xii.  7-14). 
Epbraim's  idolatry  condemned  (xiii.  1-8), 
and  its  consequence  declared  (9-16). 

4.  Chapter  xiv.  1-9.  Exhortation  to  re- 
pentance, confession,  and  humble  supplica- 
tion, and  the  promise  of  Jehovah's  gracious 
acceptance  of  the  penitent  and  bestowal  of 
richest  blessings 

Genuineness  has  been  denied  to  the  refer- 
ences in  the  book  of  Hosea  to  Judah  (partic- 
ularly i.  7;  iv.  15;  v.  10-14;  vi.  11;  xi.  12 
(Heb.  xii.  1]),  to  the  restoration  of  Israel  to 
God's  favor  and  their  return  to  their  native 
land  (e.  g.,  i.  10-ii.  1  [Heb.  ii.  1-3]),  and  to 
the  sole  legitimacy  of  the  Davidic  monarchy 
(i.  4  ;  iii.  5  ;  viii.  4  ;  xiii.  10,  11).  The  genu- 
ineness of  these  passages  is,  in  general,  denied 
on  the  ground  of  a  lack  of  sequence  with  the 
preceding  context  or  a  variation  of  the 
meter.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  sudden  transitions  characterize  the 
style  of  Hosea,  that  rhythm,  not  meter,  is,  as 
a  rule,  the  mark  of  exalted  prophetic  utter- 
ance, and  that  an  author  may  choose  varia- 
tion of  literary  form  rather  than  monotony. 


Hoshaiah 


326 


Host 


Then,  too,  the  book  of  Hosea  is  a  mosaic 
made  up  of  bits  from  many  discourses.  C'oii- 
ceriiiiif^  the  three  classes  of  passages  to  which 
esceptiou  lias  beeu  taken,  1.  The  references 
to  .ludah.  "An  occasional  side  glance  at  Ju- 
dah,  a  people  so  iutimateh'  connected  with 
his  own,  must  not  be  denied  to  the  prophet '' 
(Harper,  on  chap.  v.  5) ;  especially  since  he 
saw  the  moral  conditions  in  Judah  becoming 
assimilated  to  those  of  Ephraim  (Oman,  Presb. 
and  Kefd.  Itev.  x.  4G8-470).  2.  The  refer- 
ences to  a  restoration  of  Israel  to  God's  favor 
and  their  return  to  their  oM'n  country.  (1). 
A  reference  to  restoration  to  God's  favor 
is  tlemanded  by  the  symmetry,  since  each 
section  of  chaps,  i.-iii.  (i.  10-ii.  1;  ii.  14-:i3 ; 
iii.  5),  and  greater  sections  of  the  book 
as  a  whole,  end  with  promises.  (2).  It 
is  the  custom  of  ])rophecy  not  to  close  with 
the  threatening  of  doom  and  leave  the  jieople 
to  despair,  but  to  let  the  light  of  ho]>e  break 
through  the  dark  clouds  and  irradiate  the 
great  future.  (3l.  Continuing  the  picture  of 
the  destruction  of  Israel  in  battle  for  its 
.sins,  the  verses  of  hope  (i.  10-ii.  1)  repre- 
sent the  victory  of  united  Israel  and  Judah 
over  their  foes.  (4).  Thought  was  turned 
to  the  posiiibility  of  a  return  both  by  the 
prospect  of  imminent  exile  for  the  nation, 
and  also  presently  by  the  knowledge  that 
many  Israelitish  captives  were  in  Assj-ria 
(2  kin.  XV.  29;  1  Chron.  v.  26;  Is.  ix.  1). 
3.  The  references  to  the  legitimacy  of  the 
Davidic  monarchy  and  the  illegitimacy  of 
ntirtiieru  Israel's  kings.  (I).  It  is  neces- 
sary to  reject  the  genuineness  not  only  of 
these  prophecies  in  Hosea.  but  also  of  the 
prediction  of  the  universal  dominion  of  the 
l)avi(lic  king  which  was  uttered  in  nurthern 
Israel  by  a  contemporary  jirophet  of  JiuUeau 
birth  (Amos  ix.  11).  (2).  To  the  believer  in 
the  moral  government  of  the  universe  the 
failure  and  fall  of  oni'  dytiasty  after  another 
in  the  north,  during  the  i)receding  two  cen- 
turies, was  conclusive  evidence  of  their  re- 
jection by  God;  and  the  continuance  of  the 
i)avidic  monarcliy  confirmed  the  ])rophetic 
words,  spoken  in  the  southern  kingdom  con- 
cerning tiiat  line,  and  was  itself  independent 
l>roof  that  fiod  had  chosen  the  house  of  Uavid. 

Ho-sha'iali  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  Father  of  Jezaniah  and  Azariah  (Jer. 
xlii.  1  ;  .\liii.  2). 

2.  A  man,  doubtless  a  prince  of  Judah,  who 
walked  iniinediately  behind  the  chorus  of 
those  who  gave  thanks  in  the  i)rocession  at 
tile  dedication  of  the  second  ten)i)le  (Neh. 
.\ii.  32). 

Hosh'a-ma  [probably,  Jehovah  hath  heard]. 
One  of  the  family  or  descendants  of  king 
Jeconiali  (1  Chron.  iii.  IH). 

Ho-she'a,  in  A.  V.  of  Num.  xiii.  8,  16 
Oshea  [save]. 

1.  Tlie  earlier  mime  of  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Nun,  which  was  changed  by  Moses  into 
Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  8,  16). 


2.  Son  of  Azaziah  and  prince  of  Ephraim 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  A  sou  of  Elah.  With  the  connivance 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  he  con- 
spired against  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  slew 
him,  and  ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
30).  His  reign  lasted  about  nine  years,  from 
about  T.'iO  to  722  B.  c.  He  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah,  but  still  was  better  than 
the  average  of  the  preceding  kings.  Shal- 
maneser,  king  of  Assvria,  made  an  expedi- 
tion against  him.  Not  being  able  to  repel  the 
invader,  Hoshea  paid  tribute  (xvii.  3) ;  but 
knowing  that  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Egypt 
looked  with  jealousy  on  the  approach  of  the 
Assyrians  to  its  frontiers,  he  soon  sought 
assistance  from  Egypt.  Trusting  that  aid 
would  be  forthcoming,  he  withheld  the  an- 
nual tribute  from  Assyria  (4).  Sbalmaueser 
again  invaded  the  Israelite  territory,  took 
Hoshea  captive,  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria. 
See  Shalmanesek.  The  city  was  reduced  to 
great  straits,  but  it  held  out  three  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  three  j'ears  Shalmaneser  was 
killed  or  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sargon, 
who  claims  the  honor  of  capturing  the  city. 
He  carried  the  leading  inhabitants  into  cap- 
tivity, and  placed  them  in  Halah  and  in 
Habor,  by  the  river  of  Gozan,  and  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  ('■>,  6).  This  event  is 
known  as  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes.  It 
was  not  any  special  wickedness  on  the  part 
of  Hoshea  that  brought  it  on.  The  cup  of 
Israel's  iniquity  had  been  filling  for  centuries, 
and  Hoshea's  iniquities  only  added  the  last 
drop  which  made  the  cup  full  to  overflowing 
(7-23).    See  Samaria,  Sargon,  Israel. 

4.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  23). 

5.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea. 
See  Hosea. 

Host. 

A  multitude,  especially  when  organized ; 
an  army  (Gen.  xxi.  22 ;  Judg.  iv.  2)  or  the 
division  of  an  army  (Ex.  vii.  4,  in  A.  V.  ar- 
mies ;  xii.  41 ;  Num.  ii.  3,  in  A.  V.  armies;  1 
Kin.  ii.  5)  ;  the  angels,  constituting  a  heav- 
enly host  (1  Kin.  xxii.  19 ;  Ps.  cxlviii.  2 : 
Luke  ii.  13) ;  and  the  stars  (Deut.  iv.  19 ;  2 
Kin.  xxiii.  5).  The  Semites  comprehended 
heaven  and  all  its  forces  and  beings,  heaven 
and  all  that  is  therein,  in  the  phrase  host  of 
heaven  ;  and  in  the  phrase  host  of  the  earth, 
they  included  the  earth  and  all  that  is  there- 
in, the  forces  of  nature  like  wind,  lightning, 
heat  and  cold,  and  things  animate  and  inani- 
mate ((ien.  ii.  1  ;  Ps.  xxxiii.  6  ;  and  see  Anshar 
and  Kishar  in  Creation). 

The  title  Lord  of  hosts  has  sometimes  been 
e.Yplained  as  meaning  that  Jehovah  is  the 
God  of  tiie  armies  of  Israel.  In  i)roof  David's 
words  to  tioliath  are  cited  :  "  Thou  comest  to 
me  with  a  sword  and  with  a  spear,  but  I 
come  to  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  the  God  of  the  armies  of  Israel ''  (1  Sam, 
xvii.  45).  The  pro]ihet  Isaiah  is  also  quoted, 
who  says:    "The  Lord  of  hosts  shall  come 


Hotham 


327 


House 


down  to  fight  n])()ii  mount  Zion ''  (Is.  xxxi. 
4).  But  this  is  too  narrow  a  generalization. 
Jehovali  did  tight  for  his  people  ;  he  was  in- 
deed "  the  Lord  strong  and  mighty,  the  Lord 
mighty  in  battle."  But  the  Lord  of  hosts  was 
more  than  the  war  God  of  Israel.  The  Greek 
translators  grasped  the  true  meaning  of  the 
title,  and  rendered  it  Pantokrator,  the  Al- 
mighty. The  word  hosts  which  is  used  in  the 
title  refers  to  the  armies  of  the  universe.  The 
designation  ]iictures  the  universe,  in  its 
spiritual  and  material  aspects,  as  forming  a 
vast  army,  in  numerous  divisions,  of  various 
kinds  of  troops,  in  orderly  array  under  the 
command  of  Jehovah.  One  division  consists 
of  the  angels.  It  was  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
hosts,  who  appeared  to  Jacob  at  Bethel  when 
he  beheld  the  ladder  and  the  angels  of  God 
ascending  and  descending  (Gen.  xxviii.  12, 
13;  Hos.  xii.  4,  5).  "Who  in  the  skies  can 
be  compared  unto  the  Lord  ?  Who  among 
the  sons  of  the  mighty  is  like  unto  the  Lord, 
a  God  very  terrible  in  the  council  of  the  holy 
ones,  and  to  be  feared  above  all  them  that  are 
round  about  him '?  O  Lord  God  of  hosts,  who 
is  a  mighty  one  like  unto  thee,  O  Jehovah?" 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.  6-8  ;  cp.  E.  V.).  Another  host  con- 
sists of  the  stars,  in  their  beautiful  order  and 
wonderful  array.  Jehovah  is  their  command- 
er. Isaiah  bids  those  who  would  know  God 
to  go  forth,  and  lift  up  their  eyes  on  high  and 
see.  "Who  hath  created  these  ?"  he  asks.  He 
who  bringeth  out  [into  the  field  like  a  general] 
their  host  by  number,  he  who  calleth  them  all 
by  name,  and  upon  them  layeth  commands 
(Is.  xl.  26  ;  xlv.  12).  Yet  another  host  con- 
sists of  all  the  forces  of  nature ;  they  stand 
at  the  bidding  of  Jehovah,  worshiping  and 
serving  him  (Xeh.  ix.  6;  Ps.  ciii.  21).  The 
Lord  of  hosts  sendeth  sword,  famine,  and 
pestilence  (Jer.  xxix.  17).  "  The  Lord,  which 
giveth  the  sun  for  a  light  by  day  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  moon  and  of  the  sUirs  for 
a  light  by  night,  which  stirreth  up  the  sea 
that  the  waves  thereof  roar,  the  Lord  of  hosts 
is  his  name"  (Jer.  xxxi.  35,  E.  V.).  The 
Greeks,  looking  at  the  heavens  above  them, 
and  at  the  earth  around  them,  called  what 
they  saw  cosmos,  the  beauty  of  harmony. 
The  Eomans,  discovering  the  same  harmo- 
nious relations  and  movements,  named  the 
entirety  of  creation  a  universe,  combined  as 
one.  To  the  poetic  imagination  of  the  He- 
brews, with  their  knowledge  of  the  omnipo- 
tent reigning  God,  the  regularity  and  order 
everywhere  apparent  suggested  an  army  in 
vast,  numerous,  and  varied  divisions,  acting 
under  the  command  of  one  will.  The  Lord 
of  hosts,  he  is  the  king  who  alone  commands. 

Ho'tham  [seal,  signet  ring]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  sou  of  Heber,  family  of 
Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  32). 

2.  An  Aroerite,  two  of  whose  sous  were 
among  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 
The  misprint  of  Hothan  for  Hotham  in  A.  V. 
has  been  corrected  in  E.  V. 


Ho'than.     See  Hotham  2. 

Ho'tMr. 

A  sou  of  Hemau,  David's  seer  and  singer 
(1  ('hron.  XXV.  4). 

Hour.     See  Day  and  Nigut. 

House. 

In  Palestine  and  other  i)arts  of  the  East 
the  houses  of  the  common  people,  constitut- 
ing more  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole, 
have  only  one  story,  and  sometimes  only  one 
room.     The  interior  is  frequently  divided 


Eastern  House,  showing  Outer  Staircase. 

into  two  portions,  one  several  feet  higher 
than  the  other.  The  door  from  the  outside 
leads  into  the  lower  portion,  which  is  occu- 
pied by  the  cattle.  Troughs  for  their  feed  are 
arranged  along  the  side  of  the  platform  where 
the  family  dwell.  This  higher  floor  is  reached 
by  a  short  flight  of  steps.  Sometimes  there 
is  a  loft  above  the  stable  for  guests.  These 
several  apartments  are  not  walled  ofl"  from 
each  other.  The  walls  of  the  house  are  often 
of  mud  or  sun-dried  brick,  even  when,  as  in 
Palestine,  stone  is  procurable  (cp.  Job  xxiv. 
16  ;  Ezek.  xiii.  10-16).  The  roofs  are  made 
of  branches  of  trees,  canes,  palm  leaves,  etc., 
covered  with  a  thick  stratum  of  earth.  Ma- 
terials so  flimsy  cannot  long  resist  the  heavy 
rains  which  at  certain  seasons  fall  in  warm 
countries.  There  would  be  no  difliculty  in 
temporarily  creating  an  aperture  in  the 
flimsy  roof,  and  letting  down  a  man  on  a 
bed,  as  was  done  at  Capernaum  in  the  case 
of  the  paralytic  healed  by  our  Lord  (Mark  ii. 
1  12  :  Luke  v.  18-26) ;  only  a  shower  of  dust 
would  descend. 

The  houses  of  the  better  class  are  generally 
built,  as  of  old,  in  a  quadrangle,  around  a 
central  courtyard,  which  in  certain  cases 
may  contain  a  fountain,  or  even  a  well  (2 
Sanj.  xvii.  18).  The  upper  chamber  is  an 
important  room  in  the  second  story,  some- 
times constituting  all  there  is  of  a  second 
story,  being  built  above  the  general  level  of 


Hozai 


328 


Hunter 


the  roof  (Jiidg.  iii.  20,  K.  V.  margin  ;  1  Kin. 
xvii.  19  ;  2  Kin.  iv.  10  ;  Mark  xiv.  15  ;  Acts  i. 
1:5 :  ix.  37).  Tlie  roofs  of  all  houses  are  flat. 
They  arc  generally,  ami  should  always  be,  sur- 
rounded by  battlements  (l)eut.  xxii.  !S).  They 
are  well  adapted  for  storing  and  drying  agri- 
cultural produce  (Josh.  ii.  (i),  for  walking  to 
and  fro  (2  Sam.  xi.  2),  for  conversation  (1  Sam. 
ix.  25,  26).  for  idolatrous  worship  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
12),  or  for  religious  meditation  and  prayer 
(Acts  X.  9).  There  is  a  staircase  outside  the 
house,  by  which  the  roof  can  be  reached 
without  entering  the  building  (cp.  Mat.  xxiv. 


Hu'kok.     See  Helkath. 

Hul  [circle,  circuit]. 

The  second  son  of  Aram  (Gen.  x.  23;  1 
Chron.  i.  17).  Huleh,  the  region  immediately 
north  of  the  waters  of  Merom,  may  possibly 
preserve  the  name. 

Hul'dah  [weasel]. 

A  prophetess,  who  lived  in  the  second 
quarter  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14.  R.  V.). 
She  was  the  wife  of  Shallum,  keeper  of  the 
wardrobe,  and  was  held  in  the  highest  es- 
teem.    She  lived  during  the  reign  of  Josiah, 


Conn 


17;  Mark  xiii.  15).  The  windows  are  gen- 
erally narrow,  and  mostly  open  into  the 
courtyard  instead  of  facing  the  street. 

The  Arabs  call  the  lower  story  the  winter 
house  or  sim])ly  the  house,  and  the  upper  one 
the  summer  house.  Or  if  both  are  on  the 
same  floor,  the  summer  house  is  the  outer 
and  the  winter  house  the  inner  room  or  rooms 
(.Ii  r.  \-xxvi.  22;  Amos.  iii.  15). 

Ho'zai  [i)erha|)s,  (Jehovah)  is  seeing]. 

Writer  of  a  history  which  treated  of  king 
Manasseh  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  19,  R.  V.).  In 
A.  v.,  following  the  Septuagint,  the  Hebrew 
word  Hoztn/  h;is  been  translated  as  though  it 
were  a  common  noun,  and  the  book  cited  iip- 
peaTS  as  a  collection  of  sayings  by  the  seers 
(cp.  14).  This  translation  involves  the  as- 
sumption that  the  Hebrew  word  has  lost  botii 
its  initial  and  its  final  letter,  or  at  least  the 
final  one. 

Huk'kok  [hewn  in,  decreed]. 

A  town  on  tlu^  hound.iry  line  of  Naphtali 
(.losli.  xix.  .">li.  Yakuk,  .about  (i  miles  west 
by  north  of  Tell  Hum,  has  in  its  name  the 
corresponding  Arabic  root. 


and  prophesied  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
bu  t  added  that  on  account  of  his  piety  toward 
Jehovah,  the  king  should  die  before  the  com- 
ing of  the  catastrophe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12-20;  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  20-28). 

Hum'tah  [place  of  lizards  or,  perhaps,  for- 
tress]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  54).     Site  unkown. 

Hunt'er  and  Hunt'ing. 

Hunting  was  a  favorite  jiastime  of  ancient 
kings  ;(!en.  x.  9),  The  I'.abylonian  and  As- 
syrian nionarchs  delighted  in  it.  and  were 
proud  of  their  achievements,  recording  their 
success  ill  inscriptions,  and  dei)icting  their 
deeds  in  sculiiture  to  adorn  the  walls  of  their 
palaces.  In  Palestine  game  existed  during 
the  entire  biblical  ])eriod  in  certain  localities, 
as  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  the  thickets 
of  the  Jordan,  the  more  notable  forests,  and 
the  south  country  (Cen.  xxv.  27;  Antiq.  xvi. 
10,  3).  Many  of  the  animals  recognized  as 
clean  and  (it  for  food  were  wild,  and  could 
only  b<'  obtained  by  hunting.  When  the  ani- 
mal was  slain,  its  blood  was  poured  out  upon 


Hupham 


329 


Huzzab 


the  earth  and  not  eaten  (Deut.  xii.  15, 16,  22). 
Hunting  was  practiced  in  order  to  extermi- 
nate noxious  beasts  (Ex.  xxiii.  29  ;  1  Kin.  xiii. 
24),  to  secure  food  (Gen.  xxvii.  ',i;  Ecchis. 
xxxvi.  19),  and  as  sport  (War  i.  21,  13).  People 
hunted  alone  or  in  C(nniianies  (Jer.  xvi.  KJ), 
on  foot  or  on  horseback  (War  i.  21,  13),  and 
on  the  great  plains  in  chariots.  The  hunter 
used  bow  and  arrows  (Is.  vii.  24)  and  the 
spear  (Antiq.  xvi.  10,  3).  Decoys  were  em- 
ployed (Jer.  V.  2fi,  27),  and  nets  and  traps 
(Job  xviii.  10;  Ecclus.  xxvii.  20)  and  pits  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  20:  Ezek.  xix.  4,  8).  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Persians  kept  dogs  trained  for 
the  chase. 

Hu'pham. 

A  son  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39).  Called  Huppim  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  cp.  1 
Ghron.  vii.  12,  15),  and  perhaps  Hurain  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).  Huram  would  seem  to  be  de- 
scended from  Bela  or  Gera.  Huppim  is  not 
registered  with  either  Bela,  Becher,  or  Jediael 
in  1  Chron.  vii.  12,  unless  he  is  descended 
from  Bela  through  Ir  or  Iri  (ver.  7). 

Hup'pah  [a  covering]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  thirteenth  course  of  the  priests  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  13). 

Hup'pim.     See  Hupham. 

Hur  [wliiteness,  splendor]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18, 19).  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bezaleel  (20 ;  Ex.  xxxi.  1,  2). 
With  Aaron,  he  supported  the  arms  of  Moses 
during  the  fight  with  the  Amalekites  (Ex. 
xvii.  10-12).  He  was  associated  with  Aaron 
in  the  government  of  the  Israelites  while 
Moses  was  alisent  in  mount  Sinai  (xxiv.  14). 
Josephus,  writing  many  centuries  after  the 
event,  calls  Hur  the  husband  of  Miriam, 
Moses'  sister  (Antiq.  iii.  2,  4).  The  O.  T.  is 
silent  on  the  subject. 

2.  One  of  five  kings  of  Midian  slain  by 
Moses  (Num.  xxxi.  8  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

3.  Father  of  Solomon's  purveyor  in  mount 
Ephraim  (1  Kin.  iv.  8). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Rephaiah  (Neh. 
iii.  9). 

Hu'rai  [perhaps,  a  linen  weaver]. 

<^ne  of  David's  mighty  men  from  the  brooks 
of  Gaash  (1  Chron.  xi.  32).  Called  Hiddai  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  30. 

Hu'ram  [noble,  ingenuous]. 

1.  A   king  of  Tyre  (2  Chron.   ii.  3).     See 

HiKAM. 

2.  A  Tyrian  artificer  (2  Chron.  iv.  11,  16). 
See  Hiram. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  a  son  of  Bela  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).     See  Hupham. 

Hu'ri  [perhaps,  a  linen  weaver]. 
A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 
Hu'shah  [haste,  emotion]. 
A  town  of  Judah,  to  judge  from  1  Chron. 
iv.  4,  and  xxvii.  11. 


Hu'shai  [hasty,  hastening]. 

An  Archite,  one  of  David's  two  leading 
counselors.  He  remained  faithful  to  his 
sovereign  during  Absalom's  rebellion,  and 
effectually  defeated  the  counsel  of  Ahithophel 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32-37  ;  xvii.  5-16).  See  Ahith- 
ophel and  Baana  2. 

Hu'sham  [haste,  passion]. 

A  man  of  the  land  of  the  Temanites,  who 
succeeded  Jobab  as  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34,  35;  1  Chron.  i.  45,  46). 

Hu'shath-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Hushah  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18; 
xxiii.  27). 

Hu'shim  [not  impossibly,  opulent,  rich  in 
children]. 

1.  The  son  of  Dan  (Gen.  xlvi.  23).  Called 
in  Num.  xxvi.  42  Shuham.  The  difference 
is  due  to  a  transposition  of  the  consonants. 

2.  A  Benjamite  family,  sons  of  Aher  (1 
Chron.  vii.  12). 

3.  One  of  the  three  wives  of  the  Benjamite 
Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8,  11). 

Husk. 

A  kind  of  food  eaten  by  swine,  and  which 
the  prodigal  son,  when  in  poverty  and  de- 


Pod  and  Branch  of  Carob  Tree. 

serted  bv  his  fair-weather  friends,  was  glad 
to  share  "(Luke  xv.  16).  It  is  the  pod  of  the 
carob  tree  [Cemtonia  siliqua),  and  is  also  called 
locust  bean  and  St.  John's  bread.  The  lice 
is  a  handsome  evergreen,  attaining  a  height 
of  30  feet,  thornle.ss,  and  with  leaves  like  die 
ash.  The  legumesare  borne  in  great  profusion, 
and  are  often  a  foot  long.  When  green  they 
are  used  for  cattle  and  swine  and  in  times  of 
great  famine  are  eaten  by  people.  A  syrup  is 
made  of  the  pulp  of  the  pods. 
Huz.     See  Uz. 

Huz'zab. 

Apparently  a  poetic  terra  for  Nineveh  (Nah. 
ii.  7).    The  Targum  understands  it  to  meau 


Hyacinth 


330 


Hyssop 


tlic  queen.  But  in  the  margin  of  t1ie  A.  \. 
it  is  reiidfrod  "that  which  was  established" 
or  ■'  there  was  a  stand  made,"  and  in  that  of 
tlie  K.  V.  "and  it  is  decreed."  Both  of  these 
renderings  luake  Huzzab  simply  a  part  of 
the  Hebrew  verb  yn.mb,  to  place  or  estab- 
lish. 

Hy'a-cintli,  or  in  modified  form  Ja'cinth. 

1.  The  name  of  a  color  (Hev.  ix.  17). 

2.  A  precious  stone,  constituting  the  elev- 
enth foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev. 
xxi.  20:  R.  V.  margin,  sapphire)  and  one  of 
the  twelve  jewels  in  the  high  priest's  breast- 
j.late  I  Ex.  xxviii.  Ifi,  K.  V. ;  on  the  margin, 
amber.  In  modern  usage  the  name  is  given 
to  the  mineral  zircon. 

Hy-e'na. 

An  animal  which  feeds  on  oflfal,  but  is 
often  driven  from  it  by  the  dogs  (Ecclus. 
xiii.  18).  The  striped  hyena  (Hyxna  striata) 
is  common  in  every  part  of  Palestine,  living 
in  caves  and  tombs,  coming  forth  after  dark 
to  rifle  graves  or  otherwise  seek  after  prey. 
The  valley  of  Zeboim  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  18 
means  the  valley  of  hyenas. 

Hy-me-nse'us  [pertaining  to  Hymen,  the 
gild   of  marriage]. 

One  who  made  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
blas]iliemed,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
I'aul  (1  Tim.  i.  20).  He  declared  that  the 
resurrection  was  already  ])ast.  Philetus  was 
associated  with  him  in  this  error  (2  Tim.  ii. 
17.  IH). 

Hymn. 

.\  si>iritual  meditation  designed,  or  at  least 
suital)le,  for  singing  or  chanting  in  the  wor- 
slii)!  of  (iod.  The  Book  of  Psalms  is  the 
earliest  hymn  book  in  existence.  Other  mag- 
nificent Hebrew  religious  odes  are  the  songs 
of  Moses  (Ex.  xv.  1-19;  Deut.  xxxii.  1-43), 
Deborah  (Judg.  v.).  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii.  1-10), 
Mary  (Lukei.  4()-5.5),  and  Zacharias  (68-79). 
The"  last  two  are  known  as  the  Magnificat 
and  the  Benedictus  res])ectively,  from  the 
first  word  of  the  Latin  translation.  The 
Hebrew  psalms  were  often  sung  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  music  (2  C'hron.  xxix.  27, 
•N:  ci>.  Ii.  V.  of  1  Chron.  xvi.  42).  In  the 
N.  T.  three  terms  are  used  for  Christian 
•■^ongs  :  psalms,  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs  or 
odi!s  (E]>h.  v.  19;  Col.  iii.  Ifi).  Jose])hus  uses 
two  of  these  words,  namely  hymns  and  odes, 
in  reference  to  the  psalms  of  David  (Anti(i. 
vii.  12,  :}).  The  hymn  which  Christ  and  his 
disciples  sang  after  supper  on  the  night  of 
the  betrayal  (Mat.  xxvi.  :>0)  was  doubtless 
part  of  Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.,  which  were  sung  by 
the  .Tews  on  the  night  of  the  jiassover  after 
supper.  The  early  Christians  sang  hymns  in 
Iiul)lic  worship  and  jirivately  as  a  means  of 
worshiiung  (Iod  and  of  edification  and  com- 
fort (Acts  xvi.  25;  1  Cor.  xiv.  2()  ;  Eph.  v. 
19;  Col.  iii.  Ifi).  Fragments  of  early  Chris- 
tian hymns,  known  as  such  from  the  meter 
in  the  (Jreek  text,  an-  preserved  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  Ifi  ;  Epii.  v.  14  ;  cp.  Kev.  xv.  3,  4.    At  the 


beginning  of  the  second  century,  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  the  Christians  of  Bithynia  were 
reported  by  Pliny  as  singing  songs  to  Christ 
as  God  (Epis.  x.  9G). 

Hys'sop.  .^ 

A  plant  of  Egvpt  and  Palestine  (Ex.  xii. 
22),  in  Hebrew*  'Ezoh.  in  Greek  'Ussopos, 
which  springs  out  of  walls,  and  was  of  so 
small  a  size  that  it  stood  at  one  end  of  the 
scale  of  magnitude  which  had  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon  at  the  other  (1  Kin.  iv.  33).  It  was 
aromatic,  and  was  largely  used,  under  the 
law,  often  in  bunches,  with  cedar  wood  and 
wool,  for  ceremonial  purification  (Lev.  xiv. 
4,  (5,  49,  51,  52;  Num.  xix.  6,  18;  Ps.  Ii.  7; 
Heb.  ix.  19).  A  sponge  filled  with  vinegar 
was  put  upon  hyssop  and  raised  to  the  lips 
of  Jesus  when  he  was  on  the  cross  (John 
xix.    29).     The    common    hyssop    {Hyssopus 


:\. 


^ 

A  J 


!r^..: 


Common  Hyssop. 

offieinnlis)  is  a  sweet-smelling  i)lant,  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Labiatie,  or  IMints.  It  is  a 
small  bushy  herb  which  grows  to  a  height  of 
12  or  18  inches,  and  has  small,  hairy,  lance- 
olate leaves.  But  Tristram  states  that  its 
area  is  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Danubiau 
province,  and  Siberia.  Moreover,  the  state- 
ment of  two  of  the  evangelists  (Mat.  xxvii. 
4H  ;  Mark  xv.  3C)  that  the  sponge  of  vinegar 
ottered  to  Jesus  was  put  upon  kaiamos,  a  reed 
which  the  common  hyssop  does  not  produce, 
lias  led  some  interpreters  to  think  that  a  dif- 
ferent |)lant  from  the  common  hyssop  is  in- 
tended, perhajis  the  caper  plant  (Capparis 
spinosa),  sometimes  called  by  the  Arabs  'amf. 
It  is  common  in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions,  grows  out  of  vyalls,  and  could  fur- 
nish a  reedy  stem  three  or  four  feet  long,  to 
which  a  sjionge  might  be  aflixed.  Rabbinical 
tradition  identifies  the  Hebrew  'esob  with  the 
Arabic  m''ar,  commonly  held  to  be  Oriyimum. 


Ibhar 


331 


Idol 


niiirjory.  Tliis  plant  is  conmion  in  Palestine, 
growing  on  walls  and  rocks.  Its  tliick,  hairy 
leaves  and  hairy  hranchcs  can  be  made  into 
a  bunch,  and  would  hold  liquids  for  sprink- 
ling. It  is  a  small  herb,  however,  and  could 
not  furnish  a  rod  ;  hut  the  bunch  of  hyssop 
used  in  sprinkling  was  attached,  it  is  argued, 
to  a  rod  of  cedar,  and  such  a  sprinkler  was 
seized  as  the  most  available  means  at  hand 
of  reaching  the  sponge  to  the  lips  of  the 
crucified  Jesus. 


I. 


Ib'har  [(God)  doth  choose]. 

One  of  king  David's  sons  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  v.  15;  1  Chrou.  xiv.  5). 

I'bis. 

A  bird  (Lev.  xi.  19,  R.  V.  margin),  allied 
to  the  herons  and  storks.  It  was  formerly 
venerated  by  the  Egyptians.     See  Heron. 

Ib'le-am  [the  i)eople  faileth]. 

One  of  the  cities  within  the  territory  of 
Issachar  which  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh.  The  Manassites,  however,  did 
not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants 
(Josh.  xvii.  11,  12  ;  Judg.  1.  27).  It  was  near 
Ibleam  that  Ahaziah,  kingof  Judah,  wasmor- 
tally  wounded  by  the  followers  of  Jehu  (2  Kin. 
ix.  27).  It  is  generally  identified  with  the 
town  Bileam,  which  belonged  to  Manasseh, 
but  v.'as  assigned  to  the  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi. 
70)  ;  perhaps  Bel'ameh,  a  ruin  and  well  one 
mile  south  of  Jenin  (cp.  Judith  iv.  4;  vii.  3). 

Ib-ne'iah  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjaniite,  son  of  Jeroham  and  liead  of 
a  father's  house  (1  t'hron.  ix.  8). 

Ib-ni'jah  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjaniite,  father  of  Reuel  (1  Chron. 
ix.  8). 

Ib'ri  [a  Hebrew]. 

A  son  of  Jaaziah  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  27). 

Ib'sam,  in  A.  Y.  Jibsam  [fragrant]. 

A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1  Chron. 
vii.  2). 

Ib'zan  [active]. 

A  judge  who  ruled  over  Israel,  or  part,  of 
it,  for  seven  years.  He  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
lehem, apparently  that  in  Zebulun,  was  bur- 
ied in  his  native  place,  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  Zebulunite.  He  had  thirty  sons  and  thirty 
daughters,  douhtless  by  a  plurality  of  wives 
(Judg.  xii.  8-10). 

Ich'a-bod  [the  glory  is  not]. 

Sou  of  Phinehas  and  grandson  of  Eli.  The 
name  commemorated  the  fact  that  the  glory 
had  departed  from  Israel,  for  the  ark  of  God 
was  taken  (1  Sam.  iv.  19-22). 

I-co'ni-um. 

A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  described  by 
Xeuophon  as  the  last  city  in  Phrygia  to  one 
traveling  eastward  (Anabasis  i.  2,  19).  Un- 
der the  Eoman  and  the  Greek  empires  Iconium 


was  considered  the  capital  of  Lycaonia.  It 
was  situated  in  a  fertile  .spot  in  the  high, 
waterless  plain  of  Lycaonia.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  visited  it  on  the  first  missionary  journej-- 
both  going  and  returning  (Acts  xiii.  .")1,  .')2; 
xiv.  1-0,  19-22;  cp.  xvi.  2;  2  Tim.  iii.  11). 
It  has  had  an  unbroken  history  and  the  same 
name  until  the  present  time,  being  now 
known  as  Koni;ih.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
pashalic  of  Karaman  ;  and  is  a  large  city 
surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  the  materials 
derived  from  older  structures. 

Id'a-lah. 

A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15). 
Site  unknown. 

Id'bash  [j>erhaps  honey-sweet]. 

A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chi-ou.  iv.  3). 

Id'do,  I.  [hap,  happy]. 

The  chief  at  Casiphia  through  whom  Ezra, 
when  conducting  a  company  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  obtained  the  con- 
tingent, which  was  lacking,  of  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  service  of  the  temple  (Ezra 
viii.  17-20). 

Id'do,  II.   [loving,  affectionate] . 

1.  Son  of  Zechariah,  and  a  chief  in  David's 
reign  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manas.seh  east  of 
the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  21). 

2.  A  man  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43).  In  A.  V.  the  name 
is  written  Jadau,  a  mongrel  word  arising 
from  the  translators'  pronouncing  the  conso- 
nants of  the  text  with  the  vowels  of  the  mar- 
gin. The  real  alternative  to  Iddo  is  Jaddai, 
as  in  the  margin  of  R.  V. 

Id'do,  III.  [decked,  adorned]. 

1.  A  Levite.  a  descendant  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21).  Apparently  called  Adaiah 
synonymously  (41). 

2.  Father  of  Ahinadab,  Solomon's  purveyor 
at  Mahanaim  (1  Kin.  iv.  14). 

3.  A  seer  who  wrote  a  book  of  visions  con- 
cerning Jeroboam  and  in  which  events  of 
Solomon's  reign  were  related  (2  Chrou.  ix. 
29),  a  book  on  genealogies,  in  which  deeds  of 
Rehoboam  were  recorded  (xii.  15),  and  a  hi.s- 
tory  which  treated  of  king  Abijah's  acts  (xiii. 
22)! 

4.  Grandfather  of  the  prophet  Zechariah 
(Zech.  i.  1,7;  cp.  Ezra  v.  1  ;  vi.  14).  He  is 
not  unreasonably  believed  to  be  identical 
with  Iddo.  a  chief  of  the  ]iriests  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  and 
whose  name  is  that  of  a  father's  house  in  the 
next  generation.  The  head  of  this  house  at  the 
time  mentioned  is  a  priest  named  Zechariah 
(Nell.  xii.  4,  16).  The  ditference  in  spelling 
the  name  Iddo  in  tliese  two  verses  of  Xehe- 
miah  in  the  Hebrew  is  merely  the  difference 
between  jod  and  vau  (q.  v.). 

I'dol  [a  mental  or  material  image]. 

An  image,  a  sculpture,  or  other  represen- 
tation of  any  person  or  being,  intended  as  an 
object  of  worship,  or  as  the  embodiment  and 
etiicieut  presence  of  a  deity  I  Ex.  xx.  4,  5, 
23  ;  Judg.   xvii.  3  ;  1   Sam.   v.  3,  4  ;  Rom.  i. 


Idolatry 


332 


Igal 


23).  They  were  made  of  silver,  of  g:old  fPs 
cxv.  4  ;  cxxxv.  15),  of  wood,  or  oilier  material 
(Is.  xliv.  13-17).  When  metallic,  they  were 
fa.shioued  by  rimuiug  melted  metal  into  a 
mold,  in  which  case  they  were  called  mol- 
ten images;  or  they  consisted  of  ])lates  of 
metal  over  a  wooden  frame  or  over  a  molten 
body,  and  were  termed  graven  images.  When 
of  wood  or  stone,  they  were  made  by  graving 
tools  or  other  instruments,  and  were  also  called 
graven  images.  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  described  in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xl. 
19,  20;  xliv.  9-20;  Jer.  x.  9).  Some  were 
small,  especially  those  designed  as  house- 
hold gods  or  teraphim  (Gen.  xxxi.  34  ;  xxxv. 
1-4)  ;  some  were  as  large  as  a  human  being 
(1  Sam.  xix.  1(3)  ;  some,  such  as  that  erected 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  plain  of  Dnra,  were 
colossal  (Dan.  ii!.  1).  Various  epithets  are 
.ajjplied  to  idols,  which  express  the  com- 
mingled loathing  and  contem])t  with  which 
they  were  regarded  by  the  enliglitened  serv- 
ant of  Jehovah.  One  of  the  most  notable 
is  vanity. 

I-dol'a-try. 

Idolatry  was  practiced  at  a  comparatively 
early  period  of  man's  history.  The  immedi- 
ate ancestors  of  Abraham  worshijieil  other 
gods  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  in  addition  to  Jehovah, 
it  may  be  believed,  and  doubtless  by  means 
of  idols.  Laban  had  images,  which  Rachel 
was  too. justly  accused  of  stealing  (Gen.  xxxi. 
30,  32-3.")).  The  Egyptians  made  figures  of 
the  gods  to  serve  as  objects  of  worship,  and 
in  the  innermost  sanctuary  of  their  temples 
lay  the  symbol  of  a  god  and  a  sacred  animal 
(Herod.  ii.()3, 138).  The  (!anaanite  nations  had 
idols,  which  the  Israelites,  on  succeeding  to 
the  land,  were  ordered  to  destroy  (Ex.  xxiii. 
24  ;  xxxiv.  1.3  ;  I^ev.  xix.  4 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  ,')2; 
Deut.  vii.  r-> ;  xxix.  17).  The  second  com- 
mandment was  directed  against  idolatry  (Ex. 
XX.  4,  .^) ;  Deut.  v.  8,  9),  forbidding  man  to 
bow  down  to  images,  sculptures,  statues,  and 
pictures.  And  tlie  teachers  of  Israel  followed 
u))  tliis  injunction  by  pointing  out  and  ridi- 
culing the  imjiotencv  of  idols  (I\s.  cxv.;  Is. 
ii.  8,  18,  20.21;  xl.'l9,  20;  xliv.  9-20  ;  Jer. 
X.  3-5).  Their  helplessness  was  discovered 
when  the  ark  of  the  Ijord  was  in  tbe  tem])le 
of  Dagon  (1  S;im.  v.  3-5).  Tbe  ajiocryplial 
book  of  P>el  and  the  Dragon  treats  of  the  de- 
ceitful prac'tices  of  the  jiriests  in  the  idol 
temples.  Of  the  nations  with  whom  the 
Israelites  were  brouglit  into  contact  during 
Scripture  times,  all  but  tbe  I'ersians  were  idol- 
aters ;  and  tbe  divinities  whom  their  images 
represented  were  other  gods  than  Jehovah 
When  the  Israelites  borrowed  idolatrous 
|ii-a(tices  from  the  neigliboring  nations,  two 
wcll-maiked  stages  were  traci'uble  in  the 
progress  of  error.  At  lirst  tliey  attempted  to 
worship  Jeliovah  by  means  of  images;  see 
.iKKoiioAM.  Tlien  they  entirely  dejiarted 
from  Jehovah,  and  the  idols  they  made  were 
designed   to  represent  other  divinities  ;  see 


B.\AL.  In  N.  T.  times  church  members  who 
lived  in  heathen  conmnmities  were  required 
to  take  i)recauti(ms  to  avoid  compromising 
themselves  with  idolatry.  The  council  of 
Jerusalem  enjoined  that  they  should  ab- 
stain from  the  Hesli  of  animals  that  had 
been  sacrificed  to  idols  (Acts  xv.  29i.  Paul 
gave  the  same  injunction,  but  explained  that 
in  the  CJase  of  those  who  had  no  faith  in 
idols,  abstinence  was  designed  to  avoid  cast- 
ing a  stumbling-block  in  the  path  of  the 
weaker  brethren  (1  Cor.  viii.  4-13).  If  re- 
ceiving hospitality  at  any  house,  and  meat 
which  might  possibly  have  been  oflercd  to  an 
idol  was  set  on  the  table,  the  Christian  guest 
was  not  required  to  ask  any  questions  for  con- 
science' sake  ;  but  if  he  was  expressly  told 
that  the  food  had  been  oflTered  to  an  idol, 
then  he  was  to  abstain.  The  same  rule  was 
to  be  carried  out  with  regard  to  food  pur- 
chased for  the  household  in  the  ordinary 
market  (x.  18-33).  About  A.  D.  .300  images 
were  introduced  into  some  Christian  churches 
for  instruction  and  ornament  only.  In  736 
the  eastern  emperor  Leo  issued  edicts  against 
them.  In  780  the  empress  Irene  introduced 
image  worshiji  into  the  eastern  church,  and 
in  787  the  second  council  of  Nice  gave  them 
ecclesiastical  sanction. 

Id-u-mse'a,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  and  Apocry- 
pha Idumea  [])ertaining  to  Edom]. 

The  name  used  by  Greeks  and  Romans  in 
slightly  different  sjielling,  for  the  country  of 
Edom  (Mark  iii.  8;  and  in  A.  V.  only.  Is. 
xxxiv.  5.  6  ;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15  ;  xxxvi.  5).  After 
tlie  fall  of  Jerusalem,  in  587  b.  c,  the  Edom- 
ites  began  to  press  northward  (Ezek.  xxxvi. 
5).  They  themselves  were  driven  from  Petra 
westward  by  the  Nabatha?ans  about  .300  b.  c, 
and  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
E.  c.  they  were  occupying,  not  only  soutlrern 
Judah,  but  also  Hebron  and  the  country  to  its 
north  as  far  as  Bethzur  (1  Mac.  iv.  29;  v.  b"5). 
Judas  Maccabfeus  warred  against  them  suc- 
cessfully ;  and  John  Hyrcanus,  about  126 
B.  c,  comjvlefely  subjugated  them  and  placed 
them  under  a  Jewish  governor  (Antiq.  xiii. 
9,  1). 

I-e'zer.     See  Abikzer. 
I-e'zer-ite.     See  Abtezerite. 
I'gal,  in  A.  V.  once  Igeal  (1  Chron.  iii.  22) 
[he  will  vindicate]. 

1.  The  spy  sent  forth  by  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  to  search  out  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  7). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  the  son  of 
Nathan  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  36).  He  occujjies  tlie 
same  position  in  the  catalogue  as  does  Joel 
in  1  Chron.  xi.  38,  and  it  is  natural  to  identify 
tbe  two.  Put  tlie  relation  of  the  two  lists  at 
this  jioint  is  dillicult  to  deteriiiini! ;  and  as 
Igal  and  Joel  are  diflerently  described,  they 
may  be  different  persons,  nephew  and  uncle. 

3.  A  son  of  Shenuiiah,  a  descendant  of  king 
Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 


Igdaliah 


333 


Imnianue] 


Ig-da-li'ali  [j;iv:it  is  .Icliovah]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Hauaii  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

I'ge-al.     See  Igal. 

I'im  [ruins]. 

1.  A  towu  east  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxiii. 
45).     See  Iye-abakim. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  29).     Site  unknown. 

I-je-ab'a-rim.     See  Iye-abarim. 

I'jon  [a  ruin]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali,  one  of  those 
captured  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  at  the 
instigation  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  4).  Its  inhabitants  were  subsequently 
carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2 
Kin.  XV.  29).  Robinson  located  it,  probably 
correctly,  on  Tell  Dibbin,a  hill  110  feet  high, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  Merj  'Ayun,  meadow 
of  springs,  which  seems  to  ])reserve  a  trace 
of  the  old  name.  The  site  is  about  8  miles 
north-northwest  of  Banias. 

Ik'kesli  [perverse]. 

Father  of  David's  captain  and  mighty  man 
Ira  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  28). 

I'lai  [supreme]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
29),  called  Zalmou  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  28. 

Il-lyr'i-cum. 

A  country  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pan- 
nouia,  on  the  south  by  Epirus,  on  the  east  by 
Macedonia,  and,  when  it  included  Dalmatia, 
on  the  west  by  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  trav- 
ersed from  northwest  to  southeast  by  the 
Noric,  t!arnic,  and  Julian  Alps,  constituting 
the  most  easterly  portion  of  the  great  Al- 
pine chain.  Along  the  coast  are  excellent 
harbors  and  numerous  islands.  The  Illyrian 
race  inhabiting  the  region  were  wild  moun- 
taineers, who  were  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
their  neighbors,  the  Macedonians;  and,  when 
they  descended  to  the  seacoast,  they  so  prac- 
ticed piracy  as  to  bring  them  into  collision 
with  the  Romans,  who,  in  229  b.  c,  began  to 
conquer  them,  and  finally  made  Illyricnm, 
or  Illyria,  a  province  of  the  empire.  The 
apostle  Paul  preached  the  gospel  from  Jeru- 
salem and  round  about  even  to  Illyricnm 
(Rom.  XV.  19).  In  the  later  years  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  the  name  Illyricnm  gained  a 
much  wider  meaning.  A  great  part  of  Illyr- 
icnm in  the  more  limited  sense  constitutes 
Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Montenegro. 

Im'age.     See  Idol. 

Im'la  or  Imlab  [he,  i.  e.  God,  doth  fill]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Micaiah  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
8,  9;  2  Chron.  xviii.  7,  8). 

Im-man'u-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Emmanuel, 
the  Ureek  pionunciatiou  [God  with  us]. 

A  son  whom  "the  maiden  "  should  bear  (Is. 
vii.  14.  R.  V.  margin ).  Before  the  son  is  born, 
or  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  historical  events 
will  justify  naminghim  "God  with  us' ;  before 
he  attains  to  years  of  moral  determination, 
the  land  of  northern  Isi'ael  and  Damascus  will 
be  forsaken,  and  unexampled  punishment  will 


be  inflicted  on  Judah  (ver.  16,  17)  ;  and 
hence  during  the  years  of  his  njoral  maturity, 
he  shall  eat  the  products  of  a  land  that  has 
been  wasted  by  the  nations  (ver.  15,  18  seq.). 
Isaiah  had  in  mind  that  worthy  Son  of  David 
about  whom  prophecy  had  begun  to  cluster : 
for  1.  He  foretells  the  birth  of  a  son,  not  sim- 
ply of  a  cliild.  2.  He  utters  this  prophecy  to 
the  house  of  David  in  view  of  God's  rejec- 
tion of  the  faithless  successor  of  David  who 
then  occupied  the  throne.  3.  On  the  natural 
interpretation  of  viii.  8,  which  observes  the 
previous  use  of  Immanuel  as  the  name  of 
the  son,  does  justice  to  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person  in  the  clause  preceding  Im- 
manuel. and  affords  an  easy  transition  to  the 
succeeding  verse,  Immanuel  is  a  person  ;  and 
if  so,  he  is  a  native  of  Judah,  and  sufficiently 
great  to  be  singled  out  as  a  representative, 
for  Judah  is  spoken  of  as  the  land  of  Im- 
manuel ;  and  he  is  a  powerful  personage,  for 
because  of  him  the  rage  of  the  nations  is 
vain  (ver.  9seq.).  4.  The  Messiah  is  definitely 
before  the  prophet's  mind  in  ix.  6,  7  and  xi. 
1  ;  and  violence  is  required  to  separate  these 
prophecies  from  that  of  chap.  vii.  The  Mes- 
sianic hope  was  awake  at  this  period  of  his- 
tory. 5.  The  use  of  the  article  with  maiden 
is  adequately  explained.  Isaiah  uses  it  to 
designate  the  young  woman,  unknown  by 
name,  yet  definite,  who  is  to  be  the  mother 
of  Messiah  (cp.  Mic.  v.  3).  6.  Looking  back, 
this  meaning  .seems  to  have  been  the  mind 
of  the  Spirit  (Mat.  i.  22,  23). 

The  prophet  is,  therefore,  thinking  of 
David's  son,  who  might  ajipear  at  any  time. 
But  he  is  not  predicting  the  birth  of  Heze- 
kiah  and  expecting  him  to  be  the  Messiah  ; 
for  1.  Hezekiah  was  already  born.  This 
prophecy  was  delivered  in  734  B.  c,  and 
Hezekiah  was  on  the  throne,  a  vigorous 
ruler  in  727  B.  c.  2.  After  t'ne  la]>se 
of  a  year  and  when  Hezekiah  was  a  youth, 
the  prophet  still  continues  to  look  forward 
to  the  future  for  the  going  forth  of  the 
shoot  out  of  the  root  of  Jesse.  3.  Heze- 
kiah did  not  eat  curds  and  honey;  the  pro- 
cesses which  issued  in  the  spoliation  and  sub- 
jection of  the  land  bad  only  begun  in  Heze- 
kiah's  time.  If  ver.  18-25  of  Is.  vii.  are  in- 
cluded in  the  x)rophecy,  the  fly  of  Egyjit  did 
not  come  upon  Judah  in  Hezekiah's  day. 
Even  ver.  17  presents  a  picture  which  belongs 
to  the  remoter  future  ;  days  such  as  had  not 
been  were  not  brought  upon  Ahazaud  Iiis  peo- 
])le,  only  the  beginning  of  the  i)rocess  which 
i-esulted  in  the  predicted  calamity  was  seen. 

Immanuel  was  a  sign.  But  Ahaz  did  not 
live  until  any  child  born  that  year  reached 
the  age  of  moral  self-determination,  for 
Ahaz  died  before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in  722. 
He  did  not  live  to  see  the  land  forsaken  (16). 
Immanuel  was  not  a  sign  to  compel  faith  in 
Ahaz,  but  one  that  called  for  faith.  Like 
many  other  signs  of  the  O.  T.,  it  called  for 
present  faith  and  occurred  only  when  the 
prophecy  was  fulfilled  (Ex.  iii.  12). 


Immanuel 


534 


Imri 


The  birth,  infancy,  and  youth  of  Messiah 
are  described  as  actually  ])assing  before  the 
prophet's  sight;  but  the  j)ropbet  himself  did 
not  understand  that  the  Messiah  was  neces- 
sarily to  be  born  immediately,  for  when  the 
Messiah  did  not  appear  within  a  year,  Isaiah 
shows  no  signs  of  disappointment,  loses  no 
faith  in  the  prophetic  revelation,  continues 
his  activity,  makes  still  greater  disclosures  re- 
garding Immanuel,  and  enjoys  the  continued 
confidence  of  his  fellow  countrymen.  Isaiah 
would  inquire  what  and  what  manner  of  time 
the  Spirit  which  was  in  him  did  signify. 

The  promise  of  immediate  deliverance 
from  the  advancing  enemy  (Is.  vii.  3-11)  is 
confirmed  by  an  appeal  to  an  event  which 
might  occur  sooner  or  later.  But  whether 
occurring  at  once  or  long  subsequently,  it  is 
confirmatory,  because  it  implies  the  deliver- 
ance promised  to  Ahaz.  The  assurance, 
already  given  by  God  (2  Sam.  vii.  11-17), 
that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  of  the  royal 
family  of  David  w'as  a  sign  to  the  house  of 
David,  including  Ahaz,  that  the  purjiose  of 
Rezin  and  Pekah  to  destroy  the  kingdom  and 
place  a  new  king  over  the  people  should  not 
stand  (Is.  vii.  13,  14).  And  the  remoter  the 
sign,  tliat  is  the  remoter  the  birth  of  Messiah, 
the  stronger  was  the  guarantee  of  the  long 
continuance  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah. 

The  birth  and  infancy  of  Immanuel  meas- 
ure the  progress  of  the  predicted  events.  "  I 
see  his  birth,  who  is  Cxod's  guarantee  of  the 
continued  existence  and  deliverance  of 
Judah,  as  though  it  is  already  at  hand.  I  do 
not  know  the  times  and  the  seasons,  but  it  is 
revealed  to  me  as  a  sign  to  you,  and  as  though 
about  to  occur.  As  such  it  ccmtains  a  meas- 
ure of  time  for  the  immediate  future.  Be- 
fore the  child  comes  to  the  years  when  one 
cliooses  between  right  and  wrong,  the  north- 
ern land  shall  be  forsaken.  At  the  time  of 
life  when  one's  moral  faculties  have  matured, 
he,  the  scion  of  the  royal  house  of  .Judah. 
will  dwell  in  a  wasted  land."  Any  cliild  would 
serve  for  measuring  the  time  ;  but  the  child 
chosen  is  Messiah  because  the  prophecy  of 
d(!liverance  rested  upon  the  promises  which 
cent(!red  in  the  Messiah. 

Now  let  us  measure  the  period.  1.  Before 
Christ  attained  the  age  when  man's  moral 
faculties  are  mature  the  northern  kingdom 
was  desolate.  In  fact  before  a  child,  Ixirn  in 
the  year  of  this  meeting  between  Isaiah  and 
Ahaz,  could  have  readied  moral  maturity  th(> 
land  of  the  north  was  desolate.  The  meet- 
ing is  known  to  have  taken  place  in  734  B.  c. 
By  72"i  D  unascus  and  the  district  governed 
l)y  it  had  hi'en  ravaged  by  the  Assyrians,  the 
two  and  a  half  tribes  of  Israel  east  of  the 
Jordan  had  been  carrii'd  off,  Samaria  had 
fallen  and  a  larg(^  body  of  its  inhahilanis  had 
been  deported.  Ahaz  saw  tln^  l)eginiiiiig  of 
this,  but  di(ul  before  its  accom))lisluiieiit.  The 
bouse  of  David  saw  *\\c  complete  fulfillment. 
The  jjroccss  thus  begun  contimird.  In  Hr> 
years  Ephraini  had  ceased  to  lie  a  people.    At 


Christ's  appearance,  this  was  still  true.  The 
ten  tribes  no  longer  existed  as  a  nation,  and 
no  longer  occujiied  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
2.  At  a  time  when  a  child's  moral  faculties 
would  be  mature,  Ahaz  himself  had  gone  to 
Damascus,  had  done  homage  to  the  Assyrian 
king,  and  had  acknowledged  that  Judah  was 
a  tributary  state  to  Assyria.  The  land  itself 
was  not  actually  devastated,  but  it  had  bowed 
itself  down  to  the  foreign  yoke.  From  this 
time  onward,  with  the  exception  of  short  in- 
tervals, it  was  in  a  sense  subject  to  the  domi- 
nant world-power,  and  it  was  looked  upon  by 
the  great  empire  of  each  period  as  a  depen- 
dency, and  whenever  Judah  claimed  inde- 
pendence it  was  visited  sooner  or  later  by 
the  imperial  power  which  claimed  sov- 
ereignty and  was  punished  and  wasted.  Its 
nationality  was  not  blotted  out  and  the 
royal  family  was  not  destroyed  nor  over- 
looked ;  but  Judah  was,  generally  .speaking, 
a  dependency.  When  Christ  actually  aj)- 
peared,  Judah  w'as  still  acknowledging  a  for- 
eign sovereign.  In  other  wirds,  all  the  pro- 
cesses foretold  by  Isaiah  lie.'an  in  the  life- 
time of  Ahaz,  and  their  results  were  in  full 
force  when  the  Messiah  actually  appeared. 
Im'mer  [talkative]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
become  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  sixteenth  course  of  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  14).  The  ruler  of  the 
house  of  God  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  and 
an  antagonist  of  the  prophet,  apparently  be- 
longed to  this  hou.se  (Jer.  xx.  1),  and  doubt- 
less they  were  members  of  this  family  whore- 
turned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  37 ;  Neh.  xi.  13).  Two  priests  of  this  house 
were  among  those  who  about  a  century  after 
the  return  were  guilty  of  marrying  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  20).  A  little  later  another  son 
of  Immer  took  part  in  the  honorable  wt)rk 
of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  29). 

2.  A  per.son  or  a  place  in  Babylonia  whence 
exiles  returned.  He  or  they  failed,  however, 
to  prove  their  genealogy  (Ezra  ii.  59 ;  Neh. 
vii.  61). 

Im'na  [he,  i.  e.  probably  God,  doth  re- 
strain]. 

An  Asherite.  a  .son  of  Helem  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3.'")). 

Im'nali,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jimna  and  once 
Jimnah  ((Jen.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi.  44)  [he 
allotteth]. 

1.  Hon  of  Asher  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  44  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30  ;  Gen. 
xlvi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  father  of  Kore,  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Iin'rah  [stubborn,  refractory]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
36). 

Im'ri  [elo(|uent]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  sou  of  Bani,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Perez  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 


Incense 


335 


Inspiration 


2.  Father  of  tliut  Zacciir.  whd  rebuilt  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the  capu  » iiy 
(Neh.  iii.  2). 

In'cense. 

Fragrant  substances  designed  to  be  burnt, 
especially  iu  religious  worship.  Sweet  in- 
cense was  largely  used  as  an  element  in  the 
Israelite  ritual  (Ex.  xxv.  6 ;  xxxv.  8,  28 ; 
xxxvii.  29).  The  ingredients  were  stacte  or 
opobalsamum,  ouycha,  galbanum,  and  pure 
frankincense  in  equal  proportions,  tempered 
with  salt.  It  was  not  allowed  to  be  made  for 
ordinary  purposes  (Ex.  xxx.  34-38  ;  Lev.  x. 
1-7).  An  altar  of  incense  was  fashioned  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  pure  gold.  It  be- 
longed to  the  oracle  (1  Kin.  vi.  22),  but  was 
placed  in  the  holy  place,  just  outside  the  veil 
which  concealed  the  holy  of  holies ;  and  each 
morning,  when  the  high  priest  dressed  the 
lamps,  he  burned  incense  on  it  (Ex.  xxx.  1-9 ; 
Luke  i.  10) ;  see  Altak.  Once  a  year  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  he  brought  the  in- 
cense within  the  veil,  and,  burning  it  on  a 
fire  in  a  censer  in  the  most  holy  place,  envel- 
oped the  mercy  seat  in  a  cloud  of  the  odorifer- 
ous smoke  which  it  sent  forth  (Lev.  xvi.  12, 
13).  When  the  altar  was  dedicated,  each  of 
the  princes  brought  a  gift  of  incense  carried 
in  a  spoon  (Num.  vii.  14,  20,  etc.).  Where  so 
many  animal  sacrifices  were  ofiered  as  there 
were  in  the  courts,  both  of  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple,  the  smell  of  blood  must  have 
polluted  the  atmosphere,  and  the  burning  of 
incense  exerted  a  good  sanitary  influence. 
But  it  had  also  a  symbolic  reference.  It 
availed  to  make  atonement  (Num.  xvi.  46, 
47),  for  it  was  typical  of  the  intercession  of 
the  a])pointed  high  priest.  The  psalmist  re- 
quested that  his  prayer  might  be  set  forth 
befoi'e  Jehovah  as  incense  (Ps.  cxli.  2)  ;  the 
worshipers  prayed  outside  the  temple  while 
Zacharias  oflfered  incense  within  its  walls 
(Luke  i.  10) ;  and  in  an  apocalyptic  vision  an 
angel  burnt  incense  on  the  golden  altar,  the 
smoke  ascending  with  the  prayers  of  saints 
(Rev.  viii.  3-5).  The  worshipers  of  false  di- 
vinities, no  less  than  those  who  adored  the 
true  God,  burnt  incense  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  25; 
Jer.  xlviii.  35). 

In'di-a  [in  Hebrew  Hodii.  through  Persian 
Hidha,  from  Hindu,  the  river  Indus]. 

A  district  on  the  lower  Indus,  conquered 
by  Darius  the  Great  and  incorporated  with 
the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iii.  94;  iv.  44  ; 
Persepolis  inscription).  It  formed  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  Persian  empire  (Esth.  i.  1  ;  viii. 
9;  cp.  Herod,  iv.  40).  Alexander  the  Great 
crossed  the  Indus  on  his  career  of  conquest. 
The  occurrence  of  the  name  in  1  Mac.  viii.  8 
is  suspicious.  Luther  substituted  Ionia.  At 
any  rate  Judas  Maccabaeus  was  misinformed 
if  lie  was  told  that  the  Eomans  had  taken 
India   from   Antioclius. 

In'gath-er-ing,  Feast  of.  See  Tabee- 
N.\cLEs.  Feast  of. 

In-her'it-ance.     See  Heir. 


Ink'liorn. 

A  horn  or  anything  similar  for  holding 
ink.  It  was  carried  at  the  side  (Ezek.  ix.  2). 
The  inkhorn  is  still  iu  use  in  the  East.  It 
consists  of  a  case  of  wood,  horn,  or  metal, 
with  a  head  at  one  end  for  holding  the  ink, 
and  a  long  shaft  in  which  the  reeds  for 
writing  are  kept.  The  case  is  worn  stuck  in 
the  girdle. 

Inn. 

An  oriental  inn  bears  little  resemblance  to 
an  occidental  hotel.  The  inn  was  not  so  nec- 
essary in  primitive  times.  Travelers  readily 
found  reception  in  the  houses  of  the  hospita- 
ble (Ex.  ii.  20 ;  Judg.  xix.  15-21 ;  2  Kin.  iv. 
8  ;  Acts  xxviii.  7 ;  Heb.  xiii.  2).  The  public 
inn  was  a  mere  place  of  shelter  for  man  and 
beast.  Like  the  modern  khans,  it  was  prob- 
ably a  large,  quadrangular  court,  with  a  well 
in  the  center  and  around  the  .sides  rooms  for 
travelers,  chambers  for  goods,  and  stalls  for 
cattle.  The  rooms  were  destitute  of  furni- 
ture. The  traveler  spread  his  mat  on  the 
floor,  if  he  had  one  to  spread  ;  if  not,  then 
his  shawl-like  mantle  sufficed  for  mattress 
and  covering.  He  also  provided  food  for 
himself  and  fodder  for  his  cattle.  Free  lodg- 
ing places  of  this  sort  were  erected  by  liberal 
wealthy  men  for  the  benefit  of  wayfarers 
(cp.  Jer.  xli.  17).  Earely  was  there  a  host 
from  whom  food  could  be  purchased  (Luke 
X.  34,  35). 

In-spi-ra'tion. 

The  terms  inspiration  and  inspired  are 
used  in  English  with  great  latitude  of  mean- 
ing, and  tliis  latitude  is  reflected  to  some  ex- 
tent in  their  usage  in  the  English  Bible. 
They  occur,  however,  only  twice  in  the 
English  Bible,  and  in  both  cases  in  a  reli- 
gious sense  (Job  xxxii.  8 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  16). 
In  the  former  passage  the  word  is  used 
loosely  to  give  expression  to  the  broad  fact  that 
men  are  not  independent  of  God  as  intellec- 
tual beings,  but  that  for  small  and  great,  old 
and  young  alike,  it  is  "the  breath  [or  inspi- 
ration] of  the  Almighty  [that]  gi veth  them  u  n- 
derstanding."  In  the  latter  passage  the  word 
inspired  is  used  in  its  more  proper  and  spe- 
cific sense  as  a  direct  predicate  of  the  written 
Scriptures,  affirming  that  quality  of  divinity 
in  them  by  virtue  of  which  they  are  "  profita- 
ble "  for  the  great  ends  for  which  they  are 
given.  The  Scriptures  which  the  apostle 
had  particularly  in  mind  in  this  passage  were 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  wliat  we  call 
the  O.  T. ;  but  the  affirmation  he  makes  will 
naturally  hold  good  of  all  writings  which 
rightly  share  the  high  title  of  Scripture  with 
them.  The  quality  which  he  thus  makes 
the  fundamental  characteristic  of  Scripture 
is  expressed  in  the  original  Greek,  not  by 
the  simple  word  inspired,  but  by  a  com- 
pound Avord,  God-inspired,  possibly  of  his 
own  coinage,  by  which  the  divine  source 
of  the  inspiration  is  emphasized.  He  ad- 
duces  this    fundamental    quality    of    Scrij)- 


Inspiration 


336 


Iron 


ture  as  the  ground  on  which  the  unique 
value  of  the  Scriptures  rests:  "All  scrip- 
ture," he  says,  "is  given  by  inspiration  of 
God,  and  is  [therefore]  profitable,  etc."  (A. 
v.),  or,  "  Every  Scripture,  [seeing  that  it  is] 
inspired  of  God,  is  also  profitable,  etc."  (E. 
v.).  Inspiration,  according  to  the  apostle, 
is,  therefore,  the  fundamental  quality  of 
the  written  Scriptures,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  are  the  word  of  God,  and  are  clothed 
with  all  the  characteristics  which  properly 
belong  to  the  word  of  God.  In  accordance 
with  the  teaching  of  this  classical  passage, 
Scripture  is  uniformly  recognized,  through- 
out the  N.  T.,  as  the  very  word  of  God,  and 
is  treated  as  possessing  all  the  qualities  which 
would  naturally  flow  from  its  divine  origin. 
Thus  it  is  currently  cited  by  the  exclusive 
titles  Scripture,  the  Scriptures,  the  Oracles 
of  God  (Rom.  iii.  2)  or  the  Living  Oracles 
(Acts  vii.  38,  K.  V.),  and  its  words  are 
ordinarily  adduced  by  the  authoritative 
formula,  "  It  is  written."  Its  divine  charac- 
ter is  explicitly  expressed  in  the  constant 
ascription  of  the  words  cursorily  quoted  from 
it  to  God  as  their  author  (Acts  siii.  34  ;  1  Cor. 
vi.  16  ;  Mat.  i.  22 ;  ii.  1.5 ;  Eom.  i.  2),  or  more 
specifically  to  the  Holy  Spirit  (Heb.  iii.  7  ;  ix. 
8  ;  X.  15  ;  Actsi.  16  ;  iv'.  2.'>,  R.  V.  ;  xxviii.  25)  ; 
and  that,  even  when  they  are  not  ascribed  to 
God  in  the  original  passages,  but  are  spoken 
of  or  even  addressed  to  him,  and  can  be 
thought  his  only  because  they  are  part  of 
the  Scripture  text  (Acts  iv.  24.  25  ;  xiii.  34, 
35  ;  Mat.  xix.  5  ;  Heb.  i.  6,  7,  8,  10  ;  iv.  4.  7  ; 
vii.  21 ;  X.  30).  While  on  the  other  hand  the 
human  writers  of  Scripture  are  said  to  liave 
spoken  "in"  the  Holy  Spirit  (Mark  xii.  36; 
Mat.  xxii.  43,  both  R.  V.),  and  are  treated  as 
merely  the  media  through  whom  God  the  Holy 
Ghost  speaks  (Mat.  i.  22  ;  ii.  15  ;  Acts  i.  16  ;  iv. 
25;  xxviii.  25;  Rom.  i.  2).  Accordingly,  the 
very  words  of  Scripture  are  accounted 
authoritative  and  "not  to  be  broken"  (Mat. 
xxii.  43;  John  x.  34,  .35;  Gal.  iii.  16);  its 
prophecies  sure  (2  Pet.  i.  20 ;  .John  xix.  36, 
37  ;  XX.  9  ;  Acts  i.  16  ;  cp.  Ezra  i.  1  ;  Dan.  ix. 
2) ;  and  its  whole  contents,  historical  as  well 
as  doctrinal  and  ethical,  not  only  entirely 
trustworthy,  but  designedly  framed  for  the 
si)iritual  profit  of  all  ages  (2  Tim.  iri.  16; 
Rom.  XV.  4  ;  1  Cor.  x.  11 ;  Rom.  iv.  23  ;  ix. 
17;  1  Cor.  ix.  10;  Gal.  iii.  8,  22;  iv.  30;  1 
Pet.  ii.  6  ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xvii.  9;  Neb.  viii.  1). 
That  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  are  given  to  the 
church  as  equally  Scrii)ture  with  tlioseoftbe 
O.  T.,  and  share  with  them  in  all  their  di- 
vine qualities,  is  shown  by  the  equal  claim 
to  authority  which  is  made  for  them  (I  Cor. 
vii.  40;  xiv.  .37;  2  The.s.  iii.  4,  14;  ({al.  i. 
8)  ;  the  similar  representation  of  their 
authors  as  the  organs  of  God  (1  Thes.  ii.  13; 
iv.  2  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  13,  16;  vii.  40)  ;  aiul  the  inclu- 
sion of  N.  T.  books  along  with  those  of  the 
().  T.  under  the  comuKin  sacred  title  of 
Scripture  (2  Pet.  iii.  16  ;  1  Tim.  v.  18). 

B.  n.  w. 


In'stant  and  In'stant-ly. 

As  an  adjective  or  adverb,  in  the  obsolete 
sense  of  earnest  or  steadfast  (Luke  vii.  4; 
Acts  xxvi.  7 ;  Rom.  xii.  12,  A.  V. ;  2  Tim.  iv.  2.) 

I'ob,  in  A.  V.  Job.    See  Jashub. 

Iph-de'iah,  in  A.  V.  Iph-e-de'iah  [Jehovah 
doth  deliver]. 

A  Benjanute,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  25). 

Ipb'tali.  in  A.  Y.  Jipbtah  [he  openeth  or 
setteth  free]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  43).  Site  un- 
known. 

Iph'tah-el,  in  A.  V.  Jiphtnah-el  [God 
doth  open  or  set  free]. 

A  valley  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Zebulun  an'd  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  14,  27).  The 
name  is  perhaps  found  in  Jotopata,  the  mod- 
ern Tell  Jefat,  9  miles  north  by  west  of  Naz- 
areth. 

Ir.     See  Iri. 

I'ra  [watchful]. 

1.  A  Jairite  who  was  priest  or  chief  minis- 
ter to  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  26). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  Tekoite, 
son  of  Ikkesh  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26  ;  1  Chron, 
xi.  28). 

3.  An  Ithrite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  40). 

I'rad. 

A  descendant  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

I'ram  [perhaps,  pertaining  to  a  city,  or 
watchful]. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  43 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  54). 

I'ri  and  probably  Ir  [pertaining  to  a  city, 
or  watchful]. 

A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  vii. 
7,  12). 

I-ri'jali  [Jehovah  doth  see  or  provide]. 

A  captain  of  the  guard.  During  the  tem- 
porary departure  of  the  Chaldeans  from  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  he  arrested  Jeremiah, 
who  was  going  out  at  the  gate  of  Benjamin, 
on  the  charge  of  attempting  to  fall  away  to 
the  enemy  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13). 

Ir-na'hash  [city  of  Nahash  or  of  a  ser- 
pent]. 

A  town  f)f  which  a  man  of  Judah  was  the 
leading  citizen  (1  Chron.  iv.  12).  The  mar- 
gin reiulers  city  of  Nahash.  The  chronicler 
may  intend  the  town  of  Abigail's  father  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  25). 

I'ron,  I. 

A  metal,  in  Hebrew  Barzel,  in  Greek 
Sidcros.  Tubal-caiu,  of  the  race  of  Cain, 
worked  in  brass  and  iron  (Gen.  iv.  22).  As 
early  as  the  Mo.saic  periiid,  there  were  axes 
and  other  in.strumcnts  of  iron  (Num.  xxxv. 
16;  Deut.  xix.  5,  margin).  If  Og's  couch 
was  a  bed,  it  was  made  of  iron  (iii.  11).  In 
the  time  of  .Joshua,  vessels  were  made  of  tlie 
metal  (.losli.  vi.  19,  24) ;  and  chariots  of  iron 


Iron 


337 


Isaac 


for  war  purposes  were  iu  use  (Josh.  xvii.  16), 
contiuuiug  through  the  period  of  the  judges, 
and  on  to  hxter  times  (Judg.  i.  19  ;  iv.  3,  13). 
Of  iron  were  made  armor  aud  weapons,  as 
spearheads  and  breastplates  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7; 
Eev.  ix.  9)  ;  agricultural  implements,  as  har- 
rows and  threshing  instruments  (2  Sam.  xii. 
31 ;  Amos  i.  3) ;  builder's  tools  aud  nails  (1 
Kin.  vi.  7  ;  1  Chron.  xxii.  3)  ;  graving  tools 
(Job  xix.  24 ;  Jer.  xvii.  1)  ;  barbed  irons  for 
fishing  (Job  xli.  7)  ;  gates,  bars,  fetters  (Ps. 
cv.  18;  cvii.  10,  16  ;  cxlix.  8  ;  Is.  xlv.  2  ;  Acts 
xii.  10)  ;  idols  (Dan.  v.  4).  Iron  was  imported 
from  Tarshish,  Greece,  and  the  north,  doubt- 
less from  the  vicinity  of  the  Black  Sea  (Jer. 
XV.  12  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  12,  19).  It  was  obtain- 
able in  Palestine  (Deut.'  viii.  9),  being  abun- 
dant on  the  Lebanon  mountains.  The  ore 
was  reduced  in  furnaces  (Deut.  iv.  20;  1  Kin. 
viii.  51)  which,  to  judge  from  those  in  use  in 
Lebanon,  were  built  of  stone,  about  ten  feet 
in  height  and  three  in  diameter.  Charcoal 
was  used  in  them,  and  the  fire  was  blown  by- 
bellows  (Ezek.  xxii.  20;  cp.  Jer.  vi.  29).  The 
process  was  laborious  and  involved  enormous 
waste.    See  Smith. 

I'ron,  II.  [timidity,  reverence,  or  rather, 
possessing  a  view,  conspicuous]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38) ; 
probably  the  present  village  of  Yaruu,  10 
miles  west  from  the  waters  of  Merom. 

Ir'pe-el  [God  healeth]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).  Gen- 
der thinks  it  probably  the  village  Eafat,  6i 
miles  north  by  west  of  Jerusalem,  the  an- 
cient and  modern  names  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ir-she'mesh  [city  of  the  sun]. 
A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  41),  probably  the 
same  as  Beth-shemesh. 

I'ru  [pertaining  to  a  city,  or  watchful]. 

A  sou  of  the  celebrated  Caleb  (1  Chron. 
iv.  15). 

I'saac  [he  lauglieth,  or  laughing  one]. 

The  son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  born  in 
the  south  country,  doubtless  at  Beer-sheba 
(Gen.  xxi.  14,  31),  when  his  father  was  100 
years  old  and  his  mother  about  90  (xvii.  17  ; 
xxi.  5).  When  the  promise  was  made  to  him 
that  Sarah  should  bear  him  a  son,  he  laughed 
questioniugly  (xvii.  17-19).  Later  when  Sarah 
heard  the  promise  from  the  mouth  of  the 
stranger  stopping  at  the  camp,  she  laughed 
incredulously  (xviii.  9-15 1;  aud  when  the 
child  was  born  she  joyfully  confessed  that 
God  had  prepared  laughter  for  her  aud  her 
friends  (xxi.  6).  To  commemorate  these 
events  and  the  faithfulness  of  God,  Abraham 
called  the  boy's  name  Isaac,  one  laughetli. 
He  was  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day;  and 
being  the  child  of  promise  aud  legal  heir  he 
had  from  the  first  higher  jtrivileges  than  were 
accorded  to  Ishmael,  Abraham's  son  by  the 
handmaid  (xxi.  1-12).  To  exhibit  and  de- 
velop Abraham's  faith,  God  commanded  him 
22 


to  offer  Isaac  as  a  burnt  offering.  Isaac  was 
then  a  j'outh  (xxii.  (ij,  perhaps  25  years  old, 
as  Josephus  says ;  but  he  filially  acquiesced 
in  the  purpose  of  his  father.  When  Abraham 
had  laid  him  upon  the  altar,  and  thus  shown 
his  readiness  to  give  all  that  he  possessed  to 
God,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  forbade  the  sacri- 
fice and  accepted  a  ram  instead,  thus  testify- 
ing against  child-sacrifices,  practised  by  the 
Canaanites  and  many  other  idolatrous  peo- 
ples, and  teaching  to  all  men  that  human 
sacrifices  are  an  abomination  to  the  Lord 
(xxii.  1-18). 

Isaac  dwelt  in  the  south  country,  at  Beer- 
lahai-roi  (xxiv.  62).  In  disposition  he  was 
retiring  and  contemplative;  aflfectionate  also, 
and  felt  his  mother's  death  deeply  (63,  67). 
He  married  at  the  age  of  40  years,  but  his 
two  sons  were  not  born  until  he  was  60 
(xxv.  20,  26).  Because  of  a  famine  he  moved 
fifty  miles  north,  to  Gerar  (xxvi.  1,6).  There 
Jehovah  appeared  to  him,  telling  him  not  to 
•go  to  Egypt  and  re-affirming  the  Abrahamic 
covenant  (2-5).  It  had  been  the  settled  ])ol- 
icy  of  Abraham,  whenever  he  was  iu  foreign 
parts  (XX.  13),  to  represent  Sarah  as  his  sister; 
aud  Isaac,  in  similar  peril  at  Gerar,  likewise 
tried  to  pass  off  Rebekah  as  his  sister,  but 
without  success  (xxvi.  6-11,  same  document 
as  xii.  10-20).  Leaving  Gerar,  he  pitched  his 
camp  in  the  valley  of  Gerar  (xxvi.  17),  aud 
opened  again  the  wells  that  his  father  had 
dug.  Thence  he  removed  to  Beer-sheba, 
which  long  remained  his  headquarters  (23 ; 
xxviii.  10).  Jehovah  appeared  to  him  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  encouraged  him ;  and  he 
erected  an  altar,  as  his  father  had  done  (xxvi. 
24,  25).  Abimelech,  the  king  of  Gerar,  vis- 
ited him  and  entered  into  a  treaty  with  him 
(26-31).  This  sworn  agreement,  sheba',  gave 
a  new  occasion  for  linking  the  memory  of  an 
oath  with  the  name  of  the  place  (33;  cp. 
xxi.  31). 

Esau,  the  elder  of  Isaac's  two  sons,  was  his 
favorite,  although  God  had  declared  that  the 
elder  should  serve  the  younger.  Jacob  was 
Eebekah's  favorite  (xxv.  28).  When  Isaac 
was  much  over  100  years  old  (xxvii.  1  with 
xxv.  26  ;  xxvi.  34),  Rebekah  and  Jacob  took 
advantage  of  his  age  aud  of  the  blindness  and 
the  bluntness  of  feeling  which  it  produced  ; 
and  deceived  as  to  the  person,  Isaac  trans- 
ferred the  Abrahamic  blessing  to  the  younger 
son.  Soon  after,  at  the  instigation  of  Rebtkah, 
who  wished  to  save  Jacol)  from  the  murderous 
wrath  of  Esau,  but  feigned  a  difl'irent  reason, 
Isaac  sent  Jacob  to  Laban  in  Paddau-aram  to 
get  a  wife  (xxvii.  46-xxviii.  5i. 

Some  twenty  years  later  Isaac  was  residing 
near  Hebron,  where  he  had  sojourned  in  his 
father's  later  life  (xxxv.  27;  cp.  xxiii.  2). 
There  he  died  at  the  age  of  180  years  (xxxv. 
28),  and  was  buried  by  his  two  sons  beside 
his  parents  and  his  wife  iu  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah  (xlix.  30,  .31).  The  N.  T.  alludes  to 
Isaac  as  a  child  of  promise  (Gal.  iv.  22,  23), 
and  instances  his  tent  life  and  his  blessing 


Isaiah 


338 


Isaiah 


Esau   and  Jacob   as   uvideucos   of  his  faith 
(Heb.  xi.  9,  20). 

I-sa'lah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esaias,  the  Greek 
modification  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

A  prophet  of  Judah  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah 
(Is.  i.  1 ;  cp.  vi.  1  ;  vii.  3;  xiv.  28;  xx.  1,  2; 
xxxvi.-xxxix.).  He  was  the  son  of  Amoz, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  prophet 
Amos.  He  lived  in  Jerusalem,  and  prophesied 
concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem  ;  his  i)roi)h- 
ecies  concerning  Samaria,  Damascus,  Philis- 
tia  and  other  nations  being  subordinate  to 
those  which  directly  concerned  Jerusalem, 
and  being  introduced  because  of  their  rela- 
tion to  Zion  and  the  people  of  God.  It  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  vision  which  he  saw  in 
the  year  that  king  Uzziah  died  (vi.)  marked 
his  call  to  the  prophetic  ottice,  or  was  in- 
tended to  deepen  his  spirituality.  Other 
prophets  experienced  similar  renewed  quick- 
ening. Ezekiel's  inaugural  call  was  by  a 
vision ;  and  long  afterwards,  when  he  was 
a  distinguished  prophet,  his  call  to  the 
prophetic  office  was  confirmed,  and  he  was 
warned,  like  Isaiah,  of  the  indiflference  with 
which  the  people  would  receive  his  message 
(Ezek.  xxxiii.  21-33).  Peter,  after  several 
years  of  service  as  a  disciple  of  Christ  and 
in  the  apostolic  office,  had  his  insight  into 
Christ's  teaching  deepened  and-  was  intro- 
duced into  a  wider  work  by  a  vision  (Acts 
X.).  Paul,  long  after  he  had  been  called  to 
labor  among  the  gentiles,  was  summoned  by 
a  vision  to  work  in  a  new  field,  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  9,  10).  So  God  may  have  pur- 
posed an  increase  and  a  deepening  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  Isaiah,  in  sending  him  this 
vision.  By  the  year  734  B.  c.  Isaiah  was  a 
married  man  (Is.  viii.  3),  with  a  son  named 
Shear-jashub,  which  means  a  remnant  sliall 
return  (vii.  3).  A  second  son  was  after- 
wards born  to  liim,  whom  by  divine  direc- 
tion he  called  Malier-shalal-hasli-baz,  which 
means  spoil  s])eedeth,  prey  liasteneth.  The 
names  of  both  sons  ciislirine  propliecies. 
Isaiah's  wife  is  called  a  proi)hetess  (viii.  3), 
probably  mcrelj'  because  she  was  the  wife  of 
a  propiiet. 

Isaiah  spoke  much  on  the  relations  of 
Israel,  both  as  a  church  and  as  a  body  poli- 
tic, to  tlu'  world.  Ill  regard  to  ]toiitical  re- 
lations he  urged  king  and  jtcojile  tdjiut  trust 
in  Jehovah  and  avoid  entangling  alliances 
with  earthly  i)owers  (viii.  12-14;  etc.).  In 
7.34  B.  c,  when  Syria  and  Israel  joined  forces 
in  order  to  (■a]>tnre  Jerusalem,  and  put  a 
<;reature  of  their  own  upon  the  tliroiic,  he 
declared  .leliovah's  ]>iir])()se  that  the  atteni])t 
sliould  fail,  and  he  vainly  endeavored  to  per- 
suade .\haz  to  rely  on  .Fehovah  and  not  put 
confidence  in  licathen  i)riiu;es  (vii.).  Ahaz 
unwisely  rejected  tins  advice,  called  in  Tig- 
lath-])ileser,  king  of  Assyria,  and  became  his 
vassal  (2  Kin.  xvi.  7,  M,  10)  ;  see  Tuii.ATH- 
PILESER.     Under    Hezekiah    the    prophet's 


counsel  was  treated  with  more  respect.  The 
Assyrians  invaded  Judah  in  Hezekiah's 
fourteenth  year,  about  714  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xviii. 
13  ;  Is.  xxxvi.  1).  Shortly  afterwards,  in  the 
same  year,  Hezekiah  fell  dangerously  sick, 
and  Isaiali  foretold  his  recovery  (2  Kin.  xx. 
1-11).  Then  followed  the  embassy  of  Mero- 
dach-baladan,  712  or  711  B.  c.  (Is.  xxxi.\.), 
the  conquest  of  Ashdod  by  Sargon's  army, 
711  B.  c.  (xx.),  and  the  expeditions  sent 
against  Jeru.salem  by  Sennacherib,  701  b.  c. 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  14).  During  the  last-named 
crisis,  Isaiah's  prophecies  and  encouraging 
words  nerved  the  government  to  refuse  the 
Assyrian  demands. 

The  time  and  manner  of  Isaiah's  death  are 
not  known  with  certaintj'.  Hezekiah  died 
in  698  or  697  B.  c.  The  murder  of  Senna- 
cherib and  accession  of  Esarhaddon,  which 
occured  in  681  and  680,  are  recorded  (Is. 
xxxvii.  38).  Doubtful  Jewish  tradition  af- 
firms that  Isaiah  was  martyred  by  Manasseh, 
having  been  .sawn  asuiid."r,  and  some  have 
supposed  that  Heb.  xi.  37  alludes  to  the 
manner  of  his  death.  The  date  involved  is 
not  impossible,  for  Isaiah  may  have  begun 
his  ministry  after  740  B.C.,  prophesied  in  the 
reigns  of  the  four  kings.  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  survived  Hezekiah, 
and  written  his  acts  first  and  last  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  32),  heard  of  the  murder  of  Senna- 
cherib, and  have  sutiered  martyrdom  in  or 
after  the  eighteenth  year  of  Manasseh,  at  the 
age  of  not  more  than  80  years.  At  any  rate, 
in  writing  his  history  of  Uzziah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  22),  Isaiah  used  probably  records 
and  other  authoritative  sources  for  the 
earlier  part  of  the  reign. 

The  book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah  is  divis- 
ible as  follows  :  I.  Introduction  (i).  II.  A 
prophecy  against  Jerusalem  (ii.-iv.),  with  a 
continuation  or  closely  related  prophecy  (v.). 
The  denunciation  culminates  in  iv.  Mith  the 
eflect  of  tlie  judgment  and  a  picture  of  the 
glory  of  Messianic  times.  This  projihecy  may 
have  been  delivered  during  the  prosperous 
times  of  the  joint  reign  of  Uzziah  and  Jo- 
tham. III.  Tlie  vision  of  chap,  vi.,  which, 
as  every  one  admits,  stands  in  close  relation 
to  the  Book  of  Ininianuel  (vii.-xii.).  IV. 
Ten  burdens  on  the  nations  (xiii.-xxii.),  di- 
vided by  chap,  xx.,  which  is  of  international 
import,  into  two  series  of  five  burdens  each, 
and  culminating  in  judgment  upon  the  whole 
world  (xxiv.),  and  followed  by  Judah's  tri- 
umj)h  and  blessedness  (xxv.-xxvii.).  V.  A 
grou])  of  prophecies  dealing  exclusively  with 
.Judah  and  Samaria  and  ]n(inonncing  woe 
and  weal  ( .xxviii. -xxxiii.),  culminating  as 
before  in  judgment  on  all  nations  and  Zion's 
hapiiy  future  (xxxiv.,  xxxv.).  VI.  A  his- 
torical section  (xxxvi.-xxxix.),  describing 
the  initiatory  o]ieratioiis  of  the  Assyro-Baby- 
loiiinii  ])i)wcr  in  Jiuhih,  and  serving  as  an  in- 
troduction to  tiic  Book  of  Consolation,  which 
was  offered  in  view  of  tlie  sore  judgment  n])on 
Judah  (xl.-lxvi.).     This  Book  of  Consolation 


Isaiah 


339 


Isaiah 


treats  of  the  relation  of  the  church  of  Israel 
to  Jchoviili  (sl.-xlviii.),  the  relation  ol"  llie 
church  to  tile  iiiitiuus  (xlix.  Ivii.),  the  abro- 
gation of  national  distinctions,  and  the  glo- 
rious future  of  the  church  (Iviii.-lxvi.).  The 
prominent  figure  in  these  chapters  is  the 
servant  of  the  Lord  (see  Servant  of  Jk- 
hovah). 

The  genuineness  of  chapter  1.  was  called  in 
question  by  Koppe  in  1797.  Soon  afterwards 
Doderlein  assigned  the  comjjosition  of  the 
last  twenty-seven  chapters  to  the  time  of  the 
exile.  This  theory,  enlarged  to  include  xiii.- 
xiv.  2:5 ;  xxi.  1-10  ;  xxiv.-xxvii. ;  xxxiv. ; 
XXXV..  has  found  numerous  advocates.  Still 
other  i)assages  have  been  added  as  the  need 
of  adjustment  has  appeared,  such  as  xi.  10- 
xii.  6 ;  but  there  is  not  the  same  unanimity 
in  rejecting  them  among  the  adherents  of 
the  theory.  The  arguments  advanced  in 
support  of  the  main  theory  are  all  com- 
prehended in  three.  1.  The  language  is 
late  and  the  style  is  peculiar.  2.  The  al- 
lusions to  the  condition  of  Jews  and  gen- 
tiles reveal  the  time  of  the  exile.  3.  The 
statements  concerning  the  condition  of  the 
people  agree  with  the  historical  facts,  but 
those  which  relate  to  the  future  have  fallen 
short  of  fulfillment. 

To  these  arguments  the  answer,  which 
must  unfortunately  be  stated  summarily,  is 
rendered  :  1.  There  has  not  been  shown  a 
single  word  of  known  late  date,  nor  a  single 
foreign  element  which  there  is  any  reason  to 
believe  was  not  current  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
days  of  Isaiah.  Every  word,  phrase,  and 
form  is  found  in  earlier  Hebrew  literature  or 
may  be  explained  by  the  history  of  the  times. 
As  to  the  style  being  peculiar,  change  of 
style  is  consistent  with  unity  of  authorship. 
The  style  of  Shakespere  changed.  His  liter- 
ary activity  lasted  but  twenty-five  years,  yet 
four  distinct  periods  are  discernible  in  his 
plays,  marked  by  difterences  of  style.  The 
literary  a<'tivity  of  Isaiah  was  continued 
through  at  least  forty  years  and  perhaps 
sixty.  And  is  the  style  so  peculiar  after  all  ? 
Those  who  deny  the  Isaianic  authorshii)  find 
it  incumbent  upon  them  to  explain  the  simi- 
larity of  style.  Augusti  accounts  for  the 
ascription  of  these  chapters  to  Isaiah  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  fact  that  "they  were 
composed  so  entirely  in  the  spirit  and  man- 
ner of  Isaiah."  Gesenius  and  De  Wette 
ascribe  the  similarity  of  style  to  imitation  or 
the  work  of  a  conforming  hand.  Umbreit 
calls  the  unknown  author  of  the  chapters  in 
dispute.  "Isaiah  risen  again"  as  from  the 
dead.  2.  To  the  argument  that  the  allusions, 
which  are  made  in  these  chapters  to  the  con- 
dition of  Jews  and  gentiles,  reveal  the  time 
of  the  exile,  it  is  replied  :  a.  The  prophets 
frequently  transport  themselves  to  the  future 
and  describe  what  they  are  predicting  as 
already  past ;  for  instance,  although  Zebulun 
and  Xaphtali  had  been  ravaged  and  their  in- 
habitants carried  into  captivity,  the  acknowl- 


edged Isaiah  says  of  them :  "  The  peoi)le 
that  walked  in  darkness  hare  seen  a  great 
light"  (ix.  2).  b.  The  explicit  references  to 
Babylon,  the  exile,  and  the  restoration  are 
few.  c.  The  acknowledged  Isaiah  and  his 
contemporary  prophets  were  already  living 
in  anticipation  of  the  Babylonian  exile. 
There  is  scarcely  an  event  connected  with 
the  exile,  to  which  the  author  refers,  but  was 
known  to  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  Isaiah. 
The  prophets  of  the  time  predicted  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  (Amos 
ii.  5;  Micah  iii.  12;  Is.  iii.  8;  vi.  11),  the 
desolation  of  the  land  of  Judah  (Hos.  viii. 
14;  Amos  ix.  11,  14;  Is.  iii.  25,  26;  vi.  11, 
12  ;  xxxii.  13),  the  captivity  of  the  people  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  12;  Mic.  i.  14-16).  This  cap- 
tivity was  to  be  in  Babylon  (Is.  xxxix.  6,  7; 
cp.  xi.  11;  Mic.  iv.  10).  There  should  be  a 
return  from  exile  (Joel  iii.  1;  Is.  xi.  11). 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple  sliould  be  rebuilt 
(Mic.  iv.  2;  although  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  had  been  foretold,  iii.  12  ;  cp.  Joul 
iii.  16,  17,  20),  and  many  people  would  come 
to  Jerusalem  to  worship  ( Is.  ii.  2-4  ;  xi.  10  ; 
xviii.  7;  Mic.  iv.  1-3).  d.  Tbe  spiritual  condi- 
tion of  the  people,  as  exhibited  in  these  chap- 
ters, is  that  of  the  time  of  Isaiah ;  idolatry 
under  every  green  tree  (Ivii.  5  audi.  29  ;  2  Kin. 
xvi.  4)  and  among  the  oaks  (Ivii.  5  and  i.  29  ; 
Hos.  iv.  13)  and  in  gardens  (Ixv.  3  ;  Ixvi.  17 
and  i.  29) ;  the  slaying  of  children  in  the 
valleys  (Ivii.  5  and  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3 ; 
xxxiii.  6  ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  10)  ;  ascending  a 
high  mountain  to  ofier  sacrifice  (Ivii.  7  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  4;  Hos.  iv.  13;  cp.  Ezek.  vi. 
13) ;  hypocrisy  (Iviii.  2-4  and  xxix.  13)  ;  Sab- 
bath-breaking (Iviii.  13  and  Amos  viii.  5 ; 
Jer.  xvii.  19-27) ;  bloodshed  and  violence  (lix. 
3,  7  and  i.  15;  Mic.  vii.  2)  ;  falsehood,  injus- 
tice, and  oppression  (lix.  3,  4.  6.  7,  9  and  v. 
7,  23;  X.  1,  2;  Mic.  ii.  1,  2  ;  vii.  3)  ;  neglect 
of  the  temple  worship  (xliii.  23,  24  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  24  ;  xxix.  27  :  2  Kin.  xv.  4  ;  2 
Chron.  xxvii.  2;  2  Kin.  xv.  35;  2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  10).  Burning  incense  upon  bricks 
(Ixv.  3)  was  appropriate  to  a  worship  derived 
from  either  Egypt,  As.syria,  or  Babylonia, 
and  was  practiced  in  Jerusalem  before  the 
exile  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12  ;  Jer.  xix.  13).  Swine's 
flesh  was  oflTered  and  eaten  (Ixv.  4)  by  the 
Egyptians  on  the  festival  of  Selene  and  Dio- 
nysus (Herod,  ii.  47,  48)  and  commonly 
enough  by  the  Babylonians.  3.  To  the  argu- 
ment that  the  statements  concerning  the 
condition  of  the  people  agree  with  the  his- 
torical facts,  whereas  those  which  relate  to 
the  future  have  fallen  far  .short  of  fulfill- 
ment, it  is  replied  that  the  assertion  aiii)lies 
with  equal  force  to  the  acknowledged  writings 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah.  He  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  the  cities,  the  utter  desolation 
of  the  land,  and  the  removal  of  the  inhabi- 
tants far  hence  (vi.  11,  12).  This  was  ful- 
filled to  the  letter.  But  he  prophesied  also 
the  flocking  of  the  gentiles  to  the  standard 
of  Jesse's  sou,  the  return  of  the  captive  peo- 


Iscah 


340 


Ishma 


pie  of  God  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  the 
drying  up  of  rivers  which  were  obstacles  iu 
the  course  of  the  march,  a  highway  from 
Assyria  for  the  remnant  of  the  people,  the 
wolf  dwelling  in  peace  with  the  lamb  (xi.  6- 
8,  10-1^,  15,  Ki;  see  also  Amos  ix.  11-15; 
Mic.  V.  4  ;  vii.  1'2).  These  are  the  same  jire- 
dictions  as  those  which  in  the  latter  i)ortion 
of  the  book  are  pointed  to  as  the  extravagant 
utterances  of  an  enthusiast  and  as  having 
fallen  short  of  fulfillment.  Unless  these  nu- 
merous passages  be  exscinded,  the  acknowl- 
edged Isaiah,  and  often  his  contemporaries 
also,  living  two  centuries  before  the  fall  of 
Babylon  and  the  hopes  which  that  event  are 
supposed  to  have  awakened,  wrote  in  pre- 
cisely the  same  manner  as  the  author  of  the 
last  section. 

A  special  ground  on  which  the  denial  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  last  twenty-seven 
chapters  rests  is  the  mention  of  Cyrus  hy 
name  (xliv.  28;  xlv.  1).  So  also  Josiah  was 
foretold  by  name  (1  Kin.  xiii.  2).  If  j)re- 
dictive  prophecy  is  possible,  if  it  was  ever 
uttered  by  holy  men  taught  by  the  Holy 
Sjiirit,  then  the  name  of  Cyrus  could  have 
been  penned  by  Isaiah.  Otherwise  the 
words,  as  they  stand,  were  not  uttered  until 
nearly  two  hundred  years  after  Isaiah.  The 
church  has  always  believed  in  predictive 
prophecy  and  in  the  inspiration  of  Isaiah. 

Is'cah  [perhaps,  discerning  or  expectant]. 

A  daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Milcah 
(Gen.  xi.  29),  and  consequently  sister  of  Lot 
(27).  Iscah  has  been  regarded  as  another 
name  of  Sarai  (Antiq.  i.  (i,  5 ;  Targum  Jona- 
than) ;  but  iu  that  case  Sarai  would  have 
been  Abraham's  niece  and  not  his  half-sister 
(Gen.  XX.  12). 

Is-car'i-ot  [probably,  man  of  Kerioth]. 

A  designation  of  Judas  the  traitor  (Mat.  x. 
4  ;  Luke  vi.  Ki).  which  belonged  to  his  father 
Simon  before  him  (John  vi.  71,  R.  V.).  It 
was  used  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other 
apostle  called  Judas  (Luke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13, 
16).  It  seems  to  mean  that  Judas  was  a 
native  of  Kerioth  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  25);  or  jierhaps  of  Korene,  on  the 
northeastern  border  of  .ludiea  (Antiq.  xiv.  3, 
4  ;  War  i.  6,  5).  In  the  codex  Hezte  the  word 
is  written  apo  Karmton  everywhere  iu  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  and  is  so  written  in  .lolin  vi. 
71  in  the  code.K  Sinaiticus.  Accordingly 
Judas  was  pr()l)ably  a  Judiean  ;  and  ])erh:ips 
h(^  was  the  only  apostle  from  Judasa,  and  the 
rest  \v(U'e,  (Jaliheaus. 

Ish'bab.  I  he  praises  or  praising  onel. 

A  man  of  Judah,  ancestor  or  head  of  the 
inhal)itants  of  Eshtemoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Ish'bak  [perhaps,  he  leaveth  or  relinquish- 
ing one). 

.\n  .\iab  tribe  descended  from  Abraham 
throngli  Keturah   ((ren.  xxv.  2). 

Ish  bl-be'nob  [my  dwelling  place  is  on  a 
height]. 

A  Philistine  giant  who  mis  on   the   point 


of  killing  David,  but  was  himself  slain  by 
Abishui  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16,  17). 

Ish-bo'sbeth  [man  of  shame]. 

One  of  Saul's  younger  sons,  originally 
called  Eshbaal,  the  Lord's  man,  which  was 
changed  to  Ish-bosheth,  man  of  shame,  either 
during  his  lifetime  when  the  glory  of  his 
house  departed,  or  in  later  times  when  the 
name  Baal  fell  into  disrepute  through  its 
idolatrous  associations  (2  Sam.  ii.  8  with  1 
Chron.  viii.  33;  ix.39).  He  was  not  present 
at  the  battle  of  Gilboa;  or,  if  present,  he  es- 
caped the  slaughter  on  that  disastrous  day. 
On  the  death  of  Saul,  David  ol)tained  the 
sovereignty  over  Judah,  but  the  other  tribes 
refused  him  allegiance  and  proclaimed  Ish- 
bosheth  king  as  successor  to  his  father  Saul. 
Ish-bosheth  was  then  aged  about  40,  and 
reigned  two  troubled  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  8-10). 
His  capital  was  at  Mahanaim,  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan (ii.  8.  12).  He  was  unsuccessful  in  the 
war  which  he  waged  with  David  to  secure  the 
undisputed  swayovcr  the  twelve  tribes(ii.  12- 
iii.  1).  He  brought  a  serious  charge  against 
his  main  supporter,  Abner,  who  theretipon 
offered  his  services  to  David,  and,  on  David's 
making  demand  on  Ish-bosheth,  conducted 
David's  wife  Michal  back  to  him  (6-21). 
When  Abner  was  murdered  at  Hebron,  Ish- 
bosheth  lo.st  heart  (27;  iv.  1).  He  was  soon 
afterwards  assassinated,  and  his  head  carried 
in  trium])h  to  David.  But  by  David's  order 
the  severed  head  was  honorably  interred  in 
the  tomb  of  Abner  at  Hebron,  and  the  a.ssas- 
sins  wei-e  put  to  death  for  their  crime  (iv.  5- 
12).  With  the  death  of  Ish-bosheth  the  dy- 
nasty of  Saul  came  to  an  end,  although  a 
grandson  of  Saul's  remained  (iv.  4). 

Ish'hod,  in  A.  Y.  Isbod  [man  of  splendor]. 

A  Manassite  whose  mother  was  Hammole- 
keth  (1  Chron.  vii.  18). 

Ish'i,  I.   [my  husband]. 

A  name  by  which  the  Israelites  call  Jeho- 
vah, when  they  return  to  their  allegiance.  It 
supersedes  the  synonymous  one  Baali,  my 
piaster,  because  the  word  Baal  had  come  into 
ill  repute  through  its  association  with  idol- 
atry (Hos.  ii.  16,  17). 

Ish'i,  II.  [saving,  salutary]. 

1.  A  mnn  of  Judah,  sou  of  Appaim,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  31). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  Zoheth  (1 
Chron.  iv.  20). 

3.  A  Simeonite  whose  sons  led  a  band  which 
overcame  the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir, 
and  seized  on  their  settlements  (1  Chron. 
iv.  42). 

4.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1 
Chron.  v.  24). 

I-shi'ah.     See  Isshiah. 

I-shi'jah.     See  Lsshijah. 

Ish'ma  [desolation  or,  perhaps,  di.stinctionl. 
A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur  (1 
Chron.  iv.  3,  4). 


Ishmael 


341 


Ishuah 


Ish'ma-el  [God  heareth]. 

1.  The  sou  of  Abraham  by  Hagar  the 
Egyptian  maid  ;  born  when  Abraham  was 
eiglity-six  years  old,  after  he  had  been  ten 
full  years  in  Canaan  (Gen.  xvi.  3.  15  ;  cp.  xii. 
4).  He  was  the  child  of  worldly  wisdom, 
not  of  faith  ;  he  was  born  of  parents  who,  in 
the  face  of  God's  promise,  were  blinded  by 
seeming  impossibilities,  and  sought  by  earthly 
means  to  enable  God  to  fulfill  his  engage- 
ments. When  the  rite  of  circumcision  was 
instituted  for  the  family  of  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
then  thirteen  years  of  age,  was  circumcised 
(xvii.  25).  The  next  year  Isaac  was  born, 
when  his  mother  was  past,  age,  the  child  of 
promise,  a  rebuke  to  unbelief  (xxi.  5).  At 
his  weaning,  the  customary  feast  was  made, 
when  Ishmael  was  seen  to  be  mocking.  This 
was  the  first  occasion  in  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham that  those  born  after  the  fiesh  in  doubt 
of  God's  way  mocked  at  the  heirs  of  i)romise  ; 
and  Paul  seizes  upon  the  allegory  in  the  inci- 
dent (Gal.  iv.  22-31).  This  misbehavior  of 
Ishmael  led  to  the  expulsion  of  him  and  his 
mother.  They  wandered  in  the  wilderness 
of  Becr-slieba  till  both  were  nearly  perishing 
with  thirst.  The  augel  of  the  Lord  directed 
Hagar  to  .some  water  among  the  shrubs,  and 
the  life  of  herself  and  her  son  was  preserved. 
Ishmael  grew  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
south  of  Canaan,  where  he  lived  by  his  bow. 
Eventually  he  married  a  wife  from  Egypt, 
his  mother's  ancestral  home  (Gen.  xxi.  3-21). 
In  fulfillment  of  a  promise  made  by  God  to 
Abraham,  Ishmael  became  the  progenitor  of 
twelve  xii'inces  (xvii.  20 ;  xxv.  12-16)  ;  see 
IsHMAELiTES.  He  had  also  a  daughter,  who 
was  married  to  Esau  (xxviii.  9  ;  xxxvi.  10). 
Ishmael  took  part  with  Isaac  in  burying  their 
father  Abraham  (xxv.  9).  He  himself  died  at 
the  age  of  137  (xxv.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
38;  ix.  44). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  the  high  ju- 
dicial functionary  Zebadiah  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

4.  A  sou  of  Jehohanau.  He  took  part  in 
the  successful  conspiracy  against  Athaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

5.  A  son  of  Nethaniah,  who  belonged  to 
the  seed  royal  of  Judah.  When  Nebuchad- 
nezzar departed  from  Palestine,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem,  he  left  behind  him  as  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  a  certain  Jew  called  Gedaliah, 
who  promised  protection  to  any  of  the  con- 
quered people  who  placed  themseU'es  under 
his  rule.  Among  others  Ishmael  came,  but 
with  hostile  intent.  Instigated  by  the  king 
of  the  Ammonites,  he  assassinated  Gedaliah, 
massacring  at  the  same  time  the  people  with 
him.  After  further  murders  he  carried  off 
captives,  including  the  king's  daughters,  and 
finally  attempted  to  make  his  way  to  the  Am- 
monite country.  Johanan,  son  of  Kareah, 
and  others  went  forth  to  fight  with  him. 
They  found  him  at  Gibeon.  His  captives 
turned  to  Johanan,  liut  he  himself  succeeded 
in  escaping  with  eight  men  to  the  king  of 


Ammon.  who  had  instigated  his  crimes  (2 
Kin.  xxv.  25;  Jer.  xl.  7-16;  xli.  1-18). 

6.  A  son  of  Pashhur,  who  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  22). 

Ish'ma-el-ite,  in  A.  V.  often  Ishmeelite, 
an  orthography  true  to  the  Hebrew  word,  but 
English  literature  has  adopted  the  former 
spelling. 

A  descendant  of  Ishmael.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  had  Egj-jjtian  blood,  as  well  as  the  blood 
of  Abraham,  in  their  veins.  Twelve  princes 
sprang  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xvii.  20;  xxv.  12- 
16).  He  may  have  had  more  sons,  and  pos- 
sibly some  of  those  enumerated  were  grand- 
sons. Twelve  was  an  approved  number. 
Twelve  was  carefully  preserved  as  the  num- 
ber of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  twelve  was 
the  recognized  number  of  the  kings  of  the 
Hittites  in  their  confederacy.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  in  their  twelvefold  division  dwelt  in  set- 
tlements and  in  movable  camps  in  the  desert 
of  northern  Arabia,  in  the  region  included 
between  Havilah,  Egypt,  and  the  Euphrates 
(xxv.  18  ;  Antiq.  i.  12,  4).  Occasionally  one 
of  their  tribes  acquired  permanent  residence 
and  civilization,  as  the  Nabathseaus ;  but  they 
mostly  possessed  the  character  of  their  an- 
cestor and  dwelt  like  the  untamable  ass  of 
the  desert  (Gen.  xvi.  12).  Like  Ishmael,  too, 
they  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  with  the 
bow  (Is.  xxi.  17).  To  Ishmaelites  traveling 
as  carriers  between  Gilead  and  Egypt,  or, 
more  definitely,  to  "certain  Midianites,  mer- 
chants," in  the  caravan,  Joseph  was  sold  by 
his  brethren  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2.5-28).  In  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  6  they  are  mentioned  with  Edomites, 
Moabites,  and  Hagarenes. 

In  a  wider  sense,  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
northern  Arabia  generally  ;  either  because 
the  Ishmaelites  were  the  chief  people  of  the 
desert,  and  their  name  came  to  be  used  as 
a  synonym  for  any  nomad  of  the  region,  or 
because  an  Ishmaelite  confederacy  had  been 
formed  which  included  tribes  of  other  blood 
(Judg.  viii.  24  ;  cp.  vii.  25  ;  viii.  22,  26  ;  Judith 
ii.  23).  All  the  Arabs,  after  the  example  of 
Mohammed,  claim  descent  from  Ishmael. 

Ish-ma'iah,  in  A.  Y.  once  Ismaiali  (1  Chron. 
xii.  4)  [Jehovah  heareth]. 

1.  A  Gibeonite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2.  Son  of  Obadiah  and  head  in  David's 
reign  of  the  Zebulunites  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

Ish'me-el-ite.     See  Ishmaelite. 
Ish'me-rai  [probably,  Jehovah  keepeth]. 
A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  18). 
I'shod.     See  Ishhod. 
Ish'pab,  in  A.  V.  Ispah  [perhaps,  bald]. 
A  Benjamite,  son  of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  viii.  16). 
Ish'pan. 

A   Benjamite.    son  of   Shashak  (1    Chron. 
viii.  22). 
Ish'tob  [men  of  Tob].     See  ToB. 
Ish'u-ali.     See  Ishvah. 


Ishuai 


342 


Israel 


Ish'u-ai  and  Ishui.     See  ISHVi. 

Ish'vali,  in  A.  V.  Isnuah  and  Isuab  [per- 
haps, equality]. 

The  second  son  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17;  1 
Cbron.  vii.  30).  He  probably  died  childless  ; 
or,  if  he  had  descendants,  they  did  not  con- 
stitute a  tribal  family  or  ])erpetiiate  bis  name 
(cp.  Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Ish'vi,  in  A.  V.  Ishuai.  Ishui,  Isui,  and 
Jesui  [perhajis,  equal]. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Asher,  and  founder  of 
a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi. 
44;  1  Chron.  vii.  30). 

2.  A  son  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 

Isle,  Island. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '/,  meaning 
1.  Habittible  land,  as  ojiposed  to  water  (Is. 
xlii.  15).  2.  An  island  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  word  (Jer.  xlvii.  4).  3.  A  maritime 
country,  even  when  constituting  part  of  a 
continent ;  the  coast  land  of  Palestine  and 
Pbceuicia  (Is.  xx.  6,  in  R.  V.  coast  land  ;  cp. 
xxiii.  2,  6),  and  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece  (Gen.  x.  5).  4.  The  re- 
motest regions  of  the  earth  and  their  inhab- 
itants (Is.  xli.  5;  Zeph.  ii.  11).  This  employ- 
ment of  the  term  may  have  arisen :  (a)  By 
synecdoche,  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean 
being  remote  and  scarcely  known,  (b)  From 
the  current  belief  that  the  world  was  sur- 
rounded with  water,  so  that  the  most  distant 
region  was  the  coast  land  of  the  world-ocean. 

Is-ma-chi'ah  [Jehovah  supporteth]. 

An  overseer  connected  with  the  temple  in 
Hezekiah"s  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Is-ma'iah.     See  Ishmaiah. 

Is'pah.     See  Ishpah. 

Is'ra-el  [he  .striveth  with  God,  or  God 
striveth]. 

1.  The  name  given  to  Jacob  when  he  was 
returning  from  Mesopotamia  and  just  about 
to  cross  the  brook  Jabbok,  where  he  expected 
to  meet  Esau  (Gen.  xxxii.  22-32)  ;  see  Jacob. 

2.  The  whole  body  of  the  descendants  of 
Jacob  at  any  one  time.  This  use  of  the  word 
began  in  his  own  lifetime  ((Jen.  xxxiv.  7).  It 
was  common  during  tlie  wilderness  wander- 
ings (Ex.  xxxii.  4:  Dent.  iv.  1;  xxvii.  9), 
though  the  designation  children  of  Israel  was 
yet  more  frecjuent  both  during  this  and  the 
former  i)crio(l.  Down  to  the  death  of  Saul, 
Israel  and  the  children  of  Israel,  when  used 
as  a  national  designation,  comprehended  the 
Hebrews  generally,  without  distinction  of 
tribes.  There  were,  however,  geograi)hical 
and  other  causes  already  at  work  which 
tended  to  sejiarate  Jndah  from  the  rest  of 
Israel  ;  and  the  distinction  had  come  to  be 
recognized  before  the  actual  division  of  the 
people  into  two  kingdoms  took  ])lace  (1  Sam. 
xi.  H  ;  xvii.  r>2  ;  xviii.  Ki)  ;  see  Judah.  It  was 
used  also  under  the  imiled  monarchy  (1  Kin. 
xi.  42).  In  the  ])arallelism  of  Hebrew  jxx'try 
it  often  corres])onds  in  the  second  line  of  the 
couplet  to  Jacob  in  the  first  (Num.  xxiii.  7, 


10,  21 ;  xxiv.  5  ;  Ps.  xiv.  7).  After  the  exile 
the  reference  is  frequently  to  the  people  of 
the  various  tribes  who  returned  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  ix.  1 ;  x.  5 ;  Neh.  ix.  2 ;  xi.  3). 

3.  The  tribes  which  acted  independently  of 
Judah.  Thesplitof  the  Hebrew  people  into  two 
kingdoms  occurred  on  the  death  of  Saul.  The 
northern  and  eastern  tribes  recognized  Saul's 
son  Ish-bosheth  as  king,  and  the  tribe  of 
Judah  followed  David.  From  this  time  on- 
ward Israel  is  frequently  used  to  denote  the 
ten  tribes.  Ish-bosheth  reigned  two  years 
and  was  assassinated,  but  seven  years  elapsed 
before  the  breach  was  healed  and  David  was 
anointed  king  of  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  ii.  10, 11). 
The  jealousies,  however,  remained,  and  on 
the  death  of  Solomon  the  rupture  became 
final.  Ten  tribes  followed  Jeroboam  and  one 
clave  to  the  house  of  David.  The  ten  tribes 
which  were  rent  from  the  house  of  David 
were  Eeuben,  Gad,  and  half  Manasseh  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  west  of  the  river  half 
Manasseh,  Ephraim,  Issachar,  Zebulun.  Naph- 
tali,  Asher,  Dan,  and  lastly  Benjamin,  which 
belonged  in  part  to  the  northern  kingdom, 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Jericho,  chief  places  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  being  within  the 
bounds  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  schism  were : 
1.  The  isolation  of  Judah  caused  by  nature 
and  augmented  by  Joshua's  blunder.  2.  The 
ancient  jealousy  between  the  two  x^owerful 
tribes  of  Ejihraim  and  Judah.  It  had  caused 
a  temiiorary  disruption  of  the  kingdom  after 
Saul's  dcatli ;  it  broke  out  again  after  the  de- 
feat of  Absalom  because  Judah  was  the  lirst 
to  welcome  the  king  back  (2  Sam.  xix.  13, 
40-43).  It  had  been  freshly  provoked  by 
Solomon's  lavish  adornment  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  borders  of  Judah.  and  at  his  death  re- 
sulted in  permanent  separation.  3.  Discon- 
tent caused  by  the  excessive  luxury  of  the 
throne.  The  people  were  groaning  under  op- 
l)ressive  burdens.  Solomon's  love  of  sjilen- 
dor  had  led  to  taxation  to  support  his  enor- 
mous household  and  maintain  his  disjilay, 
and  to  enforcement  of  labor  to  carrv  out  his 
great  works  (1  Kin.  iv.  22,  23,  26;  v.  13-16). 
The  reasonable  request  of  the  people  for  re- 
lief was  perversely  refused  by  Rehoboam.  4. 
Idolatry,  fostered  by  foreign  marriages  (1  Kin. 
xi.  1-11 ).  A  subtle  corruption  spread  through 
all  ranks  owing  to  the  encouragement  given 
to  false  religions,  attachment  to  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  was  weakened,  and  one  great 
unifying  force  was  destroyed.  5.  The  folly 
oT  Rehoboam  in  refusing  the  request  of  the 
people  for  relief  intensified  the  disintegrating 
forces  and  precipitated  the  catastrophe  (1 
Kin.  xii.  3  .">,  12-16). 

As  compared  with  Judah  in  'respect  to 
strength  the  northern  kingdom  had  ten 
tribes,  twice  the  pojMilation,  and  nearly  three 
times  the  extent  of  territory.  But  it  was 
more  exposed  to  war  and  less  easy  of  defense 
than  Judah.  It  was  the  apostate  nation,  and 
defection  from  God  is  weakness  and  inevita- 


Israel 


343 


Issachar 


bly  undermines  the  stability  of  a  state.  It 
had  an  inferior  religion  with  its  lower  moral 
tone,  and  many  of  its  best  spirits  forsook  it ; 
the  priests  and  Levites  migrated  into  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  13.  14). 

The  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  was 
at  Shechem  at  first.  It  was  soon  removed  to 
Tirzah,  and  then  Omri  founded  Samaria  and 
transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  the 
new  citj"  ( 1  Kin.  xii.  25  ;  xiv.  17 ;  xv.  21 ; 
xvi.  23,  24). 

Jeroboam,  the  first  king,  was  afraid  that 
if  his  people  visited  Jerusalem  for  wor- 
ship, they  would  be  won  over  to  their  old 
allegiance ;  he  therefore  established  two 
shrines,  one  at  Dan  in  the  extreme  north, 
and  the  other  at  Bethel,  in  the  south  of  the 
kingdom.  At  each  of  these  places  he  erected 
a  golden  calf,  which  he  designed  as  an  aid  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  ;  see  Calf.  Judg- 
ment was  threatened  against  him  and  his 
race  for  this  partial  apostasy,  and  after  his 
son,  Nadab,  had  reigned  two  years,  the 
dynasty  was  swept  away.  Nineteen  kings  in 
ail  sat  upon  the  throne.  See  Chronology. 
Their  united  reigns  covered  a  period  of  about 
210  years ;  seven  of  them  reigned  but  two 
years  or  less  ;  eight  were  slain  or  committed 
suicide  and  the  throne  was  transferred  to 
another  family,  and  in  only  two  instances 
was  the  royal  power  held  by  as  many  as  four 
members  of  the  same  family  in  succession. 
None  of  the  kings  removed  the  calves  from 
Bethel  and  Dan  ;  indeed,  under  Ahab,  who 
was  influenced  by  his  wicked  heathen  wife, 
Jezebel,  the  apostasy  was  rendered  complete 
by  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Baal 
instead  of  Jehovah.  But  God  raised  up 
prophets  who  contended  steadfastly  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  at  whatever  risk  to 
themselves.  The  most  notable  were  Elijah 
and  Elisha  (q.v.).  After  the  suppression  of 
Baal  worship,  other  prophets,  especially 
Hosea  and  Amos,  labored  for  the  reformation 
of  the  moral  life  of  the  nation. 

The  northern  Israelites  were  frequently  at 
war  with  Judah.  Indeed,  the  two  kingdoms 
were  in  hearty  alliance  only  while  the  house 
of  Omri  held  the  throne  of  Israel,  when  the 
royal  families  of  Israel  and  Judah  were 
united  by  intermarriage.  When  the  Syrian 
kingdom  of  Damascus  rose  to  power  it  neces- 
sarily affected  the  politics  of  the  adjacent 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Often  the  two  were  at 
war.  They  united,  however,  in  making  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Assyrians  in  the  days 
of  Ahab  ;  and  120  years  later  they  were  again 
in  alliance,  their  common  object  being  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  this  danger 
that  led  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  terrified  for 
his  throne  and  life,  and  having  no  faith  in 
Jehovah,  to  act  contrary  to  the  exhortations 
of  Isaiah  and  to  call  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king 
of  Assyria,  at  the  price  of  independence. 
Judah  became  tributary  to  Assyria,  and  its 
king  did  homage  to  the  Assyrian  monarch  at 
Damascus  (2  Kin.  xvi.  8-10).    Tiglath-pileser 


relieved  Judah  of  the  invaders,  ravaged 
northern  Israel,  struck  a  blow  at  the  Phi- 
listines, besieged  and  ultimately  captured 
Damascus  and  slew  Rezin,  deported  the  Is- 
raelites from  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan, 
connived  at  the  death  of  Pekah  or  actually 
ordered  it,  and  placed  Hoshea  on  the  throne 
about  730  b.  c.  Hoshea  rebelled  against  As- 
syria after  Tiglath-pileser's  death.  The 
Assyrian  armies  returned,  in  722  Samaria 
fell  and  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants 
were  carried  off  to  Assyria.  See  Captivity 
and  Sargon.  The  place  of  the  deported  Is- 
raelites was  supplied  by  colonists  from  five 
districts  in  the  Assyrian  empire,  who,  ming- 
ling with  the  remaining  Israelite  population 
of  central  Palestine,  laid  the  foundations  of 
what  afterwards  became  the  Samaritan  nation. 
The  captivity  of  Israel  was  a  punishment 
because  the  people  had  sinned  against  the 
Lord  their  God  and  had  feared  other  gods, 
walking  in  the  statutes  of  the  nations  and 
of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  7,  8). 
They  were  apostate.  They  had  broken  the 
covenant  (15;  cp.  Ex.  xx.-xxii.  ;  Hos.  vi. 
7  ;  viii.  1),  rejecting  the  statutes  of  the  Lord. 
Their  apostasy  had  manifested  itself  in  two 
directions  :  they  walked  in  the  statutes  of 
the  nations  whom  the  Lord  cast  out  {2  Kin. 
xvii.  8.  15,  17;  cp.  Hos.  ii.  13;  iv.  2.  11,  15; 
Amos  ii.  6-9),  and  they  walked  in  the  stat- 
utes of  the  kings  of  Israel,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  the  calf  worship  and  its  attendant 
ceremonies  and  ordinances,  and  in  the  gen- 
eral idolatry  that  followed  in  its  train  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  8,  16 ;  Hos.  viii.  4-6  ;  x.  5,  8  ;  xiii. 
2-4).  They  had  sinned  despite  the  fact  that 
the  Lord  had  te.stified  unto  them  by  prophets 
and  by  providences  (2  Kin.  xvii.  13  ;  Hos. 
xii.  lo';  Amos  ii.  9-11  ;  iv.  6-13).  Their  sin 
issued  in  separation  and  degradation  and 
paved  the  way  for  punishment.  They  sepa- 
rated from  Judah,  and  thus  weakened  were 
overthrown.  Their  idolatry,  drunkenness, 
and  licentiousness  weakened  the  manhood  of 
the  nation,  deprived  it  of  sturdiness,  and 
made  its  soldiery  no  better  in  character  and 
moral  purpose  than  the  warriors  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babj'lonia. 

Is'ra-el-ite. 

A  descendant  of  Israel,  i.  e..  of  .Jacob  (Ex. 
ix.  7)  ;  and  consequently,  by  iniplicatiim,  the 
possessor  of  true  religious  knowledge,  a 
faithful  servant  of  Jehovah,  and  an  heir  of 
the  promises  (John  i.  47 ;  Rom.  ix.  4  ;  xi.  1 ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  22). 

Is'sa-char  [there  is  hire]. 

1.  The  ninth  son  of  Jacob,  the  fifth  by 
Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  17,  18;  xxxv.  23).  Hissons 
were  Tola,  Phuvah  or  Pua,  Job  or  Jashub, 
and  Shimron  (xlvi.  13  ;  Num.  xxvi.  23,  24  ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1).  With  them  he  went  down 
with  Jacob  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Ex.  i. 
3).  Jacob,  shortly  before  death,  with  keen 
and  prophetic  insight  into  character,  de- 
scribed Issachar  and  his  children  as  a  strong 


Issachar 


344 


Ithamar 


ass,  couching  down  between  the  sheep  folds, 
who  submits  to  the  burdens  imposed  by  for- 
eign masters,  provided  they  permit  him  to 
remain  in  his  pleasant  land  (Gen.  xlix.  14, 15). 
The  descendants  of  Issachar  formed  a  tribe, 
consisting  of  five  great  tribal  families,  the 
posterity  of  his  five  sons  (Num.  xxvi.  23,24). 
Its  prince  in  the  early  period  of  the  wander- 
ings was  Nethaneel,  sou  of  Zuar  (Num.  i.  8 ; 
ii.  5  :  vii.  18 ;  x.  15),  and  at  a  later  period 
Paltiel.  son  of  Azzan  (xxxiv.  26).  At  the 
first  census  in  the  wilderness  it  numbered 
54,400  fighting  men  (i.  28,  29) ;  at  the  second 
64,300  (xxvi.  25)  ;  while  in  David's  reign  it 
reached  87,000  (1  Cliron.  vii.  5).  Igal,  son 
of  Joseph,  was  the  s])y  from  the  tribe  (Num. 
xiii.  7).  The  men  of  Issachar  were  among 
those  who  stood  on  mount  Gerizim  to  bless 
the  people  (Deut.  xxvii.  12).  Mo.ses,  in  pre- 
dicting the  future  of  the  tribes,  foretold  Is- 
sachar's  joyous  and  quiet  life  (xxxiii.  18). 
One  of  the  judges.  Tola,  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  (Judg.  x.  1)  ;  so  did  king 
Baasha  (1  Kiu.  xv.  27).  The  princes  of  Is- 
sachar had  the  i)olitical  insight  to  discern 
the  fit  moment  for  turuing  from  Saul's  fam- 
ily and  accepting  David  as  the  king  of  all 
Israel  (1  Chron.  xii.  32).  About  that  time 
Omri,  son  of  Michael,  was  head  of  the  tribe 
(xxvii.  18).  Many  men  of  Issachar,  although 
they  belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom,  at- 
tended Hezekiah's  passover  (2  Chron.  xxx. 
18).  In  the  apocalyptic  vision  12,000  of  the 
tri))e  of  Lssachar  were  sealed  (Eev.  vii.  7), 
this  being  the  normal  number. 

When  the  laud  of  Canaan  was  distributed 
by  lot,  the  fourth  lot  taken  after  the  ark  was 
removed  to  Shiloh  came  forth  for  the  tribe 
of  Issachar.  Its  territory  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Zebulun  and  X:ii)litali,  on  the 
east  by  the  Jordan,  on  the  soutli  and  west  by 
Manasseh  and  probably  Asher.  Jezreel  and 
Hliunem  lay  within  its  limits,  while  Chesul- 
loth  and  mount  Tabor  were  on  its  northern 
l)i)rder,  and  En-gaiiniiu  near  the  southern  line 
(Josh.  xix.  17  23)  ;  but  towns  within  it  were 
held  by  Manasseh  (xvii.  10,  lJ;and  others 
by  the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  6,  28,  29;  1 
Chron.  vi.  62-72).  The  tribe  of  Issachar  oc- 
cu])icd  the  greater  part  of  tlic  ])hiin  of  Jezreel, 
or  Esdraelon,  constituting  the  low,  level,  and 
fertile  plain  of  the  Kishon.  The  character 
of  their  territory  combiiu'd  with  the  tribal 
traits  explains  why  the  ])eople  of  Issachar, 
in  accordance  with  Jacob's  prophecy,  were  so 
ready  to  submit  to  servitude.  They  had 
nuu'h  to  lose,  and  lived  on  ground  well 
adapted  for  the  action  of  the  war  chariots  of 
their  enemies,  while  the  tribes  located  among 
the  niountnius  could  not  so  readily  1k^  at- 
tacked in  this  manner.  Tiuit  the  jieoiile  of 
Issachar  were  not  exceptiouall.v  cowardly  is 
plain  from  their  coiuluct  in  the  l)attle  with 
Sisera,  wliich  elicited  the  commendation  of 
Deborah  (Judg.  v.  15). 

2.  A  Levite,  a]ii>ointed  doorkeeper  in  Da- 
vid's reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  5). 


Is-sbi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  IsMah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3)  and  twice  Jesiah  (1  Chron  xii.  6;  xxiii. 
20)  [Jehovah  lendeth  or  Jehovah  forgetteth 
(cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  39)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  3). 

2.  One  of  those  who  came  to  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  6). 

3.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses,  and 
head  of  the  house  of  Rehabiah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  21  ;  cp.  xxiii.  14-17). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20  ;  xxiv.  25). 

Is-sM'jah,  in  A.  Y.  IsMjah  [Jehovah  lend- 
eth or  forgetteth]. 

A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

Is'sue. 

A  man's  disease,  probably  blennorrhea  or 
perhaps  gonorrhea  (Lev.  xv.  2-15;  cp.  War 
V.  5,  6  ;  vi.  9,  3).  An  issue  of  blood  is  a  fe- 
male complaint  (Lev.  xv.  25-30;  Mat.  ix.  20). 

Is'u-ah.     See  Ishvah. 

Is'u-i.    See  Ishvi. 

It'a-ly. 

A  geographical  name  which,  in  the  fifth 
century  B.  c,  meant  only  a  small  district  in 
the  extreme  south  of  what  is  now  called 
Italy  ;  but  which  gradually  extended  its  sig- 
nification, till  in  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  it  began  to  be  used  in  the  same  sense 
that  we  now  attach  to  the  word.  In  the  days 
of  the  apostles  Italy,  and,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  the  civilized  world,  was  ruled  from 
Eome  (q.  v.).  A  cohort  called  the  Italian 
was  stationed  in  Syria  (Acts  x.  1).  Aquila 
and  Priscilla,  who  were  of  Jewish  descent, 
resided  for  a  time  in  Italy  (xviii.  2).  Paul's 
apj)eal  to  Ctesar  involved  his  sailing  into 
Italy  (xxvii.  1,  (i),  and  his  ship  coasted  along 
Italy  from  Rhegium  to  Puteoli  (xxviii.^  13- 
16).  The  salutation  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  "  They  of  Italy  salute  you  "  (Heb. 
xiii.  24),  indicates  the  presence  of  Christians, 
not  onlj'  in  Rome,  hut  in  other  parts  of  the 
country  (cp.  Acts  xxviii.  14).  During  the 
Roman  imi)erial  ])eri(>d,  the  state  of  the 
country  in  comparison  with  the  capital  was 
wretched. 

I'thai.     See  Itt.\i. 

Ith'a-mar  [palm-coast]. 

The  youngest  sou  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  23;  1 
Chron.  vi.  3;  xxiv.  1).  W'ith  his  father  and 
his  three  elder  brothers  he  was  consecrated 
to  the  priestly  office  (Ex.  xxviii.  1  ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv.  2).  U|)on  him  devolved  the  duty  of 
enunieraliiig  the  materials  gathered  for  the 
talicrnacli-  ( lOx.  xxxviii.  21 ).  The  Gershonites 
and  the  .Merarites  acted  under  his  superin- 
tendence (Num.  iv.  21-33).  He  founded  a 
priestly  family  (1  (^hron.  xxiv.  4,  5,  6),  which 
coutiuued  after  the  cai)tivity  (Ezra  viii.  2). 
To  this  faiiiily  hclnngcd  i''Ji  and  bis  descend- 
ants, who  lield  the  ollice  of  high  priest  for 
several  generations.     See  High  Priest. 


Ithiel 


345 


Izhar 


Ith'i-el  [God  is  with  me,  or,  possibly,  there 
is  a  God]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  persons  to  whom  Agur 
addressed  his  prophecy  (Prov.  xxx.  1) ;  but 
see  R.  V.  margin  for  another  possibility. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jesaiah  (Neh.  xi.  7). 
Ith'lah,   in  A.  V.  Jethlah   [a  hanging  or 

lofty  place]. 

A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  42).  Site  un- 
known. 

Ith'mah  [bereavement]. 

A  Moabite,  one  of  the  valiant  men  of  Da- 
vid's army  (1  Chron.  xi.  46). 

Ith'nan  [perhaps,  perennial]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  23).     Situation  unknown. 

Ith'ra  [abundance,  excellence]. 

An  Israelite,  or  rather  Ishmaelite,  who  mar- 
ried Abigail,  David's  sister,  and  became  the 
father  of  Amasa  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25 ;  1  Kin.  ii. 
5,  32 ;  1  Cbron.  ii.  17).  In  the  last  three  pas- 
sages he  is  called  Jether,  which  is  the  Hebrew 
form  of  the  name. 

Ith'ran  [abundance,  excellence]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
26;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  37) ;  apparently  the  same  as  Jether  (38). 

Ith 're-am  [abundance  of  people]. 

The  sixth  son  born  to  David  at  Hebron. 
His  mother  was  Eglah  (2  Sam.  iii.  5  ;  1  Chron. 
iii.  3). 

ItL'rite. 

A  family  who  dwelt  at  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53).  Two  of  David's  mighty  men 
were  Ithrites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chron. 
xi.  40).  The  word  is  derivable  from  Jether 
or,  if  the  customary  vocalization  is  neglected, 
from  .Tattir. 

It-tah-ka'zin.     See  Eth-k.\zin. 

It'tai  [perhaiis.  plowman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ribai,  from  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min. He  was  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  29).  Called  in  1  Chron.  xi.  31, 
I  thai. 

2.  An  inhabitant  of  Gath,  the  commander 
of  600  men,  who  followed  David  from  that 
Philistine  city.  He  was  faithful  to  the  king 
through  all  vicissitudes,  and  led  a  third  part 
of  the  royal  army  in  the  battle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv. 
18-22;  xviii.  2,  5). 

It-u-rse'a  [pertaining  to  Jetur]. 

A  region  occupied  by  a  people  called  Jetur, 
who  were  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
15  ;  1  Chron.  i.  31 ).  The  tribe  of  Jetur  was  at 
war  with  the  Israelitish  tribes  east  of  the 
Jordan  (v.  19).  In  Asraonsean  times  Aristo- 
bulus  conquered  a  portion  of  Itursea,  and  an- 
nexing it  to  Judiea,  compelled  the  vanquished 
inhabitants  to  adopt  the  rite  of  circumcision 
(Antiq.  xiii.  11,  3).  It  was  a  mountainous 
country,  including  part  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Its 
prince,  Ptolemy,  son  of  Mennaeus,  had  terri- 


tory in  Coelesyria,  with  Chalcis  as  stronghold, 
and  proved  a  bad  neighbor  to  Damascus 
(Strabo  xvi.  2, 18,  20;  Antiq.  xiii.  16,  ?,).  In  66 
B.  c.  he  purchased  immunity  from  Pomjiey 
'  xiv.  3.  2).  His  son  Lysaniaswas  put  to  death 
by  Antony  (xv.  4,  1),  and  the  country  was 
farmed  to  Zenodorus  (xv.  10.  1 ;  for  "Zeno- 
dorus'  domain  cp.  also  2  and  3).  Part  of 
IturiBa  and  Trachonitis  constituted  the  tet- 
rarchy  of  Philip  (Luke  iii.  1).  Josephus 
enumerates  the  constituent  parts  of  Philip's 
tetrarchy  difl'erently,  and  he  is  not  careful 
always  to  enumerate  in  one  and  the  same 
way  (Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1 ;  11,  4,  where  part  of 
the  house  of  Zenodorus  is  included  ;  xviii.  4, 
6;  War  ii.  6,  3).  The  name  Itura-a  or  Jetur 
is  radically  diflerent  from  Jedur,  tlie  ])resent 
designation  of  a  district  southwest  of  Da- 
mascus. 

I'vah.     See  Ivvah. 

I'vo-ry. 

A  substance  derived  from  the  tusk  of  the 
elephant,  hippopotamus,  walrus,  and  other 
animals.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  SIten,  tooth, 
or  Shenhabbim,  a  compound  word  in  which 
liabbivi  probably  denotes  some  animal.  It  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  having  been 
brought  from  abroad  by  Solomon's  ships  (1 
Kin.  X.  22  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  It  seems  to 
have  come  from  India,  and  was  made  into  a 
throne  for  the  king  (1  Kin.  x.  18).  After- 
wards, when  luxury  had  estal)lislied  itself  to 
a  larger  extent  in  Jerusalem,  beds  (Amos  vi. 
4).  and  even  houses  wei'e  made  or  overlaid 
with  the  precious  material  (1  Kin.  xxii.  39 ; 
Amos  iii.  15  ;  Ps.  xlv.  8).  The  Tyrians  in- 
laid benches  for  rowers  with  it  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
6).  Ethiopia  also  sup])lied  ivory  to  the  an- 
cient world  (Herod,  iii.  97,  114). 

Iv'vah,  in  A.  V.  Ivah. 

A  city  which  the  representative  of  Sen- 
nacherib could  boast  that  the  Assyrians  had 
captured  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34  ;  xix.  13 ;  Is. 
xxxvii.  13).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Avva  (q.  v.). 

I-ye-ab'a-rim,  in  A.  Y.  Ije-abarim  [ruins 
of  the  district  of  Abarim]. 

A  halting  place  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  on  the  border  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  11  ;  xxxiii.  44).  In  ver.  45  the  place  is 
called  simply  lyim,  in  A.  V.  lim ;  because 
the  context  sufficiently  defined  the  locality 
to  be  in  Abarim. 

I'yim.     See  preceding  article. 

Iz'har,  I.,  in  A.  V.  once  Iz'e-har  (Num. 
iii.  19)  [bright,  oil,  especially  olive  oil]. 

A  Levile,  son  of  Kohath,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18.  19;  Num.  iii.  19,27; 
1  Chron.  vi.  18,  38).  From  him  descended  the 
rebel  Korali  (Num.  xvi.  1). 

Iz'har,  II.,  in  A.  Y.  Jezoar  [whiteness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  son  of 
Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv.  5-7).  Another  reading 
is  Zohar. 


Izliah 


346 


Jabbok 


Iz-li'ah,  in  A.  V.  Jezliab  [perhaps,  deliv- 
erance]. 

A  Beujamite,  sou  of  Elpaal  and  descended 
from  Shaharaini  (1  Chrou.  viii.  18). 

Iz-ra-M'ali  [Jehovali  doth  arise  (cp.  Is. 
Ix.  2]]. 

A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and  son 
of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  vii.  3j. 

Iz'ra-hite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  an  inhabitant 
of  the  town,  of  Izrah  (1  Chrou.  xxvii.  8), 
perhaps  the  same  as  Ezrahite. 

Iz'ri  [fashioning,  creative]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthuu,  and  head  of 
the  fourth  course  for  the  musical  service  of 
the  sanctuary  (1  Chrou.  xxv.  11).  Called  in 
ver.  3  Zeri  (q.  v.). 

Iz-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Jeziah  [perhaps,  Jehovah 
exulteth]. 

A  sou  of  Parosh.  He  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  25). 


J. 


Ja'a-kan,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  i.  42  Jakan. 
Written  Akan  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  27  [Horite 
name  of  uncertain  meaning]. 

A  descendant  or  prominent  branch  of  the 
Horites  of  mouut  Seir,  who  were  eventually 
dispossessed  by  the  Edomites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20, 
21,  27;  1  Chron.  i.  38,  42;  Deut.  ii.  12).  At 
the  time  of  the  exodus  sous  of  Jaakan  con- 
stituted a  tribe  wliich  occupied  a  district  on 
the  borders  of  Edom  near  mount  Hor,  where 
Aaron  died.  The  Israelites  encamped  at  cer- 
tain of  their  wells  (Ueut.  x.  6;  Num.  xx.  21- 
23;  xxxiii.  31). 

Ja-a-ko'toah  [siipplanting]. 

A  Simeonite  prince  (1  C'hrou.  iv.  36). 

Ja'a-lah,  or  Jaala  [doe,  female  ibex]. 

The  founder  of  a  family,  ranked  among 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii. 
5fJ  ;   Neh.  vii.  58). 

Ja'a-lam.     See  Jalam. 

Ja'a-nai,  in  R.  V.  Janai  [perhaps,  vora- 
cious or,  i)ossil)ly,  Jehovali  answer.s]. 

A  (iadite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

Ja'ar  [a  forest]. 

A  proper  name  occurring  in  the  margin  of 
Psalm  cxxxii.  fi,  K.  V.  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  same  as  Kirjath-jearim. 

Ja-a-re-or'e-gim.     See  Jair  II. 

Ja-ar-e-sM'ah,  in  A.  V.  Jaresiah  [Jeho- 
vah dotli  nourisii  or  plant]. 

.\  Beujamite,  son  of  Jeroliam  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27). 

Ja'a-sai  and  Ja'a-sau.    See  Jaasu. 

Ja-a'si-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Jaslel  (1  Chron. 

xi.  47)  [God  maketh]. 


1.  A  Mesobaite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  Abner  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  21). 

Ja'a-su,  in  A.  V.  Jaasau,  in  R.  V.  margin 
Jaasai  [possibly,  Jehovah  maketh]. 

A  son  of  Bani.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  37). 

Ja-az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  doth  hearken]. 

1.  Son  of  a  Maacathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23). 
See  Jezaniah. 

2.  A  Eechabite,  son  of  a  certain  Jeremiah, 
not  the  prophet  of  that  name  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

3.  A  son  of  Shaphan.  He  was  a  leader  of 
idolatry  in  Ezekiel's  time  (Ezek.  viii.  11). 

4.  A  son  of  Azzur  and  prince  of  Judah, 
who  was  seen  by  Ezekiel  in  vision  (Ezek.  xi. 
1 ;  cp.  viii.  1,  3  ;  xi.  24). 

Ja'a-zer.     See  Jazer. 

Ja-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  consoleth]. 

A  Levite,  registered  as  head  of  a  father's 
house  with  the  family  of  Merari  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  26,  27),  and  perhaps  called  his  son  or 
descendant  (Beno).  No  hint  is  elsewhere 
given  of  Merari  having  a  third  son.  Can 
Jaaziah  represent  the  house  of  the  dead 
Eleazar  (28;  cp.  xxiii.  22),  or  is  the  passage 
26*',  27  an  interpolation  ? 

Ja-a'zi-el  or  Aziel  [God  consoleth]. 

A  Levite  of  the  second  rank,  one  of  the 
musicians  who  played  on  the  psaltery  at  the 
removal  of  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom,  and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20; 
and  probably  xvi.  5).  In  the  last  passage  the 
form  Jeiel  is  probably  a  copyist's  error. 

Ja'bal  [in  Hebrew  a  stream,  a  river]. 

Son  of  the  Cainite  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Adah.  He  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwell 
in  teuts  and  have  cattle  (Gen.  iv.  20).     , 

Jab'bok  [effusion]. 

An  eastern  tributary  of  the  Jordan.  Jacob 
forded  it  on  his  way  back  from  Mesopotamia 
(Gen.  xxxii.  22).  Rising  near  Eabbath  Am-* 
mon,  it  flows  for  12  miles  from  that  town 
toward  the  northeast  and  then  .sweeps  around 
toward  the  northwest.  After  holding  this 
course  for  about  15  miles  it  turns  westward, 
and  for  17  miles  flows  through  a  valley  which 
cleaves  mount  Gilead  in  twain.  On  emerging 
into  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  it  bends  toward 
the  southwest  and  enters  the  Jordan  at  a 
point  about  43  miles  south  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee  ajid  23  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
It  is  now  known  as  the  nahr  cz-Zevka  or  blue 
river;  and  the  gorge  througli  which  it  flows  is 
called  the  wady  ez-Zerka.  The  Jabbok  was  a 
recognized  frontier.  It  formed  the  western 
boundary  of  the  Ammonites,  and  separated 
them  from  the  Aniorite  kingdom  of  Sihon 
and  later  from  the  tlibe  of  (iad.  It  divid(>d 
mount  (iilead  into  two  parts,  of  which  the 
southern  was  lu'ld  l)y  Sihon  before  the  Israel- 
ite cou(iU('sl,  :ui(l  afterwards  was  a.ssigned  to 
Gad,   while  the  northern  was  possessed   by 


Jabesh 


347 


Jachin 


ilic  Brook  Jabbok. 

Og  and  passed  from  him  to  the  half  tribe  of 
Mauasseh  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Dent.  ii.  36,  37; 
iii.  12,  13,  16;  Josh.  xii.  2-6). 

Ja'besh  [dry]. 

1.  A  town.     See  Jabesh-gilead. 

2.  Father  of  king  Shallum  (2  Kin.  xv.  10). 

Ja-toesh-gil'e-ad  [Jabesh  of  Gilead]. 

A  town  of  (xilead.  It  is  believed  to  have 
stood  at  or  near  ed-Deir,  9^  miles  south- 
east and  in  full  view  of  Beth-sheau  on 
the  other  side  of  the  river.  Ed-Deir  is 
in  the  wady  el-Yabis,  which  seems  to 
jjreserve  the  old  name  Jabesh.  In  the  war 
waged  against  Benjamin  in  the  days  of 
the  judges  on  account  of  the  matter  of 
the  Levite  and  his  concubine,  none  of  the 
men  of  Jabesh-gilead  took  part.  For  this 
iudirt'erence  to  a  national  sin,  they  were 
condemned  to  utter  destruction.  Only  400 
unmarried  girls  were  saved  alive  and  given 
for  wives  to  400  of  the  remaining  men  of 
Benjamin  (Judg.  xxi.  8-l.">).  The  ]>lace 
was  soon  rcoccupied.  Shortly  after  Saul 
had  been  chosen  king,  Nahash,  king  of  the 
Ammonites,  besieged  Jabesh-gilead.  The 
town  was  sore  pressed  ;  and  the  Ammonite 
king  doomed  every  man  to  the  loss  of  the 
right  eye  on  the  surrender  of  the  town.  This 
was  intended  as  an  insult  to  the  whole 
Israelite  nation.  Saul  raised  the  siege  bj^ 
defeating  the  besieging  army  (1  Sam.  xi.  1- 
11).  Tlie  men  of  the  town  remembered  tlieir 
deliverer  with  gratitude,  and  when,  after  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  his  headless  body,  with 
those  of  his  sons,  was  fastened  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean,  they  crossed  the  Jordan,  car- 
ried off  the  corpses,  burnt  them  and  buried 
the  bones  in  the  vicinity  of  Jabesh-gilead 
(xxxi.  11-13  :  1  Chnm.  x.  11,  12)  from  which 
they  were  ultimately  removed  to  the  sepul- 
cher  of   Kish   (2  Sam.    xxi.    12-14).     David 


sent   the    men    of  Jabesh   his   personal 
thanks  for  what  they  had  done  (ii.  4-7). 

Ja'bez  [he  makes  sorrow]. 

1.  A  man  of  .hulali,  whose  mother 
gave  him  the  name  Jabez,  because  she 
bore  him  in  sorrow.  He  was  more  hon- 
orable than  his  brethren.  He  prayed 
that  God  would  enlarge  the  boundary 
of  his  possessions,  besides  keeping  him 
from  evil.  God  granted  his  request  (1 
Chron.  iv.  9,  10). 

2.  A  place,  doubtless  in  Judah,  where 
families  of  scribes  dwelt  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Ja'bin  [he  discerneth,  intelligent]. 

1.  A  Canaanite,  king  of  Hazor  in  Gal- 
ilee and  its  dependent  towns  and  the 
head  of  the  confederacy  of  northern  and 
central  kings  whom  Joshua  defeated  at 
the  waters  of  Merom.     After  the  battle 

a^      the  Israelites  took  and  burned  Hazor  and 
slew  its  king  (Josh.  xi.  1-14). 

2.  Another  king  of  Canaan  who  reigned 
at  Hazor,  probably  a  lineal  descendant 
of  the  first  (Judg.  iv.  2).     He,  too,  had 

kings  fighting  under  him  (v.  19).  He  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  twenty  years ;  but  at 
length  his  commander-in-chief  Sisera  was  de- 
feated l)y  Barak  at  the  river  Kishon  and  after- 
wards murdered.  Jabin  continued  the  war, 
but  was  ultimately  destroyed  (iv.  2-24). 
Jab'ne-el  [God  doth  cause  to  be  built]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  5,  11).  It  is  the  same  ]ilace  as  the 
Philistine  city  of  Jabneh,  the  wall  of  which 
was  broken  down  by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
6)  ;  and  it  was  known  later  as  Jamnia  (1  Mac. 
iv.  15  ;  V.  58  ;  2  Mac.  xii.  8,  9).  It  is  rejjresented 
by  the  village  of  Yebnah,  about  4  miles  in- 
land from  the  Mediterranean,  and  9  north- 
east by  north  of  Ashdod. 

2.  A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  Conder  identifies  it  with  the  ruin 
Ycnima,  about  7  miles  south  by  west  of 
Tiberias.  More  comnu)nly  it  is  identified 
with  Jamnia  or  Jamnith,  a  village  of  upper 
Galilee,  built  on  a  rocky  height  and  fortified 
by  Josephus  (Life  37 ;  War.  ii.  20,  6)  ;  and 
whose  site  is  sought  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  plain  of  Huleh  and  Banias  (War  ii.  6,  3; 
but  text  is  uncertain). 

Jab'neh  [he  causes  to  be  built).  See 
Jabn'eei,. 

Ja'can,  in  A.  V.  Jachan  [troublous]. 

A  Gadite,  probal>ly  head  of  a  father's 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

Ja'cMn  [he  doth  establish]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  ((Jen.  xlvi.  10:  Ex.  vi.  15;  Num. 
xxvi.  12).  Called  .Tarib  in  1  Chron.  iv.  24, 
which  is  doubtless  due  to  an  erroneous  read- 
ing of  the  text  by  a  cojiyist. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  In  the  time  of 
David,  his  family  was  made  the  twenty-first 
of  the  courses  into  which  the  sacerdotal  body 
was  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  17).     It  dwelt  at 


Jacinth 


^48 


Jacob 


Jenisalein,  according  to  the  probable  mean- 
ing of  ix.  10;  but  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that 
the  priest  Jachin,  who  was  resident  at  Jeru- 
salem after  the  captivity,  was  of  this  family 
(Xeh.  xi.  10). 

3.  The  right-hand  pillar  of  two  set  up  in  the 
porch  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  15-22), 
probably  as  a  symbol  of  firnjness.    See  Boaz. 

Ja'cinth.     See  Hyacinth  and  Ligure. 

Jack'al. 

The  rendering  in  the  K.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
plurals  Tannim  and  'Jaiuiotli,  which  in  the 
A.  V.  are  regularly  translated  by  dragon 
(q.  v.).  The  creature  intended  is  a  mammal 
(Lam.  iv.  3,  in  A.  V.  sea  monsters)  and 
dwells  in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xxxv.  7 ;  xliii.  20) 
and  in  deserted  places  (xxxiv.  13,  14 ;  Jer. 
xlix.  33;  li.  37). 

The  jackal  (Canis  aitreus)  is,  it  will  be  seen, 
placed  in  the  dog  genus  Canis.  It  difl'ers 
from  the  dog  in  its  long  and  jjointed  muzzle. 
The  name  aiueus,  golden,  refers  to  the  color 
of  the  under  fur,  which  is  brownish  yellow, 
mottled  with  l)lack,  gray,  and  brown  hairs. 
Its  length  is  about  thirty  inches,  and  its  height 
at  the  shoulder  seventeen.  It  hunts  in  packs, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  carrion,  though  it  carries 
otf  and  devours  children  when  o])portunity 
arises.  It  has  been  called  the  lion's  jirovider, 
the  opinion  being  entertained  that  when  its 
voice  is  heard,  the  lion,  following  on,  tries  to 
claim  his  share  of  the  prey.  It  raises  the 
most  unearthlj'  yell  of  all  of  its  compeers. 
It  is  found  in  Africa  and  southern  Asia,  and 
is  ditfused  throughout  Palestine,  especially 
frctiuenting  ruins.     See  also  Fox. 

Ja'cob  [he  supplanteth,  supplanter]. 

A  son  of  Isaac  and  Kcbekah,  a  twin  with 
Esau,  but  born  a  short  time  after  him,  and 
therefore  considered  the  younger  brother 
(fien.  XXV.  21-26).  He  was  born  when  his 
father  was  sixty  years  old  (2()).  As  he  grew 
he  became,  a  quiet,  inotl'ensive  man,  dwelling 
in  tents  (27).  He  was  his  mother's  favorite, 
while  the  father  ]>ref('rred  Esau  (2S).  As  Esau 
came  in  froMi  limiting,  faint  with  hunger, 
Jacob  chanced  to  have  jiottagcof  lentils  ready 
boiled,  but  selfishly  forbore  to  relieve  his 
brother's  necessities  till  he  had  compelled 
him  first  to  surrender  the  ]>rivilege  of  his 
birthright  (29-34).  Positive  fraud  followed. 
AN'lien  Isaac  was  about  137  years  old  and 
nearly  blind.  Rebekah  induced  Jacob  to  dress 
himself  in  PXau's  raiment,  make  his  neck 
and  handsartificially  hairy,  and  ])assing  him- 
self off  as  Esau,  obtain  from  Isaac,  who 
thought  himself  near  death,  the  blessing  be- 
longing to  the  birthright.  I<]sau  recalled  the 
first  wrong  when  this  second  one  was  perpe- 
trat<'d,  and  resolved  that  when  bis  father 
(lied,  be  would  kill  his  l)rotlier  (xxvii.  1-11). 
Rebekah  heard  the  threat,  and  to  give  time 
for  Esau's  wrath  to  cool,  sent  Jacob  away  to 
her  relatives  in  Haran,  on  the  ])retext  of 
seeking  a  wife.  While  on  this  journey  he 
had  the  night  vision  in  which  a  ladder  con- 


nected earth  and  heaven,  angels  ascended 
and  descended,  and  God  standing  above 
assured  him  of  the  covenant  blessing  (xxvii. 
42-4 1! ;  xxviii,  1-22).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Paddan-aram  at  least  twenty  years,  while  he 
was  in  Laban's  employ,  serving  him  four- 
teen years  for  his  two  daughters,  Leah  and 
Rachel,  and  six  for  a  payment  in  cattle.  Dur- 
ing this  period  in  Haran  there  were  born  to 
him  eleven  sons  :  by  Leah  six,  Reuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun, 
besides  a  daughter,  Dinah ;  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's 
maid,  two,  Dan  and  Naphtali  ;  by  Zilpah, 
Leah's  maid,  two.  Gad  and  Asher  :  and  by 
Rachel  one,  Joseph  (xxix.,  xxx.).  The  last 
was  born  when  Jacob  was  ninety  or  ninety- 
one  years  of  age  (cji.  xlvii.  9  with  xli.  46,  47, 
54  ;  xlv.  11).  Six  years  later,  perceiving  that 
Laban  and  his  sons,  envying  his  prosperity, 
were  turning  against  him,  he  became  alarmed. 
While  pasturing  his  flocks,  probably  three 
days  from  Haran  (xxx.  36;  xxxi.  22)  on  the 
Euxdirates,  he  sent  for  his  wives  (xxxi.  4), 
crossed  the  river,  and  fled  with  his 
family  and  possessions  toward  Canaan 
(21).  Three  days  later  Laban  was  in- 
formed of  Jacob's  flight.  He  was  busy 
shearing  his  sheep ;  but  he  presently  gath- 
ered his  male  relatives,  started  in  pursuit  of 
the  fugitives,  and  after  a  week's  journey  by 
forced  marches  overtook  them  on  mount 
Gilead,  aj)|iarently  between  the  Yarmuk  and 
the  Jabbok,  scant  300  miles  from  the  Euphra- 
tes, at  least  ten  days  after  .Jacob's  depar- 
ture and  probably  longer,  foj'  Laban  was  busy 
shearing  sheep  when  he  received  information 
of  the  flight  and  was  unprepared  for  the 
journey.  God  shielded  Jacob  from  injury, 
and  a  reconciliation  and  a  treaty  of  amity 
between  the  alienated  parties  took  place. 
Aheap  of  stones  was  erected  and  a  covenant 
meal  eaten  to  establish  the  agreement  that 
neither  party  should  pass  that  point  to  at- 
tack the  other  (xxxi.).  Jacob  had  mani- 
festations of  the  divine  favor  at  Mahanaim 
and  on  the  Jabbok,  where  a  man  wrestled 
with  him  until  break  of  day,  showed  his 
superiority  to  Jacob  by  disabling  him  by  a 
touch,  and  before  departing  blessed  him,  say- 
ing :  "Thy  name  shall  be  called  no  more 
Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for  thou  hast  striven  with 
(Jod  and  with  men,  and  hast  prevailed." 
And  Jacob  called  the  name  of  that  place 
Peniel,  face  of  God,  for  he  said:  "I  have 
seen  God  face  to  face,  and  my  life  is  pre- 
served "  (xxxii.  22-32  ;  c]i.  the  name  xxxiii. 
20  ;  Ho.sea  xii.  4).  This  event  proved  a  crisis 
in  the  life  of  Jacob.  Heretofore  he  had  been 
trusting  to  his  own  strength  and  shrewdness 
for  success.  He  now  learns  that  his  own 
strength  is  of  no  avail  in  wrestling  with 
(4od  and  that  be  must  resort  to  prayer  for 
the  blessing  which  lie  cannot  do  without. 
Henceforth  the  record  of  his  worshiping  be- 
comes freciuent.  Before  he  cros.sed  the  Jor- 
dan, he  met  Esau,  and  obtained  forgiveness 
for  the  wrongs  which  had  so  long  made  him 


Jacob 


3^9 


Jacob 


an  exile.  Then  the  brothers  parted,  Esau 
returning  to  mount  Seir  and  Jacob  going  to 
Canaan  (xxxiii.  l-ltS).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Canaan  at  Shechem,  wliere  he  bouglit  a  par- 
cel of  ground  from  the  chief  of  Shechem,  on 
which  he  pitched  his  camp  and  erected  an 
altar  (xxxiii.  lS-2()).  While  here  his  daugh- 
ter Dinah  was  illtreated  by  the  chief's  son. 
The  deed  was  avenged  by  two  of  Jacob's  sons, 
Simeon  and  Levi,  and  the  other  sons  joined 
in  spoiling  the  town.  Jacob  feared  the  con- 
sequences of  this  act;  but  since  his  sons  had 
captured  the  place,  slain  the  males,  appro- 
priated the  wealth,  and  made  captive  the 
women  and  children,  he  recognized  the  con- 
quest of  the  town  and  the  consequent  owner- 
ship of  it  by  his  tribe  (xlviii.  22  ;  cp.  xxxvii. 
12).  From  Shechem  Jacob  removed  to  Bethel. 
There  Deborah  died  and  was  buried  (xxxv. 
6-8) ;  see  Deborah.  There  also,  at  the 
place  where  God  had  apjieared  to  him  as  he 
went  to  Paddan-aram,  God  appeared  to  him 
again  when  he  came  back  from  Paddan- 
aram  (xxxv.  9;  xxviii.  10-22),  emphasized 
the  change  of  his  name  to  Israel  ("without,  of 
course,  finding  it  necessary  to  tell  again  why 
the  new  name  had  been  given  at  the  Jabbok) 
and  confirmed  the  blessing  of  the  Abrahamic 
covenant  to  him.  As  he  drew  near  to  Beth- 
lehem on  his  way  to  Hel)ron,  his  twelfth 
«ind  last  son,  Benjamin,  was  born,  and  his 
beloved  Rachel  died  (9-20).  At  length  Jacob 
came  to  liis  fiither  Isaac  at  Mamre  (27). 
Isaac  died  about  twenty -three 
years  later,  and  was  buried  by 
Esau  and  Jacob  (28,  29).  Jacob 
seems  to  have  dwelt  at  Mamre 
during  the  next  thirty-three 
years ;  for  he  was  at  Hebron 
about  ten  years  after  his  re- 
turn (xxxvii.  11;  cp.  2),  and 
he  was  evidently  still  there 
when  he  was  summoned  to  go 
down  to  Egypt  (xlvi.  1).  Jacob 
was  130  years  old  when  he  went 
to  Egypt  (xlvii.  9),  and  he  lived 
there  seventeen  years.  He  gave 
a  special  blessing,  first  to  Jo- 
seph's children  and  then  to  his 
own,  after  which  he  died  at 
the  age  of  147  (xlvii.  28  ;  xlviii. : 
xlix. ).  His  body  was  embalm- 
ed, taken  to  Canaan  with  much 
pomp,  and  interred  in  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (1.  1-14).  Jacob 
had  glaring  faults  of  character. 
For  his  sins  he  suft'ered  se- 
verely, and  in  his  old  age  he 
was  sorely  chastened  by  the 
loss  of  Joseph.  In  his  later 
life  he  acknowledged,  at  least 
tacitly,  the  sinfulness  of  his 
earlier  career  and  his  failure 
to  walk  before  God,  and  he 
spoke  only  of  God's  grace  (xlviii.  15, 16).  He 
was  animated  also  in  his  latter  days  by  un- 
wavering faith  in  God  (21 ;  Heb.  xi.  21). 


Tiie  Hebrew  nation,  as  descended  from 
Jacob,  is  often  called  in  Scripture  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  (Ex.  xiv.  16,  29;  xv.  1,  etc.). 
The  prophets  often  use  .Jacob  and  Israel  as 
parallel  names  in  their  poetic  couplets  (Dent. 


'\ 


Outer  Openmg  of  Jacob's  A\  ell. 

xxxiii.   10;    Is.  xliii.  1,   22;    xliv.   1).     See 
Israel. 

Jacob's  well,  beside  or  on  the  edge  of  which 
Jesus  sat  when  conversing  with  the  woman 


Subterr 


b's  Well. 


of  Samaria,  was  at  Sychar,  near  to  the  parcel 
of  ground  that  Jacob  gave  to  his  son  Joseph. 
'■  Jacob,"  the  woman  of  Samaria  said,  "  drank 


Jada 


350 


Jahaziel 


thereof  himself,  and  his  sons,  and  liis cattle" 
(John  iv.  5,  B,  12;  cp.  Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20; 
xxxvii.  12).  A  tradition,  goinj;  back  as  far 
as  the  time  of  the  Bordeaux  pilgrim,  A.  D. 
.■JI53,  and  accepted  by  Jews,  .Samaritans,  Chris- 
tians, and  Mohammedans,  identifies  Jacob's 
well  with  tlie  Bir  Ya'kub.  It  is  situated  at 
the  eastern  mouth  of  the  valley  between 
mount  Ebal  on  the  north  and  mount  Gerizim 
on  the  south,  about  2  miles  eastsoutheast 
from  Nablus,  the  modern  Shechem,  and  half 
a  mile  southsouthwest  of  'Askar,  believed 
l>y  many  to  be  Sj'char.  Maundrell,  gener- 
ally very  accurate,  made  its  diameter  9  feet 
and  its  depth  105.  Dr.  .John  Wilson,  meas- 
uring a  line  with  which  a  boy  was  let  down 
into  it  with  a  light  in  1.S43,  determined  it  to 
be  7.5  feet  deep.  Conder  reported  its  depth 
in  1875  as  75  feet.  It  is  less  deep  now  than 
formerly,  because  somewhat  choked  with 
rubbisii.  The  water  is  good,  but  is  not  easy 
to  reach  (John  iv.  11).  The  shaft  is  lined 
with  masoury  in  the  upper  part.  The  lower 
part  is  cut  through  soft  limestone.  A  low 
subterranean  vault,  20  feet  long  from  east  to 
west  and  10  broad,  the  crypt  of  an  ancient 
CJhristian  church,  is  built  over  the  well,  the 
mouth  of  which  is  contracted  and  covered 
with  one  or  moi'e  large  stones.  There  is  a 
fine  fountain  a  little  to  the  west,  and  many 
others  in  the  valley.  The  well,  however, 
was  dug,  i)erhaps,  because  the  fountains  were 
ap|>roi)riated.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  what 
from  the  fourth  century  has  been  popularly 
considered  to  be  Joseph's  tomb. 

For  Jacob-el  and  .Toseph-el,  see  Joseph. 

Ja'da  [wise]. 

A  son  of  Onam,  a  man  of  Judah,  family  of 
Hezron,  liouse  of  JerahmeeUlChron.ii. 28,32). 

Ja'dau.     See  Iddo  II. 

Jad-du'a  [known]. 

1.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who, 
with  Nehemiah.  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x. 
21). 

2.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Jonathan  and  the 
fifth  in  descent  from  the  high  priest  Jeshua, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Neh.  xii.  11,  22).  He  was  ])robably  a  youth 
in  the  reign  of  Darius  Notlms,  and  sur- 
vived Darius  Codomannus,  the  I'ersian  sover- 
eign defeated  by  Alexander  the  Great  at 
Arbela  in  331  i?.  c.     See  Hiuii  Pkikst. 

Ja'don  [he  rnleth.  .judgeth.  or  abideth]. 

A  Meronothite,  who  repaired  i>art  of  the 
wall  of  Jeru.salcm  after  tlie  captivitv  (Neh. 
iii.  7). 

Ja'el  [wild  goat,  ibex]. 

The  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  iv. 
17).  Sisera,  Jabin's  general,  trusting  to  the 
jieace  subsisting  between  liis  royal  master 
and  Heber,  fled  to  her  tent  after  be  was  (1(>- 
feated  by  Barak.  On  his  approacli  Jael  went 
out,  invited  him  to  enter,  and  gave  him  milk 
to  relieve  his  thirst.  But  as  he  lay  slec^iiing 
in  the  tent,  she  took  a  hammer  and  drove 
a  tent  pin   through    his  temiiles,   fixing  his 


head  to  the  ground.  When  the  victorious 
Barak  passed,  she  called  him  in  to  see  what 
she  had  done  (Judg.  iv.  11-22).  Deborah 
highly  commended  the  deed  of  Jael  (v.  24- 
27),  though  it  was  cruel  and  treacherous.  It 
reveals  a  rudeness  of  manners  and  a  hard- 
ness of  character  which  found  frequent  ex- 
emplification in  those  early  times. 

In  V.  6  a  j  udge  named  Jael  may  be  referred 
to,  who  is  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  A  simpler 
explanation  is  that  Deborah  means  that  al- 
though the  heroic  woman  Jael  was  then  liv- 
ing, yet  no  one  ventured  to  nndertake  the 
deliverance  of  Israel  until  Deborah  arose. 

Ja'gur  [a  lodging,  an  inn]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Site  unknown. 

Jah. 

A  form  of  Jehovah  occurring  in  ])oetry 
(Ps.  Ixviii.  4  ;  E.  V.  of  Ixxxix.  8).  In  various 
other  places  Jah,  or,  rather.  Yah  in  Hebrew 
is  rendered  Lord  in  the  A.  V.  and  E.  V. 

In  the  Hebrew  sometimes  Jah  and  Jehovah 
stand  together,  Jah  first  (Is.  xii.  2  and  xxvi. 
4,  margin  of  E.  V.). 

Ja'hath  [perhaps,  grasping;  cp.  Mahath]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  de- 
scended through  Shobal  (1  Cliron.  iv.  2 ;  cp. 
ii.  19,  50). 

2.  A  son  of  Libni,  a  Levite,  family  of  Ger- 
shom  (1  Chron.  vi.  20,  and  perhaps  43).  The 
reference  in  ver.  43  may  belong  to  the  suc- 
ceeding. 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  and  head 
of  a  subdivision  of  the  house  of  Shimei 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  10). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  22). 

5.  A  Merarite  Levite,  an  overseer  of  the 
workmen  engaged  in  repairing  the  temple 
during  Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

Ja''Iiaz  and  Jahzab,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jabaza 
(Josh.  xiii.  18).  and  twice  Jahazah  (.Tosh. 
xxi.  36 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  21)  [a  place  trodden 
under  foot,  an  open  space]. 

A  place  in  the  plain  of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii. 
21)  where  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  Avas 
defeated  by  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  23; 
Deut.  ii.  32;  Judg.  xi.  20).  It  was  assigned 
to  the  Eeubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  18),  and  set 
apart  for  the  Merarite  Levites  (.Tosh.  xxi.  36; 
1  Chron.  vi.  78).  It  was  taken  from  Israel 
by  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (Moa))ite  Stone,  18- 
20),  and  it  was  held  by  Moab  in  the  time  of 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xv.  4  ;  Jer.  xlviii. 
21,  34).     Its  site  is  unknown. 

Ja-ha-zi'ah.     See  Jahzeiah. 
Ja-ha'zi-el  [God  seeth]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19). 

2.  One  of  the  Benjamite  warriors  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

3.  A  priest  in  David's  reign  who  was  em- 
jtloyed  to  sound  a  trumpet  in  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chron.  xvi.  6). 


Jahdai 


351 


Jambri 


4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Zechariah  of  the  Asaph 
family,  who  prophesied  iu  the  time  of  Jehosh- 
aphat  {2  Chrou.  xx.  14). 

5.  Father  of  a  chief  of  the  people  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  5). 

Jah'dal  [perhaps,  he  directeth  or  direc- 
tive] . 

A  man  of  Judah,  enrolled  with  Caleb's 
posterity  (1  Chrou  ii.  47). 

Jah'di-el  [God  maketh  glad]. 

A  leading  man  iu  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chrou.  v.  24). 

Jah'dc  [union]. 

A  (ladite,  son  of  Buz  (1  Chrou.  v.  14). 

Jah'le-el  [God  doth  grievously  afflict]. 

A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  14 :  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Jah'mai  [jierhaps,  lusty]. 

A  prince  of  Issachar,  of  the  family  of  Tola 
(1  Chrou.  vii.  2). 

Jah'zah.     See  Jahaz. 

Jah'ze-el  and  Jahziel  [God  distributeth]. 

A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24;  Num.  xxvi.  48;  1 
Chron.  vii.  I'.i). 

Jah-ze'iah,  in  A.  V.  Jahaziah  [Jehovah 
seeth] . 

A  sou  of  Tikvah  who  opposed  the  proposi- 
tion that  the  Jews  })ut  away  their  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  15,  E.  V.) ;  but  see  margin. 

Jah'ze-rah  [may  he  lead  back] . 
A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (1  Chrou. 
ix.  12). 

Jah'zi-el.     See  Jahzeel. 
Ja'ir,  I.  [he  enlighteneth]. 

1.  A  son  of  Segub  and  grandson  of  Hezron, 
of  the  ti-ibe  of  Judah,  and  his  wife,  who  was 
of  the  family  of  Machir,  of  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  (1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22).  He  was  reckoned 
with  the  tribe  of  Mauasseh  (v.  23 ;  Num. 
xxxii.  41 ;  Dent.  iii.  14).  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  by  the  Israelites  under  Moses  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan,  he  took  villages 
in  the  Argob,  on  the  border  of  Bashau  and 
Gilead,  and  called  them  Havvoth-jair  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Gileadite  who  judged  Israel  twenty- 
two  years,  succeeding  or  surviving  Tola  in 
office.  Each  of  his  thirty  sons  had  an  ass  for 
riding  purposes,  which  in  that  age  was  an 
indication  of  standing  in  the  community. 
They  also  had  thirty  cities,  called  Havvoth- 
jair.  He  may  have  belonged  to  the  family 
of  the  earlier  Jair  (cp.  perhaps  Jaikite),  and 
have  inherited  prerogatives  connected  with 
the  Havvoth-jair,  or  have  used  his  influence 
to  place  his  sens  over  these  encampments 
(Judg.  X.  3-5). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  Mordecai's  fiithcr  or  re- 
moter ancestor  (Esth.  ii.  5). 

Ja'ir,  II.  [he  arouseth]. 

Father  of  Elhauau  (1  Chron.  xx.  5)  ;  called 
iu  2  Sam.  xxi.  Ifl,  .Taare-oregim,  where  oregim 
has  gotten  into  the  text  by  error  from  the 
line  below. 


Ja'ir-ite. 

A  descendant  of  some  Jair  or  other,  %\  ho.se 
name  was  written  as  is  that  of  Jair,  I.  (2  Sam 
XX.  26). 

Ja-i'ru8  [(ireek  form  of  Jair]. 

A  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (Mark  v.  22; 
Luke  viii.  41),  i)robably  at  Capernaum.  His 
young  daugiitcr  lay  at  the  point  of  dealli  ; 
and  he  went  to  Jesus,  beseeching  him  to  heal 
her.  On  the  way  to  the  house  word  reached 
them  that  the  child  was  dead  (Mark  v.  2.;, 
24,  35 ;  Luke  viii.  42,  49)  ;  but  the  fatiier! 
with  confidence  in  Jesus'  power,  still  en- 
treated (Mat.  ix.  18),  and  Jesus  told  him  to 
put  away  all  fear  and  to  trust  him  (Mark  v. 
36;  Luke  viii.  50).  Entering  the  hou.se  with 
Peter,  James,  and  John  (Mark  v.  37;  Luke 
viii.  51  ;  cp.  Mat.  ix.  1<J)  he  found  it  full  of 
noi.sy  professional  mourners,  and  i-ebuked 
them  and  said  :  "  The  damsel  is  not  dead, 
but  sleepeth "  (Mat.  ix.  24;  Mark  v.  39; 
Luke  viii.  52).  He  used  the  word  sleep  as 
he  did  afterwards  in  the  case  of  Lazarus 
(John  xi.  11-14).  Taking  the  three  di-scipU's 
and  the  parents  (Mark  v.  40),  he  went  into 
the  chamber  where  the  dead  child  lay  (40; 
Mat.  ix.  25),  took  her  by  the  hand,  and  said 
in  the  language  of  the  people  T'^lHha  kumi, 
Maid,  arise  (Mark  v.  41;  cp.  Mat.  ix'.  25; 
Luke  viii.  54).  She  obeyed.  He  bade  the 
parents  not  to  tell  what  had  taken  place 
(Mark  v.  43;  Luke.  viii.  56).  But  such  a 
miracle  could  not  be  kept  from  public  knowl- 
edge (Mat.  ix.  26). 

Ja'kan.     See  Jaakan. 

Ja'keh  [pious]. 

The  father  of  that  Agur  whose  words  are 
recorded  in  Prov.  xxx.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible 
his  name  is  followed  by  the  words  Hiim- 
viasf!a\  translated  in  the  A.  V.  the  prophecy, 
and  in  the  R.  V.  the  oracle.  The  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  translates  the  title  Jakeh  of 
Massa,  and  refers  to  Gen.  xxv.  14,  where 
Massa  figures  as  a  sou  of  Ishmael. 

Ja'kim  [he  raises  up]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
grew  to  a  father's  house  and  was  made  the 
twelfth  of  the  twenty-four  courses  into 
which  David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.   12). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  19). 
Ja'lam,  in  A.  V.  Jaalam  [perhaps,  hidden 

or  pertaining  to  a  wild  goat]. 

A  sou  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamali. 
He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edoni  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
5,  18  ;  1  Chron.  i.  35). 

Ja'lon  [perhaps,  obstinate]. 

A  sou  of  Ezrah,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  .Tudah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Jam'bres  [perhaps,  opposer]. 

One  of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who 
attempted  to  counterwork  Moses  (2  Tim.  iii. 
8).     See  Jannes. 

Jam'bri. 

Founder  of  a  familv  which  dwelt  at  Medeba 


James 


352 


James 


(1  M:ic.  ix.  36,  37;  Autiq.  xiii.  1,  2).  The  or- 
tlio^niphy  is  uncertain.  It  may  reprcspiit 
till'  lli'brow  iiaiiK'  Oiiiri  or  Iiiiri  ;  and  even 
Aniorite  has  been  conjectured. 

James  [a  form  of  the  name  Jacob]. 

1.  James  the  sou  of  Zebedee  (JIat.  iv.  21  ; 
X.  2;  Mark  i.  19;  iii.  17),  and  brother  of 
the  apostle  John  (Mat.  xvii.  1  ;  Mark  iii.  17; 
V.  l>7  ;  Acts  xii.  2),  one  of  the  earliest  dis- 
cijvles  (Mat.  iv.  21  ;  Mark  i.  19,  29  ;  cp.  John 
i.  40.  41)  and  most  trusted  apostles  (Mat.  xvii. 
1  ;  -Mark  v.  37;  ix.  2;  xiii.  3;  xiv.  33;  Luke 
viii.  ol ;  ix.  2b)  of  our  Lord.  Of  his  birth- 
jiiaite  or  early  home  we  are  told  nothing. 
His  occuj)atiou  as  a  tisherman  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  in  partnership  with  Peter  and 
Andrew  (Luke  v.  10),  might  seem  to  suggest 
a  contiguous  locality.  But  the  fishery  of  the 
sea  of  Oalilee  was  expressly  kept  free  for 
every  Israelite,  and  a  social  ditference  between 
the  sons  of  Zebedee  and  the  sons  of  Jonas 
may  be  implied  iu  the  facts  that  the  former 
kept  hired  servants  (Mark  i.  20),  and  that 
John  at  least  was  known  to  the  high  priest 
(John  xviii.  Hi)  and  may  have  had  a  house 
in  Jerusalem  (xix.  27).  His  father,  Zebedee, 
appears  only  once  in  the  pages  of  the  gospels 
(Mat.  iv.  21  ;  Mark  i.  19),  where  he  raises  no 
obstacle  to  his  .sons'  following  Jesus.  From 
Mat.  xxvii.  56,  compared  with  Mark  xv.  40  ; 
xvi.  1  and  with  John   xix.  25,  it  seems  rea- 

,  sonable  to  infer  that  his  mother  was  named 
Salome  and  was  sister  to  the  mother  of  Jesus : 
in  which  case  James  would  be  a  near  kins- 
luan  of  Jesus,  and  like  him  of  Davidic  de- 
scent. His  name  occurs  only  in  the  synoptic 
gospels  and  the  book  of  The  Acts,  although  he 
is  alluded  to  twice  in  the  Gosj)el  of  John  (i.  40, 
41  ;  .\xi.2).  It  never  occurs  apart  from  that  of 
John,  which  it  ordinarilv  precedes  (Mat.  iv. 
21  ;  X.  2  ;  xvii.  1 ;  Mark  'i.  19,  29;  iii.  17  ;  v. 
37 ;  ix.  2  ;  x.  35,  41 :  xiii.  3  ;  xiv.  33  ;  Luke 
v.  10;  vi.  14;  ix.  54),  while  John  is  desig- 
nated as  tlie  brother  of  James  (Mat.  iv.  21 ; 
X.  2  :  xvii.  1  ;  Mark  i.  19;  iii.  17  ;  v.  37).  From 
tills  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  the  older 
brother;  while  the  occasional  reverse  usage 
in  Luke  (viii.  51,  K.  V.;  ix.  28)  and  Acts 
(i.  13,  R.  V.  ;  xii.  2  only)  is  su]ii)osed  to  arise 
from  .lohn's  greater  ]U'omiiieiue  in  the  apos- 
tolical circle.  Along  with  .John,  he  received 
from  Christ  the  surname  Boanerges  or  .son 
of  tliunder  (Mark  iii.  17),  and  along  with 
him  earned  his  Master's  rebuke  for  the  fierce- 
ness of  ills  anger  against  the  Samaritan  vil- 
lage which  would  not  receive  Jesus  (Luke  i.\. 
55),  and  the  indignation  of  his  fellow  apos- 
tles for  his  ambitious  self-seeking  (Mark  x. 
41).  After  the  erucifi.xioii  we  lliid  him  with 
the  other  apostles  in  (laiilee  (.lolin  xxi.  2), 
and  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  13),  and  his  record 
closes  with  his  death  by  the  sword  at  the 
hands  of  Herod  Agrijijia  I.,  iirobably  a.  n. 
44  (xii.  2).  He  was  the  first  <if  llie  apostolic 
band  to  seal  his  testimony  with  his  blood. 

2.  James  the  son  of  .Mplueiis  and   one  of 


the  apostles  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  x.  3;  Mark 
iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  certainly  known  of  him.  It  is 
natural,  however,  as  it  has  been  usual,  to 
assume  that  the  James  of  Mat.  xxvii.  56 ; 
Mark  xv.  40  ;  xvi.  1  :  Luke  xxiv.  10  is  this 
James :  in  w-hich  case  we  may  learn  that  be 
bore  the  surname  of  "  the  little  "  (E.  V.,  "  the 
less"),  possibly  with  reference  to  his  stature 
(Mark  xv.  40)  ;  that  his  mother  was  called 
Mary,  and  was  one  of  the  women  who 
accompanied  Christ ;  and  that  he  had  a 
brother  named  Joses.  Levi,  or  Matthew,  who, 
according  to  Mark  ii.  14,  was  son  of  Aljihseus, 
may  be  another  brother  :  and  it  is  possible  to 
fill  iu  the  ellipsis  of  Luke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13 
so  as  to  make  the  apo.stle  Judas  another 
brother.  It  is  possible  further  to  identify 
the  Mary  of  C'lopas  of  John  xix.  25  with 
Mary  the  mother  of  James ;  and  it  is  then 
po.ssible,  though  scarcely  natural,  to  read 
John  xix.  25  as  declaring  that  Mary  of  Clopas 
was  Jesus'  mother's  sister.  By  this  combina- 
tion, James,  the  son  of  Aljihseus,  would  be 
made  out  to  be  the  cousin-germau  of  our 
Lord.  It  is  common,  on  this  assumption,  to 
take  still  another  step,  and,  on  the  ground 
of  the  similarity  between  the  names  of  the 
Lord's  brethren  and  those  of  the  sons  of 
Alpha?us,  so  obtained,  to  suppose  that  this 
near  relative  of  our  Lord's  is  intended  by 
"  James  the  Lord's  brother."  The  whole  con- 
struction is,  however,  very  insecure,  and  does 
not  seem  to  satisfy  the  biblical  facts. 

3.  James,  the  Lord's  brother  (]\Iat.  xiii.  55; 
Mark  vi.  3;  Gal.  i.  19),  and  the  head  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  in  the  apostolic  age 
(Acts  xii.  17 ;  xv.  13  ;  xxi.  18  ;  Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii. 
9,  12).  This  James  is  mentioned  by  name 
only  twice  in  the  gospels  (Mat.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark 
vi.  3),  but  the  outlines  of  his  life  may  be 
traced  by  means  of  the  notices  of  the  "breth- 
ren of  the  Lord,"  who  constituted  a  distinct 
class,  both  during  our  Lord's  life,  when  they 
I  did  not  believe  on  him  (John  vii.  5),  and  after 
j  his  resurrection,  when  tlie_v  are  found  among 
his  followers  (Acts  i.  14).  The  exact  relation- 
I  ship  which  these  "  brethren  "  bore  to  our  Lord 
!  has  always  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  Some, 
identifying  theiu  with  th(^  sons  of  Alpha?us, 
represent  them  as  his  cousins.  Others  think 
of  them  as  his  half-brothers,  children  of 
Joseph  by  a  former  marriage.  As  they 
always  apjtear  with  Mary,  living  and  jour- 
neying with  her  and  holding  just  such  rela- 
tions with  her  as  would  naturally  be  borne 
by  her  children  (Mat.  xii.  46,  47;*Luke  viii. 
19;  John  ii.  12),  there  is  no  reason  to  ques- 
tion the  natural  implication  that  they  were 
Jesus'  own  brothers.  As  James'  nanie'stands 
first  in  the  lists  (Mat.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark  vi.  3),  it 
is  probable  that  he  was  the  oldest  of  our 
I.,ord's  brothers.  He  doubtless  shared  their 
unbelief  (John  vii.  5).  and  doubtless  also  their 
natural  anxieties  in  his  behalf  (^lark  iii.  31, 
scf].).  When  or  how  the  change  was  wrought 
ill    iiiiM    by  which    he  became  a  servant  of 


James,  Epistle  of 


353 


James,  Epistle  of 


Christ  (Acts  i.  14 ;  Jas.  i.  1)  we  are  not  told  : 
l)ossibly,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul,  his  conversion 
was  clue  to  a  special  appearance  of  the  risen 
Lord  {1  Cor.  xv.  7).  J^rom  the  very  first  or- 
ganization of  the  church  in  Jerusalem, 
James  appears  as  its  head  (Acts  xii.  17;  xv. 
13  ;  xxi.  18;  Gal.  i.  19;  ii.  9,  12).  As  early 
as  A.  D.  40,  when  Paul  first  visited  Jerusalem 
after  his  conversion,  James'  position  was 
such  that  Paul  felt  it  necessary  to  name  him 
along  with  Peter  as  having  been  seen  by  him 
(Gal.  i.  19).  The  reference  of  Acts  xii.  17 
(a.  d.  44),  where  James  is  clearly  the  oflicial 
head  of  "the  brethren,"  as  well  as  that  of 
xxi.  18  (a.  d.  58),  where  he  seems  to  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  elders  of  the  church  (cp. 
XV.  6),  enable  us  to  estimate  wherein  his 
preeminence  consisted.  As  he  was  not  an 
apostle  (the  R.  V.  margin  gives  the  correct 
translation  of  Gal.  i.  19),  we  cannot  be  far 
wrong  in  assuming  that  he  was  the  head  of 
the  board  of  elders  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  ; 
that  is,  what  we  should  call  the  "pastor" 
of  that  church.  See  Elder.  As  such,  his 
name  stands  for  the  church  of  Jerusalem 
(Gal.  ii.  12),  of  which  he  was  the  natural 
representative  (Acts  xii.  17 ;  xv.  13  ;  xxi.  18) ; 
and  visitors  to  the  church  made  themselves 
known  in  the  first  instance  to  him  and  laid 
their  errand  before  him  (xii.  17;  xxi.  18; 
Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii.  9).  In  his  position,  James'  life- 
work  was  naturally  to  smooth  the  passage  of 
Jews  over  to  Christianity.  That  he  stood  on  the 
same  platform  of  faith  with  Paul  is  apparent 
not  only  from  Paul's  assertion  in  Gal.  ii.  9, 
but  also  from  James'  remarks  recorded  in 
Acts  XV.  13  :  xxi.  20.  But  on  both  occa- 
sions he  speaks  also  in  behalf  of  the  Jewish- 
Christian  conscience,  and  it  is  equally  appar- 
ent that,  as  Paul  became  as  all  men  to  all 
men  because  he  was  sent  to  all,  James  be- 
came as  a  Jew  to  Jews  because  he  was  sent 
to  Jews.  The  use  of  his  name  by  intense 
Jiidaizers  (Gal.  ii.  12,  and  the  later  Clemen- 
tine literature)  is  thus  explicable,  as  also  the 
admiration  which  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
ceived for  him  by  the  Jews  themselves,  who 
are  reported  to  have  given  him  the- surname 
of  "the  just"  (Eusebius,  H.  E.  ii.  23).  After 
Acts  xxi.  18  (a.  d.  58)  we  meet  no  further 
reference  to  James  in  the  N.  T.  Secular  his- 
tory tells  us,  however,  that  he  was  martyred 
in  a  poj)ular  outbreak  of  the  Jews  in  the  in- 
terregnum between  the  death  of  the  jirocura- 
tor  Festus  and  the  appointment  of  his  suc- 
cessor, i.  e.,  A.  D.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1  ;  Euse- 
bius, H.  E.  ii.  23). 

4.  James,  the  father  or  brother  of  the  apos- 
tle Judas  (Luke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  him.  B.  B.  w. 

James,  E-pis'tle  of. 

This  letter  does  not  announce  itself  as  the 
production  of  an  apostle,  but  describes  its 
author  simply  as  James,  a  bond-servant  of 
God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  1,  R. 
V.  margin).  It  is  most  natural  to  think  of 
23 


James,  the  Lord's  brother,  as  meant,  and 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  letter  agree 
with  this  attribution.  The  letter  bears  a  dis- 
tinct flavor  of  primitiveness :  the  Christian 
place  of  worship  is  still  spoken  of  as  a  syna- 
gogue (ii.  2)  ;  Christians  are  not  sharply 
discriminated  from  Jews  (i.  1)  ;  the  sins  re- 
buked and  errors  corrected  are  such  as  would 
naturally  spring  up  in  a  Jewish  soil  ;  while 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  the  controversies 
which  already  in  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
first  Christian  century  were  distracting  the 
whole  church.  It  is,  therefore,  usually  dated 
about  A.  D.  45,  and  considered  the  earliest  of 
the  N.  T.  writings.  It  is  addressed  to  the 
twelve  tribes  which  are  of  the  Dispersion  (i.  1, 
R.  v.),  that  is,  not  to  the  dispersed  Jews,  nor 
yet  to  the  whole  Christian  church,  consid- 
ered as  the  spiritual  Israel,  but,  probably,  to 
the  Christians  (ii.  1,5,  7;  v.  7)  among  the 
Jewish  Dispersion,  as  the  Jews  dwelling  out- 
side the  Holy  Land  were  technically  called 
(John  vii.  35  ;  cp.  2  Mac.  i.  27).  The  object 
of  its  writing  was  to  reform  and  correct  those 
sins  and  errors  to  which  its  lately  Christian- 
ized Jewish  readers  continued  to  be  liable, 
and  to  encourage  them  in  the  sore  trials  to 
which  they  were  exposed. 

After  the  address  (i.  1),  James  first  consoles 
his  readers  in  their  trials  and  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness,  pointing  out  at  the  same 
time  the  source  of  the  temptation  to  apos- 
tasy (i.  2-21).  He  proceeds  then  to  warn 
them  against  mere  word-service,  explaining 
what  is  meant  by  true  faith  (i.  22-27),  what 
will  be  the  efiect  of  true  faith  on  the  preva- 
lent sin  of  respect  of  persons  (ii.  1-13),  and 
how  a  true  faith  evinces  itself  (ii.  14-26). 
Exhortations  against  hasty  assumption  and 
misuse  of  the  functions  of  religious  teachers 
and  exposure  of  their  root  in  a  jealous  heart 
follow  (iii.  1-18)  ;  and  then  reproofs  of  con- 
tentiousness (iv.  1-12)  and  self-sufficiency 
(iv.  13-v.  6).  The  ei)istle  closes  with  exhor- 
tations to  patience  in  sufiVring  (v.  7-12)  and 
to  prayer  as  the  sufficient  resource  of  the 
Christian  in  every  need  (13-18),  along  with  a 
final  declaration  of  the  joy  of  Christian  prop- 
agandism  (19-20). 

The  linguistic  and  rhetorical  character  of 
the  epistle  is  very  high.  It  is  written  in 
Greek  which  is  surpassed  in  purity  by  that 
of  no  N.  T.  writings  except  those  of  Luke, 
and  in  a  strikingly  elevated  and  picturesque 
style  resembling  that  of  the  Hebrew  prophets. 
It  contains  more  imagery  drawn  from  na- 
ture than  all  the  epistles  of  Paul,  in  this  re- 
calling the  manner  of  our  Lord's  synoptic 
speeches,  to  which  it  presents  numerous 
parallels.  The  tone  and  matter  of  its  teach- 
ing are  appropriate  to  its  early  date  and  the 
recent  emergence  of  its  readers  from  Juda- 
ism. The  section  on  faith  and  works  (ii.  14- 
26)  has  often  been  misapiirehcnded  as  a 
polemic  against  Paul's  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  or  at  least  as  a  corrective  of 
perversions  of  that  doctrine.     It  is  really  a 


Jamin 


354 


Jar 


rebuke  of  a  prevalent  Jewish  notion— tl)at 
mere  intellectual  assent  to  divine  teacliint;  is 
all  that  is  necessary  for  salvation.  James  as 
pointedly  as  Pawl  makes  faith  the  instru- 
ment of  salvation  (ii.  2-2,  2'.i),  and  Paul  as 
firmlv  as  James  insists  that  the  only  saving 
faiih'is  the  faith  that  works  (Gal.  v.  6). 

There  is  clear  evidence  of  tlie  use  of  this 
epistle  by  the  church  from  the  very  earliest 
times,  (irigeu,  however,  writing  early  in  the 
third  century,  is  the  tirst  writer  to  ({inite  it 
exi)licitly  by  name;  and  there  was  a  period 
during  which  the  Latin  writers  seem  to  have 
used  it  liitle.  Luther,  not  fully  seeing  its 
harmony  with  Paul,  i)ermitted  himself  to 
speak  unguardedly  about  it.  It  is  historicall.v 
indicated  as  an  integral  portion  of  the  sacred 
canon.  B.  B.  W. 

Ja'min  [the  right  hand,  pro.sperity]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
familv  (Gen.  xlvi.  10 ;  Ex.  vi.  15 ;  Num.  xxvi. 
12). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahnieel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

3.  One  of  the  Levites  who,  under  the  di- 
rection of  Ezra,  read  the  law  of  God  to  the 
I>eoiile  and  caused  them  to  understand  it 
(Neh.  viii.  7,  8). 

Jam'lech  [let  him  constitute  a  king]. 

A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  34). 

Jam'ni-a.    See  J.\bneel. 

Ja'nal.     See  Jaanai. 

Ja'nim,  in  A.  V.  Janum  [sleep]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  53)  ;  doubtless  to  tlie  west  or 
southwest  of  Hebron. 

Jan'nai,  iu  A.  V.  Janna. 

Till-  futlicr  of  Mclchi  in  the  ancestry  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24). 

Jan'nes. 

One  of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who  at- 
t<'ni|itcd  to  counterwork  Most's,  .lambrcs  being 
tlie  other  (2  Tim.  Hi.  8).  The  reference  is  to 
the  occurrences  described  in  Ex.  vii.  11,  12, 
22;  viii.  7,  18,  19;  and  ix.  11,  where,  how- 
ever, tlw  names  of  the  magicians  are  not 
given  nor  their  number.  They  weri'  known 
to  late  .lewisli  ti'adilion,  being  found  in  the 
Targum  of  the  pseudo-Jonathan.  The  Talmud 
mentions  Johana  ;nid  Mamre.  .lanibres  is 
believed  to  be  the  Greek  form  of  .lanireh, 
oppdscr.  ^lamre,  from  the  sanu^  root,  is  used 
in  the  Talnnid  for  one  who  resists  the  de- 
cisions of  the  .sanhedrin.  Jannes  is  ]ierbaps 
a  corru])tion  of  Jobanan  (cp.  .laniiieus),  but 
in  sound  suggests  the  Hebrew  Ydiii',  he  bin- 
ders or  dissuades. 

Ja-no'ah,  and  Ja-no'liali  in  A.  ^'.  of  Joshua 
[r<-st,  (|iiiet  1. 

1.  A  town  of  Xaphtali,  <;a])tured  bv  Tig- 
lath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  2!):.  Not  idelitified. 
Yanuli,  Gh  miles  cast  by  south  of  Tyre,  is  not 
in  the  district  described. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  llpbraim 


(Josh.  xvi.  6,  7).    It  has  been  fixed  at  Yantin, 
7  miles  S.  E.  of  Shechem. 

Ja'ntun.     See  Janim. 

Ja'pheth  [beauty,  or  let  him  enlarge]. 

A  son  of  Noah,  and  doubtless  one  of  the 
two  elder  sons  (Gen.  x.  21 ;  cp.  ix.  24),  born 
about  Noah's  five  hundredth  year  (v.  32;  vi. 
10)  ;  see  Noah.  At  the  time  of  the  deluge 
he  was  married,  but  had  no  children  with 
him  in  the  ark  (vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  On 
the  occasion  of  Noah's  drunkenness,  Japheth 
acted  to  him  in  a  dutiful  manner,  and  in 
consequence  received  a  blessing,  the  essential 
part  of  which  was  that  he  should  receive 
large  territory  and  enjoy  free  action  and  that" 
he  should  occupy  the  tents  of  Shem,  not  in 
the  sense  of  conquering  the  Semites,  but  of 
dwelling  with  them  in  peace  and  sharing 
their  privileges  (Gen.  ix.  20-27).  "The  lan- 
guage of  the  N.  T.  is  the  speech  of  Japheth 
entered  into  the  tents  of  Shem,  the  gospel  is 
the  proclamation  of  salvation  translated  out 
of  Semitic  into  Japhetic,  and  the  converted 
heathen  are  for  the  most  part  Jajthetic  jieople 
dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Shem"  (Delitzsch). 
Japheth  was  the  progenitor  of  the  people 
who  inhabited,  or  perhaps  in  some  cases  con- 
quered and  annexed,  Gomer,  Magog,  Madai, 
Javan,  Tubal,  Meshech,  and  Tiras(Gen.  x.  2), 
extending  from  the  high  plateau  south  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  westward  through  the  mountain 
region  south  of  the  Black  Sea  to  the  islands 
and  northern  shores  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean, with  settlements  farther  west. 

Ja-phi'a  [shining,  gleaming]. 

1.  A  king  of  Lachish,  defeated,  captured, 
and  executed  by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  3-27). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  V.  15). 

3.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
12).  It  is  by  many  identified  with  YaTa,  a 
little  less  than  2  miles  southwest  of  Nazareth. 

Japh'let  [may  he  deliver]. 

An  Aslierite,  family  of  Heber  (1  Chron. 
vii.  32). 

Japh'le-tite,  in  A.  Y.  JapMeti. 

The  descendants  of  a  certain  Japhlet,  appar- 
ently not  the  same  as  the  Asherite  of  that 
name.  Tbeir  location  was  on  the  border  of 
Ejihraim,  near  Beth-horon  (Josh.  xvi.  3). 

Ja'pho.     See  Joppa. 

Jar. 

A  vessel  of  earthenware,  but  occasionally 
of  other  material  (John  ii.  (i  ;  cp.  Odyssey 
xiii.  10,')),  ivsed  for  either  dry  articles  or 
li(piids.  An  earthen  jar,  generally  having 
one  or  two  handles,  was  used  for  drawing 
water  and  for  bearing  it  home  from  the  well 
or  fountain  ( Ecc.  xii.  (!),  Ordinarily  women 
fetclied  the  water  for  the  household,  carrying 
the  jar  on  the  head  or  the  shoulder  (Gen. 
xxiv.  13,  15,  Hi ;  John  iv.  28).  but  men  some- 
times brought  it  (Mark  xiv.  13).  Wine  was 
stored  in  earthei'n  jai's  (Herod,  iii.  (J;  Ana- 
basis  vi.   1,   15;  cp.  Odyssey  ii.  290),  which 


Jarah 


355 


Jashobeam 


were   often   of   great  size   (Odyssey    ii.    340, 
pithos).      Oil  also   was  kept  in  them ;    and 


Eastern  Waterpots. 

they  were  used  in  the  house  for  holding  meal 
(1  kin.  xvii.  TJ,  in  A.  V.  barrel). 

Ja'rah  [honey]. 

A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  C'hron.  ix. 
42).     Called  Jehoaddah  in  viii.  36. 

Ja'reb  [contentious  or  let  him  contend]. 

A  king  of  Assyria  whose  name  has  not 
been  identified  (Hos.  v.  13;  x.  6),  or  else 
Jareb  is  not  a  proper  name  at  all,  but  a  de- 
scriptive term,  and  the  He))rcw  is  to  be  ren- 
dered, as  on  the  margin  of  R.  Y.,  a  king  that 
should  contend. 

Ja'red,  in  A.  V.  once  Jered  (1  Chron.  i.  2) 
[perhaj)S  descent]. 

Son  of  Mahalaleel  and  father  of  Enoch 
(Gen.  V.  16-20;  1  Chron.  i.  2;  Luke  iii.  37). 
See  Chronology. 

Jar-e-si'ah.     See  Jaareshiah. 

Jar'ha. 

An  Egyptian  servant  of  a  man  of  Judah 
called  Sheshan.  The  master  gave  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  Jarha  (1  Chron.  ii.  34,  35). 

Ja'rib  [an  adversary,  or  he  doth  contend]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  24);  see 
Jachin. 

2.  A  chief  man  who  was  with  Ezra  the 
priest  at  the  river  of  Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

3.  A  ])riest  who  was  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  Iti). 

Jar'muth  [a  height], 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland,  whose  king  was 
defeated,  captured,  and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh. 
X.  3-27;  xii.  11).  It  was  assigned  to  Judah 
(xv.  35),  and  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 


(Neh.  xi.  29).  Eusebius  identified  it  with  a 
village  known  in  his  day  as  Jermochos,  in 
Latin  Jermucha,  10  Roman  miles 
from  Eleutheropolis  on  the  road  to 
Jerusalem.  The  site  is  marked  by 
the  ruined  village  of  Yarmiik. 

2.  A  town  of  Issachar,  assigned  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi. 
28,29).  Itis called  Ramotli  (1  Chron. 
vi.  73)  and  Remeth  (.Tosh.  xix.  21), 
synonyms  of  Jarmuth.  Not  identi- 
fied. The  village  of  er-Rameh,  5; 
miles  nortii  by  west  of  the  city  of 
Samaria,  does  not  lie  within  the 
bounds  of  Issachar.  Notliing  but 
altitude  recommends  el-Mezar  or 
Wezar,  on  one  of  the  highest  points 
of  nuMiut  Gilboa. 

Ja-ro'ah. 

A  Gadite,  de.sceuded  through  Bu2 
(1  Chron.  v.  14). 

Ja'shar,  in  A.  V.  Jasher  [right- 
eous, upright]. 

The  Book  of  Jasliar  is  quoted  in 
Josh.  X.  13;  2  Sam.  i.  18;  and  in 
Septuagint  of  1  Kin.  viii.  53.  From 
these  citations,  the  book  was  evi- 
dently a  collection  of  poems  which 
were  apparently  accompanied  by 
introductory,  and  perhaps  also  con- 
cluding, explanatory  remarks  in  prose.  It 
resembled  in  this  respect  the  psalms  with 
prose  introductions,  such  as  Ps.  xviii.  and 
Ii.,  or  the  book  of  Job  with  its  ])rose  in- 
troduction (i.-iii.  1)  and  conclusion  (xlii. 
7-17).  In  1751  there  appeared  a  volume 
which  professed  to  be  an  English  translation 
of  the  Book  of  Jashar,  alleged  to  have  been 
found,  but  the  production  was  an  impudent 
forgery. 

Ja'shen  [sleeping]. 

A  name  in  the  catalogue  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  32)  occupying  the  place 
of  Hashem  in  1  Chron.  xi.  34.  Perhaps  the 
preceding  letters  Bni,  rendered  "sons  of"  in 
the  English  versions,  form  part  of  the  name; 
or  they  may  have  been  re])eated  from  the 
preceding  word,  Shaalbonite,  which  termi- 
nates with  them. 

Ja'sher.     See  Jashar, 

Ja-sho'be-am  [let  the  jjcople  return  (to 
God)]. 

1.  A  man  of  the  family  of  Hachmoni  and 
chief  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
11).  He  is  reasonably  identified  with  the 
son  of  Zabdiel.  of  the  children  of  Perez,  and 
consequently  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  was 
made  military  captain  over  the  course  for  the 
first  month  (i  Chron.  xxvii.  2,  3).  Called  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  H  Josheb-basshebeth  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag. 
He  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Korahites. 
probably  the  Levitical  family  of  that  name 
who  kept  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Chron. 
xii.  1,  2,  6). 


Jashul) 


356 


Jeljus 


Ja'shub  [ho  rotiinis]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Issiithar,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  faiuily  (Num.  xsvi.  '24;  1  Chron.  vii. 
1).  Called  .(ol)  in  (ieu.  xhi.  13,  probably 
throusjh  a  coiiyist's  omission  of  the  Hebrew 
letter  sh. 

2.  A  son  of  Bani  whom  Ezra  induced  to 
put  away  his  forcij^'u  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

Jash-u-bi-le'hem  [perhai)s,  bread  returns]. 

I'robalily  a  man,  and  not  a  locality ;  a 
member  of  the  family  of  Shelah,  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  22). 

Ja'si-el.     .See  Jaasiel. 

Ja'son  [liealing]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  envoys  sent  by  Judas 
Maccabieus  to  Rome  to  invoke  aid  against  the 
Syrians  (1  Mac.  viii.  17).  It  was  perhaps  his 
son  who  was  sent  to  renew  this  alliance 
(xii.  IG). 

2.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Simon  II.,  who 
held  office  from  about  174-171  B.  c,  and  used 
his  influence  to  helleuize  the  Jews  (2  Mac.  iv. 
7-26) ;  see  High  Priest. 

3.  A  man  of  Cyreue  and  author  of  a  history 
of  the  .Jewish  war  for  freedom,  175-160  B.  c. 
(2  Mac.  ii.  23) ;  see  Apocrypha  14. 

4.  A  Christian,  a  relative  of  Paul  (Rom. 
xvi.  21).  He  was  probably  the  Jason  who 
ri'sidcd  at  Thessalonica.  gave  lodging  to  Paul 
and  Silas  in  his  home  during  their  visit  to  the 
city,  and  was  dragged  by  the  Jews  and  their 
abettors  before  the  rulers  for  this  act  of  hos- 
pitality to  objectionable  men  and  only  re- 
leased on  giving  bail  (Acts  xvii.  5-9). 

Jas'per. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yash''])heli  (cp. 
Arabic  Yasb)  and  the  (ireek  Iafipis,ii  j)recious 
stone  (Ex.  xxviii.  20:  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  Rev. 
iv.  3).  .Jasper  is  a  variety  of  quartz,  of  a 
red,  brown,  yellow,  green,  or  gray  color,  and 
opaque.  Among  the  ancients  tlie  term  was 
of  broader  meaning.  It  included,  according 
to  Pliny,  a  transparent  or  translucent  green 
variety  ((■}).  Kev.  xxi.  11),  and  luMice  denoted 
a  kind  of  chalcedony  or  agate.  The  Septua- 
gint  renders  the  Hel)rew  word  by  onyx. 

Jath'ni-el  [(lod  bestoweth  gifts]. 

\  Korliite  (loorkeei)er,  son  of  Meshelemiah 
(1   Ciiron.  xxvi.  2). 

Jat'tir  [excellence]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  .Tudah  as- 
signed to  the  ])riests  (Josh.  xv.  4.S;  xxi.  14; 
1  Sam.  XXX.  27:  1  Chron.  vi.  57).  Ivobinson 
identified  it  with  the  ruin  of  '  Attir,  on  a  hill 
about  13  miles  south-southwest  of  Hebron. 
The  two  names  are,  however,  radically  dif- 
ferent. 

Ja'van. 

1.  A  region  settled  by  descendants  of 
.Tapheth  ((ien.  x.  2).  The  name  corresponds 
ctymologically  with  Ionia,  and  denotes  the 
Creeks;  see  (iKKeck.  .lavan  was  synon- 
ymous with  the  fartiiest  west,  where  Jeho- 
vah's fame  bad  not  been  heard  (Is.  Ixvi.  l!l). 
From  early  days  the  country  had  commercial 


relations  with  Phoenicia  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13  • 
Joel  iii.  6,  in  English  version  Grecians). 

2.  A  town  or  people  of  Yemen  in  Arabia, 
whence  cassia  and  calamus  were  exported 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  19). 

Javelin. 

A  smaller  kind  of  spear,  which  was  in- 
tended to  be  thrown  (Job  xli.  29),  was  borne 
suspended  between  the  shoulders  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  6),  and  could  be  stretched  out  in  the 
hand  (Josh.  viii.  18).  The  Hebrew  name  for 
it  was  kidon.  The  A.  V.  never  translates  this 
word  bv  javelin,  but  renders  it  by  spear  in 
Josh.  viii.  18,  26  ;  Job  xli.  29 ;  Jer.  vi.  23 ; 
by  lance  in  Jer.  1.  42  ;  and  by  shield  or  tar- 
get in  1  Sam.  xvii.  6,  45;  Job  xxxix.  23. 
Wherever  javelin  occurs  in  A.  V.  the  Re- 
visers have  properly  substituted  spear. 

Ja'zer,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jaazer  [helpful]. 

A  city  east  of  the  Jordan  in  Gilead  (2 
Sam.  xxiv.  5;  1  Chron.  xxvi.  31).  The 
Israelites  captured  it  and  drove  out  the 
Amorite  inhabitants  (Num.  xxi.  32).  It  stood 
in  a  region  well  fitted  for  pasturage  (xxxii. 
1,  3).  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Josh.  xiii.  25),  who  rebuilt  the  city  (Num. 
xxxii.  34,  35 ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5)  ;  and  it  was 
appointed  to  the  Merarite  Levites  for  resi- 
dence (Josh.  xxi.  39;  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  It 
passed  into  Moabite  hands  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9 ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  32) ;  was  taken  by  .Judas  Maccabseus 
from  the  Ammonites  (1  Mac.  v.  8).  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  Jazer  was  situated  10  Roman 
miles  to  the  west  of  Rabbath  Amnion,  and 
15  from  Heshbon  ;  and  a  considerable  tribu- 
tary of  the  Jordan  took  its  rise  near  the 
town.  Jerome  mentions  a  village  called 
Azor,  8  Roman  miles  to  the  west  of  Rabbath 
Amnion.  These  various  places  are  commonly 
identitied  with  wady  Sir,  an  upper  branch 
of  wady  Kefren,  and  the  ruins  Sir  and 
Sar,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  valley.  The 
distance  from  Rabbath  Amnion  approxi- 
mately corresponds,  but  the  names  are  radi- 
cally ditt'erent  from  .Tazer  and  Azor.  Beit 
Zer'ah,  about  11  miles  south  by  west  of  Rab- 
bath Ammon,  is  preferred  by  Conder,  but 
has  no  claims. 

Ja'ziz  [he  moves  about]. 

A  Hagrite,  the  overseer  of  David's  flocks 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 

Je'a-rim  [forests], 

A  iiioiinlain  crossed  by  the  boundary  line 
of  .ludah  (.losli.  XV.  10),  and  which,  to  judge 
from  its  comiection  with  Chesalon  (<(.  v.),  was 
at  tliat  ]ioint  about  8  miles  to  the  northeast 
of  Bet  li-sliemesh. 

Je-ath'e-rai,  in  A.  V.  Jeaterai.  See 
Ethni. 

Je-ber'e-chi'ah  [Jehovah  doth  bless]. 
Father  of  Isaiah's  contem]iorary  Zcchariah 
(Is.  viii.  2). 

Je'bus   [a  place  trodden  under  foot  (as  a 
threshing-lloor)]. 
The  name  borne  by  Jerusalem  while  the 


Jebusite 


357 


Jehezkel 


city  was  iu  the  possessiuu  of  the  Jebusites 
(Josh.  XV.  63  ;  Judg.  xix.  10;  1  Chroii.  xi.  4). 
The  area  included  within  Jehus  was,  of 
course,  small  comjiared  with  the  dinieiisions 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Solomon.  Its 
citadel  was  the  stronghold  of  Zion  (2  Sam.  v. 
7 :  1  t'hron,  xi.  5). 

Jeb'u-site,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jebusi  (Josh, 
xviii.  l(i,  26),  the  Hebrew  word  being  trans- 
literated instead  of  being  translated. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  before  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  x.  16  ;  xv. 
21;  Ex.  iii.  8).  At  the  date  of  the  exodus 
they  were  one  of  the  mountain  tribes  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  Josh.  xi.  3).  They  are  known  only 
as  dwelling  at  Jebus,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  Their 
king  was  slain  by  Joshua  (x.  23-26),  their 
territory  was  assigned  to  Benjamin  (xviii. 
2b),  and  later  their  city  was  taken  by  the 
men  of  Judah,  on  the  border  of  which  tribe 
it  stood,  and  set  on  fire  (Judg.  i.  8  ;  Josh.  xv. 
8)  ;  but  the  Jebusites  either  never  lost  the 
citadel  (Antiq.  v.  2,  2),  or  recovered  the  city 
in  whole  or  iu  part.  They  dwelt  with  the 
children  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  as  strangers 
(Josh.  XV.  63;  Judg.  i.  21:  xix.  11).  They 
still  held  the  stronghold  of  Zion  at  the  begin- 
ning of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  v.  6,  7)  ;  and 
even  after  he  had  captured  it  the  old  in- 
liabitants  were  not  wholly  expelled,  for 
Araunah,  who  had  a  threshing-floor  on  the 
site  afterwards  occupied  by  Solomon's  tem- 
ple, was  a  Jebusite  by  birth  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16, 
18;  2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Solomon  subjected  the 
remnant  of  the  Jebusites  to  bond  service  (1 
Kin.  ix.  20). 

Jec-a-mi'ah.     See  Jekamiah. 

Jech-i-li'ah  and  Jech-o-li'ah.     See  Jj:co- 

LIAH. 

Jech-o-ni'ah  and  Jech-o-ni'as.   See  Jeco- 

NIAH. 

Jec-o-li'ah  and  Jechiliah,  in  A.  V.  once 
Jecholiah  (2  Kin.  xv.  2)  [Jehovah  has  pre- 
vailed]. 

The  mother  of  king  Uzziah  (2  Kin.  xv.  2 ; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  3). 

Jec-o-ni'ah,  in  R.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jechoniah, 
in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jechonias  [Jehovah  doth  es- 
tablish]. 

An  unessential  variant  of  the  name  of 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  a  cognate  root  be- 
ing used  and  the  constituent  parts  transposed 
(1  Chron.  iii.  16,  etc.). 

Je-da'iah,  I.  [Jehovah  has  cast  or  shown]. 

1.  A  Sinieonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  son  of  Harumaph,  who  repaired  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  opposite  to  his  house 
(Neh.  iii.  10). 

Je-da'iah,  II.   [Jehovah  knoweth]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time 
of  David,  and  was  numbered  the  second 
course  when  David  distributed  the  })riests 
into  divisions  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  7).  Mem- 
bers of  the  family  returned  from  Babylon 


(Ezra  ii.  36 ;  Neh.  vii.  39) ;  cp.  the  two  fol- 
lowing. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  sii.  6,  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  19). 

3.  Another  chief  priest  with  the  same  his- 
tory (Neh.  xii.  7,  21). 

4.  One  of  those  who  came  from  the  cap- 
tivity bringing  gifts  for  the  temple  in  the 
days  of  the  high  priest  Joshua  (Zech.  vi. 
10,  14). 

Je-di'a-el  [known  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (1  Chnm.  vii.  6,  10,  11).  The  older  in- 
terpreters regarded  Jediael  as  another  name 
of  Ashbel  (Num.  xxvi.  38).  Perhaps  he  was 
a  later  chief. 

2.  A  Manassite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Shimri  (1  Chron.  xi.  4.^5). 

4.  A  Korahite  doorkeeper  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

Je-di'dah  [beloved]. 

Wife  of  Anion  and  mother  of  king  Josiah 
(2  Kin.  xxii.  1). 

Jed-i-di'ah  [beloved  of  Jehovah]. 

A  name  which  Nathan  the  prophet,  by  di- 
vine direction,  gave  to  Solomon  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25). 

Je-du'tLun  [praising,  praise]. 

1.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  three  chief  singers 
or  rather  musicians  appointed  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  founder  of  an  official  musical 
family  (1  Chron.  xvi.  41  ;  xxv.  1,  6  ;  2  Chron. 
V.  12  ;  XXXV.  15  ;  Neh.  xi.  17).  He  or  his 
family  is  mentioned  in  the  title  of  three 
psalms  (xxxix.,  Ixii.,  Ixxvii.).  He  was  evi- 
dently known  earlier  as  Ethan  ;  see  Ethan  3. 

2.  Father  of  Obed-edom  the  doorkeeper 
and  apparentlj'  of  the  family  of  Korah,  a 
division  of  the  Kohatbites  (1  Chron.  xvi.  38: 
cp.  xxvi.  1,  4,  and  also  8,  12,  15).  Some  in- 
terpreters, however,  hold  him  to  be  Jeduthun, 
the  singer,  of  the  family  of  Merari. 

Je-e'zer.     See  Abiezer. 

Je-e'zer-ite.     See  Abiezrite. 

Je-gar-sa-ha-du'tha  [Aramaic,  heap  of 
witness]. 

Laban's  designation  of  the  cairn  Galeed 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47) ;  see  Galeed. 

Je-hal'le-lel,  in  A.  V.  Je-ha-le'le-el  and 
Jehalelel  (he  praiseth  God]. 

1.  A  man  registered  with  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  founder  of  a  family  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 
Jeh-de'iah  [Jehovah  inspires  with  joy]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Amram  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  20), 

2.  A  Meronothite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
asses  '1  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 

Je-hez'kel,  in  A.  V.  Je-hez'e-kel  [God 
doth  strengthen]. 


Jehiah. 


358 


Jehohanan 


A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family  was 
made  the  twentieth  course  of  the  priests 
(1  C'hrun.  xxiv.  16). 

Je-M'ali  [Jehovah  liveth]. 
A  (lourketper  for  the  ark  in   David's  reign 
(1  Chroii.  XV.  24). 

Je-hi'el  [God  liveth]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
played  a  psaltery  at  the  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  and  afterwards  as  a  regular 
duty  in  its  tent  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20;  xvi.  5). 

2.'  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon  and  chief 
of  the  house  of  Laadan  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  8).  He  gave  rise  to  the 
father's  house  named  from  him  Jehieli 
(.xxvi.  21,  22). 

'.J.  A  son  of  Hachmoni  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  placed  by  his 
father  over  one  of  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah, 
hut  slain  with  others  of  his  brothers  by 
.Jehoraiii  (2  Chron.  xxi.  2-4). 

5.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  and  house 
of  Heman  the  singer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  in 
II.  V.  Jehuel).  He  aided  Hezekiah  in  his 
religious  reformation,  and  is  i)erhai>s  the 
assistant  over.scer  of  the  temple  revenues 
who  served  during  the  same  reign  ^2  Chron. 
xxxi.  13). 

()'.  A  ruler  of  the  temple  at  the  time  of 
Josiah's  religious  reformation  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 
8). 

7.  Father  of  Ezra's  contemporary  Obadiah 
(Ezra  viii.  9). 

8.  A  son  of  Elam  and  father  of  Ezra's 
contemporary  Shechaniah  (Ezra  x.  2).  He 
may  be  the  person  of  this  name  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (x.  2()). 

f).  A  priest,  of  the  course  of  Harim,  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(X.  21).  ' 

P\)r  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  V.  see  Jeiel. 

Je-hi'e-li.    See  Jehikl  2. 

Je-hiz-ki'ah  i  Jeliovah  doth  strengthen]. 

\  sdii  of  Sliallum.and  one  of  the  iieads  of 
the  Ki)liraiiiiite  tribe  in  the  reign  of  IV^kah. 
He  assisted  in  .securing  the  release  of  the 
caittives  from  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Je-ho-ad'dah,  in  \.  V.  Je-ho'a-dall  [Jeho- 
vah liatii  addrncd]. 

.\  S(in  of  .\haz,  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  3()).  Called 
ill  ix.  12  .larah. 

Je-ho-ad'dan,  in  R.  V.  of  Kings  Jehoaddln 
[]ierlia](s.  .Ichovah  hath  made  jilcasant]. 

Mother  of  king  Amaziah.  She  was  from 
Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2;  2  Chron.  xxv.  1). 

Je-ho'a-liaz  and,  contracted,  Joahaz  [Je- 
hovali  hatb  laid  hold]. 

\.  .\  variant  form  nl'  the  name  of  .\haziah, 
youngest  son  of  Jehoram,  king  of  .Jnd.Tli 
(2  Cliron.  xxi.  17;  c]).  xxii.  1),  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  uanie  licing  trunsjio.sed. 


2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehu  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  He  began  to  reign  in 
821  B.  c,  apparently  as  associate  of  his  father, 
and  reigned  seventeen  years  (2  Kin.  x.  35  ; 
xiii.  1 ).  He  continued  the  calf  worship  estab- 
lished by  Jeroboam.  As  a  penalty  for  this 
apostasy,  the  Syrians,  first  under  Hazael  and 
then  under  Benhadad,  were  permitted  to 
carry  on  successful  hostilities  against  him, 
capturing  city  after  city,  till  at  length  he  had 
no  force  left  but  50  horsemen,  10  chariots, 
and  10,000  footmen.  In  distress  he  called  on 
Jehovah,  who  gave  Israel  a  saviour.  This 
saviour  of  Israel  appeared  after  the  death  of 
Jehoahaz,  in  the  x)ersons  of  his  two  successors 
Jehoash  and  Jeroboam.  The  former  recov- 
ered the  cities  which  the  Syrians  had  taken 
from  his  father,  and  the  latter  restored  the 
ancient  boundaries  of  Israel.  Probably  Je- 
hoash received  unintended  assistance  from 
the  king  of  Assyria,  who,  attacking  the  Syr- 
ians in  the  rear,  compelled  them  to  desist  from 
the  invasion  of  the  Israelite  kingdom,  and 
return  to  defend  their  own  country.  Jehoa- 
haz was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoash  (2  Kin. 
xiii.  2-9,  22-25). 

3.  A  younger  son  of  Josiah,  who,  on  the 
death  of  Josiah,  was  placed  by  the  people  of 
Judah  on  his  father's  throne.  He  was  then 
twenty-three,  and  reigned  only  three  months, 
during  which  time  his  tendencies  were  evil 
rather  than  good.  He  was  deposed  and  taken 
in  chains  to  Kiblah  by  Pharaoh-necho.  king 
of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  carried  down  into 
Egypt.  Necho,  as  victor  over  Josiah,  decided 
to  dispose  of  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  gave 
it  to  Jehoiakim,  Jehoahaz'  elder  brother 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  .30-34;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  1-4). 
Jehoahaz  was  also  ca,lled  Shallum  (1  Chron. 
iii.  15;  Jer.  xxii.  10-12),  and  he  is  the  first 
of  the  lion's  whelps  (Ezek.  xix.  1-9).  Al- 
though the  third  of  Josiah's  sons  in  point  of 
age  and  the  first  to  occupy  the  throne,  he  is 
enumerated  fourth  in  1  Chron.  iii.  15,  ])erhaps 
by  way  of  intentional  degradation. 

Je-ho'ash.    See  Joash  I. 

Je-ho-ha'nan  [Jehovah  is  gracious]. 

1.  A  K(jralute  Levite,  who  had  the  sixth 
course  of  the  doorkeepers  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  3). 

2.  The  second  in  honor  of  Jehoshaphat' s 
captains.  He  had  under  him  280,000  men 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  15). 

3.  Father  of  Jehoiada's  supporter,  Ishmael, 
in  the  revolt  against  Athaliah  (2  Chron. 
xxiii.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amariah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  13). 

5.  A  son  of  Eliashib  (Ezra  x.  G,  R.  V.)    See 

JoH.\N.\N  9. 

6.  A  son  of  Bebai,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

7.  A  son  of  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh. 

Vi.  18,   R.  v.).      JOHAN.VN  10. 

8.  A  priest  who  officiated  at  the  dedication 


Jehoiachin 


359 


Jehoiakim 


of  the  Willi  of  Jerusalem  by  Neliemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  42). 

Je-lioi'a-chin  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Jehoiakim  in  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  He  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  55)8  or  597  B.  c.  Accordiug  to  2 
Kin.  xsiv.  8,  he  was  then  eighteen  years  old  ; 
according  to  2  Chrou.  xxxvi.  9,  his  age  was 
eight.  Tiie  discrepancy  exists  in  the  Septua- 
giut  Greek  as  well  as  in  the  Hebi-ew  text. 
One  or  other  of  the  numbers  is  corrupt, 
which  of  the  two  is  doubtful.  He  did  that 
which  was  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord, 
according  to  all  that  his  father  had  done. 
But  his  reign  continued  only  three  months 
and  ten  days.  During  this  short  period  Ne- 
buchadnc^zzar,  king  of  Babylon,  sent  his  gen- 
erals to  besiege  Jerusalem,  which  surrendered 
after  the  eighth  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar  had 
begun  (cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  12  ;  cp.  Jer.  lii.  28) ;  see 
Chronology.  Jehoiachin,  his  wives,  his 
mother,  the  palace  servants,  every  dignitary 
in  the  city  and  the  country,  with  all  the 
skillful  artisans,  were  carried  into  captivity 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  8-16;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  10). 
For  a  long  period  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
actual  confinement ;  but  in  the  thirty-seventh 
year  of  his  exile,  5(j2  B.  c,  Evil-merodach 
ascended  the  throne  of  Babylon,  released  him 
from  prison,  and  assigned  him  a  daily  allow- 
ance of,  or  for,  food  while  he  lived  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  27-o0;  Jer.  lii.  31-34).  Jeremiah,  who 
prophesied  during,  and  after,  the  brief  reign 
of  Jehoiachin,  frequently  mentions  him  un- 
der the  name  Jechouiah  or  Coniah.  On  these 
iQodifications  of  the  name,  see  Jeconiah. 

Je-hoi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  The  father  of  that  Benaiah  who  held 
high  military  office  in  the  latter  part  of 
David's  and  in  Salomon's  reign  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
22  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  4).  Jehoiada  was  probably  the 
priest  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  5,  text;  but  not  as  in 
A.  V.  chief  priest),  and  the  leader  of  the 
Aarouites  who  brought  .3700  men  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (xii.  27). 

2.  A  son  of  Benaiah,  second  to  Ahithophel 
in  David's  counsels  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  34). 
Must  commentators  believe  that  some  copyist 
accidentally  wrote  Jehoiada  son  of  Benaiah 
for  Benaiah  son  of  Jehoiada.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  a  grandson  of  Jehoiada, 
bearing  the  same  name,  should  not  be  occu- 
pying a  position  of  influence  at  this  time. 

3.  A  high  priest  during  the  usurpation  of 
Athaliah.  His  wife  concealed  in  the  tem- 
ple the  young  prince  Joash,  the  only  surviv- 
ing direct  representative  of  the  royal  line  of 
David,  and  Jehoiada  planned  and  success- 
fully carried  out  the  revolt  which  led  to  the 
slaughter  of  Athaliah  and  the  i)roclamation 
of  Joash  as  king.  Jehoiada's  wife  was  the 
daughter  of  king  Joram  and  the  sister  of 
Ahaziah  ;  the  high  priest  was,  therefore,  the 
uncle  of  the  young  monarch  whom  he  be- 
friended and  placed  on  the  throne.  So  long 
as  he  lived  he  was  instrumental  in  keeping 


the  king  true  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
i2  Kin.  xi.  1-xii.  16;  2  ('hron.  xxii.  10-xxiv. 
14).  He  died  at  the  age  of  130,  and,  in  recog- 
nition of  his  eminent  services  to  church  and 
state,  he  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David 
among  the  kings  (15,  16).  After  his  death 
Joash  turned  from  the  Lord  and  ur)gratcfiilly 
put  Jehoiada's  son  to  death  for  rebuking  the 
sins  of  the  people  (17-22). 

4.  A  priest  who  was  succeeded  in  Jere- 
miah's time  by  Zephaniah  in  the  office  of 
second  priest  and  overseer  of  the  temple 
(Jer.  xxix.  26;  cp.  lii.  24). 

5.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  repaired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6;  in  K.  V.  Joiada). 

Je-hoi'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  son  of  king  Josiah  by  his  wife  Zebidah 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  34,  36).  He  was  called  origi- 
nally Eliakim,  (xod  doth  establish.  On  the 
death  of  Josiah  the  jieople  placed  Jehoahaz, 
third  son  of  Josiah  in  age,  on  the  throne ; 
but  three  months  afterwards  Pharaoh-necho 
put  him  in  chains  and  carried  him  to  Egypt, 
and  made  his  elder  brother  Eliakim  king  in 
his  stead,  changing  his  name  to  Jehoiakim. 
He  began  to  reign  about  608  B.  c,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years.  He  was  obliged  to 
collect  heavy  tribute  from  the  people  for 
Pharaoh.  He  departed  from  Jehovah,  whom 
his  fixther  had  .so  faithfully  served,  and  went 
back  to  idolatry.  Jeremiah  wrote  a  roll 
threatening  the  divine  judgment  unless  re- 
pentance took  place  ;  but  Jehoiakim  treated 
the  matter  with  contempt,  and  after  listening 
to  three  or  four  leaves  of  the  roll  cut  it  up 
and  committed  it  to  the  flames  (Jer.  xxxvi.). 
Babylon  was  now  the  dominant  Asiatic  power. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakini's  reign,  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, son  of  the  Bal>ylonian  king, 
defeated  Pharaoh-necho  at  Carchemish  and 
advanced,  probablj'  afterwards,  against  Jeru- 
salem, and  Jehoiakim  became  his  servant 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  1;  Jer.  xlvi.  2;  Dan.  i.  1,  2; 
see  Chronolo«y).  Three  years  later  he 
rashly  rebelled  against  Nebuchadnezzar. 
There  were  other  troubles  afflicting  the  king- 
dom. Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites 
made  predatory  incursions  into  its  territories, 
as  did  bands  of  Chaldeans,  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar probably  dispatched  on  learning  of 
the  revolt  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2).  The  Babylonian 
king  himself,  or  his  army,  eventually  entered 
Jerusalem  and  bound  the  Jewish  rebel  with 
chains  to  carry  him  to  Babylon  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  6).  He  was  carried  in  a  cage  with 
hooks  into  the  presence  of  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon, who  was  in  the  camp  at  Jerusalem  or 
perhaps  at  Riblah  (Ezek.  xix.  .5-9) ;  but  per- 
haps the  specific  refci-ence  in  ver.  9  is  to  hi.s 
son  Jehoiachin.  The  purpose  of  carrying 
him  to  Babyhm  was,  however,  abandoned. 
He  died  or  was  murdered,  and  his  body  had 
the  burial  of  an  ass,  being  drawn  and  cast 
forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem  (Jer. 
xxii.  19;  xxxvi.  30;  Antiq.  x.  6,  3).  He 
reigned  eleven  years  and  was  succeeded  by 


Jehoiarib 


3G0 


Jehoshaphat 


his  son  Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36;  xxiv. 

Je-hOi'a  rib  [Jehovah  (lotli  coiitfiul]. 

A  ilcsci-mluit  of  Aaron.  Hi.s  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  liouse  iu  tlie  time  of 
David  and  was  numbered  tlie  first  course 
when  David  distributed  the  priests  into  di- 
visions ( 1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  7),  and  it  dwelt 
at  Jerusalem  (ix.  10). 

For    other    persons     of     the     name,     see 

JoIARIH. 

Je-hon'a-dab.     See  Jon.\d.\b. 

Je-Lon'a-tliaii,  variant  form  of  Jonathan, 
with  which  it  freely  interchanges  in  Hebrew 
[Jehovah  hath  siven]. 

1.  S((n  of  TJzziah,  and  an  official  apf)oiuted 
by  king  David.  He  was  chari,a<l  wilh  the 
oversight  of  the  royal  treasures  which  were 
in  various  places  outside  of  Jerusalem  (1 
Chrou.  xxvii.  25,  iu  R.  V.  Jonathan). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Sheniaiah  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  18). 

Je-ho'ram  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahab  and  king  of  Israel  (2  Kin. 
iii.  1) ;  see  Joram  3. 

2.  A-  priest,  one  of  those  sent  by  Jehosh- 
aphat to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

3.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  king  of  Judah 
(2  Kin.  viii.  16) ;  see  Joeam  5. 

Je-ho-shab'e-ath.     See  Jehosheba. 

J-hosh'a-phat,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Josa- 
phat  [.lehovali  hath  judged]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahiludand  recorder  under  David 
and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii.  16 ;  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin. 
iv.  3). 

2.  One  of  the  priests  appointed  to  blow  a 
truni])et  before  the  ark  when  it  was  being 
V)rought  uj)  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
the  citv  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24,  in  E.  V. 
Joshaphat). 

3.  Son  of  Paruah  and  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  territory  of  Issachar  (1  Kin.  iv.  17). 

4.  Son  and  successor  of  king  Asa  on  the 
throne  of  .ludah.  He  appears  to  have  been 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  hitter's  37th 
regnal  year,  the  11th  of  Oniri  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
2H,  29,  Septuagint),  and  to  have  become  sole, 
king  on  the  death  of  his  fatlu^r  five  years 
later,  about  H71  B.  c.  (xxii.  41,  42)."  He 
reigned  twenty-five  years,  including  the 
time  that  he  was  associated  with  Asa.  He 
was  thirty-five  years  old  at  his  accession. 
His  mother  was  Azubah.  daughter  of  Shilhi 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  U.  42:  2  Chron.  xvii.  1).  He 
was  a  good  king.  He  worshijied  Jehovah, 
and  sought  not  unto  the  Haalim  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  43;  2  Chron.  xvii.  3),  although  the 
p(>o])le  still  sacrificed  on  higli  ])laces  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  I.')).  Therefore  the  Lord  greatly  jiros- 
pered  him.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign, 
he  took  measures  for  instructing  his  people, 


sending  princes  and  Levites,  with  the  book 
of  the  law  in  their  hands,  to  teach  in  the 
cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7-9).  The 
fear  of  the  Lord  fell  upon  the  neighboring 
kingdoms.  Philistines  and  Arabians  paid 
tribute  (10,  11).  He  garrisoned  the  fenced 
cities  of  his  realm  (12-19).  He  terminated 
the  desultory  warfare  which  had  gone  on 
between  Israel  and  Judah  since  the  time  of 
Eehoboam.  He  made  peace  with  Israel  and 
took  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab,  as  a  wife 
for  his  son  (1  Kin.  xxii.  44;  2  Kin.  viii.  18. 
26).     When  he  found  that  Jehovah  was  thus 

I  blessing  him,  he  was  encouraged  to  remove 
the  high   places  and   the   Asherim   out  of 

I  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  5,  6).  He  put  away 
also  the  remnant  of  the  sodomites  out  of  the 
land  (1  Kin.  xxii.  46). 

About  853  B.  c.  he  went  on  a  visit  to  king 

I   Ahab,  and  was  persuaded  to  join  him,  with 

!  the  army  of  Judah,  in  the  attempt  to  re-take 
Eamoth-gilead  from  the  Syrians.  Dressed  in 
the  royal  robes  of  Ahab,  he  went  into  battle. 

'  Ahab  was  mortally  wounded ;  Jehoshaphat, 
notwithstanding  his  exposure,  survived  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  1-38;  2  Chron.  xviii.  1-34).  On 
his  return  home  he  was  reproved  by  the 
jirophet  Jehu,  son  of  Hanaui,  for  having 
fraternized  with  such  a  king  as  Ahab  (2 
Chron.  xix.  1,  2).  He  resumed  his  work  of 
reformation  in  church  and  state,  promoting 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  appointing 
judges  in  the  walled  towns  of  Judah,  witli  a 
supreme  court,  consisting  of  Levites,  i)riests, 
and  laymen  of  high  position,  in  Jerusalem 
(4-11).  After  this  reform  had  begun  a  great 
confederacy  of  Ammonites,  Moabitcs,  and 
Edomites  invaded  Judah  from  the  .southeast, 
making  their  headquarters  at  En-gedi  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Jehoshaphat 
claimed  the  promise  of  deliverance  which 
Solomon  had  asked  (2  Chron.  vi.  24-30  with 
XX.  9).  Jahaziel  prophesied  deliverance,  and 
Jehoshaphat  went  forth  with  thank.sgiving 
and  placed  singers  before  the  army  to  praise 
the  Lord.  Success  was  achieved  without 
fighting.  Hostilities  broke  out  in  the  con- 
federate army,  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
attacked  and  destroyed  the  Edomites,  and 
then  quarreling  among  themselves,  turned 
their  weapons  against  each  other  (xx.  1-30). 
After  this  event,  perhaps  in  late  autumn  dur- 
ing the  time  of  peace,  .Jehoshaphat,  who  had 
been  building  ships  at  Ezion-geber,  asked 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel,  to  take  jiart  in  a 
mercantile  voyage.  The  proidiet  Eliezer  r(>- 
buked  him  for  joining  himself  with  Ahaziah. 
and  the  shi]is  were  wrecked.  Ahaziah  de- 
sired to  share  in  a  new  venture,  but  Jehosh- 
apliat  refused  (2  Chron.  xx.  3.5-37  ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  48,  49).  In  852  B.  c.  or  later,  Jehoram. 
king  of  Israel,  desired  to  render  Moab  again 
tributary  to  Israel,  and  asked  aid  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Jehoshaiihat.  Jehoram  had 
exhibiled  signs  of  godliness  by  a  considera- 
ble reformation  (2  Kin.  iii.  2),"  and  Jehosha- 
jihat  con.si'uti'd  to  join  him.     The  exi)edition 


Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of 


361 


Jehozabad 


enjoyed  partial  success  (2  Kin.  iii.  4-27). 
Jehoshaphat  died  at  the  age  of  si.xty,  about 
the  year  b50  b.  c,  and  was  l)Uiied  in  the  city 
of  David,  leaving  his  son  Jehoram  to  ascend 
the  throne  (1  Kin.  sxii.  50). 

5.  Son  of  Nimshi  and  father  of  Jehu,  king 
of  Israel  (2  Kin.  ix.  2,  141. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  Valley  of. 

A  valley  where  all  nations  shall  he  gath- 
ered by  Jehovah  for  judgment  (Joel  iii.  2, 12). 
At  least  as  early  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  in  the 
fourth  centurj'  a.  e>.,  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat 
was  identified  with  the  valley  of  the  Kidron, 
so  that  now  Jews,  Eoman  Catholics,  and  Mo- 
hammedans fix  the  scene  of  the  last  judg- 
ment here.  This  identification  is  only  a  con- 
jecture, based  on  the  cited  passages  and 
Zech.  xiv.  So  far  as  evidence  goes,  no  valley 
actually  bore  this  name.  Joel  doubtless 
chose  this  designation,  which  means  "Jeho- 
vah hath  judged,"  as  symbolic  of  the  event. 

Je-liosli'e-ba  and  Jehoshabeath,  inter- 
changeable forms  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  is  an 
oath]. 

Daughter  of  Jehoram  and  sister  of  Ahaziah, 
kings  of  Judah,  and  wife  of  the  high  priest 
Jehoiada.  On  the  murder  of  Ahaziah  and 
the  slaughter  of  the  seed  royal,  Jehosheba 
rescued  liis  infant  son  Joash  and  hid  him  in 
the  temple  until  he  could  be  safely  pro- 
claimed king  (2  Kin.  xi.  2  ;  2  t'hron.  xxii.  11). 

Je-bosli'u-a  and  Jehoshuab.    See  Joshua. 

Je-ho'vah. 

The  comniou  European  pronunciation  of 
the  Hebrew  tetragram  Yhvh,  one  of  the  names 
of  God  (Ex.  xvii.  15).  The  original  name  was 
occasionally  used  even  by  so  late  a  writer  as 
Nehemiah  (i.  5  ;  v.  13  ;  viii.  1),  in  fact  a  form 
of  it  constitutes  the  latter  part  of  his  name. 
But  it  was  not  the  favorite  name  of  God  with 
him  ;  and  it  had  ceased  to  be  pronounced 
when  the  Greek  version  was  made,  for  the 
translators  substituted  Lord.  The  custom 
had  grown  up  among  the  Hebrews  in  read- 
ing to  pronounce  the  word  "^donay.  Lord,  in 
its  stead  or,  when  it  follows  ''^doiiay,  to  pro- 
nounce '"lohim,  God  (Gen.  xv.  2),  as  in  Eng- 
lish wc  say  namely  instead  of  viz.  When  the 
vowel  points  were  added  to  the  Hebrew  con- 
sonantal text,  the  vowels  of  '"rfoiw.y  and 
'"lohim  were  given  to  the  tetragram.  This 
pointing  gave  rise  to  the  European  pronun- 
ciation, Jehovah,  current  since  the  days  of 
Petrus  Galatinus,  confessor  of  Leo  X.,  A.  D. 
1518.  The  substitution  of  the  word  Lord  by 
the  later  Hebrews  and  by  the  translators  of 
the  Septuagint  led  to  the  like  substitution  in 
the  English  version  (Gen.  ii.  4).  In  such  in- 
stances Lord  is  printed  in  small  capitals.  The 
tetragram  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
pronounced  Jahweh,  Yahweh,  because  the 
divine  name  Jab  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  8,  E.  V.)  and  the 
forms  Y<^ho,  Y(  and  Yah,  Yahu,  which  occur 
constantly  in  proper  names,  as  in  the  Hebrew 
of  Jehoshaphat,  Joshaphat,  Shephatiah,  can 
all  be  derived    from   Yahweh  in    accordance 


with  the  laws  of  philology.  Yahweh  is  an 
archaic  form.  It  probably  represents  the 
Qal  imperfect  of  the  verb  hawah,  later  hayah, 
to  be  or  become.  If  this  is  so,  it  means  "  He 
who  in  the  absolute  sense  exists  and  who 
manifests  his  existence  and  his  character" 
(Ex.  iii.  13,  15).  The  creator,  upholder,  and 
moral  governor  of  the  universe  is  ''luhim, 
God;  the  covenant  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  the  God  in  whom  lay  their 
present  strength  and  their  hope  for  their  fu- 
ture existence,  is  'El  shadday,  God  almighty  ; 
but  the  God  of  revelation  and  grace,  dwell- 
ing with  his  people,  guiding  and  delivering 
them,  and  receiving  their  worshij)  is  Jehovah. 

Whether  the  name  was  known  to  other 
peoples  before  it  attained  to  celebrity  througli 
the  Hebrews  is  still  a  question.  Men  began 
to  call  upon  the  name  of  Jehovah  in  the 
days  of  Enosh,  the  third  from  Adam  (Gen. 
iv.  26).  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however, 
that  they  necessarily  used  the  name  Jehovah. 
They  worshiped  the  God  of  revelation  and 
grace,  whatever  name  they  may  have  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  idea.  Its  first  occur- 
rence in  recorded  proper  names  is  in  Joche- 
bed,  an  ancestress  of  Moses  (see  also  1  Chron. 
ii.  8,  24).  It  can  scarcely  be  sought  in 
Moriah.  Evidence  of  its  use  in  proper  names 
is  thus  found  earlier  than  are  traces  of  the 
employment  of  Shndday  for  like  purpose 
(Num.  i.  6,  12).  In  the  generation  after  the 
exodus,  it  appears  in  Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  1(1). 
It  then  becomes  frequent  (1  Chron.  vi.  6,  7,  36). 

To  know  that  God  is  Jehovah  and  to  know 
the  name  of  Jehovah  do  not  denote  a  mere 
external  acquaintance  with  the  word  Jeho- 
vah, but  an  experience  of  God  manifesting 
himself  to  his  people  in  grace  and  love  (1 
Kin.  viii.  43 ;  Ps.  ix.  10  ;  xci.  14 ;  Is.  Iii.  6 ; 
Jer.  xvi.  21).  In  Ex.  vi.  2-8  God  promises 
that  the  children  of  Israel  shall  be  delivered 
from  bondage  and  have  an  experience  of  his 
gracious  intervention  and  love  such  as  their 
forefathers  had  not  known.  See  Pentateuch. 

Je-ho-vah-ji'reh  [Jehovah  will  see  or  pro- 
vide]. 

The  name  given  by  Abraham  to  the  place 
where  God  provided  a  ram  to  be  offered  in 
sacrifice,  instead  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  14).  Ex- 
act site  unknown. 

Je-ho-vah-nis'si  [Jehovah  is  my  banner]. 

The  name  given  by  Moses  to  an  altar  built 
by  him  at  Eephidim  as  a  memorial  of  Israel's 
victory  over  Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  15,  16). 

Je-ho-vah-slia'loni  [Jehovah  is  peace]. 

An  altar  I)uilt  l)y  Gideon  in  Ophrah  to 
commemorate  the  visit  of  Jehovah's  angel, 
who  summoned  him  to  deliver  Israel,  and, 
when  Gideon  expected  to  die  because  he  had 
seen  the  heavenly  one,  said  to  him  :  "  Peace 
be  unto  thee  ;  .  .  .  thou  shaltnotdie  "  (Judg. 
vi.  2.3,  24). 

Je-hoz'a-bad  [Jehovah  hath  endowed]. 

1.  A  Korahite  porter,  son  of  Obed-edom  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 


Jehozadak 


Jehush 


2.  Son  of  a  Moabitess,  and  a  servant  of 
Joasli  and  one  of  his  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii. 
21  :  2  Clirou.  xxiv.  20).  lit,-  was  put  to  death 
for  the  deed  (2  Chron.  xxv.  3). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  high  military  captain 
under  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  18). 

Je-hoz'a-dak.    See  Jozapak. 

Je'hu  [probably,  Jehovah  is  He]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  of  Anatlioth.  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chrtin.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Hanani.  lie  denounced 
judgnient  against  Baasha  and  his  house  foi 
continuing  in  the  sin  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  1-4,  7).  He  rejiroved  Jeho.shaphat  foi 
)u'li)ing  ungodly  Ahab  (2  Chron.  xix.  2),  and 
wrote  a  book  in  which  the  acts  of  Jehosha- 
phat were  narrated  (xx.  34). 

.').  The  founder  of  the  fourth  dynasty  of 
rulers  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  was  a 
son  of  Jehoshajjliat  and  grandson  of  Nimshi. 
For  brevity's  sake  he  was  often  called  the 
son  of  Nimshi  (1  Kin.  xix.  16;  2  Kin.  ix.  2). 
Somewhat  earlier  than  H54  B.  c.  he  was  a 
soldier  in  the  service  of  Ahab  (2  Kin.  ix.  25). 
When  the  cup  of  Ahab's  iniquity  had  been 
made  full  by  the  deliberate  murder  of 
Jehovah's  servants  and  i)rophels  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  worshij)  of  Baal  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  Elijah  received  a  com- 
mand from  (i(jd  to  anoint  Jehu  king  over 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xix.  16,  17).  The  commission 
was  executed  by  Elijah's  successor,  Elisha, 
who  for  that  purpose  sent  a  young  prophet  to 
Ramoth-gilead,  which  the  Israelites  were  be- 
sieging. He  found  Jehu  sitting  with  the 
other  oilicers,  went  with  him  into  the  house 
to  deliver  the  message,  anointed  him  king 
over  Israel,  eonimissioiuHl  him  to  destroy  tlie 
house  of  .Vliab.  and  tlu-n  tied  from  the  camp. 
Jeiiu  told  liis  military  cdinpaniims  what  had 
occurred,  and  they  resolved  to  support  him. 
They  W(;nt  to  Jezreel,  where  the  reigning 
sovereign  Jehoram,  Ahab's  son,  was  at  the 
time.  The  watchman  on  tin;  tower  in  Jez- 
reel descried  the  party  in  the  distance,  and 
presently  identified  Jehu  by  Iiis  furious  driv- 
ing. Ahaziah,  king  of  Jiulah,  was  visiting 
Jehoram:  and  the  two  kings,  each  in  his 
cliariot.  went  out  to  m(H;t  the  ad  vancing  com- 
l>uny.  They  met  at  tlie  vineyard  whicii  Ahab 
h;id  wrongfully  gotten  through  the  judicial 
murder  of  Naboth.  'I'he  parh^y  wasshort,  and 
Jehoram  was  killed  by  an  arrow  sent  with 
gnat  force  from  .lehu's  bow,  aiul  his  body 
was  cast  into  the  plot  of  ground  which  had 
lu'cn  Naboth's.  .\lia/,iah  also,  whose  motlu^r 
was  .Vhab's  daughter,  was  smitten  by  Jehu's 
order.  By  his  command  also,  Jezebel,  the 
queen-mother.  .\h;il>'s  heathen  ([ueen  and 
evil  genius,  was  (lung  from  a  window  and 
killed  (2  Kin.  i.\.  1-37).  Then  the  guardians 
of  .Miab's  seventy  sons  were  induced  to  put 
them  to  death  and  pile  up  the  heads  in  two 
heaps  at  the  gate  of  .(e/.reel.  Xext  Ahab's 
great  men  ami  his  kinsfolk  were  shiin,  and 
then   .Vha/.iah's  forty-two  brothers.     Finallv 


the  priests  of  Baal  were  lured  into  the 
temple  of  that  heathen  god,  wliose  wor- 
shiper Jehu  i>retended  to  be,  and  then  mas- 
sacred. Though  Jehu  executed  the  judg- 
ment pronounced  upon  the  house  of  Ahab 
and  slaughtered  the  priests  of  Baal,  he 
himself  took  no  heed  to  walk  in  the  law  of 
God,  and  did  not  depart  from  the  schismatic 
calf  worship  (2  Kin.  x.  29,  31).  He  ascended 
the  throne  about  842  B.  c.  In  that  year,  ac- 
cording to  Assyrian  records,  he  paid  tribute 
to  .Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  came 
into  the  neighborhood  to  wage  war  against 
Hazael.  He  reigned  twenty-eight  years  (36). 
About  821  B.  c,  on  account  of  advancing 
age  and  the  loss  of  his  energy  and  military 
skill,  his  son  Jehoahaz  was  probably  associ- 
ated with  him.  But  the  change  did  not  pre- 
vent his  reign  from  closing  in  disaster. 
Hazael  cut  Israel  short  (2  Kin.  x.  32) ;  see 
Chronology.  A  promise  had  been  given 
that  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  should  continue  for 
four  generations;  and  it  did  so,  the  line  of 
descent  being  Jehoahaz,  Jehoash  or  Joash, 
Jeroboam  II.,  and  Zechariah  (2  Kin.  x.  30  ; 
XV.  8-12). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  38) 

5.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  35). 

Je-hub'bah  [hidden]. 

An  Asherite,  familv  of  Beriali  (1  Chron. 
vii.  34). 

Je-hu'cal  and  Jucal,  interchangeable  He- 
brew forms  [he  is  able]. 

A  son  of  Shelemiah  and  prince  of  Judah. 
King  Zedekiah  sent  him  and  others  to  ask 
the  prayers  of  Jeremiah,  when  the  Baby- 
lonian siege  of  Jerusalem  was  imminent  ( Jcr. 
xxxvii.  3).  Afterwardshe  wished  the  prophet 
to  be  put  to  death  on  the  ground  that  his 
prediction  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Babylonians  discouraged  its  defenders 
(xxxviii.  1-0). 

Je'bud  [praise]. 

A  town  in  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  45).  Robinson  identified  it  with 
the  village  of  el-Ychudiyeh,  8  miles  east  by 
south  of  Jaffa.  His  view  has  been  generally 
accejited. 

Je-hu'di  [a  man  of  Judah,  a  .Tew]. 

A  messenger  sent  })y  king  Jehoiakim  to 
ask  Baruch  for  the  roll  written  by  Jeremiah. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  to  read  it, 
which  he  did,  till  the  king,  enraged  at  its 
coTitents,  cut  it  in  pieces  and  cast  it  into  the 
lire  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14,  21,  23). 

Je-hu-di'jah  [Jewess] . 

Otu'  of  the  two  wives  of  Mered,  the  other 
being  Bithiah,  an  Egy])tian  princess  (1  Chron. 
iv.  18,  A.  v.).  Jehudijah  is,  however,  not  a 
l)roper  name,  but  an  adjective  meaning 
Jewess;  and  it  has  the  definite  article.  She 
was  called  the  Jewess  to  distinguish  her  from 
the  Egyptian. 

Je'hush.     See  Jeush. 


Jeiel 


363 


Jerahmeel 


Je-i'el,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jehiel  (1  Chroii.  ix. 
35;  xi.  44)  [perhaps,  treasure  of  God]. 

1.  Father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeou  aud 
an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Chrou.  ix.  35,  36, 
39) ;  see  Kish  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hotham,  an  Aroerite,  in  the 
i-eign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xi.  44).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Eeubenite  cliief  (v.  7,  8). 

3.  A  Levite  musician  (1  Chron.  xvi.  5,  first 
half);  see  Jaazikl. 

4.  A  I.,evite  of  the  second  degree,  who  was 
a  doorkeeper  and  jilayed  the  harp  at  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  and  after- 
wards as  a  regular  duty  in  the  tent  at  Jeru- 
salem (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  51 ;  xvi.  5). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

6.  A  scril)e  who  recorded  the  number  of 
soldiers  in  Uzziah'sarmy  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  11 ). 

7.  A  Hel)rew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

For  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  v.,  see  Jeuel.  Jehiel  in  R.  V.  is  a  ditl'ei-- 
ent  name. 

Je-kab'ze-el.     See  K.^bzeel. 

Jek-a-me'am  [he  doth  assemble  the  peo- 
ple]. 

A  Levite.  lamily  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Hebron   (1   Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23). 

Jek-a-mi'ab,  in  A.  V.  once  Jecamiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  18)  [Jehovah  doth  gather]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  through 
Sheshan  from  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  li.  41). 

2.  A  son  or  descendant  of  Jeconiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.   18). 

Je-ku'thi-el  [reverence  for  God]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Zanoah  (1  Chron.  iv.  18). 

Je-mi'mah,  in  A.  V.  Jemima  [a  pigeon,  a 
dove]. 

The  tirst  of  the  three  daughters  horn  to 
Job  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Jem'u-el  [perhaps,  warmth  or  desire  of 
God]. 

A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi. 
15).  In  Num.  xxvi.  12;  1  Chron.  iv.  24  he 
is  called  Nemuel.   He  founded  a  tribal  fannly. 

Jeph'thah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jeph'tha-e 

[he  doth  open  or  .set  free]. 

A  Gileadite,  in  the  twofold  sense  of  having 
a  certain  man  called  Gilead  for  his  father 
and  the  country  of  Gilead  for  his  early  home. 
He  was  an  illegitimate  child,  and  his  broth- 
ers born  in  wedlock  expelled  him  from  the 
paternal  abode.  He  saw  injustice  in  the 
treatment  which  he  received,  and  years  later 
he  charged  tlie  elders  of  Gilead,  among  whom 
were  probably  his  brothers,  with  being  party 
to  the  iniquity  and  animated  by  hatred.  He 
tied  to  the  land  of  Tob,  probably  in  the 
Hauran,  where  life  was  free  and  where  with 
trusty  weapon  abundant  food  was  to  be  had. 
There  he  made  a  name  for  himself  by  his 
prowess,  aud  attracted  a  band  of  the  uneni- 
pl.jjed  around  him  as  their  chief.     He  must 


not  be  thought  of  as  a  lawless  freebooter,  how- 
ever, for  he  was  a  man  with  a  conscience.  He 
sought  sufficient  justification  before  under- 
taking an  enterprise,  he  feared  God  and 
taught  his  daugliter  the  fear  of  God,  and  he 
won  her  entire  confidence  and  religious  re- 
spect. About  the  time  of  Je])hthah's  ex- 
pulsion, the  Ammonites  invaded  the  Israel- 
itish  territory  east  of  the  Jordan  and  held  it 
in  subjection  eighteen  years.  In  this  ex- 
tremity the  elders  of  Gilead,  who  had  driven 
Jephthah  away,  were  compelled  as  a  last 
resort  to  urge  the  fugitive  to  return  and  be- 
come their  chief  and  deliverer.  On  assuming 
headship  over  the  Gileadites,  Jeiihthah  in- 
formed the  neighboring  tribe  of  Ephraim  of 
the  distress  of  Gilead,  but  he  exhorted  them 
in  vain  to  come  to  the  help  of  their  brethren. 
He  also  demanded  of  the  king  of  the  Am- 
monites the  ground  of  his  hostility,  and  in 
reply  justified  Israel  for  taking  up  arms. 
While  yet  the  issue  of  the  war  was  doubtful, 
Jephthah  had  vowed  that  if  he  were  per- 
mitted to  achieve  victory,  he  would  offer  to 
God  as  a  burnt  offering  whatever  first  came 
to  him  out  of  his  house.  On  his  return  from 
the  defeat  of  the  Ammonites  what  first  came 
was  his  only  daughter,  and  who,  moreover, 
was  his  only  child.  He  was  greatly  troubled 
when  he  saw  her,  but  felt  compelled  to  do 
■with  her  according  to  his  vow.  I'robably  he 
sacrificed  her  (cp.  2  Kin.  iii.  27),  though  many 
have  thought  that  he  may  have  redeemed 
her  with  money  (Lev.  xxvii.  1-8)  and  doomed 
her  to  perpetual  celibacy.  The  Isi-aelite 
women  were  accu.stomed  four  times  a  year 
to  mourn  her  sad  fate.  Hostilities  breaking 
out  between  him  and  the  Ephraimites,  who 
complained  that  he  had  slighted  them  in 
making  arrangemcntsfor  his  Ammonite  cam- 
paign, he  answered  their  false  accu,sation  and 
defeated  them  in  battle.  Jephthah  judged 
Israel  six  years  (Judg.  x.  6-xii.  7).  Samuel 
cited  him  as  one  proof  of  Jehovah's  faithful- 
ness to  his  promise  to  raise  up  a  deliverer  for 
Israel  in  time  of  need  (1  Sam.  xii.  11),  and  he 
is  cited  in  the  Ejiistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  a 
n.an  of  faith  (He)),  xi.  32). 

Je-phun  neh  [it  will  be  prepared]. 

1.  Father  of  Calel).  the  representative  spy 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xiii.  6). 

2.  An  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  38). 
Je'rah  [moon,  month]. 

An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  26  ;  1  Chron.  i.  20). 

Je-rah'me-el  [God  hath  compassion]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
and  Hezron  (1  Chron.  ii.  9;  cp.  4,  5).  Two 
wives  are  mentioned  and  a  numerous  progeny 
is  registered  (25-41). 

2.  Son  of  a  Levite  called  Kish,  not  Saul's 
father  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  29). 

3.  One  of  the  officers  sent  by  king  Jehoia- 
kim  to  arrest  Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26).  He 
was   probably  of  royal   blood    (R.   V.).     See 

H.VMMELECH. 


Jered 


364 


Jeremiah 


Je'red  [descent]. 

1.  Son  of  Mahaklct'l  (1  Cbroii.  i.  2,  A.  V.) ; 
see  Jared. 

•2.  A  man  of  .Tudali  and  father  of  the  in- 
habitants of  (icdor  ,1  Chron.  iv.  It^). 

Jer'e-mai  [hijjh]. 

A  Hebrew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 

Jer-e-mi'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jeremy  and 
Jeremias  i  Mat.  ii.  17  ;  xvi.  14)  [Jehovali  doth 
establish]. 

1-3.  A  Benjaniite  and  two  Gadites  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4,  10, 
13). 

4.  Head  of  a  father's  lu)nse  iu  eastern 
Manasseh  (1  Cliron.  v.  24). 

.").  A  native  of  Libnah  and  the  father  of 
Haniut.il,  wife  of  Icing  Josiah  and  inotlier  of 
Jehoahaz  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  30,  31). 

6.  Son  of  Habaziniah  and  fatlier  of  Jaaz- 
aniah,  a  Rechabite  (.Jer.  xxxv.  3'. 

7.  The  great  prophet,  a  son  of  Hilkiah,  a 
priest  of  Anathoth,  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin (Jer.  i.  1).  He  was  called  to  the  pro- 
phetic office  by  a  vision.  He  was  young  at 
the  time,  and  felt  his  immaturity  and  inex- 
perience and  inability  to  .speak  to  men  ;  but 
Jehovah  reached  out  a  hand  and  touched 
Jeremiah's  mouth,  putting  into  it  words, 
and  setting  him  over  nations  and  kingdoms, 
on  the  one  hand  to  root  out.  overthi'ow,  and 
destroy,  and  on  the  other  to  plant  and  to 
build.  He  was  told,  further,  that  he  would 
meet  with  violent  opposition  from  princes, 
priests  and  people,  but  that  they  should  not 
prevail  (i.  4-10).  He  began  to  ]irophesy  in 
the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
and  continued  his  work  till  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  in  the  fifth  month  of  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  (2,  3).  Thus  his 
public  life  extended  through  the  last  eighteen 
years  of  Josiah's  reign,  the  three  months 
during  which  Jehoahaz  ruled,  the  eleven 
years  of  Jehoiakim,  the  three  months  of 
Jehoiachin,  and  the  eleven  years  and  tive 
months  of  Zedekiah,  in  all  about  forty-one 
years.  Nor  did  he,  even  then,  cease  from 
his  prophetic  functions  (xlii.-xliv.).  The 
men  of  Anathoth,  his  i>aternal  home,  were 
among  the  first  to  op])ose  him,  and  threatened 
to  kill  him  if  he  did  not  desist  from  ju-ophe- 
sying.  Jle  ])ersevered  iu  his  mission  despite 
the  per-secution,  but  he  keenly  felt  this  oitjM)- 
sition  to  the  work  of  (Jod  from  his  country- 
men, the  chosen  people  of  (4od,  and  he  cried 
to  (iod  for  judgMieut  (Jer.  xi.  lS-21  ;  xii.  3). 
Tile  iiostility  to  the  i)ro|iiiet,  which  began  at 
Anathoth,  after  a  time  became  general,  and 
again  evoked  a  cry  for  judgment  upon  his 
opponents  (xviii.  18  23 ;  cp.  also  xx.  12i. 
But  he  remained  faithful  to  his  duty  in  siiile 
of  (>lilo(iuy  and  iierseculion.  In  tlie  fourth 
year  of  .fehoiakim's  reign  Jeremiah  dictated 
the  i)ropliecies  which  he  had  been  uttering 
during  the  jireceding  twenty  years,  and  the 
scribe    Baruch   wrote  them  in  the  roll  of  a 


book.  Knowing  that  he  himself  was  hin- 
dered, for  some  reason  not  stated,  and  would 
doubtless  still  be  hindered  for  a  long  time, 
froni  going  to  the  house  of  God,  the  prophet 
told  Baruch  to  take  the  roll  to  the  sanctuary 
and  read  it  before  the  people  who  would  be 
coming  to  the  temple  on  occasion  of  a  fast. 
The  roll  ultimately  reached  the  king  himself, 
who,  after  reading  a  few  leaves  or  columns, 
cut  it  in  pieces  and  flung  it  into  the  fire 
(xxxvi.  1-26).  By  divine  direction  the  pro- 
phet at  once  prejiared  a  second  roll  like  the 
first,  but  witii  additions  (27-32).  A  foe  of 
his,  the  priest  Pashhur,  chief  governor  of  the 
temple,  i)ut  him  in  the  stocks;  but  he  was 
released  the  next  day  (xx.  1-3).  During  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  the  .Jewish  authorities 
looked  at  Jeremiah's  prophecies  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Chaldeans  and  the  subsequent 
captivity  of  Judah  from  the  political  or  mili- 
tary, instead  of  from  the  religious,  point  of 
view  ;  and  they  claimed  that  his  unfavor- 
able predictions  discouraged  the  defenders 
of  Jerusalem.  And  when  the  Chaldeans  tem- 
porarily raised  the  siege  to  meet  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  Jeremiah  was  about  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  their  absence  to  go  to  Anathoth 
on  business,  the  charge  was  made  against 
him  that  he  was  deserting  to  the  Chaldeans, 
and  he  was  thrown  into  prison  (xxxvii.  j-15). 
After  many  days  king  Zedekiah  released  him 
from  his  cell  and  committed  him  to  the  court 
of  the  guard  (1()-21)  ;  but  the  princes  soon 
had  him  cast  into  the  dungeon  to  die 
(xxxviii.  1-6).  An  Ethiopian  eunuch,  how 
ever,  took  compassion  on  him,  and  obtained 
the  king's  leave  to  take  him  from  the  miry 
pit  and  put  him  back  in  the  court  of  the 
guard.  The  prophet  was  there  when  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken  (7-28 ).  The  Chaldeans  looked 
upon  him  as  one  who  had  suflered  much  for 
them,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  gave  express 
orders  for  his  kind  treatment.  Accordingly, 
Nebuzaradan,  the  Chaldean  official,  sent  and 
had  Jereiiiiah  taken  out  of  the  court  of  the 
guard  and  brought  to  him  with  the  other 
captives  to  Ramah,  set  him  free,  and  granted 
him  leave  to  go  to  Babylon  or  stay  in  the 
home  land.  On  his  choosing  the  latter, 
Nebuzaradan  gave  him  victuals  and  a  pres- 
ent, and  sent  him  to  the  protection  of 
Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  had  made 
governor  of  Judah  (xxxix.  11-14  ;  xl.  1-6). 
On  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  he  strongly 
urged  the  Jews  not  to  fiee  to  Egypt.  It  was 
in  vain  ;  they  not  merely  went  thither  them- 
selves, but  they  conii)elled  the  prophet  to  ac- 
comj)any  them  on  their  journey  (xii.  1-xliii. 
7).  He  delivered  his  last  predictions  at  Tah- 
panhes,  in  Egypt  (xliii.  S-xliv.  30).  The 
time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  unknown. 
Besides  the  ])rophecies  to  which  his  name  is 
attached,  and  his  [..amentations,  he  may  have 
w-ritten  some  of  the  psalms,  which  resemble 
his  compositions  in  style. 

Beyond  most  i)ro|)hecies  the  book  of  Jere- 
miah reveals  the  spiritual  life  of  its  author. 


Jeremiah 


3G5 


Jeremiah 


His  was  a  message  of  doom  to  his  native 
laud,  and  a  message  that  brought  the  hatred 
of  his  fcUow-countrymen  upon  him  ;  and  the 
burden  of  it  forced  from  him  the  bitter 
lament  that  he  had  ever  been  born  (xv.  10  ; 
XX.  14-18).  But  he  remained  true  to  duty. 
He  was  a  lone  man,  misunderstood,  maligned, 
pei'secuted,  his  efforts  for  the  moral  welfare 
of  his  countrymen  foredoomed  to  failure, 
without  the  solace  of  domestic  life  and  social 
joys  (xvi.  1-9),  often  kept  in  ward,  forced  to 
turn  for  consolation  ami  sympathy  and  com- 
panionship to  God  only.  Being  thus  thrown 
much  ui)on  God,  he  came  to  realize  the  sense 
of  individual  responsibility  to  God  (xvii.  9; 
xxxi.  29,  30).  And  so  it  comes  to  pass  that 
in  Jeremiah  is  notahly  exhibited  the  possi- 
bility and  reality  of  communion  between  the 
individual  soul  and  God. 

Religion  in  the  heart  and  in  the  life  is  a 
dominant  note  in  Jeremiah's  preaching.  He 
was  called  to  the  prophetic  office  five  years 
before  the  eventful  discovery  of  the  book  of 
the  law  in  the  temple,  during  repairs  to  the 
edifice  ;  and  he  was  in  the  midst  of  his  work 
when  king  Josiah,  under  the  profound  im- 
pression made  upon  him  by  the  words  of  the 
book,  led  the  crusade  against  idolatry  and 
inaugurated  a  revival  in  the  national  wor- 
ship. Jeremiah,  too,  exhorted  the  people  to 
hearken  to  the  words  of  the  covenant  entered 
into  at  mount  Sinai ;  and  he  pointed  out 
that  God  had  visited  them  with  the  evils 
threatened  therein  for  disobedience,  and 
that  to  obey  is  the  first  requirement  of  the 
covenant  (Jer.  xi.  1-8).  Jeremiah  would 
guard  the  people  from  limiting  reform  to 
things  external.  He  would  carry  it  into  the 
inner  life.  In  the  spirit  of  the  older  proi)h- 
ets,  of  the  familiar  proverb,  and  of  the  cov- 
enant itself  (1  Sam.  xv.  22;  Is.  i.  11-17; 
Amos  V.  21-24;  Mic.  vi.  6-8  \  Prov.  xv.  8; 
Dent.  X.  12),  and  using  the  rhetorical  nega- 
tion, frequently  employed  for  emphatic  an- 
tithesis (e.  g.  Deut.  v.  3),  he  denied  that  God 
commanded  sacrifice,  and  insisted  that  the 
one  requirement  is  obedience.  God  com- 
manded sacrifice  indeed  (Ex.  xx.  24  ;  xxiii. 
14  -19  ;  Deut.  xii.  6),  but  did  not  speak  of 
sacrifice.  Sacrifice  was  not  the  theme,  God 
spoke  of  moral  conduct  (Jer.  vii.  21-28;  cp. 
vi.  20;  xiv.  12).  The  sacrifices  of  the  obe- 
dient are  pleasing  to  God  (xvii.  24-26  ;  xxvii. 
19-22;  xxxiii.  10,  11,  18;  the  latter  verse  in 
a  section  lacking  in  the  Greek  version) ;  but 
the  fasts  and  sacrifices  of  those  who  love  to 
wander  from  him  are  not  acceptable  (xiv.  10- 
12).  Trust  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  in 
the  midst  of  Israel,  in  being  Jehovah's 
temple,  is  also  vain  ;  and  ecjually  vain  is  the 
mere  possession  of  the  law  of  Jehovah. 
Obedience  alone  avails  (vii.  4-7  ;  viii.  7-9). 
Eventually  even  the  ark  will  be  no  more  re- 
membered (iii.  16).  God  looks  at  the  heart 
(xi.  21);  xvii.  10;  xx.  12).  To  serve  God  man 
must  remove  carnal  lust  from  it  (iv.  4  ;  cp. 
Deut.  X.  16),  wash  it  of  wickedness  (iv.  14), 


and  return  to  God  with  the  whole  heart  and 
not  feignedly  (iii.  10;  xvii.  5).  In  due  time 
Jeremiah  foretold  the  new  covenant  when 
the  people  shall  have  a  new  heart  and  God's 
law  written  in  it  (xxiv.  7;  xxxi.  33;  xxxii. 
39,  40).  His  vision  descried  the  true  glory 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  future.  Henceforth 
this  truth  holds  a  chief  place  in  the  mind  of 
God's  peoj)le. 

Jeremiah  committed  some  of  his  prophe- 
cies to  writing  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  but 
the  roll  was  destroyed  by  the  king  (xxxvi.  1, 
23).  They  were  soon  rewritten,  however, 
with  large  additions  (32).  The  prestiit  l)ook 
is  a  further  enlargement,  including  the  later 
prophecies ;  and  is  a  rearrangement,  jire- 
pared  at  the  close  of  his  ministry  ;  for  jiroph- 
ecies  of  different  periods  are  placed  together 
and  those  of  the  Siame  period  are  often  dis- 
persed. The  book  consists  of  an  introduc- 
tion narrating  the  prophet's  call  (i.),  three 
sections  of  prophecy,  often  recorded  in  con- 
nection with  the  event  that  called  forth  the 
])rophetic  utterance  (ii.-li.),  and  a  historical 
appendix,  added  probably  by  a  later  writer 
(Iii.;  cp.  li.  64).  The  three  prophetic  sec- 
tions are :  I.  Prediction  of  the  approaching 
judgment  of  Judah  and  the  promise  of  resfo- 
rationfrom  exile  (ii. -xxxiii.).  It  includes  a 
general  denunciation  of  Judah  (ii.-xx.),  de- 
nunciation of  the  civil  and  religious  rulers 
(xxi.-xxiii.),  an  unfolding  of  the  design  and 
duration  of  the  judgment  (xxiv.-xxix.),  and 
prophecy  of  the  blessings  which  will  follow 
the  judgment  (xxx.-xxxiii.).  II.  History  of 
the  infliction  of  the  judgment  (xxxiv.-xliv.), 
including  denunciations  of  the  corrujilion 
which  prevailed  immediately  before  the  de- 
struction of  the  city  (xxxiv.-xxxviii.),  an  ac- 
count of  the  destruction  of  the  city  (xxxix.), 
and  of  the  wretched  conditions  of  the  rem- 
nant, and  the  prophecies  spoken  to  them 
(xl.-xliv.).  III.  Predictions  respecting  for- 
eign nations  (xlvi.-li.),  introduced  by  an  ad- 
dress to  Baruch  (xiv.). 

The  Messiah  is  spoken  of  in  xxiii.  5-8  ; 
XXX.  4-11 ;  xxxiii.  14-26  ;  and  Jehovah's  sure 
covenant  with  Israel  is  dwelt  upon  in  xxxi. 
31-40;  xxxii.  36-44;  xxxiii. 

The  text  of  the  Septuagint  differs  consid- 
eralily  from  the  Hebrew:  chapters  xlvi.-li. 
are  not  only  arranged  in  a  difl'erent  order 
among  themselves,  but  the  entire  section  has 
been  inserted  after  xxv.  13 ;  chapters  xxix. 
16-20,  and  xxxiii.  14-26,  and  xxxix.  4-]!!, 
and  Iii.  28-30  are  wanting  in  the  Greek  ;  and 
in  many  other  places  the  Greek  version  pre- 
sents a  shorter  text  than  the  Hebrew  (e.  g. 
ii.  1,  2  ;  vii.  1-3).  This  shorter  text  is  often 
due  to  the  absence  of  unimportant  words ; 
such  as  the  customary  lack  of  "  the  prophet  " 
when  Jeremiah  is  named  (e.g.  xxviii.5,  ll,!;")), 
"  the  king,"  when  the  proper  name  is  given 
(xxxvi.  32  ;  xxxvii.  17)  and  rice  versa  (e.  g. 
xxvi.  22,  23;  xxxvii.  18,  21),  "of  hosts" 
after  Jehovah  (e.  g.  vi.  6,  9),  "  of  host^s, 
the  God  of  Israel,"  the  sufficient  title  Lord 


Jeremoth 


36G 


Jericho 


being  used  instead  (e.  g.  vii.  21;  xix.  15), 
and  "saith  tiie  Lord."  where  the  expression 
is  jiarenthetic  (e.  K-  ii-  >' :  i'i-  10;  vii.  13). 

In  chnniolofrical  order  the  prophecies  and 
narratives,  so  far  as  they  bear  explicit  dates, 
stand  thus: 

111  .losiah'  reign  of  tliirty-one  years  : 
In  the  13th  year  .   .   .  Chap.  i. 
■D  *  *i  «     lotv,  (ii.-vi.  (cp.    iii.    6),    and 

^^I'XsLstyelrs.''*'!    ^^i^  -'--'-  ^^^ 

In  Jehoahaz's  reign  of  three  months  : 

None. 
In  .Tehoiakim's  reign  of  eleven  years  : 
In  the  beginning.  .   .  xxvi.,      and      probably 
xxii.  l-19(cp.  10,18, 19). 
In  the  4th  vear ....  xxv. :  xxxvi. ;  xlv. ;  xlvi. 

1-V2. 
After  the  4th  year  .   .  xxxv.  (cp.  1,  11). 
In  Jehoiaehin's  reign  of  three  months  : 

Probably  xxii.  20-30,  and 
perhaps    xlii.    (cp.    18 
witli  xxii.  20 and  2  Kin. 
xxiv.  12). 
In  .Zedekiah's  reign  of  eleven  years  : 
In  the  beginning  .  .    .  xxiv. ;  xlix.  34-;39. 
In  his  4th  year.  .   .   .  xxvii.  (cp.  3,  12,  xxviii.  ■ 

1) ;  xxviii. ;  li.  59-64. 
In  nnnoted  years  .       xxi. ;  xxix. 
Dnring   ihe   earlier  ~| 
I)art  of  the  siege,  I  „....:„ 
while      Jeremiah  f^^-^'^- 
was  vet  free.  J 

''^i^»Vh^sr[™-^^p-4-^)- 

Jeremiah    was   in  I  ^vv  v   1^  18 

ward.  I  xxxix.  lo-lS. 

In  Judah  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  : 

xxxix.  1-14  ;  xl.  1-xliii.  7. 

In  Egypt xliii.8-13:  xliv. 

Undated,  but    not  al- (  xxiii. ;  xxx. ;  xxxi ;  xlv.; 

ways  without   indi-<      xlvi.  13-xlviii. ;   xlix- 

cations  of  time.         (     li.  .")8. 
Appendi-x Iii. 

H.  A  chief  of  tlie  priests.  wJio  retnrne<l 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  il'i). 

9.  A  i)riest,  doubtli'ss  luad  of  a  fatlier's 
house,  who  set  his  seal  to  the  covenant  to 
kee])  separate  from  the  foreigiuu-sand  observe 
the  law  of  tiod  (Neh.  x.  2). 

Jer'e-moth  and  Jerimoth  [probablv 
heights). 

1.  A  Benjaniite,  fluuilv  of  Becher  1 1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  14 »,  jierliaps 
th(!  person  (tailed  Jeroham  (27). 

'■i.  \  Levite.  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  ;2.'5 ;   xxiv.  ."{O). 

4.  \  de.s(-eudant  of  ireman  and  head  of 
the  lifteenth  course  among  the  nuisicians  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  22). 

.").  A  son  of  .Vzriel  and  jirince  of  Naphtali 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

<i  H.  Two  desceiidaiils  of  Klam  (I']/,ra  x.  2(!. 
271  and  a  sou  of  Hani  'x.  2it.  in  A.  V.,  ac- 
cording to  another  reading,  Ramotlii,  who 
consented  to  itut  away  their  foreign  wives. 

Kor  persons  who  Ixar  Ihe  name  .leiinioth 
only,  see  Jkkimotii. 


Jer'e-my.     See  Jeremiah. 

Je-ri'ah,  once  Jerijah  [probably,  founded 
by  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  He- 
bron (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23;  xxvi.  31). 

Jer'i-bal  [contentious]. 

A  son  of  Elnaam,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  46). 

Jer'i-cbo  [place  of  fragrance]. 

An  important  city  situated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  (Dent,  xxxiv.  1,  3),  west  of  the 
river,  near  the  Dead  Sea,  and  at  the  foot  of 
the  ascent  to  the  mountainous  table-land  of 
Judah.  It  was  known  as  the  city  of  palm 
trees  (ibid.  ;  Judg.  iii.  13).  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  when  the  Israelites  en- 
camped at  Shittim  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxii.  1  ;  xxvi.  3).  As  it  was 
strongly  fortified  and  commanded  the  valley 
of  the  lower  Jordan  and  the  passes  into  the 
western  mountains,  its  conquest  by  the  Isra- 
elites was  essential  to  their  advance.  Joshua 
accordingly  sent  spies  to  examine  it  (Josh, 
ii.  1-24),  led  the  Israelites  across  the  river, 
and  pitched  camp  near  the  city.  By  divine 
commau.d  the  men  of  war  went  round  the 
city  once  a  day  for  six  consecutive  days, 
with  the  ark  of  the  covenant  in  their  midst 
and  seven  priests  blowing  on  trumpets  in 
front  of  the  ark.  On  the  seventh  day  they 
compassed  the  city  seven  times ;  and  on  the 
seventh  circuit,  when  the  signal  was  given 
by  a  long  blast  with  the  horn,  the  host 
shouted,  the  walls  fell,  and  the  Israelites  en- 
tered. The  ])lace  had  been  put  under  the  ban. 
Except  Eahab.  who  had  protected  the  spies, 
and  her  father's  family,  all  living  ereatnies 
were  slain.  The  silver  and  the  gold,  with 
other  valuables,  were  put  into  the  treasury 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  Finally,  Joshua 
foretold  that  if  any  one  ever  fortified  the 
town  he  should  lose  his  elder  son  when  the 
foundations  were  being  laid,  and  the  younger 
one  when  the  gates  were  being  set  up  (Josh, 
v.  I3-vi.  26).  The  place  was  assigned  to 
Benjamin,  and  stood  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin 
(xvi.  1,  7;  xviii.  12,  21).  It  was  occupied  as 
a  royal  residence  by  Eglon,  king  of  Moab, 
when  lie  opjires.sed  the  Israelites  (Judg.  iii. 
13).  David's  ambassadors,  returning  from 
the  Ammonite  king  by  whom  they  had  been 
insulted,  stoi>ped  at  Jericho  until  their  beards 
grew  (2  Sam.  x.  5;  1  Chron.  xix.  5).  In 
Ahab's  reign  Hiel  the  Bethelite  fortified  the 
city,  but  lost  or  sacrificed  his  two  sons  as 
predicted  by  Joshua  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  Dur- 
ing Elijairs  lifetime  there  was  a  community 
of  the  projihets  at  the  place  (2  Kin.  ii.  5). 
Klijali,  when  about  to  lie  tran.slated  to  heaven, 
passed  through  it  witli  Elisha,  and  Elisha 
returned  to  it  after  finallv  partiua  with 
Elijah  (4,  15,  18).  The  captives  of  Judah, 
taken  by  the  Israelite  army  under  Pekah, 
were  set  free  at  Jericho  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
15).     In  its  vicinity  Zedekiah  was  cajitured 


Jeriel 


367 


Jeroboam 


by  his  Babylonian  pursuers  (2  Kin.  xxv.  5; 
Jer.  xxxix.  5;  lii.  8).  Three  liundred  and 
forty-five  of  its  former  inhabitants  and  their 
descendants  returned  from  captivity  w^itli 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  34  ;  Neh.  vii.  36).  Some 
of  its  new  populace  helped  to  rel)uild  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  liii.  2).  Bacchides,  the  Syrian 
general,  repaired  the  fortifications  of  Jericho 
during  the  Maccabtean  period  (1  Mac.  ix.  50). 
In  the  early  years  of  Herod  the  Great  the 
Komans  plundered  Jericho  ( Antiq.  xiv.  15,  3). 
Subsequently  Herod  beautified  it,  established 
a  royal  palace,  and  on  the  hill  behind  the 
town  built  a  citadel  which  he  named  Cyprus 
(xvi.  5,  2;  xvii.  1.3,  1;  War  i.  21,  4  aiid  »). 
There  was  also  a  hippodrome  there  at  thu 
time  of  Herod's  death  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  5; 
War  i.  33,  H  and  8).  The  road  from  Jerusa- 
lem to  Jericho  was  the  scene  of  the  action 
in  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan  (Luke 
X.  30).  At  Jericho  itself  Jesus  restored  sight 
to  blind  Bartimieus  and  his  companion  (Mat. 
XX.  29;  Luke  xviii.  35).  There  also  he 
brought  salvation  to  Zacchseus,  whose  home 
was  in  Jericho  (xix.  1,  2). 

Jerieho,  lying  825  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean,  had  a  tropical  climate. 
Palms,  l)alsauis,  sycomores,  and  henna  flour- 
ished (Song  i.  14;  Luke  xix.  2,  4;  War  iv.  8, 
3).  The  rose«J)lant  of  Jericho  was  proverl)- 
iallj'  fine  (Ecclus.  x.xiv.  14).  Ancient  Jeri- 
cho stood  close  by  the  copious  spring  'Aiu 
es-Sultan,  apparently  the  fountain  healed  by 
Elisha  (War  iv.  8,  3).  Excavation  has  un- 
covered the  remains  of  an  Amorite  town, 
which  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  before 
Israelite  influence  had  affected  its  life.  The 
modern  village  of 'Eriha  (the  Hebrew  Vriho 
a  little  altered)  is  4i  miles  west  of  the 
Jordan,  and  11  southeast  of  the  fountain.  It 
is  a  small  and  miserable  place. 

Je'rl-el  [proljahly,  founded  by  God]. 

A  descendant  of  Tola,  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  (1  Chi-on.  vii.  2). 

Je-ri'jah.     See  Jeriah. 

Jer'i-moth  [prohably,  heights]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  C'hron. 
vii.  7). 

2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

3.  A  sou  of  David,  and  father  of  Maha- 
hith,  a  wife  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 

4.  A  Levitc,  an  overseer  in  connection  witli 
the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reigu  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  13). 

For  others  whose  name  sometimes  appears 
as  Jeremotb,  see  Jeremoth. 

Je'ri-oth  [curtains]. 

One  of  Caleb's  wives  (1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

Jer-o-bo'am  [tliepeople  become  numerous]. 

1.  An  Ejilirairaite.  who  founded  the  king- 
dom of  the  ten  tribes.  His  father  was  an 
official  under  Solomon,  named  Xebat,  of  the 
village  of  Zeredah  in  the  Jordan  valley  ;  his 
mother's  name  was  Zeruah.  who  was  a  widow 
at  the  time  of  his  birth  (1  Kin.  xi.  26).     As 


a  young  man  he  showed  industry  and  ability ; 
and  Solomon,  who  was  engaged  in  building 
operations  at  Jerusalem,  made  him  overseer 
of  the  heavy  work  assigned  to  the  house  of 
Joseph  (27,  28).  One  day  as  Jeroboam  was 
walking  outside  of  Jerusalem  he  was  nu't  by 
a  prophet,  Ahijah  of  Shiloh,  clad  in  a  new 
garment,  who  rent  the  cloth  in  twelve  i)ieccs, 
and  gave  ten  to  Jeroboam  as  a  pledge  that 
Jehovah  destined  him  to  be  king  over  ten 
out  of  the  twelve  tribes.  News  of  the  trans- 
action reached  Solomon,  who  sought  to  kill 
Jeroboam,  but  he  esca])ed  to  Egypt,  and  was 
kindly  received  by  Shishak.  its  king  (29-40). 
When  the  refugee  was  notified  that  Solomon 
was  dead  and  that  an  assembly  of  the  tribes 
was  to  take  place  at  Shechem  to  make  Solo- 
mon's son  Rehoboam  king,  he  returned  to 
attend  the  meeting.  He  put  himself  forward 
as  spokesman  of  the  people,  and  urged  the 
alleviation  of  their  burdens.  Eehoboam  de- 
nied the  petition,  returning  a  foolish  and  ex- 
asperating answer.  Ten  tribes  thercui)on 
revolted  from  the  house  of  David  and  elected 
Jeroboam  king.  The  prophecy  of  Ahijah 
had  come  true ;  yet  Jeroboam  resolved  to 
depart  from  the  counsel  by  which  it  had 
been  accompanied.  The  prophet  had  ex- 
liorted  him  to  remain  true  to  Jehovah,  in 
which  case  the  crown  should  descend  perma- 
nently in  his  family  i37.  38).  But  he  was 
afraid  that  if  the  people  went  up  statedly  to 
Jerusalem  to  worship  they  would  be  won 
back  to  the  house  of  David  and  would  reject 
and  slay  him.  He  therefore  established  a 
center  of  worship  at  each  of  the  two  ex- 
tremities of  his  kingdom,  Dan  in  the  north 
and  Bethel  in  the  south.  In  defiance  of  the 
coiumandment  which  forbids  the  adoration 
of  God  by  means  of  images,  he  .set  up  a 
golden  calf  in  each  of  the  two  i)]aces  ( xii. 
26-30;  2  Chron.  xiii.  8),  and  recommended 
the  worship  as  not  altogether  new  by  using 
the  familiar  words  of  Aaron  (Ex.  xxxii.  4). 
It  would  seem  that  he  still  desired  to  worship 
Jehovah  under  the  image  of  the  calf.  He 
not  only  thus  established  houses  of  high 
places  which  lacked  the  ark  and  the  shekinah, 
but  he  made  Israelites  who  were  not  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  priests,  doubtless  because  iew 
or  none  of  the  lawful  priests  and  other 
Levites  consented  to  serve  in  the  idolatrous 
and  schismatic  worship  (1  Kin.  xii.  31;  2 
Chron.  xi.  13-15;  xiii.  9).  He  further  de- 
creed that  the  harvest  festival,  which  was 
celebrated  in  .ludah  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  seventh  month,  should  be  (jbserved  in 
the  northern  kingdom  on  the  fifteenth  day 
of  the  eighth  month  (1  Kin.  xii.  32.  33'. 
The  mass  of  the  people  conformed.  Tlius 
Jeroboam  made  Israel  to  sin.  This  abhorrent 
worship  continued  until  the  full  of  the 
kingdom.  The  successive  kings,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  Hoshea,  supported 
it  and  are  accordingly  described  as  walk- 
ing in  the  way  of  Jeroboam,  the  son 
of  Nebat,   who  made  Israel  to  sin   (1  Kin. 


Jeroham 


368 


Jerusalem 


XV.  26,  34;  xvi.  19,  31;  xxii.  52;  2  Kin. 
iii.  :i;  X.  2i);  xiii.  2,  11;  xiv.  24;  xv.  9,  IH, 

2 J,  2.S).  The  idolatry  establislied  by  Jt'i'o- 
boam  was  one  cause  wliich  led  to  the  carrying 
of  the  ten  tribes  into  captivity  to  Assyria  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  Hi) ;  for  it  kept  the  Hebrew  nation 
divided  in  twain  and  made  two  inferior  king- 
doms wliere  there  liad  been  one  strong  united 
people ;  and,  as  it  was  a  degradation  of  the 
lofty  spiritual  worship  of  Jehovah,  it  resulted 
in  lowering  the  si)iritual  tone  of  the  northern 
Israelites.  .Jeroboam  was  rebuked  for  his 
apostasy,  first  by  an  unnamed  prophet  from 
■Judah,  and  then  by  Aliijah,  the  Shilonite, 
who  had  promised  him  the  kingdom  ;  but  he 
continued  to  the  end  unrepentant  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  1-xiv.  18).  He  fortified  Shechem  and 
Penuel,  both  sacred  i)laces.  The  former  he 
made  his  residence,  but  seems  to  have  taken 
up  liis  abode  later  at  beautiful  Tirzah  (1  Kin. 
xii.  25;  xiv.  17;  Song  vi.  4).  There  was  a 
desultory  warfare  between  Jeroboam  and 
Rehol)oam  (1  Kin.  xv.  6),  and  a  great  battle 
w;is  fought  between  Jeroboam  and  Reho- 
boam's  son  and  successor,  Abijam,  in  which 
the  army  of  Israel  was  defeated  with  enor- 
mous slaughter,  and  Bethel,  which  was  only 
10  miles  from  Jerusalem,  temporarily  lost  to 
Israel  (7  ;  2  Chron.  xiii.  1-20) ;  see  Abijam. 
Jeroboam  was  made  king  about  931  b.  c,  and 
reigned  twenty-two  years  (1  Kin.  xiv.  20). 
One  son  of  his  had  died  iu  infmcy  (1-17); 
another,  Nadab,  ascended  the  throne  (20 1. 

2.  The  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  and 
his  successor  on  the  throne  of  the  ten  tribes. 
He  was  of  the  dynasty  of  Jehu,  and  the 
third  in  descent  from  that  ruler.  He  became 
king  in  Samaria  about  the  year  790  b.  c,  and 
reigneil  forty-one  years.  He  found  the  king- 
dom in  a  low  state,  but  raised  it  again  to 
prosperity,  capturing  Damas(uis,  the  capital 
of  Syri.i,  and  Hauiath,  one  of  the  Hittite 
towns,  aud  restoring  to  Israel  the  country 
from  Hamath  to  the  Dead  Sea.  These  suc- 
cesses had  been  predicted  by  Jonah  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  23-2H ;  cp.  Dent.  iii.  i7).  Amos  also 
I)roiiliesied  in  .lerol^oam  II.'s  reign  (Amos 
i.  1).  He  drew  a  melancholy  picture  of  the 
moral  and  religious  state  of  Israel  at  the 
time  (ii.  (J-v.  27;  viii.  4-6,  etc.),  and  pre- 
dicted judgment  from  God  (vii.  1-9  ;  viii. 
7-10).  For  these  i)rophecies  of  doom  the 
priest  at  Bethel  made  a  complaint  against 
him  to  Jeroboam,  but  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  brought  any  penalty  on  tlu;  prophet 
(vii.  Id  17i.  Ilosea  also  l)egan  liis  ]H-ophetic 
work  iu  the  nortln^-u  kingdom  during  the 
lifetiuK!  of  .Ii'roboam.  The  first  three  chai)- 
ters  pertain  to  tliat  period.  On  the  death 
of  Jeroboam,  his  son  Zechariah  ascended  the 
throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29 1. 

Je-ro'liam  [he  findeth  mercy]. 

1.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  the  prophet 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  1 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  27,  .34). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  sons  were  chief  men 
aud  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1   Chron.  viii.  27). 


See  Jeremoth  2.     He  may  be  identical  with 
the  following. 

3.  A  Benjamite.  father  of  Ibneiah  who 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Malchijah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12;  Neh.  xi.  12). 

5.  A  Henjaniite  of  Gedor.  whose  sons  joined 
David  at  Zikhig  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

6.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

7.  Father  of  one  of  the  captains  who  aided 
Jehoiada  in  putting  Joash  on  the  throne  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

Je-ruto'ba-al  and  Je-rub'be-shetli.     See 

GlDEOX. 

Jer'u-el  [probably,  founded  by  God]. 

A  wilderness  in  Judah,  adjacent  to  the 
clifl'  of  Ziz,  and  therefore  in  the  vicinity  of 
En-gedi  (2  Chron.  xx.  16).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Je-ru'sa-lem  [to  the  Hebrews  it  meant 
foundation  of  ])eace,  secure  habitation]. 

The  sacred  city  and  well-known  capital  of 
Judah,  of  Judtea,  of  Palestine,  and  of  the 
Jews  throughout  the  world.  For  the  sake 
of  convenient  reference  and  clearness,  the 
subject  is  i)resented  under  certain  heads: 
I.  Name.  II.  The  city  in  itself:  1.  Site;  2. 
Water  supply  ;  3.  Artificial  defenses ;  4.  Not- 
able buildings  in  the  time  of  Christ.  III. 
The  history  of  the  city:  1.  The  Canaanite 
city;  2.  The  city  of  the  Hebrews;  3.  The 
city  since  Titus.     IV.  Modern  excavation. 

I.  The  name.  The  earliest  known  name  is 
Urusalim,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  It  was  in  use  as 
early  as  the  sixteenth  century  before  Christ, 
long  before  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 
Hebrews  under  Joshua,  being  found  in  letters 
from  its  subject  prince  to  Amenophis  IV., 
king  of  Egypt,  his  lord.  Salem,  of  which 
Melchizedek  was  king,  is  a  natural  abbrevia- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  not  unlikely  denoted 
this  city.  The  place  is  mentioned  as  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  account  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
but  in  that  narrative  it  is  also  referred  to  as 
Jehus ;  in  fact,  this  latter  name  is  frequent 
after  the  conquest  during  the  occupation  of 
the  city  by  the  Jebusites ;  but  when  David 
captured  the  city  and  made  it  his  capital,  the 
old  name  of  Jerusalem,  or  abbreviated  Salem 
(Ps.  Ixxvi.  2),  became  once  more  the  sole 
designation.  The  pronunciation  of  the  final 
syllable  has  been  modified  by  the  later  Jews, 
so  that  it  resembles  a  dual  and  quite  appro- 
priately suggests  a  double  city. 

II.  1.  The  site.  Jerusalem  is  situated  on  a 
table-land  on  the  crest  of  the  central  ridge  of 
Palestine  and  at  one  of  its  highest  points. 
It  has  the  same  latitude  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  portion  of  the  table- 
land occupied  by  the  city  is  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  the  jilateau,  except  on  the  north.  On 
the  other  sides  it  is  encompassed  by  deep 
ravines.  Tbi.s  jutting  jiromontory  is  itself 
cut  by  another  valley  which,  followed  up- 
ward  from   its   mouth   at   the   southeastern 


/  T3  A 


//■' 


< 

0 


5,1 


r^felr:^ 


^^ 

;o»v-,.v.-.v 

y.-' 

V 

^y. 

•;'>^ 

/■  >    - 

v^ 

.sS 

'■'l^H       P' 


Jerusalem 


370 


Jerusalem 


corner  of  the  promontory  at  the  junction  of 
the  southern  and  eastern  ravines,  trends  like 
the  arc  of  a  circle  for  nearly  a  mile  north- 
ward, midway  sending  a  branch  from  its 
concave  side  due  west.  Such  at  least  was 
the  original  configuration  of  the  city's  site  ; 
but  in  the  course  of  centuries,  through  mu- 
nicipal improvements  and  the  devastation  of 
war,  heights  have  been  lowered  and  valleys 
filled.  As  a  result  of  these  ramifications, 
there  are  three  principal  hills, 
an  eastern,  a  southwestern, 
and  a  northwestern.  The  east- 
ern hill  is  a  ridge  exteudini,' 
for  somewhat  more  than  half 
a  mile  from  north  to  south. 
which  rises  to  a  height  of 
from  200  to  300  feet  above  its 
encompassing  valleys,  tapei'> 
to  a  blunt  point  at  its  soutlr 
ern  extremity,  and  at  it- 
northern  end  is  almost  sep 
arated  (the  reference  is  to  tin 
ancient  toj)ography)  from  tii( 
tal)le-laud,  of  which  it  is  :i 
part,  by  a  branch  of  the  east 
ern  ravine.  This  ridge  attains 
a  general  altitude  of  2400  feet 
above  sea  level.  Tliere  is  soiuc 
evidence  that  a  slight  depres- 
sion or  valley,  about  100  feet 
wide  and  in  places  40  feet 
deep,  lay  athwart  it  toward 
the  southern  end  from  the  so- 
called  fountain  of  the  Virgin 
northwesterly  to  the  Tyro- 
pceon  valley.  The  southwest- 
ern hill  is  much  the  largest  of 
the  three.  In  form  it  is  ol)- 
long,  with  a  spur  thriiwn  out 
on  the  northeastern  corner 
toward  the  eastern  ridge.  It 
lises  abruptly  from  the  encir- 
cling valleys.  Its  broad  sum- 
mit begins  at  an  altitu<le  of 
about  2400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and 
swells  150  feet  higher,  with  its  greatest  ele- 
vation on  the  west.  Tlie  third  liill  is  rather 
a  i)rojection  of  the  jilateau  than  an  isolated 
mound.  It  lies  north  of  tlu^  one  just  de- 
scribed. The  present  elevation  of  that  i)art 
includfd  in  the  ante-Christian  city  is  about 
24r)0  feet.  This  triad  of  hills,  "with  the 
linitectiug  ravines,  artonU'd  a  strong  posi- 
tion for  a  city,  although  it  is  encircled  be- 
yond the  ravines  by  hills  which  tower  above 
it.  The  mountains  are  round  about  Jeru- 
salem. 

The  eastern  ravine  is  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron.  The  hill  to  the  east,  which  faces 
and  overlooks  the  hills  of  the  city,  is  the 
mount  (if  Olives.  The  long  ridge  which  runs 
luirth  and  south  is  the  tem])le  hill,  called  at 
least  in  that  piirtion  of  its  extent  where  the 
sanctuary  stood,  mount  Moriah.  Its  southern 
tapering  extremity  was  known  as  ()i)lu>l. 
The  pool  in  the  valley  at  its  extreme  southern 


point  is  Siloam,  and  a  pool  just  north  of  the 
temple  area  is  Bethesda. 

Which  height  was  mount  Zion  ?  This  ques- 
tion has  received  three  principal  answers:  1. 
Mount  Zion  was  the  southwestern  hill.  This 
view  has  prevailed  since  the  fourth  century. 
(1)  Zion  was  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v. 
7-9),  and  Josephus  says  that  the  upper  city, 
unquestionably  the  southwestern  hill,  was 
called  the  citadel  by  David   (War  v.  4,  1). 


Pool  of  Siloam 

Strangely  enough,  however.  Josejjhus  does 
not  explicitly  call  it  Zitin.  (2)  Micah  distin- 
guishes Zion  from  the  temple  hill  (iv.  2).  (3) 
Too  nuich  building  is  sjioken  of  in  Neh. 
iii.  for  Zion  to  be  part  of  the  temple  hill. 
(4)  The  .sanctity  of  Zion  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  it  was  for  many  years  the  abid- 
ing place  of  the  ark,  and  was  celebrated  as 
such  by  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  12-lH  ;  1  Kin.  viii. 
1-4;  Ps.  ii.  6).  The  name  Zion  tlius  became 
the  title  for  Jerusalem  as  a  whole  in  its 
quality  as  a  holy  city  (Ps.  xlviii.  ;  Ixxxvii. ; 
cxxxiii.  3).  2.  Mount  Zion  was  the  northwest- 
ern hill  (Warren).  This  hill  is  identified  with 
that  ((uarter  of  the  city  called  by  Josephus 
the  Acra,  which  in  (Jreek  means  hilltop  or 
citadel.  It  is,  indeed,  styled  by  him  the 
lower  city,  for  so  it  was  in  his  day;  but 
originally  it  was  much  higher,  and  was  cut 
down  by  Simon  Maccabjpus  because  it  com- 
manded the  temple  (Antiq.  xiii.  6,  7).  It 
was  originally  a  suitable  site  for  the  Jebusite 


Jerusalem 


371 


Jerusalem 


fortress.  3.  Mount  Zion  was  a  portion  of  the 
temple  hill.  The  main  arguments  for  this 
view  are  (1)  The  temple  hill  is  hest  adapted 
by  nature  for  a  stronghold.  (2)  The  temple 
could  be  reached  bj'  going  from  the  fountain 
gate,  up  the  stairs  of  the  city  of  David,  and 
past  the  water  gate  (Neh. 
xii.  37),  steps  which  may  be 
those  that  have  been  dis- 
covered ascending  the  ridge 
from  the  pool  at  tlie  south- 
ern end.  (3)  Zion  is  spoken 
of  as  holy  in  terms  such  as 
are  never  applied  to  Jeru- 
salem, but  are  intelligible 
if  Zion  was  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood. 
Zion  is  called  the  hill  of 
the  Lord,  the  holy  hill,  the 
dwelling  place  of  Jehovah 
(Ps.  ii.  6;  is.  11;  xxiv.  3; 
cxxxii.  13).  (4)  In  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  Zion 
is  the  temple  hill  (i.  33-.38). 
The  invariable  distinction 
of  the  city  of  David  from 
mount  Zion  and  the  sanc- 
tuary shows  that  the  terms 
had  undergone  a  change 
of  meaning  since  2  Sam. 
V.  7.  The  simplest  expla- 
nation is  that  mount  Zion 
was  part  of  the  temple  hill, 
and  by  synecdoche  often 
used  for  the  whole  of  it,  whereas  the  desig- 
nation city  of  David,  which  denoted  the  mu- 
nicipality of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  7;  Antiq. 
vii.  3,  2),  was  extended,  with  the  growth  of 
population,  beyond  the  bounds  of  mount 
Zion  and  embraced  the  new  suburbs  on  the 


city  of  David  might  then  on  occasion  in- 
clude the  sanctuary  or  exclude  it.  The 
Syrians  erected  a  fortress  in  the  city  of  David, 
but  Judas  Maccaba>-us  came  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  sanctuary  on  mount  Zion  (I  Mac. 
i.  33seq.  ;  iv.  36  seq.).    According  to  this  view. 


Fountain  of  tlie  Virgin. 

neighboring  hills,  around  which  the  protect- 
ing walls  of  the  city  were  cast.     The  term 


Cisterns  of  Jerusalem. 

the  stronghold  captured  by  David  occupied 
the  northern  part  of  the  ridge  on  which  the 
temple  was  afterwards  built  (Ferguson)  or, 
as  the  advocates  of  the  theory  are  coming  in 
increasing  numbers  to  believe,  the  southern 
part,  south  of  the  temple,  south  also  of  the 
transverse  ravine  (Klaiber,  f4uthe,  Sayce). 

II.  2.  Water  suppli/.  Although  Jerusalem 
was  often  long  and  closely  besieged  and  suf- 
fered grievous  famine  from  having  its  sup- 
plies of  food  cut  oH",  there  is  no  record  of  the 
inhabitants  having  ever  lacked  water.  In 
fact,  it  was  the  besiegers  who  were  apt  to 
want  water,  not  the  besieged.  There  is  no 
si)ring  north  of  the  city,  and  none  is  known 
at  present  east,  west,  or  south  which  was  not 
commanded  by  the  walls,  except  En-rogel. 
A  living  fountain  to  sujjply  the  ]\Iamilla  pool 
and  the  pool  of  the  Sultan  on  the  west  has 
not  been  discovered.  The  southwestern  hill 
is  likewise  without  springs,  so  far  as  known, 
although  the  di-agon's  well  may  have  been 
such  (Xeh.  ii.  13).  But  the  temple  hill  is 
well  supplied  (Tacitus.  Hi.st.  v.  12).  The 
kufiwn  living  sources  and  their  reservoirs 
are  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin  oti  the  eastern 
side,  with  abundant  water  which  was  con- 
ducted by  a  subterranean  channel  to  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (see  Gihon)  :  the  fountain  of 
Siloam  at  the  southern  end  of  tlie  hill,  where 
also  are  to  be  sought,  though  their  identifica- 
tion is  difficult,  the  king's  pool,  the  pool  that 
was  made,  and  Solomon's  pool   (Neh.  ii.  14; 


Jerusalem 


372 


Jerusalem 


iii.  16  :  War  v.  4.  1)  ;  on  the  western  side  of 
the  riilfie.  directly  west  of  the  tenijiie,  the 
so-called  healing  haths,  Hannnani  esh-Shifa ; 
and  just  north  of  the  ridge,  Bethesda. 

The  springs  were  supplemented  by  cisterns. 
Tlie  towers,  which  were  upon  the  city  walls, 
contained  immense  reservoirs  for  rain  water 
(War  V.  4,  :>) ;  and  numerous  cisterns,  of 
which  not  a  few  still  exist,  were  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  city  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  12). 

Resides  the  supply  atforded  by  the  springs 
and  cisterns  of  the  city,  water  was  also 
brought  from  a  distance.  The  Mamilla  pool 
west  of  the  city  is  probably  the  upper  pool 
in  the  fuller's  field  and,  as  the  name  denotes, 
the  serpent's  pool  {Is.  vii.  .3;  xxxvi.  2;  War 
V.  3,  2).  An  aqueduct  brought  the  water 
from  it  to  the  pool  of  the  patriarch  east  of 
the  Jaffa  gate.  This  is  known  to  tradition 
as  the  i)ool  of  Hezekiah,  and  is  probably  the 
pool  Amygdalon — i.  e.  pool  of  the  almond  or 
tower,  mentioned  by  Jose])hus  (War  v.  11,  4). 
From  it  a  subterranean  conduit  jjasses  east- 
ward. A  reservoir  was  also  constructed  at  a 
late  period  north  of  the  temple  area,  in 
ground  made  where  the  small  vallej-  diverged 
westward  from  the  Kidrou.  It  was  fed  from 
the  west.  It  is  now  known  as  the  pool  of 
Israel,  and  is  probably  identical  with  the 
pool  Strouthios  (pool  of  the  .sparrow  or  of 
soa]>wort,  wliich  was  used  for  cleansing  wool), 
which  exi.sted  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged 
by  Titus,  and  lay  in  front  of  the  tower  of 
Antonia  (War  v.  11,  4).  But  the  most  ex- 
tensive aqueduct  was  that  which  brought 
water  to  Jerusalem  from  beyond  Bethlehem  ; 
see  Etam.  It  is  believed  to  considerably 
antedate  the  Christian  era. 

II.  '.'.  Artifirinl  defenses.  Immediately  after 
capturing  Jerusalem,  David  took  measures  to 
enclose  the  city  with  a  wall.  The  old  Jelni- 
site  stronghold,  henceforth  called  the  city  of 
David,  already  existed.  David,  in  addition, 
fortified  the  city  round  about,  from  Millo 
even  round  about  (2  Sam.  v.  9;  1  Chron.  xi. 
8).  Solomon  built  Millo  and  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem, closing  up  the  gap  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  ix.  I.'"),  24;  xi.  27).  Succ\;ed- 
ing  kings  made  repairs  and  additions,  until 
eventually  at  least  the  wall  passed  near  the 
yiresent  Jaffa  gate  on  the  west  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  it),  ajiproached  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
on  the  south  (Jer.  xix.  2),  ran  near  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4),  included  Ojjhel 
(2  Chnm.  xxvii.  3;  xxxiii.  14),  and  on  the 
north  enclosed  the  suburb  which  grew  up  on 
the  northwestern  hill  (2  Kin.  xiv.  13;  2 
Chron.  xxxiii.  14;  Jer.  xxxi.  3H).  This  wall 
was  razed  to  the  ground  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  10). 

Nehemiah  retxiilt  the  wall  out  of  the  old 
material  (Neh.  ii.  1.3-1.5;  iv.  2,  7;  vi.  l.'S).  It 
began,  so  to  speak,  at  the  sheep  gate  (iii.  1), 
which  was  near  the  pool  of  Bethesda  (John 
v.  2).  This  pool  has  been  discovered  near  to 
the  church  of  St.  Anne,  about  KM)  yards  from 
the  gate  now  called  St.  Stephen'.s,  and  on 


what  was  originally  the  northern  side  of  that 
branch  of  the  Kidron  valley  which  was  in- 
terposed between  the  temple  hill  and  the 
main  plateau.  The  sheep  gate  stood,  there- 
fore, in  this  branch  valley  or  on  the  slope  of 
the  plateau  to  the  north  or  northwest.  Near 
the  sheep  gate,  in  the  direction  away  from  the 
temple,  were  the  towers  of  Meah  and  Han- 
aneel  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  xil.  39).  Then  came  the 
fish  gate,  in  the  new  or  second  quarter  of  the 
city  (iii.  3  ;  Zeph.  i.  10),  and  next  the  old  gate 
(Neh.  iii.  G  ;  xii.  39).  Some  distance  on  from 
the  latter  point  was  the  broad  wall  (iii.  8  ;  xii. 
38),  and  farther  on  the  tower  of  the  furnaces 
(iii.  11 ;  xii.  38).  To  this  there  succeeded  the 
valley  gate,  the  technical  designation  of  the 
valley  on  the  west  of  the  city  being  used  (iii. 
13  ;  cp.  ii.  13-15),  then  the  dung  gate  (iii.  14), 
then  the  gate  of  the  fountain,  the  wall  of 
the  pool  of  Siloam  by  the  king's  garden,  at 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  city,  and  the 
stairs  that  go  down  from  the  city  of  David 
(15) ;  to  the  east  of  this  point  was  the  water 
gate  [of  the  temple?],  with  a  large  open 
place  before  it  (viii.  1-3;  xii.  37).  The  wall 
next  went  past  the  sepulchers  of  David,  the 
pool  that  was  made,  and  the  house  of  the 
mighty  (iii.  16) ;  the  going  up  to  the  armory, 
at  the  turning  of  the  wall  (19) ;  the  house  of 
the  high  priest,  Eliashib  (20) ;  then  various 
points  indicated  by  other  houses  unto  the 
turning  of  the  wall,  the  corner  (24) ;  the 
turning  of  the  wall  and  the  tower  which 
standeth  out  from  the  king's  upper  house, 
that  was  by  the  court  of  the  guard  (25). 
Now  the  Nethinim  dwelt  here  in  Ophel  from 
over  against  the  water  gate  [of  the  temple?] 
toward  the  east  and  this  tower  that  standeth 
out  (26  ;  cp.  xi.  21).  Then  a  piece  of  wall 
from  this  tower  to  the  wall  of  Ophel  (iii.  27). 
The  horse  gate  came  next,  above  which  the 
priests  resided  (28).  It  was  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  Kidron 
valley  (Jer.  xxxi.  40).  Then  a  portion  of  the 
wall  over  against  the  house  of  [the  priest] 
Zadok,  then  a  section  repaired  by  the  keeper 
of  the  east  gate  [of  the  temple,  probably]  (Neh. 
iii.  29).  Presently  the  house  of  the  Nethinim  ; 
then  a  section  from  over  against  the  gate  of 
the  Miphkad  [which  was  probably  a  gate  of 
the  temple  at  the  place  where  tlie  sin  offer- 
ing was  burned,  called  the  Mijthkad,  cp. 
Ezek.  xliii.  21]  to  the  upper  chamber  of  the 
tower  (Neh.  iii.  31)  ;  and,  finally,  the  sheep 
gate,  which  was  the  starting  point  of  the  de- 
scription (.32). 

Two  important  gates  of  the  former  wall 
are  not  mentioned,  though  one  at  least  ex- 
isted at  this  time,  the  corner  gate  (2  Kin 
xiv.  13;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  9;  cp.  Zech.  xiv.  10) 
and  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (Neh.  viii.  16  ;  xii. 
39).  The  corner  gate  appears  to  have  been 
the  extreme  northwestern  point  of  the  city 
(Jer.  xxxi.  38),  and  it  was  distant  400  cubits 
from  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (2  Kin.  xiv.  13). 
Through  this  latter  gate  the  road  to  Ephraim 
passed ;  presumably,  therefore,  it  was  in  the 


Jerusalem 


373 


Jerusalem 


northern  wall  of  the  city,  and  if  so,  then 
east  of  the  corner  gate.  It  was  certainly- 
west  of  the  old  gate  (Neh.  xii.  39).  Begin- 
ning with  the  sheep  gate  and  following  the 
northern  wall  westward,  the  order  of  gates 
and  towers  is  sheep  gate,  towers  of  Meah  and 
Hananeel,  fish  gate,  old  gate,  gate  of  Ephraira, 
corner  gate.  Whether  the  broad  wall  and 
tower  of  furnaces  were  beyond  the  corner 
gate  is  difficult  to  determine.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  gates  of  the  corner  and  Eph- 
raim  occur  in  that  part  of  the  wall  where  it 
is  recorded  that  "  they  left  Jerusalem  "  (iii.  8, 
R.  V.  margin),  as  though  the  wall  required  no 
repairs  at  this  point. 

There  was  also  a  gate  of  Benjamin,  through 
which  the  road  to  Benjamin  passed  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  7;  Zech.  xiv.  10).  This  may  have 
been  but  another  name  for  the  gate  of  Eph- 
raim.  After  the  fall  of  Samaria  and  the 
virtual  disappearance  of  Ephraim  from  geo- 
graphical parlance,  the  gate  of  Ephraim 
would  naturally  come  to  be  known  as  the 
gate  of  Benjamin,  and  when  the  walls  of  the 
city  were  rebuilt,  after  the  exile,  to  be  called 
indifferently  the  gate  of  Benjamin  or  of 
Ephraim  or,  eventually,  of  Damascus. 


they  might  be  able  to  stand  a  siege  (Ecclus. 
1.  1-4 ;  for  need,  cp.  Antiq.  xii.  1,  1).  In  IfiS 
B.  c.  Autiochus  Epi])hanes  had  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  thrown  down  and  a  fortress  with 
a  great  and  strong  wall  and  miglity  towers 
erected  in  the  city  of  David,  perliaps  abroad 
designation  meaning  the  city  as  distinct  from 
the  temple  (1  Mac.  i.  31,  33,  39  ;  2  Mac.  v. 
24-26).  This  fortress  became  celebrated  as 
the  Acra.  It  overlooked  the  temple  (Antiq. 
xiii.  6,  7),  and  for  twenty-five  years  was  a 
menace  to  the  Jews.  About  two  years  after  the 
demolition  of  the  city  walls,  Judas  Maccabaeus 
partly  restored  them,  strengthening  the  outer 
wall  of  the  temple;  but  only  to  have  his 
work  undone  (1  Mac.  iv.  60  ;  vi.  18-27,  62). 
His  brother  and  successor,  Jonathan,  how- 
ever, renewed  the  work,  proposing  additional 
fortifications  and  rebuilding  and  repairing 
the  walls,  particularly  around  the  temple 
hill  (1  Mac.  X.  10  ;  xii.' 36,  37;  Antiq.  xiii.  5, 
11).  His  brother  Simon  carried  the  work  to 
completion  (1  Mac.  xiii.  10 ;  xiv.  37 ;  Antiq. 
xiii.  6.  4).  Under  this  great  priest-king,  not 
only  were  the  walls  of  the  city  built,  but  the 
foreign  garrison  was  forced  in  the  year  142 
B.  c.  to  evacuate  the  Acra  (1  Mac.  xiii.  49-51). 


Exterior  of  the  Damascus  Gate. 


During  the  interval  between  Nehemiah 
and  Christ  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem 
suffered  many  vicissitudes.  About  loO  years 
after  the  building  of  Nehemiah's  wall,  the 
high  priest,  Simon  the  Just,  found  it  neces- 
sary to  fortify  the  temple  and  the  city  so  that 


After  a  time  the  fortress  was  demolished  and 
the  hill  on  which  it  had  stood  was  graded 
down  so  as  to  be  lower  than  the  level  of  the 
temple  (1  Mac.  xiv.  30  ;  xv.  28 ;  Antiq.  xiii. 
6,  7).  Simon  appears  also  to  have  taken  up 
his  residence  in  the  fortress  Baris,  which 


Jerusalem 


374 


Jerusalem 


protected  the  temple  on  the  north  (1  Mac. 
siii.  52  ;  cp.  Neh.  ii.  S).  In  the  reign  of  John 
Hyrcanus  a  portion  of  the  fortifications  of  the 
city  was  dismantled  by  Aiitiochus  Sidetes, 
l)«t  the  ruin  seems  to  have  been  repaired  by 
John  (Antiq.  xiii.  8,  3  ;  1  Mac.  xvi.23).  John 
also  remodeled  and  strengthened  the  fortress 
Baris  (Antiq.  xviii.  4.  3  ;  cp.  xv.  11,  4).  Poni- 
\>L-y  fiiiind  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem  strong. 
On  finally  caiituriug  the  city  in  63  B.  c,  he 
demolished  the  walls  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9; 
and  next  two  references).  C'a;sar  allowed 
them  to  be  rebuilt  {Antiq.  xiv.  8,  5;  War  i. 
10,  3  and  4).  On  the  north  they  consisted  of 
two  walls  which  Herod  and  his  Koiuan  allies 
took  in  the  year  37  B.  v.,  but  did  imt  destroy 
(Antiq.  xiv.  16,  2  and  4  ;  cp.  xv.  1,  2). 

At  the  time  of  Christ,  Jerusalem  had  the 
two  walls  aforementioned  on  the  north,  and 
shortly  aftcrwanls  three.  Josephus  identi- 
ties the  first  and  innermost  wall  as  the  work 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  succeeding  kings. 
He  describes  it  by  reference  to  landmarks  of 
his  day  as  extending  from  the  tower  of  Hip- 


the  tower  of  Antonia,  formerly  called  Baris, 
north  of  the  temple  (War  v.  4,  2).  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  who  reigned  over  Judaea  from  A. 
D.  41  to  44,  undertook  a  third  wall  in  order 
to  include  within  the  city  limits  the  unpro- 
tected suburb  of  Bezetha,  which  had  grown 
up  outside  of  the  fortifications.  After  laying 
the  foundations,  however,  lie  relinquished 
the  work  at  the  command  of  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius. It  was  finally  conqdeted  by  the  Jew'S 
themselves.  It  began  at  the  tower  of  Hip- 
picus,  extended  northward  to  the  tower  of 
Pse])hinus,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city 
(War  v.  3,  5 ;  4,  3)  ;  turned  eastward  and 
passed  on  to  the  women's  towers,  which 
stood  west  of  the  northern  highway  and  near 
the  monuments  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene 
(v.  4,  2;  Antiq.  xs.  4,  3) :  included  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  (War 
v.  7,  3j  ;  ]iassed  the  caves  of  the  kings  ;  bent 
southward  at  the  corner  tower,  near  the  monu- 
ment of  the  fuller  :  and  joined  the  old  wall  at 
the  valley  of  the  Kidron  (v.  4,  2).  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  walls  was  33  stadia,  a  little 


(  astk  iif  DuMfl,  with  Substructions  of  the  Tower  of  Hippicus 


picus.  which  stood  immediately  south  of  the 
modern  .latfa  gate  at  the  northwest  corner  of 
the  old  city  wall,  eastward  to  the  west  elois- 
t<'r  of  the  temple  ;  and  from  the  tower  of 
Hippicus  south  and  east  by  the  pool  of  Siloam 
and  Ophel  to  the  eastern  cloister  of  the  tem- 
l»le  (War  v.  4,  2).  It  enclosed  the  south- 
western and  eastern  hills.  The  second  wall 
encompassed  the  nin-tliein  and  ]irincipal  busi- 
ness ((iiarter  of  the  city  (War  v.  4,  2:  for 
bazaars  in  this  section,  h,  1  ;  i.  13,  2  ;  Anti(|. 
xiv.  13,  3).  It  began  at  the  gate  Genuath. 
that  is,  by  interprelatinii.  the  garden  gate. 
which  belonged  to  the  (ii'st  wall  and  stood 
not  far  east  of  the  tower  of  Hip|iicus  (War 
v.  4,  2  ;  3,  2  for  gardens) :  and  terminated  at 


less  than  4  miles  (v.  4,  3).  The  defenses  of 
the  city  were  augmented  by  the  fortress 
of  Antonia  at  the  temple,  and  l)y  the  palace 
of  Herod  with  its  adjacent  towers  on  the 
western  wall.  All  tlu-se  fortifications  Titus 
razed  to  the  ground  on  his  capture  of  the  city 
in  A.  D.  70.  He  left  only  the  group  of  three 
towers.  Hippicus,  I'hasaelus,  and  Mariamne, 
and  so  much  of  the  wall  as  enclosed  the  city 
on  the  west  side.  He  spared  this  portion  of 
the  wall  in  order  that  it  might  afford  protec- 
tion to  his  garrison,  and  tlie  towers  that  pos- 
terity might  see  wliat  kind  of  a  city  it  was 
which  Koman  valor  had  taken  (War  vii.  1,  1). 
II.  4.  yotdhh'  hn'iJdiniifi  ir,  the  time  of  Christ. 
Besides  the  walls  which  liave  been  alreadv 


Jerusalem 


375 


Jerusalem 


descril)ed,  there  were  many  structures  to 
awaken  conflifting  euiotious  in  the  pious  and 
patriotic  Israelite.  Foremost  was  the  tem- 
l)le.  Adjoining  it  on  the  north,  within  its 
are^i  and  controlling  it,  was  the  fortress  of 
Antonia  occupied  by  a  Konuui  garrison: 
west  of  it  stood  the  council  house,  iiroiiahly 
the  place  where  the  council  of  the  nation  or 
sanhedrin  met ;  a  little  more  to  the  westward, 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  bridge  which  sprang 


l),and  in  the  hippodrome  men  wore  confined 
(xvii.  9,  5;  War  i.  33,  (i).  Other  buildings 
were  the  house  of  tlie  high  priest  (Mat.  xxvi. 
3  ;  Luke  xxii.  54  ;  War  ii.  17,  (i)  ;  the  house 
of  records,  near  the  temple  (War  ii.  17,  6  ; 
vi.  6,  3)  ;  the  ])a]ace  of  the  proselyte  queen 
of  Adialjeiie.  Helena  (ibid.). 

III.  1.  The  c.itii  of  the  C'anuaiiites.  If  the 
Salem  of  Jlelchizedek  be  Jerusalem,  as  is 
proVjable,    the   city  first  emerges  in   history 


Remains  of  an  Ancient  Bridge  in  the  Western  Wall  of  the  Temple. 

It  is  near  tlip  southwestPi  ii  ciii  nnr,  nipasuips  .511  fnt-t  in  width,  contains  stnne.s  19  and  26  feet  in  length,  and  once 
.spanned  tlie  Tyi-opceon  valley.     It  is  known  as  Robinson's  Arch. 


from  the  western  cloister  of  the  temple  and 
spanned  the  Tyropopon  valley,  lay  the  gym- 
nasium or  xystos,  an  object  of  abhorrence  on 
account  of  its  demoralizing  and  heathenizing 
influence  ;  above  it,  looking  down  into  it  and 
peering  across  the  valley  into  the  sanctuary, 
rose  the  palace  of  the  Asmonteans,  recalling 
the  heroic  achievements  of  the  Maccabees. 
Or  taking  a  wider  circuit,  to  the  north  of  the 
temple  beyond  the  fortress  of  Antonia  was 
the  pool  of  Bethesda  with  its  healing  waters; 
away  to  the  west,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
city  from  the  temple,  stood  the  magnifi<'ent 
])alace  of  Herod  with  its  impregnable  towers, 
the  residence  of  the  procurators  when  in 
Jerusalem  ;  around  toward  the  south  was  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  and  not  too  far  from  it  were 
the  .sepulchers  of  the  kings  (see  the  several 
articles).  In  this  neighborhood  may  best  be 
sought  the  very  large  amphitheater  erected 
by  Herod  the  Great  in  the  plain  (Antiq.  xv. 
8,  1).  It  was,  perhaps,  the  same  as  the  hip- 
podrome, which  lay  south  from  the  temple 
(W'ar  ii.  3,  1),  for  chariot  races  as  well  as 
wild  beast  fights  and  gladiatorial  combats 
seem  to  have  taken  place  in  it  (Antiq.  xv.  8. 


in  the  days  of  Abraham,  when  it  already  had 
a  king  of  the  Semitic  race,  who  was  at  the 
same  time  priest  of  the  Most  High  God  (Gen. 
xiv.  18).  Manetho,  an  Egyptian  iiriest  and 
historian  of  the  third  century  before  Christ, 
transmits  a  tradition,  which  may  contain 
considerable  truth  and  which  chronologically 
belongs  here,  to  the  cfl'cct  that  the  nation  of 
the  shepherd  kings  to  the  number  of  240,000 
were  driven  out  of  Elgypt  by  Thoummosis 
[or  Amosis,  i.  e.  Aahmes  (Eusebius,  Chron. 
15-17)],  and  fled  toward  Syria  ;  but  fearing 
the  Assyrians,  who  had  dominion  over  Asia, 
they  built  a  city  in  the  country  now  called 
Judsea  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  the  multi- 
tude and  named  it  Jerusalem  (con.  Apion. 
i.  14,  15).  This  expulsion  of  the  shepherds 
took  place,  according  to  Manetho,  several  cen- 
turies before  the  exodus  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  later  event  (i.  26  seq.).  It  occurred  some- 
where about  IfSOO  B.  r.  The  earliest  mention 
of  Jerusalem  in  a  document  of  which  the 
original  is  extant  is  about  1500  b.  c.  when 
it  still  has  a  Semite  as  its  governor,  but 
is  subject  to  Ameuophis  IV.,  king  of  Egypt. 


Jerusalem 


57G 


Jerusalem 


This  was  before  the  exodus.  When  the 
Israelites  entered  Canaan,  Jerusalem  was 
ruled  hy  a  king,  still  a  Semite,  and  occupied 
by  Amorites,  or  more  definitely  hy  Jebusites. 
Joshua  defeated  its  king  and  his  allies  at 
Gibeon,  drove  them  down  the  pass  of  Beth- 
horon,  and  slew  them  in  the  lowland  (Josh. 
X.).  But  no  attempt  was  made  to  enter  the 
city.  The  Jebusites  still  dwelt  in  it.  It  was 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  ;  but  as  it 
stood  on  the  border  of  Judah,  its  castle  com- 
manded a  portion  of  the  territory  of  two  tribes 
(Josh.  XV.  8  ;  xviii.  28).  In  the  war  which 
was  waged  by  the  several  tribes  against  the 
C'anaanites  within  their  own  bounds  after 
the  death  of  Joshua,  Judah  fought  against 
Jerusalem,  took  it,  and  set  it  on  fire  (Judg. 
i.  8).  But  apparently  Judah  did  not  capture 
the  citadel.  Neither  did  Benjamin  (21). 
Hence,  when  the  city  was  rebuilt,  it  was  still 
under  the  shadow  of  the  Jebusite  stronghold 
and  its  inhabitants  were  Jebusites.  It  was  a 
city  of  foreigners  and  a  reproach  in  the 
midst  of  the  land  (Josh.  xv.  63  ;  Judg.  i.  21 ; 
xix.  11,  12).  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs 
when  David  began  his  career.  When  he  had 
slain  Goliath,  he  returned  from  the  field  of 
battle  by  way  of  Jerusalem  and  brought  the 
head  of  the  Philistine  thither.  Possibly  he 
erected  it  on  a  spear  in  view  of  the  city;  at 
any  rate  he  displayed  it  before  the  eyes  of 
the  Jebusites  (1  Sam.  xvii.  54).  It  was  a 
l)rophecy  to  this  stronghold  of  mocking  for- 
eigners of  what  awaited  them.  And  when 
he  becanu^  king  of  all  Israel,  and  found  a 
united  and  enthusiastic  nation  obedient  to 
him,  and  the  jealousy  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin  allayed,  he  at  once  led  his  troops 
against  the  border  town,  and  in  face  of  the 
derision  of  the  inhabitants,  who  believed 
their  walls  to  be  impregnable,  gained  posses- 
sion (2  Sam.  v.  6  scq.).  Henceforth  for  many 
centuries  Jerusalem  was  a  city  of  the  He- 
brews. 

III.  2.  The  city  of  the  Ilebreivs.  David  made 
Jerusalem  tlie  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and 
took  measures  to  make  it  the  religious  center 
also.  The  ark,  which  had  had  no  dwelling 
place  of  its  own  since  Ji'hovali  forsduk  Sliihih, 
he  brought  to  .Jerusaiein  and  jiitchcd  a  suit- 
able tent  for  it,  and  he  began  the  collection 
of  materials  for  a  temjile.  The  city  shared 
in  the  ])rosperity  of  Solomon's  reign.  The 
walls  were  (iularged.  the  temple  was  erected 
on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  which  gave  it  the  appear- 
ance of  a  fortri'ss,  and  a  royal  ])alace  was 
built  not  inferior  to  the  temple  in  sj>leudor. 
In  the  next  reign,  however,  the;  army  of 
Sliisliak,  king  of  lOgyjit,  entered  the  city  and 
robbed  the  temple  and  the  jjalace  of  their 
treasures  (1  Kin.  xiv.  25  avq.),  and  about 
eiglity  years  later  bands  of  Philistines  and 
Arabs  gained  brief  admission  to  the  citj'  ami 
carried  oil'  plunder  (2  t'liron.  xxi.  17).  The 
population  was  in  the  meanwhile  increasing, 
quarters  of  the  city  began  to  be  distinguished 


(2  Kin.  XX.  4 ;  xxii.  14),  and  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  century  a  suburb  on 
the  northwestern  hill  was  enclosed  by  an 
addition  to  the  city  wall.  This  part  of  the 
city  was  the  mercantile  district,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  such  after  the  exile  and  until 
the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus  (War  v. 
8, 1).  Here  were  the  sheep  and  the  fish  gates, 
and  the  quarter  was  skirted  by  the  valley  of 
the  cheesemongers.  In  the  reign  of  Amaziah 
a  portion  of  the  city  wall  was  broken  down, 
and  temple  and  i)alace  were  despoiled  of 
treasure  by  the  northern  Israelites  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  13,  14).  Uzziah  and  Jotham  repaired 
the  ruin,  strengthened  the  walls,  and  erected 
new  towers  for  defense  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9 ; 
xxvii.  3).  But  they  had  perhaps  other  ruins 
to  care  for  than  those  wrought  by  war,  for  in 
Uzziah's  reign  the  city  was  visited  by  a 
memorable  earthquake  (Amos  i.  1  ;  Zech. 
xiv.  5;  Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Under  Ahaz  the 
city  was  besieged,  but  not  taken,  by  the 
northern  Israelites  in  alliance  with  the  Syri- 
ans (2  Kin.  xvi.  5),  and  shortly  afterwards, 
by  reason  of  the  king's  inclination  to  heathen- 
ism, the  lamps  of  the  temple  were  allowed  to 
go  out,  the  oflering  in  the  holy  place  ceased, 
and  the  temple  was  closed  (2  Kin.  xvi.  14 
seq. ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  24  ;  xxix.  7).  Heze- 
kiah  reopened  the  temple  and  restored  the 
service,  but  he  was  obliged  to  empty  the 
roj-al  and  the  sacred  treasuries  and  to  strip 
the  plates,  of  gold  from  the  temple  doors  in 
order  to  raise  a  sum  sufficient  to  purchase 
exemption  from  a  threatened  raid  by  the 
Assyrians ;  and  even  this  relief  was  but  tem- 
porary, for  eventually  Assyrian  troops  stood 
before  the  walls  (2  Chron.  xxix.  3 ;  2  Kin. 
xviii.  15  seq.).  The  city  was,  however,  de- 
livered by  the  providential  outbreak  of  pes- 
tilence in  the  camp  of  the  enemy  (2  Kin. 
xix.  35).  When  Manasseh  returned  from 
captivity  he  built  walls  for  the  city  and 
strengthened  the  fortifications  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  14).  During  the  reigns  of  the  sons 
ajid  grandson  of  Josiah  the  city  exjierienced 
its  overwhelming  calamities.  Nebuchadnez- 
zar besieged  it  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim,  en- 
tered it,  bouiul  but  eventually  released  the 
king,  and  carried  ort'  costly  vessels  from  the 
tem])le  and  a  number  of  noble  youth  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  1 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6  ;  Dan.  i.  1).  Again 
he  came,  emptied  the  royal  and  the  .sacred 
treasuries,  seized  the  remaining  vessels  of 
gold  aiul  silver  belonging  to  the  temple,  car- 
ried king  Jehoiachin  a  j)risoncr  to  Babylon, 
and  deported  the  best  and  most  useful  citizens 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  10  sei).).  Nine  years  later,  in 
the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  he  laid  siege  to  the 
city  for  the  third  time.  The  investment 
lasted  two  years.  The  misery  within  the 
walls  was  extrenu\  Finally  a  breach  was 
made,  the  city  was  taken,  the  temi)le  and  the 
palaces  were  burnt,  the  wall  was  broken 
down,  and  the  remnant  of  the  population, 
.save  the  poorest,  was  deported  (2  Kin.  xxv. ). 
The  city  lay  waste  for  fifty  years.     Zerub- 


Jerusalem 


377 


Jerusalem 


babel  and  50,000  followers  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem in  538  B.  c,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nest  year  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  ii.  64,  65;  iii.  8).  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  rebuilt  under  Nehemiab 
about  445  B.  c.  The  supreme  power  was  then 
in  the  bands  of  the  Persians,  from  whom  it 
passed,  under  Alexander  the  Great,  to  the 
Macedonian  Greeks.  The  city  was  taken  by 
Antiochus  the  Great  203  B.  c,  retaken  by 
the  Egyptians  in  199,  and  opened  its  gates 
again  to  Aiitiochus  coming  as  a  friend  in  198. 
In  170  B.  c.  Antiochus  Epipbaues  took  Jeru- 
salem, subsequently  desecrating  the  temple  ; 
see  History.  But  the  Maccabees  arose  ;  and 
in  165  B.  c.  Judas  retook  the  city  and  purified 
the  temple.  The  kings  of  the  Asmonsean 
race  built  near  the  temple  a  citadel  called 
Baris  or  the  tower  ;  see  Antonia,  Tower  of. 
Pompey  captured  Jerusalem  63  B.  c,  breaking 
down  part  of  the  wall ;  Crassus  despoiled 
the  temiile  in  54  b.  c.  and  the  Parthiaus 
plundered  the  city  in  40  B.  c.  Jerusalem  was 
taken  again  in  37  B.  c.  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  repaii'cd  the  walls,  adorned  the  city 
with  various  edifices,  and  rebuilt  the  temple 
on  a  scale  of  magnificence  which  markedly 
contrasted  with  the  comparatively  humble 
character  of  Zerubbabel's  temple.  Tlie  work 
began  20-19  B.C.,  and  was  not  quite  completed 
when  our  Lord  was  on  earth.  Herod  also 
strengthened  the  citadel  and  called  it  Antonia 
(q.  v.).  Wlien  lie  passed  away  there  were 
two  walls,  in  whole  or  in  part  encompassing 
Jerusalem,  against  one  in  Solomon's  time.  A 
third  wall  was  begun  by  Herod  Agrippa  (about 
A.  D.  42  or  43)  a  dozen  years  after  the  cru- 
cifixion.. In  A.  D.  70  the  Komans,  under  Titus, 
took   Jerusalem,  the   temple  and  nearly  all 


III.  3.  The  city  since  Titus.  Under  the  em- 
peror Hadrian  the  Romans  commenced  to  re- 
fortify  Jerusalem  as  a  gentile  city,  and  bold 
it  against  its  former  inhabitants.  This  seems 
to  have  been  one  main  cause  of  the  .lewisli 
revolt  under  Bar-cocbeba  (about  A.  d.  132  to 
135).  On  its  suppression,  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city  was  resumed  and  completed.  The 
old  name  Jerusalem  was  discarded.  It  was 
called  Colonia  ^-Elia  Cajiitolina  :  Colonia  to 
denote  that  it  was  a  Koman  colony,  yElia  in 
honor  of  Hadrian,  whose  prainomen  was 
^lius,  and  Capitolina  because  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  To  this  heathen 
deity  a  temi)le  was  dedicated  on  the  spot 
where  those  of  Solomon,  Zerubhabel,  and 
Herod  had  stood.  The  Jews  were  forbidden, 
on  pain  of  death,  to  enter  within  its  walls. 
The  Christians  were,  perhaps,  by  this  time 
sufficiently  distinguished  from  the  Jews  not 
to  come  under  the  prohibition.  The  name 
^lia  continued  for  many  centuries.  The 
emperor  Constantine  first  partially,  and  then 
completely,  removed  the  prohibition  against 
the  Jews  entering  the  Holy  City.  In  326 
Helena,  bis  mother,  caused  two  churches  to 
be  built  at  Bethlehem  and  on  the  mount  of 
Olives,  and  in  336  the  emperor  himself 
erected  the  first  church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher ;  see  Calvary.  In  June,  613,  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken  by  storm  by  the  Persians 
under  Chosroes  II.,  thousands  of  the  inhab- 
itants were  massacred  and  other  thousands 
were  carried  ofl"  prisoners  to  Persia,  and  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Sopulcher  was  burnt 
down.  In  628,  on  the  death  of  Chosroes, 
Jerusalem  was  retaken  by  the  Koman  empe- 
ror, Heraclius.  In  637  it  surrendered  on 
conditions  to  the  Arabs  under  Omar.     Soon 


Roman  Medal  commemorating  the  Capture  of  Jerusalem. 


the  city  having  been  burnt  or  otherwise  de- 
stroyed during  the  siege.  He  broke  down 
all  the  walls,  with  the  exception  of  part  of 
the  western  one  and  three  towers,  Hippicus, 
Phasaelus,  and  Mariamne,  which  he  left  to 
show  posterity  the  nature  of  the  defenses  he 
had  succeeded  in  capturing  (War  vii.  1,  1). 


afterwards  the  conqueror  built  the  Dome  of 
tire  Rock,  which  Europeans  call  the  mosque 
of  Omar.  ui)on,  or  very  near,  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  Solomon.  During  the  period 
that  Jerusalem  was  ruled  by  the  Saracens, 
the  treatment  of  the  Christian  pilgrims 
who  visited  the  sacred  shrines  varied.    Once 


Jerusalem 


87S 


Je  Shimon 


the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  was 
set  on  fire  under  a  Fatiniite  ruler,  hut  on  the 
whole  there  was  toleration.  It  was  dillereut 
when  the  Saracens  were  displaced  by  the 
Turks  in  .\.  D.  1077.  The  insults  and  ojijires- 
sion  jiracticed  by  the  seuii-savages  who  had 
now  gained  power,  threw  all  middle  and 
central  Europe  into  a  ferment,  and  brought 
on  the  crusades.  In  the  tirst  of  these  reli- 
gious ex])editions  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
storm  on  July  1.").  1099,  and  a  Christian  king- 
dom established,  which  continued  eighty- 
eight  years.  During  the  Christian  occujia- 
tion  many  fresh  sites  were  considered  to  have 
been  discovered,  the  buildings  connected  with 
the  Holy  Sejuilcher  were  enlarged  and  made 
more  si)lendid,  and  other  edifices  erected  in 
tlie  city.  In  1187  it  had  to  be  surrendered 
to  Saladin,  sultan  of  Egy{)t  and  Syria,  and 
witli  the  exception  of  two  short  jicriods,  when 
the  Christians  again  possessed  it,  has  remained 
in  Mohammedan  hands.  Of  late  its  popula- 
tion has  largely  increased.  lu  1863  it  was 
estimated  at  5000  Mohammedans.  3606  Chris- 
tians.aud  7100 .Tews,  total  15,706  (Keith  John- 
ston ).  In  l.s9r^  Dr.  Selah  Merrill, United  States 
consul  at  Jerusalem,  re])ortcd  to  his  goveria- 
menl  that  the  Jews  alone  amounted  to  25,322. 
In  this  year  also  a  railway  was  completed 
from  Jaffa  to  .Jerusalem.  Ten  years  later  the 
Jews  had  increased  in  number  to  40,000. 

IV.  Muih'rn  txcarntioit.  "An  inscription  in 
Arabic  over  the  Yafa  [i.  e.  the  Jafla]  gate," 
says  Prof.  Kobinson.  "as  well  as  others  in 
various  places,  records  that  the  ])resent  walls 
of  .Jerusalem  were  rebuilt  by  order  of  sultan 
Suleiman  in  A.  H.  [the  year  of  the  Hegira] 
94H,  corresi)onding  to  A.  D.  1542.  They  a])pear 
to  occujiy  very  nearly  the  site  of  the  former 
walls  of  the  middle  ages,  which  were  several 
times  thrown  down  and  rebuilt  during  the 
crusades,  a  slight  deviation  only  being  visi- 
ble around  the  northwest  corner,  on  both  the 
northern  and  western  sides.  The  nuiterials 
were  i)ri)babiy  those  of  the  formerwalls:  and 
are  in  great  jiart  a])i)arently  anciinit"  {Bib. 
Res.  i.  .■).s4 ).  The  foundations  are  in  some  jilaces 
built  of  very  large  stones,  which  may  have 
formed  i)art  of  the  ancient  walls.  It  maybe 
asked  also,  .May  not  fragun'iits  of  the  old  tirst, 
.second,  and  third  walls  have  ('scajx'd  destruc- 
tion, even  in  ]daces  where  they  did  not  coin- 
cide in  direction  with  the  jiresent  city  walls? 
The  answer  must  be  in  the  affirmative.  Prof. 
Kobinson.  in  ls."'.S.  tound  lu'ar  the  Damascus 
gate  large  ancient  beveled  stones,  which  had 
ai)]iarently  never  been  disturbed  since  they 
were  first  jiut  in  jiosition.  He  regarded  them 
as  )irol)ably  belonging  to  the  guardhouse  de- 
fending a  gate  which  existed  juior  to  the 
days  of  Herod  (Uih.  Res.  i.  Kiii).  Robinson 
also  believed  that  he  and  .Mr.  Whiting  found 
traces  of  the  northwestern  ]iarl  of  the  foun- 
dations of  Agripiia's  wall  (465),  Uu-  ob.serva- 
tion  havlTig  been  coulirmed  by  llauauer  be- 
fore the  remains  were  covered  with  buildings 
{I'lilfsliiir    E.ijilnr.   Fiitid    (Jiiiirlcrl!/   Stnlciiicnl, 


Oct.,  1892,  p.295\  Sir  Charles  Warren,  uiKler 
the  auspices  of  the  Palestine  ExplorMtion 
Fund,  made  extensive  excavations  in  Jeru- 
salem from  Feb.,  1867,  till  April,  1870,  sink- 
ing shafts  through  the  debris,  which  at  one 
place  was  125  feet  deep,  covering  the  ancient 
city.  He  found  and  traced  for  a  considerable 
distance  the  wall  of  Ophel  (Wilson  and  Warren, 
Rec.uvei!/  of  Jeniaalem,  286-289).  Since  then 
Mr.  Henry  Maudsley,  C.  E.,  traced  the  course 
of  the  tirst  wall  by  relics  of  it  .still  remaining 
on  mount  Zion  (  Twenty-one  Years,  59).  When, 
in  1885,  an  excavation  was  made  for  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Grand  New  Hotel,  a  little  north 
of  Hippicus,  a  portion  of  the  second  wall  was 
traced  for  about  120  feet.  The  work  of  ex- 
cavation was  continued  bj-  the  Exploration 
Fund,  with  Dr.  F.  J.  Bliss  as  director  of  the 
operations,  and  the  remains  of  walls  along 
the  valley  of  Hinuom  were  discovered. 

Je-ru'sha  and  Jerushah  [possession]. 

Wife  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  mother 
of  his  successor,  Jotham  (2  Kin.  xv.  33;  2 
Chron.  xxvii.  ll. 

Je-sha'iah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jesaiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  21  :  Neh.  xi.  7)  [Jehovah  is  opu- 
lent, or  Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jeduthun,  and  a  musician  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3). 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Rehabiah  ;  he  also  was 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  25). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  descendant 
of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron    iii.  21). 

4.  A  son  of  Athaliali  and  head  of  the 
father's  lupuse  of  Elam.  who,  with  .seventy 
males,  returned  i'lum  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

5.  A  Merarite  Levite  who  returne'd  in  the 
same  comjiany  (Ezra  viii.  19). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  the  father  of  Ithiel  (Neh. 
xi.  7). 

Jesh'a-nah  [old]. 

A  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Eiiliraim, 
wrested  by  Abijah  from  the  northern  king- 
dom (2  Chron.  xiii.  19  ;  cp.  xv.  8).  It  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  village  called  Isanas,  where 
Herod  the  (4reat  defeated  the  general  of  An- 
tigonns  (Antiq.  xiv.  1.5.  12).  Clermont- 
Ganneau  identified  it  witli  the  modern  vil- 
las of  'Aln  Sinia,  about  3  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
B.'thel.      See  Shen. 

Jesh-a-re'lah.     See  Asharelah. 

Je-sheto'e-ah  [father's  dwelling]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  fourteenth  cour.se  of  the  priesthood 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  13). 

Je'sher  [probity,  uprightness]. 

A  son  of  Caleb  "(1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

Jesh'i-mon  [a  waste,  a  desert]. 

1.  A  wilderness  at  the  northeastern  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  not  far  from  Pisgah  and  Peor 
(Num.  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  28).  Beth-jeshimoth 
was  situated  in  it ;  see  Bkth-jeshimoth. 

2.  A  wilderness  to  the  north  of  the  hill 
Ilachilah  and  of  Maon  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  19,  24; 
xxvi,  1.  :•>). 


Jeshishai 


379 


Jesus 


Tt  is  probible  that  Jeshimon  in  tlu^se  pas- 
sages is  not  a  proper  name,  but  should  be 
rendered  desert,  as  in  R.  V. 

Je-sM'shai  [iiertaining  to  an  old  man]. 

A  Gadite,  descended  from  Buz  (1  Chron. 
V.  14). 

Jesh-O-ha'iah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  doth 
humble]. 

A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  30). 

Jesh'u-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Jeshuali  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  11),  an  inconsistency  not  found  in  the 
original  edition  of  A.  V.  [a  late  form  of 
Joshua,  .Tehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Joshua,  the  military  leader  in  the  ,ars 
of  Canaan  (Neb.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aai-on.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  made  the  ninth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  David  divided  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  11). 

.3.  One  of  the  Levites  in  Hezekiah's  reign 
ivho  had  to  do  with  the  receipt  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  freewill  offerings  in  the  temple 
(2  Chron.  xxsi.  15). 

4.  A  liigli  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babjdon  (Ezra  ii.  2  ;  Neh.  vii.  7). 
He  was  the  son  of  Jozadak.  He  built  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  encouraged  the 
workmen  and  the  people  generally  to  rebuild 
the  temple  (Ezra  iii.  2-9).  In  Zechariah's 
prophecies  he  is  called  Joshua,  and  stands  as 
the  priestly  representative  of  the  returned  ex- 
iles to  whom  divine  support  is  given  (Zech. 
iii.  1-10  ;  vi.  11-13). 

5.  A  man  of  the  house  of  Pahath-moab, 
some  of  whose  children  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  and  others  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  6;  Neh.  vii.  11). 

H.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  Levitical  family, 
who,  with  members  of  the  family,  returned 
from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  40  ; 
Neh.  vii.  43 ;  xii.  8).  He  actively  assisted 
Jesluia,  the  high  priest,  in  stimulating  the 
workmen  and  people  to  rebuild  the  temple 
(Ezra  iii.  9).  The  representative  of  the 
house  bearing  his  name  affixed  his  seal  to  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  9).  From  the  last  passage, 
it  appears  that  Jeshua  was  the  son  of  Azaniah 
(9).  In  Nell.  xii.  24  the  word  ben,  the  son  of, 
after  Jeshua  is  probably  a  corruption  ;  per- 
haps a  corru]>tion  of  Bani  (cp.  ix.  4,  5K  Not 
nnlikely  it  was  this  Levite  Jeshua  who  was 
the  father  of  the  ruler  of  Mizpah.  Ezer,  who 
rei)aired  a  portion  of  the  wall  (iii.  1!)). 

7.  A  Levite,  probably  of  the  aforemen- 
tioned family,  who  aided  Ezra  in  explaining 
the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and  in 
preparing  them  for  a  more  heartfelt  worship 
of  Jehovah  (ix.  4,  5). 

8.  A  village  of  southern  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  26). 
Jesh'u-run,   in   A.  V.   once   Jesurun  (Is. 

xliv.  2)   [righteous  one]. 

A  name  of  endearment  used  in  poeti\v  for 
the  nationof  Israel  witb  reference  to  the  moral 
cliaracter  which  they  were  created  to  exhibit 
(  Deut.  xxxii.  I.t  ;  xx.xiii.  5,  26;  Is.  xliv.  2). 


■Je-si'ah.     .See  Isshi.^h. 

Je-sim'i-el  [God  setteth  up]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  36). 

Jesse. 

Sou  of  Obed,  family  of  Perez.  He  was 
descended  from  Nahshou,  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  in  the  days  of  Moses,  and  from 
Euth  the  Moabitess  (Ruth  iv.  18-22).  He 
was  father  of  eight  sous,  the  youngest  of 
whom  was  David  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12-14).  To 
judge  from  1  Chron.  ii.  15,  one  of  them  died 
without  leaving  posterity  :  unless,  as  is  less 
probable,  Elihu  (xxvii.  18)  has  been  lost  from 
the  register.  Jesse  had  two  daughters,  but 
by  a  ditlerent  wife  from  David's  mother  (ii. 
16  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  Jesse  lived  at  Beth- 
lehem, to  which  Samuel  was  sent  to  anoint  a 
king  from  among  his  sons.  After  seven  of 
them  had  been  passed  before  him  in  the 
order  of  their  birth,  David  was  called  from 
the  flock  which  he  was  tending,  and  on  his 
arrival  was  anointed  king  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1-13). 
After  Saul  had  become  jealous  of  David  he 
usually  called  him  the  sou  of  Jesse  (xx.  31  ; 
xxii.  7;  xxv.  lOi,  in  order  to  emphasize 
David's  humble  origin.  Saul  ignored  the 
fact  that  his  own  father  was  no  more  a  king 
than  was  David's  father.  In  the  cave  of 
Adullam  David  was  joined  by  his  father,  his 
mother,  and  his  brothers.  He  allowed  his 
brothers  to  share  the  dangers  of  his  wander- 
ings, but  placed  his  parents  under  the  jiro- 
tection  of  the  king  of  Moab,  the  native  laud 
of  his  ancestre.ss  Ruth,  till  he  knew  what 
God  had  in  store  for  him  in  the  future  (xxii. 
1-4).  It  is  uncertain  when  .Jesse  died.  Al- 
though of  good  ancestry  and  himself  au 
able  man.  yet  his  station  in  life  was  lowly. 
This  huuible  position  of  the  family  is  al- 
luded to  by  the  prophets  (Is.  xi.  1,  10;  cp. 
Mic.  V.  2;  Roiu.  xv.  12).  and  was  recalled  by 
all  who  refused  the  rule  of  the  house  of 
David  (2  Sam.  xx.  1;  1  Kin.  xii.  16;  2  Chron. 
X.  16). 

Jes'u-i.     See  Ishvi. 

Jes'u-run.     See  Jeshurux. 

Je'sus,  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  form  of 
Jeshua,  which  in  turn  is  a  late  form  of 
Jehoshua  or  Joshua  [.Tehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Joshua,  the  military  leader  in  the  wars 
of  Canaan  (A.  V.  of  Acts  vii.  45  ;  Heb.  iv.  8) ; 
see  Jo.sHUA. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
four  hundred  vcars  after  David  (Luke  iii. 
29).  The  A.  Y.'.  following  a  difl'erent  Greek 
text,  calls  him  Jose. 

3.  In  the  Septuagint  the  name  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  the  Ai)ocrypha.  It  was  borne  by 
the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus,  and  twelve  jier- 
sons  with  this  name  are  mentioned  by  .To- 
sephus  outside  of  his  references  to  Joshua 
and  to  Christ.  It  was  a  common  name  among 
the  Jews  of  the  Greek-speaking  period. 

4.  A  Jewish  Cbristian,  also  called  Justus, 
associated  with  Paul  (Col.  iv.  11). 


Jesus  Christ 


380 


Jesus  Christ 


5.  The   name    of   our    Lord.     See    Jesus 

ClIKIST. 

Je'sus  Christ. 

Our  Lord  was  named  Jesus  in  accord- 
ance with  the  directions  of  the  angel  to 
Joseph  (Mat.  i.  21)  and  Mary  (Luke  i.  31). 
When  given  to  ordinary  children  it  merely 
expressed,  if  anything,  the  parent's  faith  in 
God  as  the  saviour  of  his  people,  or  their  faith 
in  the  coming  salvation  of  Israel.  When 
given  to  Mary "s  child  it  was  designed  to  ex- 
press the  special  office  he  would  fulfill: 
'■  Thou  shalt  call  his  name  Jesus,  for  he  shall 
save  his  people  from  their  sins"  (Mat.  i.  21). 
Christ  is  from  the  Greek  Christos,  anointed, 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  Mashiah,  anoint- 
ed, Messiah.  Jesus  therefore  was  our  Lord's 
personal  name  and  Christ  was  his  title  (the 
Christ)  ;  though  the  latter  was  early  used  also 
as  a  proper  name,  as  it  is  bj'  us,  either  alone 
or  with  Jesus. 

It  is  the  object  of  the  following  article  to 
sketch  the  progress  of  our  Lord's  life  on 
earth,  so  as  to  place  its  i)rincipal  events  in 
their  probable  order  and  relation. 

Chrunolugy.  The  exact  dates  of  the  birth, 
baptism,  and  death  of  Jesus  cannot  be  abso- 
lutelj^  demonstrated ;  but  most  scholars  now 
agree  within  narrow  limits.  Our  ordinary 
Christian  calendar  originated  with  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  a  Eoman  abbot  who  died  A.  D.  556. 
He  first  selected  the  year  of  the  incarnation 
as  that  before  and  after  which  dates  should 
be  reckoned.  He  fixed,  however,  on  the  year 
of  Home,  754,  as  that  in  which  Christ  w'as  born, 
and  that  year  consequently  etiuals  A.  D.  1. 
But  the  statements  of  Josephus  make  itclear 
that  Herod  the  Great,  who  died  shortly  after 
Jesus  was  born  (Mat.  ii.  19-22),  died  several 
years  before  the  year  of  Rome,  754.  His 
death  occurred  thirty-seven  years  after  he 
had  been  declared  king  by  the  Romans, 
which  was  in  A.  V.  V.  714.  "  This  might  be 
751  or  7.50.  according  to  whether  Josephus 
counted  fractions  of  a  year  as  whole  years  or 
not.  The  year  7.")0  is,  however,  made  the 
more  ]irobable  from  the  further  statement  of 
J<)Sc]ihus  that  shortly  before  Herod's  death 
he  ])ut  to  death  two  Jewish  ral)bis,  and  that 
on  the  night  of  their  (>xecution  tlu're  occurred 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon.  .Astronomical  cal- 
culations show  that  in  7.50  tliere  was  a  partial 
lunar  eclipse  on  the  night  of  March  12  or  1.3  ; 
but  in  751  there  was  no  ec]i]ise.  Josephus 
also  narrates  that  Herod  died  shortly  before 
the  passover.  which  began  in  750  on  Ai>ril  12. 
We  may,  therefore,  with  consideralile  confi- 
dence date  Herod's  death  about  April  1,  in 
the  year  of  l{onie  750,  which  was  4  B.  c. 
Before  that  date,  therefore,  we  must  ])lace 
the  events  given  in  the  gospels  which  oc- 
curred between  the  liirlli  of  .bsiis  ajid  the 
death  of  Herod,  for  which  a  period  of  two 
or  three  months  is  jjrobably  recinired. 
Clirist's  birth,  therefore,  is  to  be  placed  at  the 
clo.se  of  5  B.  c.  or  beginning  of  4  n.  c.  The 
ob.servance  of  December  25th  did  not  arise 


until  the  fourth  century,  so  that  it  has  no 
authority.  It  may,  however,  be  accepted  as 
an  approximation  to  the  truth,  and  then 
Christ's  birth  would  be  assigned  to  Decem- 
ber 25,  5  B.  c.  This  puts  it  five  years  earlier 
than  in  the  calendar  of  Dionysius,  who 
as.signed  it  to  December  25,  A*,  d.  1.  The 
date  of  the  opening  of  our  Lord's  public 
ministry  is  to  be  obtained  principally  from 
Luke  iii.  23,  where  it  is  said  that  at  his  bap- 
tism he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  The 
expression  is  obviously  indefinite  ;  but,  as- 
suming that  he  was  born  December  25,  5  B.  c, 
he  would  be  thirty  on  December  25,  a.  d.  26. 
The  traditional  date  of  the  baptism  is  Janu- 
ary 6,  and  if  we  suppose  at  any  rate  that  it 
occurred  early  in  a.  d.  27,  Luke's  expression, 
"about  thirty  years  of  age,"  would  be  cor- 
rect. This  date  also  is  somewhat  confirmed 
by  the  statement  of  the  Jews  (John  ii.  20), 
made  shortly  after  his  baptism,  "  forty  and 
six  years  was  this  temple  in  building."  The 
rebuilding  of  the  temple  by  Herod  was  be- 
gun, as  might  be  shown,  in  20-19  B.  c. ;  so  that 
the  forty-six  years,  supposing  them  to  have 
elapsed  when  the  remark  was  made,  would 
bring  us  again  to  A.  d.  27.  If,  finally,  "  the  fif- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  "  (Luke 
iii.  l),when  John  the  Baptist  began  his  min- 
istry, be  reckoned,  as  it  properly  may  be,  from 
the  time  when  Tiberius  was  associated  with 
Augustus  in  the  empire  (A.  D.  11  to  12),  it 
coincides  with  A.  d.  26  and  further  agrees 
with  our  other  calculations.  It  is  true  that 
all  these  items  of  evidence  contain  in  them 
points  on  which  ojiinions  may  not  unreason- 
ably ditfer  ;  yet  the  dates  we  have  given  ap- 
pear to  be  the  most  probable  and  to  support 
one  another.  The  length  of  Christ's  minis- 
try and  consequently  the  year  of  his  death 
are  to  be  fixed  by  the  number  of  passovers 
which  John  notes  in  his  Gospel.  If  we  had 
only  the  synoptic  gospels  (see  Go.spel),  we 
might  infer  that  his  ministry  was  only  a  year 
in  length,  and  this  was  in  ancient  times  a  not 
uncommon  opinion.  But  John's  Gospel  speaks 
of  at  least  three  passovers  (ii.  13  ;  vi.  4  ;  xiii. 
1),  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  feast 
referred  to  in  John  v.  1  w'as  also  a  passover. 
If  so,  Christ's  ministry  included  four  pass- 
overs,  at  the  last  of  which  he  died  ;  and,  if 
he  was  baptized  early  in  A.  D.  27,  his  first 
passover  was  in  April  of  that  year,  and  he 
died  in  A.  d.  30,  when  the  passover  festival 
began  on  April  7.  Those  who  think  that 
John  V.  1  does  not  refer  to  a  passover  date 
Christ's  death  in  a.  d.  29.  We  thus  obtain 
as  the  ])robable  leading  dates  in  Christ's  life: 
birth,  I)ecember  25  (?),  5  B.  c.  ;  baptism  and 
beginning  of  his  ministry,  January  (?),  a.  d. 
27:  dealli,  April  7,  A.  D.".30. 

Pdliliciil  ciiiiditioi)  of  the  Jews.  When  Jesus 
was  born  Herod  the  Great,  an  able  but  cruel 
man,  was  king  of  the  Jews.  His  kingdom 
included  Samaria  and  Galilee  as  well  as 
Juda>a.  He  was  an  Idumfean  by  descent, 
though  professing  the  Jewish  religion.     His 


Jesus  Christ 


381 


Jesus  Christ 


father,  Antipater,  had  been  made  governor 
of  JiidiEa  by  Julius  CsBsar,  and,  after  several 
changes  of  fortune,  Herod  had  been  declared 
king  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans  in  40  b.  c. 
But,  while  an  independent  king  in  many 
ways,  Herod  ruled  by  the  favor  of  and  in  de- 
pendence on  the  Romans,  who  had  become 
the  practical  rulers  of  the  world.  On  his 
death,  4  B.  c,  his  kingdom  was  divided  among 
his  sons.  Archelaus  received  Judfea  and  Sa- 
maria. Herod  Antipas  received  Galilee  and 
Peraea.  Herod  Philip  received  the  territory 
northeastoftheseaof  Galilee  (Luke iii.l).  But 
in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign  Archelaus  was  de- 
posed by  Augustus,  and  from  that  date  Judaea 
and  Samaria  were  ruled  by  Roman  governors, 
styled  procurators,  until  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  with  the  excejition  of  the  years 
A.  D.  41-44,  when  Herod  Agrippa  I.  was 
invested  with  the  royal  power  (Acts  xii.  1). 
During  the  ministry  of  Christ,  therefore, 
Galilee  and  Penea,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  time,  were  under  the  rule  of  Herod 
Antipas  (Mat.  xiv.  3 ;  Mark  vi.  14 ;  Luke  iii. 
1,  19:  ix.  7;  xiii.  31;  xxiii.  8-12),  while 
Samaria  and  Judaea  were  ruled  directly  by 
the  Romans  through  their  governor,  who  at 
that  time  was  Pontius  Pilate.  Tiie  rule  of 
the  Romans,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  irri- 
tated the  Jews  exceedingly,  and,  during 
Christ's  life,  the  land  was  in  an  almost  con- 
stant state  of  political  ferment.  While  the 
Romans  sought  to  give  the  nation  as  much 
self-government  as  possible,  so  that  their 
sanhedrin.  or  chief  court,  exercised  juris- 
diction in  a  very  large  number  of  cases;  and 
while  the  conquerors  granted  many  privileges 
to  the  Jews,  especially  in  i-espect  to  their  re- 
ligious observances,  yet  the  nation  fretted 
under  a  foreign  domination,  which  was  very 
positive,  when  it  wished  to  be  so,  and  which 
did  not  intend  ever  to  grant  them  their  old 
liberty.  The  Jewish  aristocracy,  however, 
including  most  of  the  Sadducees,  were  not 
unfriendly  to  the  Romans.  The  Pharisees, 
who  comprised  the  strictest  religionists,  were 
disposed  to  devote  themselves  to  the  conser- 
vation of  Judaism,  while  generally  avoiding 
political  complications.  We  read  also  of 
Herodians,  who  doubtless  favored  the  claims 
of  the  Herodian  family  to  the  Jewish  throne, 
while  from  Josephus  we  learn  of  political 
patriots  who  successively  arose  in  the  vain 
endeavor  to  throw  off  the  Roman  yoke.  In 
such  a  condition  of  things,  one  who  claimed 
to  be  Messiah  would  easily  be  involved  in 
political  difficulties.  We  shall  see  that  Jesus 
carefully  and  successfully  avoided  these  in 
order  that  he  might  proclaim  the  true,  spir- 
itual kingdom  of  God. 

Religions  condition  of  the  Jews.  As  already 
implied,  this  was  largely  affected  by  the  state 
of  political  affairs.  So  far  as  the  official 
classes  were  concerned,  the  purely  religious 
hopes  of  the  Old  Testament  had  been  almost 
forgotten,  and  even  among  the  people  the 
idea  of  an  earthly  kingdom  had   nearly  dis- 


placed that  of  a  spiritual  one.  We  meet  in 
the  gospels  with  two  leading  sects,  the  Phar- 
isees and  the  Sadducees.  The  former  were 
religious  and  had  the  greater  influence 
among  the  peoi>le  ;  but  they  had  substituted 
theological  and  ceremonial  tradition,  as  well 
as  casuistic  subtleties,  for  the  word  of  God, 
and  in  their  hands  the  religion  of  Moses  and 
the  prophets  had  become  a  narrow,  barren, 
and  uns])iritual  form.  The  Pharisees  natur- 
ally opposed  the  spiritual  and  unconventional 
religion  which  Jesus  taught,  and  especially 
his  appeal  from  tradition  to  Scripture.  The 
Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  aris- 
tocrats. They  included  the  high-priestly 
families.  They  were  infected  by  gentile 
culture,  rejected  the  Pharisaic  traditions, 
and  were  more  interested  in  politics  than  in 
religion.  They  were  led  finally  to  oppose 
Jesus,  because  they  thought  that  his  success 
would  disturb  the  existing  political  relations 
(John  xi.  48).  Meanwhile  the  ceremonies  of 
God's  worship  were  carried  on  with  much 
magnificence  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  the 
people  attended  with  fidelity  and  in  great 
numbers  the  religious  festivals,  aaid  the  zeal 
of  the  nation  for  their  religious  privileges 
and  traditions  was  never  greater,  while  every 
now  and  then  some  outbreak  of  mingled 
jiatriotism  and  fanaticism  fanned  the  embers 
of  popular  hope  into  a  flame.  Yet  there 
wei-e  some  who  still  preserved  the  spirit  and 
faith  of  a  pure  religion.  They  were  found 
mainly,  though  not  wholly,  among  the  hum- 
ble classes.  In  them  the  expectation  of  a 
saviour  from  sin  had  not  died  out,  and  from 
the  bosom  of  one  of  these  pious  circles  did 
Jesus  himself  come.  The  Jewish  people, 
therefore,  in  Christ's  lifetime  were  still  a  re- 
ligious people.  They  knew  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  was  read  in  their  synagogues 
and  taught  to  their  children.  The  nation  was 
in  a  state  of  religious  interest  as  well  as  of 
political  tmrest.  These  facts  explain  to  us 
the  popular  excitement  caused  by  the  preach- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus,  the 
opposition  of  the  ruling  classes  to  them  both, 
and  the  success  of  the  method  which  Jesus 
pursued  in  preaching  his  gospel,  as  well  as 
the  fate  which  he  himself  saw  from  the  be- 
ginning to  be,  even  humanly  speaking,  in- 
evitable. 

Life  of  Jesus.  '  The  circumstances  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus,  as  recorded  in  the  gospels, 
were  in  accord  with  his  dignity  and  the  pre- 
dictions of  Messiah,  yet  such  also  as  to  har- 
monize with  the  lowly  appearance  which  the 
Saviour  was  to  make  on  earth.  As  Malachi 
(iii.  1;  also  iv.  5,  6)  had  prophesied  that  a 
herald,  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah, 
should  precede  the  Lord  when  he  should 
come  to  his  temple,  so  Luke  tells  us  first 
of  the  birth  of  John  the  Ba])tist.  the  herald 
of  the  Christ.  A  certain  pious  priest,  named 
Zacharias,  who  had  no  child  and  was  far  ad- 
vanced in  years,  was  discharging  his  duties 
at  the  temple.     He  was  chosen  bj-  lot,  as  the 


Jesus  Christ 


3S2 


Jesus  Christ 


custom  was,  to  offer  the  incense,  representing 
the  prayers  of  Israel,  on  the  altar  in  the  holy 
place.  To  him  the  angel  (Jahricl  appeared 
and  announced  that  he  was  to  he  tlie  father 
of  the  jiromised  forerunner  of  Messiah.  This 
was  prohahly  in  October,  H  B.  v.  After  his 
term  of  service  in  the  teni]ile  was  over,  he 
and  his  wife,  Elisabeth,  returned  to  their 
home  in  a  city  in  the  liill  country  of  Judah 
(Lulte  i.  39),  and  awaited  the  i'ultillment  of 
the  promise.  .Six  months  later  the  angel  ap- 
peared to  Mary,  a  maiden  i)r()bahly  of  Davidic 
descent,  who  lived  in  Nazareth  and  was  be- 
trothed to  Joseph,  who  was  certainly  de- 
sceuded  from  tlie  great  king  of  Israel  (Mat.  i. 
l-Ki;  Luke  i.  27) ;  see  Genealogy.  Joseph 
was  a  cari)enter  by  trade,  a  nuin  of  humble 
station  though  of  high  descent,  and  a  devout 
Israelite.  To  Mary  the  angel  announced  that 
she  was  to  hecome  the  mother  of  Messiah 
( Luke  i.  28-38)  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
working  in  her,  and  that  the  child,  who  was  to 
he  called  Jesus,  should  have  the  throne  of  his 
father  David.  For  her  comfort  also  she  was 
told  of  the  pregnancy  of  Elisabeth,  who  was 
her  kinswoman.  When  the  angel  left  her, 
]Mary  hastened  for  protection  and  sympathy  to 
the  house  of  Zacharias.  At  their  meeting,  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  came  on  these  two  women. 
While  Elisabeth  greeted  Mary  as  the  mother 
of  her  Lord,  Mary,  like  Hannah  of  old  (1 
Sam.  ii.  1-10),  broke  forth  in  a  song  of  praise 
for  the  salvation  of  Israel  that  was  coming 
and  for  the  honor  which  had  been  conferred 
on  her.  It  is  evident  that  these  strange 
events  were  regarded  by  them  both  in  the 
s])irit  of  strong  faith  and  holy  exaltation, 
the  perfect  expression  of  the  historic  hope  of 
Israel.  When  the  time  drew  near  for  Elisa- 
beth to  be  delivered  of  the  child  which  she 
bad  conceived,  Mary  returned  to  Nazareth. 
Her  further  protection  against  reproach  was, 
however,  secured  by  God  himself.  Joseph, 
seeing  her  condition,  was  dis]iosed  (Hiietly  to 
]iut  her  away  without  ))ublic  accusation,  hut 
even  this  gentle  treatment  was  forestalled. 
An  angel  revealed  to  him  in  a  dream  the 
cause  of  Mary's  condition  ;  told  him  that  he 
was  to  have  Messiah  for  his  child  ;  and  that, 
as  Isaiah  had  foretold,  the  latter  was  to  be 
born  of  a  virgin.  With  faith,  equal  to 
Mary's,  Joseph  believed  the  message  and 
made  Mary  his  legal  wife.  It  was  thus  .se- 
cured that  Mary's  child  was  httru  of  a  virgin, 
and  at  the  same  time  that  lie  had  a  legal 
human  father  and  his  mother  was  jirotected 
by  the  love  and  resiiectability  of  a  husband. 
There  can  he  little  doubt  fliat  these  facts 
were  made  known  by  Mary  herself  at  a  later 
time.  The  fact  that  neither  Christ  nor  his 
ai>ostles  apiieal  to  his  miraculous  conceiition 
in  proof  of  his  Messiahshii)  occasions  no 
reason  for  doubting  the  narrative.  Theevent 
was  not  one  which  could  he  used  as  i)uhlic 
liioof  I5ut  the  narrative  of  Christ's  birth 
beautifully  harmonizes  with  what  we  now 
know  of   his  dignity  and    iiis   mission    upon 


earth.  The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  perfect 
flower  of  Israel's  .spiritiuil  life  ;  and  so  Jesus 
was  born  in  the  bosom  of  this  ])ious  family 
circle  whei-e  the  pure  religion  of  the  O.  T. 
was  believed  and  cherished.  The  Messiah 
was  to  appear  in  lowliness ;  and  so  Jesus 
came  from  the  home  of  the  Nazarene  car- 
penter. The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  son  of 
David,  and  so  Joseph,  his  legal  father,  and 
probably  Mary,  his  actual  mother,  were  de- 
scended from  David.  The  Messiah  was  to  be 
the  incarnation  of  God,  a  divine  person 
uniting  to  himself  a  human  nature,  and  so 
Jesus  was  born  of  a  woman  but  miraculously 
conceived  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  CThost. 
After  relating  the  birth  of  John  and  the 
prophetic  song  which  burst  from  the  long- 
sealed  lips  of  his  father  Zacharias  (Luke  i. 
57-79),  over  the  advent  of  Messiah's  fore- 
runner, the  evangelist  Luke  explains  how 
Jesus  came  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem.  The 
emperor  Augustus  had  ordered  an  enroll- 
ment of  all  the  subjects  of  the  empire,  and 
although  Palestine  was  under  Herod,  its  in- 
habitants also  were  included  in  tlie  decree. 
The  enrollment  of  the  Jews,  however,  evi- 
dently took  place  after  the  Jewish  method, 
by  which  each  father  of  a  household  was 
registered,  not  at  his  dwelling  place,  but  at 
the  place  where  his  family  belonged  in  view 
of  its  ancestry.  Hence  Joseph  had  to  go  to 
Bethlehem,  the  original  home  of  David. 
Mary  accompanied  him.  The  lodging  place, 
or  khan,  where  strangers  were  permitted 
to  sojourn,  was  already  fully  occupied  when 
they  arrived,  and  they  only  found  shelter  in  a 
stable,  which  may  have  been,  as  early  tradi- 
tion affirms,  in  a  cave  near  the  town.  Such 
caves  were  often  used  about  Bethlehem  for 
stables.  We  are  not  told  that  any  cattle 
were  occu])ying  the  stable.  It  may  have 
been  unused  at  the  time.  Nor  would"  a 
stable  in  that  country  and  among  that  people 
have  seemed  as  offensive  a  lodging  place  as 
it  might  with  us;  but  it  was  a  lowly  abode 
for  the  birthplace  of  Messiah.  Yet  such  it 
was  destined  to  be,  for  there  Mary's  child 
was  born,  and  she  laid  him  in  a  manger 
(Luke  ii.  7).  But  though  born  so  humbly, 
he  was  not  to  l)e  without  attestation.  That 
night  shepherds  in  a  field  near  Bethlehem 
were  visited  by  angels,  who  told  them  of 
Messiah's  l)irth  and  where  he  lay,  and  sang 
in  the  hearing  of  the  shepherds:  "Glory  to 
(lod  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace  among 
men  in  whom  he  is  well  pleased  "  (Luke  ii. 
14,  R.  v.).  The  shepherds  hastened  to  Beth- 
leliem  and  saw  the  child.  They  related  what 
they  had  seen  and  heard,  and  then  returned 
again  to  their  flocks.  All  this  was  again  in 
striking  harmony  with  the  nnssion  of  Messiah. 
Yet  we  should  remend)er  that  the  event  oc- 
curred in  acircleof  humble  peasants,  and  that 
it  made  no  noise  in  the  busy  world.  For  a 
while  Jose])h  and  Mary  lingered  in  Bethle- 
hem. On  the  eighth  day  the  child  was  cir- 
cumcised   (Luke    ii.  21)   and   the  appointed 


Jesus  Christ 


383 


Jesus  Christ 


name,  Jesus,  was  given  to  him.  Forty  days 
after  liis  birth  (Lev.  xii.)  his  parents  took 
him,  as  the  law  directed,  to  the  temple  and 
Mary  oflTered  her  gifts  of  puriticatiou  aud 
presented  her  ciiild  unto  tlie  Lord.  The 
firstborn  male  child  of  the  Hebrew  mother 
was  to  be  redeemed  by  the  payment  of  five 
shekels  (Num.  xviii.  16),  and  this  is  meant 
when  it  is  said  that  they  brought  him  "  to  pre- 
sent him  to  the  Lord."  The  mother  was  also 
to  offer  her  thanksgiving,  and  it  is  specially 
noted  by  Luke  that  Mary  gave  the  oflieriug  of 
the  poor,  "  a  pair  of  turtle  doves,  or  two  young 
pigeons."  The  modest  circumstances  of  the 
family  are  thus  further  attested.  Yet  the 
lowly  Messiah  was  not  to  leave  his  Father's 
house  without  recognition.  An  aged  saint, 
Simeon  by  name,  came  into  the  temple  and 
the  spirit  of  inspiration  fell  upon  him  at 
sight  of  the  child.  He  had  been  promised 
by  God  that  he  should  not  die  till  he  had 
seen  Messiah.  Taking  the  infant  in  his  arms, 
Simeon  gave  thanks  and  predicted  the  glory 
and  sorrow  of  his  life  (Luke  ii.  25-;35). 
Anna  also,  a  i)roi>hetess  of  great  age,  who 
continually  dwelt  in  the  temple,  bore  witness 
to  the  advent  of  the  Christ  (Luke  ii.  36-38). 
But  a  more  remarkable  attestation  was  soon 
to  follow.  Shortly  after  Joseph  and  Mary 
had  returned  to  Bethlehem,  certain  magi 
from  the  east  appeared  in  Jerusalem  and  de- 
clared that  they  had  seen  Messiah's  star  in 
the  heavens  and  were  come  to  worship  him. 
They  had  doubtless  learned  from  the  Jews 
scattered  throughout  the  east  of  the  expec- 
tation of  a  coming  king  in  Judaea  who  would 
be  man's  great  deliverer.  They  were  doubt- 
less also  students  of  the  stars,  and  God  used 
their  superstitious  notions  to  make  them 
witnesses  of  the  gentile  world,  waiting  in 
the  half-light  of  natural  religion  for  the  com- 
ing of  the  Saviour,  of  whom  they  felt  the 
need,  but  whose  real  character  they  did  not 
understand.  In  the  east  they  had  seen  a 
star  which  for  some  reason  they  considered 
to  portend  the  birth  of  the  Jewish  king. 
Coming  to  Jeru.salem,  they  inquired  for  him. 
Their  message  troubled  the  equally  super- 
stitious Herod,  and  summoning  the  scribes, 
he  demanded  where  Messiah  was  to  be  born. 
When  told  that  he  was  to  be  born  in  Bethle- 
hem, Herod  sent  the  magi  there,  but  bade 
them  promise  to  inform  him  if  they  found 
the  child.  On  the  way  the  magi  saw  the  star 
again  over  Bethlehem,  and,  having  found 
Jesus,  offered  him  rare  gifts  of  frankincense, 
gold,  and  myrrh.  We  can  imagine  with  what 
renewed  awe  Joseph  and  Mary  must  have 
received  these  unexpected  and  strange  visi- 
tors. They  were  another  sign  of  the  high 
destiny  of  the  child.  The  magi,  however, 
were  warned  of  God  not  to  return  to  Herod, 
for  that  wicked  man  only  intended  to  use 
tliem  to  destroy  the  newly  born  king.  They 
departed  home,  therefore,  by  another  way. 
Joseph  also  was  warned  by  an  angel  of  the 
impending   danger  aud    instructed   to   take 


Mary  and  the  babe  to  Egypt,  well  out  of 
Herod's  reach.  It  was  none  too  soon,  for 
presently  the  cruel  king,  whose  readiness  to 
murder  even  his  own  sons  is  related  by  Jo- 
sephus,  sent  soldiers  to  slay  all  the  male 
children  in  Bethlehem  who  were  less  than 
three  years  old.  He  hoped  thus  to  accom- 
plish the  object  in  which  he  had  been  foiled 
by  the  departure  of  the  magi  without  in- 
forming him  concerning  the  child  they  had 
sought.  Bethlehem  was  a  small  place  and 
the  number  of  children  slain  may  not  have 
been  large  ;  but  the  act  was  cruel  enough  at 
the  best.  Jesus,  however,  had  escaped.  How 
long  he  was  kept  in  Egypt  we  do  not  know. 
Probably  it  was  a  couple  of  months.  There 
were  many  Jews  there,  so  that  Jo.seph  could 
easily  find  a  refuge.  But  in  due  time  the 
angel  informed  him  of  Herod's  death  and 
directed  him  to  return.  It  was  apparently 
his  first  purpose  to  rear  the  child  in  Bethle- 
hem, David's  city.  But  his  fear  of  Archelaus, 
Herod's  son,  made  him  hesitate.  Again  God 
gave  him  instructions,  and  in  accordance 
with  them  Joseph  and  Mary  sought  once 
more  their  old  home  in  Nazareth.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  Jesus  appeared  among  the 
people,  when  his  public  life  began,  as  the 
prophet  of  Nazareth,  the  Nazarene.  Such 
are  the  few  incidents  preserved  in  the  gos- 
pels of  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus.  Won- 
derful as  they  ajjpear  to  us,  they  attracted 
no  attention  at  the  time  on  the  part  of  the 
world.  The  few  persons  concerned  in  them 
either  forgot  them  or  kept  them  to  them- 
selves. But  when  the  church  was  founded 
we  may  suppose  that  Mary  told  them  to  the 
disciples.  Matthew  and  Luke  have  related 
them  to  us  quite  independently  of  each  other, 
the  former  to  illustrate  the  royal  Messiahship 
of  Jesus  and  his  fulfillment  of  prophecy  ;  the 
latter  to  ex])lain  the  origin  of  Jesus  and  the 
historical  beginnings  of  his  life. 

After  the  return  to  Nazaietb.  nothing  is 
told  us  of  Jesus'  life,  except  the  one  incident 
of  his  visit  with  his  parents  to  the  temple 
when  he  had  become  twelve  years  of  age 
(Luke  ii.  41-51).  That  incident,  however,  is 
instructive.  It  shows  the  continued  piety  of 
Joseph  and  Mary  and  the  devout  training 
which  they  sought  to  give  the  child.  It 
shows  also  the  early,  spiritual  development 
of  Jesus,  for  he  was  already  mainlj'  inter- 
ested in  those  religious  questions  on  which 
the  Jewish  rabbis  gave  instruction  to  their 
pupils.  We  are  not  to  imagine  the  boy  of 
twelve  as  instructing  the  doctors,  but  as  a 
pupil  in  one  of  their  temple  schools,  and  yet 
as  showing  by  his  questions  a  spiritual  in- 
sight which  amazed  them.  The  incident  also 
illustrates  the  natural,  human  life  which 
Jesus  led.  He  grew,  we  are  told,  "  in  wisdom 
and  stature  [or  age],  and  in  favor  with  God 
and  men  "  (Luke  ii.  52).  The  wonders  of 
his  infancy  were  doubtless  kept  a  secret  by 
Joseph  and  Mary,  and  Jesus  appeared  to  his 
companions  and   the   family  in   no   wise  a 


Jesus  Christ 


384 


Jesus  Christ 


supernatural  being,  but  only  remarkable  for 
liis  mental  force  and  moral  purity.  Putting 
together,  however,  other  facts  incidentally 
mentioned  in  the  gosj)els,  we  can  form  some 
idea  of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  child- 
hood and  young  manhood  of  Jesus  were  passed. 
He  was  a  meniher  of  a  family.  He  had  four 
brothers  and  some  sisters  (Mark  vi.  3,  etc.). 
Some  have  supposed  that  these  were  the 
cliildren  of  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage; 
others  that  they  were  Christ's  cousins.  It 
seems  to  us  most  natural  and  scriptural  to 
believe  that  they  were  the  children  of  Josei)h 
and  Mary,  born  after  Jesus.  Eut  at  any 
rate,  Jesus  grew  up  in  a  family,  experiencing 
the  pleasures  and  the  discipline  of  family 
life.  He  became,  like  Joseph,  a  carpenter 
(3),  so  that  he  was  accustomed  to  manual 
labor.  But  mental  discipline  also  was  not 
wanting.  Jewish  children  w-ere  well  in- 
structed in  the  Scriptures,  and  our  Lord's 
familiarity  with  them  is  evident  from  his 
teaching.  His  parables  also  reveal  a  mind 
sensitive  to  the  teaching  of  nature,  and 
wliich  must  have  delighted  always  to  ponder 
the  evidence  of  God's  mind  in  the  works  of 
his  hand.  Nazareth,  though  somewhat  se- 
cluded, was  on  the  edge  of  the  busiest  part 
of  the  Jewish  world  and  not  far  from  some 
of  the  most  famous  scenes  of  Israel's  history. 
From  the  cliff  back  of  the  town  the  eye 
could  contemplate  many  places  associated 
with  great  events.  Not  far  off  was  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  around  which  was  gathered  the 
varied  life  of  the  world  in  miniature.  It 
was  a  period  al.so,  as  has  been  said,  of  much 
political  excitement,  and  Jewish  homes  were 
often  agitated  with  the  report  of  stirring 
events.  There  is  no  reason  to  su])posc  that 
Jesus  grew  11])  in  isolation.  We  should  rather 
imagine  him  keenly  alive  to  the  jjiogress  of 
events  in  Palestine.  While  the  language 
commonly  spoken  by  him  seems  to  have  been 
the  Aramaic,  which  had  displaced  the  older 
Hebrew  among  tiie  later  Jews,  he  must  often 
have  heard  (ireek  used  and  may  have  been 
faiuiliar  with  it.  All  this  period  of  his  life, 
however,  the  evangelists  i)ass  over.  Their 
books  were  written  not  to  give  biographies 
of  Jesus,  but  to  re])ort  Ills  i)ublic  ministry. 
We  can  see  enough,  however,  to  prove  the 
naturalness  of  our  Saviour's  human  life,  the 
litnessof  his  surroundings  to  iirepare  him  for 
Ills  future  work,  the  beauty  of  his  character, 
and  thus  the  gradual  unfolding  of  his  hu- 
manity in  ex])ectatiou  of  the  hour  when  he 
was  to  offer  liimself  as  God's  Messiah  to  his 
people.  That  liour  drew  nigh  when,  perhaj>s 
in  the  summer  of  a.  d.  2(>,  John,  the  son  of 
Zacharias,  who  had  hitherto  led  a  life  of 
a.scetic  devotion  in  the  desert  (Luke  i.  «0), 
received  from  (iod  his  commission  to  summon 
the  nation  to  re]>entance  for  their  sins  in 
preparation  for  Messiah's  coming.  John 
moved  I'i'om  jilace  to  place  along  tlie  Jordan 
valley,  and  ailministered  the  rite  of  bai)tlsm 
to  tho.se  who  believed  his  message.    He  called 


both  the  nation  and  individuals  to  repent- 
ance for  sin,  spoke  in  the  tone  of  the  older 
prophets,  especially  of  Elijah,  and  announced 
that  Messiah  was  at  hand,  that  he  would 
purify  Israel  with  judgments,  and  make  ex- 
jiiation  for  the  world's  sin  (Mat.  iii. ;  Mark  i. 
1-8;  Luke  iii.  1-18;  John  i.  lSt-36).  The 
effect  of  his  ministry  Mas  widespread  and 
profound.  Even  from  Galilee  the  people 
tiocked  to  his  preaching.  The  sanhedrin 
sent  a  deputation  to  inquire  his  authority 
(John  i.  19-28).  While  the  ruling  classes 
were  unmoved  by  his  appeal  (Mat.  xxi.  25), 
popular  wonder  and  excitement  were  aroused, 
and  the  purely  religious  character  of  his  mes- 
sage led  the  truly  pious  to  believe  that  the 
long-deferred  hope  of  Israel  was  at  last  to  be 
fulfilled.  After  John's  ministry  had  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  perhaps  for  six  months 
or  more,  Jesus  appeared  anud  the  multitude 
and  asked  the  prophet  to  baptize  him.  The 
inspired  insight  of  the  Baptist  recognized  in 
him  one  who  had  no  need  of  repentance; saw 
in  him,  in  fact,  no  less  than  the  Messiah 
himself.  "'I  have  need,"  he  said,  "to  be 
baptized  of  thee,  and  comest  thou  to  me  ?  " 
(Mat.  iii.  14).  We  are  not  to  suppose  that 
Jesus  did  not  already  know  himself  perfectly 
well  to  be  the  Christ.  His  reply  rather 
shows  the  contrary  :  "  Suffer  it  now  :  for  thus 
it  becometh  us  to  fultill  all  righteousness." 
The  baptism  meant  for  him,  ])artly,  self- 
dedication  to  the  work  which  John  had  an- 
nounced, and  also  the  conscious  taking  upon 
himself  of  the  sin  of  the  people  whom  he  had 
come  to  save.  As  he  came  from  the  baptism 
(Mark  i.  10),  John  (John  i.  33,  34)  saw  the 
heavens  opened  and  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  the 
form  of  a  dove,  descending  and  remaining  on 
him,  and  a  voice  came  from  above  :  "  This  is 
my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased  " 
(Mat.  iii.  17).  This  was  the  full  endowment 
of  our  Lord's  human  nature  with  spiritual 
l)ower  for  his  ministry.  How  truly  human, 
as  well  as  divine,  he  was  through  it  all  is 
shown  by  the  temptation  which  immediately 
followed.  He  was  not  to  enter  on  his  work 
without  adequate  mental  preparation.  Re- 
alizing his  vocation,  he  was  led  by  the 
Si)irit  into  the  wilderness,  doubtless  for  medi- 
tation. There  the  great  tempter  met  him, 
and  sought  to  pervert  his  purpose  to  selfish 
and  worldly  ends.  Jesus  must  have  himself 
related  this  exjjerience  to  his  disciples.  While 
we  are  not  to  doubt  the  outward  reality  of 
the  tempter  and  the  physical  features  of  the 
scene  as  described  to  us  (Mat.  iv.  1-11  ;  Luke 
iv.  1-13),  we  should  not  forget  that  the  power 
of  the  ternVtation  lay  in  the  subtlety  with 
which  the  world  was  presented  to  Jesus  as 
more  attractive  than  the  life  of  stern  obedi- 
ence to  God,  with  its  probably  fotal  close. 
For  forty  days  the  temptation  lasted,  and 
Jesus  returned  from  it  to  the  Jordan  fully 
dedicated  to  the  lowly,  sutfering  lot  which 
he  knew  U\  be  (Jod's  will  for  his  Messiah. 
Forthwith   he   began   to  call  disciples.     Yet 


Jesus  Christ 


385 


Jesus  Christ 


with  no  loud  proclamation  of  his  advent  did 
he  inaugurate  his  work.    The  Baptist  pointed 
him   out  to   some   of   his   own    disciples   as 
the   Lamb   of   God    (John   i.  29,  36).     Two, 
John  and  Andrew,  followed  the  new  teacher. 
Simon  was  soon  added  to  the  number  (35- 
42).      The  next  day  Philip  and   Nathanael 
were  invited  (43-51).     With  bis  little  band 
Jesus   quietly  retui-ned    to   Galilee,   and   at 
Cana  performed  his  first  miracle,  in  which 
the  disciples  saw  the  first  signs  of  his  com- 
ing glory  (ii.  1-11).     We  must  be  impressed 
with  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  make  a 
public  display.     The  new  movement  began 
with  the  faith  of  a  few  obscure  Galilaeans. 
But  St.  John's  account  makes  it  clear  that 
Jesus  was  fully  sensible  of  who  he  was  and 
what  he  had  come  to  do.     He  was  only  wait- 
ing for  the  favorable  moment  to  offer  him- 
self to  Israel  as  her  Messiah.     That  moment 
was  naturally  found  in  the  approaching  pass- 
over  (April,  A.  D.  27).      From   Capernaum, 
whither    he   and   his   family   and    disciples 
had   gone  (12),   he   ascended   to   Jerusalem, 
and  there  proceeded  to  cleanse  the  temple  of 
the  traders  who  profaned  it.     It  was  an  act 
worthy  of  a  ])rophet  to  reform  the  flagrant 
abuses  of  God's  service ;  but  Christ's  words, 
"  Make  not  my  Father's  house  a  house  of 
merchandise,"  indicate  that  he  claimed  to 
be  more   than   a   prophet  (16).     It  was,  in 
fact,  a  public  summons  of  Israel  to  follow 
him  in  the  work  of   religious   reformation, 
for  only  when  the  Jews  had  rejected  him 
would  he  proceed  to  organize  the  new  church 
of  the  future  ;  but  he  himself  did  not  expect 
them  to  follow  him.     This  is  proved  by  his 
veiled  prediction  of  his  death  at  their  hands 
(19),  while  iu  the  conversation  with    Nico- 
demus   he   clearly   brought    out    the   neces- 
sity of  a  new  birth  and  of  his  own  suSer- 
ing    (iii.    1-21),    in    order    that    any    might 
enter  the  kingdom  which    God's   love    had 
sent  him  to  establish.     For  our  knowledge 
of  this  early  Judtean  ministry  of  Jesus  we 
are  indebted  to  St.   John   (ii.  13-iv.  3).     It 
lasted  apparently  about  nine  months.     After 
the  passover  Jesus  retired  from  the  city  to 
the  Judaean  country,  aud  having  found  the 
nation  unwilling  to  follow  him,  he  began  to 
preach,   as  the   Baptist  was  still  doing,   the 
necessity  of   repentance.     For  a   while   the 
two  worked  side  by  side.     Not   till  John's 
providential  mission  was  plainly  over  would 
Jesus  begin  an  independent  one  of  his  own. 
Both  labored  together  for  the  spiritual  quick- 
ening of  the  nation.     Jesus  began  finally  to 
attract  more  disciples  than  John  did.     This 
led  him  to  terminate  his  Judisan  ministry, 
for  neither  would  he  appear  as  a  rival  of  his 
coworker   (John   iv.   1-3).     He  turned    once 
more  toward  Galilee.     On  the  way  through 
Samaria  occurred  his  memorable  interview 
with    the    woman    at    Jacob's    well    (4-42). 
But  he  hastened   northward.      Arriving   in 
Galilee,   he   found    that    his  fame    had    pre- 
ceded  him   (43-45).     A  nobleman   from  Ca- 
25 


pernaum  sought  him  out,  even  in  Cana, 
where  he  was  stopping,  and  secured  from 
him  the  cure  of  his  sou  (46-54).  It  was 
clear  that  Galilee  was  the  place  where 
he  should  labor  and  that  the  fields  were 
white  to  harvest  (35).  Then,  it  would 
seem,  an  event  occurred  which  indicated 
that  the  hour  for  him  to  begin  his  proper 
work  had  indeed  providentially  arrived. 
The  news  came  that  John  the  Baptist  had 
been  cast  into  prison  by  Herod  Antipas. 
The  work  of  the  herald  was  over.  The  old 
Jewish  church  had  been  sufficiently  called  to 
repentance  and  reformation,  and  she  had  re- 
fused to  listen.  Jesus  began  forthwith  in 
Galilee  to  preach  the  kingdom  of  God,  to 
announce  the  germinal  principles  of  the  new 
dispensation,  and  to  gather  the  nucleus  of 
the  future  church. 

The  great  Galilsean  ministry  of  Jesus  lasted 
about  sixteen  months.  He  took  for  his  center 
the  busy  mart  of  trade,  Capernaum.  In  Gali- 
lee he  was  in  the  midst  of  a  population  prevail- 
ingly Jewish,  yet  in  a  region  removed  from  in- 
terference by  the  religious  authorities  of  the 
nation.  His  evident  purpose  was  to  set  forth 
the  true,  spiritual  kingdom  of  God,  aud  by 
mighty  works  to  convince  men  of  his  own 
authority  and  of  the  character  of  the  king- 
dom. He  asked  for  faith  in  himself.  He 
unveiled  the  real  character  of  God  and  his 
requirements  of  men.  He  did  not  apx)ly  to 
himself  the  name  Messiah,  for  it  would  have 
been  too  easily  misunderstood  by  carnal 
minds.  He  generally  called  himself  the  Son 
of  man.  He  did  not  at  first  speak  of  his 
death.  They  were  not  ready  to  hear  of  that. 
He  taught  the  principles  of  true  religion, 
with  himself  as  its  authoritative  expounder. 
His  mighty  works  roused  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. He  was  thus  enabled  to  attract  wide 
attention,  till  the  whole  land  was  eager  to 
see  and  hear  him.  But,  as  he  foresaw,  the 
final  result  was  the  disappointment  of  the 
people  with  his  unworldly  ideas.  Only  a 
little  band  faithfully  clave  to  him.  Yet  by 
his  teaching  he  laid  down  truths  which  that 
band  of  disciples  were  to  carry,  after  his 
death,  throughout  the  world.  For  the  order 
of  events  in  the  lower  or  early  Galilsean 
ministry  we  refer  to  the  harmony  in  the 
article  Gospel.  We  can  here  only  note  the 
leading  phases  of  the  history.  The  first 
was  that  of  the  opening  of  the  work.  This 
was  marked  by  startling  miracles,  by  the 
summons  to  believe  the  gospel,  and  by  the 
awakening  of  enthusiastic  interest  in  .Jesus 
on  the  part  of  the  Galilieans.  It  included 
the  events  in  the  harmony,  beginning  with 
the  first  rejection  at  Nazareth  and  ending 
with  Levi's  feast.  The  close  of  this  phase 
of  his  work,  which  lasted  perliaps  four 
juonths,  found  .Jesus  the  center  of  universal 
interest  in  Galilee,  and  gathered  about  him 
a  little  company  of  devoted  followers.  We 
are  not  told  much  about  his  teaching  as 
yet ;  but  from  what  we  are  told  and  from  the 


Jesus  Christ 


386 


Jesus  Christ 


significant  miracles  he  performed — such  as 
the  cure  of  the  demoniac  (Mark  i.  23-27), 
the  healing  of  the  leper  (40-45),  the  cure 
of  the  paralytic  (ii.  1-12),  the  miraculous 
draught  of  tish  (Luke  v.  1-12)— it  is  clear 
that  tlic  burden  of  his  message  was  sub- 
stantially that  which  he  announced  in  Naz- 
areth (iv.  1«-21),  "The  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  me 
to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  poor;  he  hath 
sent  me  to  heal  the  brokenhearted,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recover- 
ing of  sight  to  the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty 
them  that  are  bruised,  to  preach  the  accep- 
table year  of  the  Lord."  The  aspect  of 
attairs,  however,  soon  began  to  change,  for 
opposition  arose  on  the  part  of  the  Pharisees. 
This  is  the  second  phase  of  the  Galilaean 
ministry.  Jesus  visited  Jerusalem  (John  v.  1) 
and  there  healed  the  impotent  man  on  the 
Sabbath.  At  once  conflict  with  the  rulers 
and  nibbis  broke  out.  Yet  the  conflict  seems 
to  have  been  purposely  provoked  by  Jesus,  in 
order  that  through  it  the  dift'erence  between 
the  spirit  of  his  teaching  and  that  of  current 
Judaism  might  appear.  We  see  in  him  now 
the  spiritual  interpreter  of  the  Old  Testament, 
bringing  out  its  real  meaning,  and  doing  so 
(v.)  with  express  appeal  to  his  own  au- 
thority as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  divinely 
appointed  teacher  of  men.  This  phase  in- 
cluded, besides  John  v.,  the  incidents  of 
plucking  the  ears  of  corn  and  the  healing  of 
the  man  with  the  withered  hand ;  see  Gos- 
PKL.  The  conflict  with  the  Pharisees  and 
the  continued  advance  of  popular  interest 
led  next  to  the  organization  of  his  disciples, 
which  constituted  the  third  phase  of  this 
part  of  his  ministry.  He  now  api)ointed  his 
twelve  ajjostles,  and,  on  one  famous  day,  gave 
in  the  sermon  on  the  mount  a  description 
of  the  character  and  life  of  the  true  members 
of  God's  kingdom.  It  is  a  sublime  exhibition 
of  a  genuinely  religious  life,  in  joyful  unison 
with  its  heavenly  Father,  and  consecrated  to 
his  service  in  tlie  salvation  of  the  world,  the 
real  fulfillment  of  the  old  law,  though  utterly 
f)p|iose<l  to  the  formalityand  superficiality  of 
Pharisaism,  the  ideal  of  trust  and  communion 
of  Mian  in  relation  to  God.  The  sermon  on 
the  mount  was  not  meant  by  Jesus  to  teach 
the  way  of  .salvation,  nor  did  it  constitute  by 
any  means  his  whole  gospel.  He,  like  the 
apostles,  taught  salvation  through  faith  in 
hiiiiseir.  P.ul  in  this  sermon,  over  against 
Pharisaism  and  i>o|inlar  ignorance,  he  set 
forth  that  si)iritual  life  which  is  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  (livine  kingdom  and  to  entrance 
into  which  faith  in  Jesus  leads.  The  outlines 
of  the  new  organization  having  thus  been 
enunciated,  we  read,  as  the  fourth  jihase,  of 
a  siH-cession  of  miracles  and  tours  through 
lower  (Jalilee — Jesus  being  accompanied  by 
his  a)iostles -for  the  ])ur])ose  of  extending 
his  iiiMuence.  This  jihase  extends  in  tlu' 
harmony  from  the  close  of  the  sermon  on 
the  mount  to  the  time  when  Herod   imiiiired 


concerning  the  new  teacher.  During  these 
months  the  popular  interest  in  Jesus  steadily 
increased,  but  the  opposition  of  the  Pharisees 
increased  equally.  The  most  notable  point 
in  the  history  just  here  is  the  great  day  of 
parables.  The  parable  was  a  form  of  in- 
struction in  which  Jesus  was  unrivaled.  It 
was  intended  to  convey  truth  to  receptive 
minds,  and  yet  to  avoid  such  open  expression 
of  it  as  would  give  his  enemies  a  plea  for  in- 
terfering with  him.  The  appearance  of  para- 
bles in  his  teaching  just  at  this  period  shows 
the  increasing  gravity  of  the  situation,  ne- 
cessitating a  certain  reserve  on  Christ's  part. 
We  must,  at  the  same  time,  admire  the  in- 
comparable skill  with  which  he  embodied 
in  these  simple  stories  the  profoundest  truths 
concerning  the  origin  and  ])rogressand  jjcrils 
and  destiny  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  which 
he  was  establishing  in  the  world.  At  length, 
however,  the  work  in  Galilee  came  to  a  crisis. 
Herod  Antipas  began  to  inquire  concerning 
Jesus,  and  the  fact  was  a  warning  that  com- 
plications, such  as  had  already  led  to  John's 
imprisonment,  and  still  more  recently  to  his 
murder,  might  ensue.  A  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity had,  moreover,  been  given  to  the 
people  to  test  their  relation  to  the  truth. 
Just  then  an  event  occurred  which  decided 
the  matter.  Jesus  had  sought  temporary  re- 
tirement with  the  twelve ;  but  the  multitudes 
had  followed  him  to  a  desert  place  on  the 
northeastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and, 
in  compassion  for  their  needs,  he  had  miracu- 
lously fed  them,  five  thousand  in  number, 
from  five  loaves  and  two  fishes.  The  enthu- 
siastic Galilajans  wished  to  take  him  by  force 
and  make  him  a  king  (John  si.  15)  ;  but  that 
very  fact  proved  that  they  had  wholly  mis- 
understood his  mission.  It  was  time  to  bring 
his  work  to  a  close.  From  the  beginning  he 
had  intimated  that  he  had  come  to  die,  and 
that  only  by  dying  could  he  be  their  Sav- 
iour (iii.  14,  15).  It  was  now  time  to  pre- 
pare for  the  sacrifice.  On  the  next  day  after 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  Jesus  deliv- 
ered in  Capernaum  the  discourse,  recorded 
in  vi.  22-71,  niton  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  and  on  the  necessity  of  eating  his 
flesh  and  drinking  his  blood.  Then,  after 
some  ]iarting  denunciation  of  the  Pharisaic 
misrepresentations  of  religion  (Mark  vii.  1- 
23),  he  brought  his  jtublic  ministry  in  Galilee 
to  a  close  by  retiring  with  his  disciples  from 
the  region  in  which  he  had  hitherto  been 
working. 

The  next  great  period  in  Christ's  life  is 
called  the  later  Galila-an  ministry  ;  see  har- 
mony, in  article  GosPEl,.  It  lasted  about  six 
nmntlis.  In  it  .lesus  went,  f(n-  the  only  time 
in  his  life,  into  gentile  territory,  viz.,  the 
regions  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Then,  having 
apparently  passed  .southward  along  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  ujiper  Jordan  and  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  we  find  him  in  the  region  of  l)e- 
caiMilis.  .\gain  he  went  far  into  the  northern 
part  of  (ialilee,  and  tiually  returned  again  t(i 


Jesus  Christ 


.387 


Jesus  Christ 


Caperuaum.  The  period  was  mainly  devoted 
to  the  prei)aratiou  of  his  disciples  for  his 
death  and  for  the  extension  of  his  gospel  to 
all  peoples.  He  preached  little,  and  then 
mainly  to  gentiles  or  to  the  half-heathen 
people  on  the  south  and  east  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  Finally,  near  Csesarea  Philippi,  at 
the  base  of  mount  Hernion,  he  elicited  from 
Peter  and  the  rest  the  full  confession  of  his 
Messiahship,  and,  iu  connection  therewith, 
he  plainly  told  them  of  his  coming  death 
and  resurrection,  and  of  the  necessity  that 
every  follower  of  his  should  be  willing  also 
to  bear  the  ci-oss.  Shortly  after  occurred  the 
transfiguration,  iu  which  three  of  his  apos- 
tles beheld  his  glory,  and  in  which,  it  would 
seem,  he  devoted  himself  finally,  with  sub- 
lime exaltation  of  spirit,  to  the  sacrifice  to 
which  law  and  prophecy,  as  he  was  reminded 
by  Moses  and  Elias,  had  looked  forward. 
Afterwards  he  repeated  the  prediction  of  his 
death,  and,  having  returned  to  Capernaum, 
further  instructed  his  disciples  (Mat.  xviii.) 
in  that  concei)tion  of  God's  service  as  one  of 
humility,  self-sacrifice,  and  love,  of  which 
his  own  great  act  of  self-devotion  was  to  be 
the  permanent  example. 

It  was  now  iirol)ably  the  early  autumn  of 
A.  D.  29,  and  leaving  Capernaum  fur  the  last 
time  Jesus  "steadfastly  set  his  face  to  go  to 
Jerusalem"  (Luke  ix.  51).  The  next  period 
of  his  ministry  is  called  the  last  journeys  to 
Jerusalem.  It  is  impossible  to  follow  in  exact 
order  our  Lord's  movements,  for  St.  Luke,  on 
whom  we  are  mainly  dejjendent  for  the  rec- 
ord of  this  period,  does  not  follow  a  precise 
chronological  method  of  narration.  But  the 
main  features  of  the  period  are  clear  enouiih. 
Jesus  now  sought  to  attract  the  pulilic  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  land,  including  Juda-a. 
He  sent  out  the  seventy  to  announce  liis 
coming.  He  visited  Jerusalem  at  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  (John  vii.),  and  again  at  the 
feast  of  dedication  (x.  22),  and  on  both  occa- 
sions offered  himself  repeatedly  to  the  peo- 
l)le.  He  called  himself  the  light  of  the 
world  and  the  good  shepherd  of  God's  flock, 
and  boldly  contended  with  the  rulers  who 
opposed  his  pretensions.  He  also  moved 
back  and  forth  through  Judsea  and  Perjea, 
and  explained  in  popular  discourse  and  with 
more  beauty  of  illustration  than  ever  before 
the  true  religious  life  and  the  true  idea  of 
God  and  of  his  service.  Here  belong  the 
parables  of  the  good  Samaritan,  the  wedding- 
feast,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  coin,  the  prodi- 
gal son,  the  unjust  steward,  the  rich  man  and 
Lazarus,  the  importunate  widow,  the  Phari- 
see and  the  publican.  Thus  the  announce- 
ment of  the  gospel  became  more  complete, 
while  the  fierceness  of  the  opposition  of  the 
rulers  liecame  more  intense,  until  an  event 
occurred  which  brought  matters  to  a  climax. 
Word  was  l)rought  to  Jesus  of  the  sickness  of 
his  friend  I^azarus  in  Bethany.  Going  to 
him,  he  found  him  already  four  days  dead, 
and   forthwith  he  eclipsed  all   his  previous 


miracles  by  raising  the  dead  man  to  life 
(xi.  1-46).  The  miracle  was  so  stupendous 
and  performed  so  near  Jerusalem  that  it  had 
a  profound  effect  on  the  people  of  the  capital ; 
and  the  sanhedrin,  under  the  lead  of 
Caiaphas,  the  high  priest,  decided  that  the 
influence  of  Jesus  could  be  destroyed  only 
by  his  death"  (47-5:j).  Forthwith  Jesus  re- 
tired from  the  vicinity  (54),  evidently  de- 
termined that  he  should  not  die  until  the 
passover.  As  that  drew  near  he  began  to  . 
approach  the  city  through  Persea  (Mat.  xix. ; 
XX.;  Mark  x. ;  Luke  xviii.  1.5-xix.  28), 
teaching  as  he  went,  but  again  predicting 
his  death  and  resurrection,  until  he  reached 
Bethany  once  more,  six  days  before  the  feast 
(John  xii.  1).  At  Bethany,  Mary,  the  sister 
of  Lazarus,  anointed  his  head  and  feet  while 
he  was  at  supjier,  an  event  in  which  Jesus 
saw  a  silent  prophecy  of  his  coming  burial. 
But  the  next  day  he  made  the  triumphal 
entry  on  an  ass's  colt  into  Jerusalem.  By 
that  he  invited  the  anger  of  the  rulers, 
oflered  himself  publicly  as  Messiah,  and 
illustrated  the  peaceful  character  of  the 
kingdom  he  had  come  to  found.  The  next 
day  he  returned  again  to  the  capital,  on  his 
way  cursing  the  barren,  though  blooming, 
fig  tree,  which  was  so  apt  an  emldem  of  the 
barren,  though  pretentious,  Jewish  chuich. 
Then,  as  three  years  before,  he  cleansed  the 
temple  of  the  traders  who  profaned  its  courts, 
thus  once  more  calling  the  nation  to  follow 
him  in  a  purification  of  Israel.  But  though 
the  pilgrims  to  the  festival  crowded  about 
him  and  had  hailed  him  at  the  triumphal 
entry  as  tlie  Messiah,  the  rulers  maintained 
tlieir  resolute  enmity.  On  the  next  day 
(Tuesday)  he  again  visited  the  city.  Arrived 
at  the  temple,  he  was  met  by  a  deputation  from 
the  sanhedrin,  which  demanded  his  authority 
for  his  acts.  This  he  refused  to  give,  know- 
ing that  they  were  already  resolved  to  de- 
stroy him,  while,  by  the  parables  of  the  two 
sons,  the  wicked  hu.sbandmen,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son,  he  described  their 
disobedience  to  God.  the  infidelity  of  Israel 
to  her  high  trust,  and  the  certain  desolation 
of  the  faithless  church  and  city.  Forthwitli 
he  was  questioned  by  a  succession  of  parties 
who  sought  to  find  accusation  against  him  or 
to  weaken  his  reputation.  The  Pharisees 
and  Herodians  asked  about  the  lawfulness 
of  giving  tribute  to  Csesar;  the  Sadducees 
about  the  resurrection  ;  a  lawyer  about  the 
great  commandment ;  and  he,  having  silenced 
each  in  turn,  discomfited  them  by  his  ques- 
tion concerning  David's  address  to  Messiah 
as  Lord,  for  the  psalmist's  language  clearly 
im])lied  that  his  own  claim  to  be  the  Son  of 
God  and  eciual  with  (iod  was  not  blasphe- 
mous. It  was  a  day  of  Intter  conflict.  Jesus 
vehemently  denounced  the  unworthy  leaders 
of  the  people  (Mat.  xxiii.  l-:5h).  When  cer- 
tain Greeks  desired  to  see  him  he  saw  in 
their  coming  a  presage  of  tlie  Jews'  rejection 
of  him,  and  that  the  gentiles  were  to  be  his 


Jesus  Christ 


388 


Jesus  Christ 


followers,  and  realized  that  the  end  was  at 
hand  (John  xii.  20-50).     As  he  left  the  tem- 
ple he  sadly  remarked  to  his  disciples  that 
soon  the  splendid  building  would  be  in  ruins, 
and    later  on  the  same  evening  he  gave  to 
four  of  them   his  prediction  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  the  spread  of  the  gospel, 
the  sufferings  of  his  followers,  and  his  own 
second  advent,  a  prediction  which  shows  to 
us  that  amid  the  lowering  storm  of  Jewish 
hostility  the  vision  of  Jesus  was  clear,  and 
that  he'  moved  on  to  his  fate  knowing  it  to 
be  the  appointed  path  to  ultimate  success.  It 
is  probable  that  on  that  very  night  the  plot 
was  formed  to  destroy  him.     Judas,  one  of 
the  twelve,  had,  we  may  believe,  long  been 
alienated    from    the   spiritual    ideas  of   the 
Master.     He  was  grieved  also  at  Christ's  re- 
fusal to  seek  a  worldly  kingdom  ;  for  Judas 
was,  John  tells  us,  an  avaricious  man.     At 
the  supper  at  Bethany  he  had  become  finally 
and   fully  conscious  of  his  entire  want  of 
sympathy  with  Jesus,  and  as  the  disappoint- 
ruent  which  he  felt  over  the  failure  of  his 
hopes  grew  keener  he  resolved  to  wreak  his 
anger  on  the  Lord  by  betraying  him  to  the 
rulers.    His  offer  changed  their  plans.    They 
had  purposed  to  wait  until  the  festival  was 
over  and  the  crowds  had  departed.     But  in 
the  absence  of  any  real  charge  against  Jesus 
they  were  only  too  glad  to  avail  themselves 
of    the   traitor's   jiroposal.      The    next    day 
(Wednesday)  seems  to  have  been  spent  by 
Jesus  in  retirement.     He  probably  remained 
in    Bethany.     On    Thursday   afternoon    the 
paschal  lambs  were  to  be  slain,  and  after  sun- 
set the  paschal  supper,  with  which  the  seven- 
day  feast  of  unleavened  bread  began,  was  to 
he   eaten  by   all    pious    Israelites.     On    that 
day  Jesus  sent  Peter  and  John  into  the  city 
to   prepare   the   passover   for  him   and    the 
twelve.     He   sent   them,    no   dou))t,    to    the 
house  of  a  disciple  or  friend  (Mat.  xxvi.  18)  ; 
but  by  the  device  of  telling  them  to  follow 
when  they  entered  the  city  a  man  whom  they 
would   meet  bearing  a  pitcher  of  water,  he 
kept  the  place  of  ass(unbly  secret  from  the 
rest  of  the  disciples,  for  the  purpose  no  doubt 
of  preventing  .Judas  fnini  betraying  it  to  the 
rulers,  and    thus    i)ossihly  interfering    with 
the  last  precious  interview  with  the  apostles. 
When  evening  came  lie  observed  with  them 
the  passover  sup]ier.    For  the  order  of  events 
during  the  evening,  sei^  again  the  harmony. 
The  view  of  some  that  according  to  Jolni's 
(ios])el  (xiii.   1,  2!);  xviii.  2H ;  xix.  lil)  Jesus 
was  crucified  on  Nisan  14tb,  the  day  on  which 
the    i)ascbal    laml)    was   slain,  and  tlicreforc 
that  be  di<l  not  cat  the  jiassover  su]>iier  at  the 
regular  time,   but  auticii)ated   it  l)y  a  day, 
ai)pears   to    be    (|iiite   inconsistent   witli    the 
language  reported  bv  Matthew  (xxvi.  17-19), 
Mark  (xiv.  12-1(;),  and  I.uke  (xxii.  7-i:5.  15), 
and  tlie  expressions  aiii)ealed  to  in  .lolin  may 
be  explained  on  the  byixttliesis  which  we  are 
following.*     It  should  be  noted  that  in  all 
*  John  xiii.  1  does  not  mean  that  all  that  is 


probability  Judas  withdrew  before  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  eucharist,  and  that  Jesus 
twice  predicted  the  fall  of  Peter,  once  in 
the  upper  room  and  again  while  on  the 
way  to  Gethsemane.  John's  Gospel  does 
not  relate  the  establishment  of  the  eucha- 
rist, but  it  gives  the  Lord's  last  discourses 
with  the  ai)ostles,  in  which  he  comforted 
them  in  view  of  his  departure  from  them  by 
revealing  the  unchangeable  spiritual  union 
between  himself  and  them,  and  the  mis- 
sion of  the  S])irit  which  would  bring  to  frui- 
tion their  relation  to  him.  It  records  also 
his  sublime  high-priestly  prayer  (xvii.).  On 
the  way  to  Gethsemane  Jesus  further  warned 
the  disciples  that  they  would  soon  be  scat- 
tered, and  appointed  a  meeting  with  him, 
after  his  resurrection,  in  Galilee.  The  agony 
in  the  garden  was  his  final  and  complete  sur- 
render of  himself  to  the  last  great  act  of  sac- 
rifice. It  was  interrupted  by  the  coming  of 
Judas  with  a  company  of  soldiers,  obtained 
doubtless  from  the  garrison  near  the  temple 
on  the  ground  that  a  seditious  person  was  to 
be  arrested  (John  xviii.  3,  12),  together  with 
some  of  the  Levitical  guard  and  servants  of 
the  chief  priests.  Judas  knew  that  Jesus 
was  wont  to  resort  to  Gethsemane.  Some 
suppose,  however,  that  he  had  first  gone 
to  the  upper  room  and,  finding  that  Jesus 
had  departed,  followed  to  Olivet,  at  the  base 
of  which  the  garden  lay.  Jesus,  after  a  brief 
expostulation,  submitted  to  arrest ;  where- 
u]>on  his  disciples  fled.  The  captors  took 
him  first  to  Annas  (13),  the  father-in-law 
of  Caiaphas,  where  he  had  a  i)reliminary 
examination  while  the  sanhedrin  was  being 
convened  (13,  14,  19-24).  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  Annas  and  Caiaphas  lived  in  the 
same  palace,  for  Peter's  denials  are  said  to 
have  occurred  in  the  court  of  the  palace, 
both  while  this  examination  before  Annas 
and  the  later  one  before  the  sanhedrin 
were  taking  place.  At  the  first  examination 
Jesus  refused  to  answer  the  inquiries,  and  de- 
manded that  evidence  against  him  be  pro- 
duced. He  was  sent  bound,  however,  to  the 
apartments  of  Caiaphas,  where  the  sanhedrin 
bad  hastily  assembled.  No  harmonious  evi- 
dence of  blasphemy,  which  was  the  crime 
they  sought  to  prove  against  him,  could  be 
found  ;  so  that  the  high  priest  was  forced  to 
solemnly  adjure  him  to  say  if  he  were  Messiah. 
Thereu])on  Jesus  made  the  claim  in  the  most 
exi)licit  manner,  and  the  angry  co)irt  con- 
demned liim  as  worthy  of  death  for  bias- 

recorded  in  ch.  xiii.  was  "before  the  feast  of  the 
jiassover."  but  is  an  introductory  remark  de- 
scriliiTig  the  loving  spirit  in  which  thi'  fatal  pass- 
over  was  entered  upon  by  Jesus;  xiii. '29,  "  buy 
those  Ihiufjs  tliat  we  have  need  of  against  the 
feast."  niiiy  refer  to  tilings  necessary  for  the  next 
day,  on  whicli  tlie  freewill  oflVringsof  tlie  people 
were  ])r('sentiMl :  xviii.  -S,  "that  tliey  miijht  eat 
the  passcivrr,"  may  mean  simply  "  Ivecji  the  pas- 
clml  fi'stival;"  xix.  Ml,  "tlie  jtreparation,"  was 
not  the  preparation  for  tlie  passover,  but  for  the 
Sabbath. 


Jesus  Christ 


389 


Jesus  Christ 


phemy.  The  unjust  spirit  of  his  judges  ap- 
peared iu  the  ribald  mockery  to  wliicli  he 
was  subjected.  It  was,  liowever,  the  law 
that  the  decisions  of  the  sanhedrin  must  be 
made  in  the  daytime.  Hence  very  early  in 
the  morning  the  court  convened  again  and 
the  same  formalities  were  gone  through 
(Luke  xxii.  66-71),  and  then,  since  per- 
mission of  the  governor  was  required  ft)r  the 
execution  of  a  criminal,  they  hastened  with 
Jesus  to  Pilate.  The  indecent  haste  of  the 
whole  proceeding  shows  their  fear  that  the 
people  might  prevent  his  destruction.  Pilate 
jtrobably  resided  in  Herod's  palace  on  the 
liill  of  Zion.  But  the  distance  from  the  high 
priest's  house  was  not  great,  and  it  was  still 
very  early  when  the  governor  was  summoned 
forth  to  hear  their  request.  They  wished 
him  at  first  to  grant  permission  for  the  execu- 
tion without  inquiring  into  the  charges,  but 
this  he  refused  to  do  (John  xviii.  29-32). 
Then  they  accused  Jesus  of  "  perverting  the 
nation,  and  forbidding  to  give  tribute  to 
CiEsar,  saying  that  he  himself  is  Christ  a 
king"  (Luke  xxiii.  2).  After  Jesus  had 
acknowledged  to  the  governor  that  he  was  a 
king  (3),  Pilate  examined  him  privately 
(John  xviii.  33-38),  and  discovered  the 
wholly  non-political  and  harmless  charac- 
ter of  his  claims.  He  forthwith  declared 
that  he  found  no  fault  in  him  and  that  he 
would  let  him  go.  But  the  governor  was  in 
reality  afraid  to  thwart  the  will  of  his  dan- 
gerous subjects,  and  when  they  fiei'cely  de- 
manded the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  he  fell  back 
on  various  weak  expedients  to  shift  the  re- 
sponsibility. Having  learned  that  Jesus  was 
from  Galilee,  Pilate  sent  him  to  Herod  Anti- 
pas  (Luke  xxiii.  7-11),  who  also  was  then  in 
Jerusalem ;  but  Herod  refused  to  exercise 
jurisdiction.  Meanwhile  the  crowd  had  in- 
creased, and  the  governor  appealed  to  them 
to  say  what  prisoner  he  should  release,  as  his 
custom  was,  at  the  passover.  He  evidently 
hoped  that  the  popularity  of  Jesus  would 
rescue  him  from  the  chief  priests.  But  the 
latter  persuaded  the  rabble  to  ask  for  B  iral)- 
bas.  The  message  of  liis  wife  further  in- 
creased Pilate's  anxiety  to  release  Jesus  ;  but 
though  he  several  times  appealed  to  the  mul- 
titude in  his  behalf,  they  were  implacable 
and  bloodthirsty.  The  governor  was  afraid 
to  act  on  his  own  convictions  and  weakly 
gave  permission  for  the  execution.  Yet 
while  the  scourging  which  always  preceded 
crucifixion  was  in  progress  in  the  hall  of  his 
palace  he  could  not  rest.  Again  he  sought 
to  satisfy  the  Jews  by  the  spectacle  of  Jesus 
bleeding  and  thorn-crowned,  but  they,  made 
bold  with  success,  cried  out  that  he  ought  to 
die  because  he  made  himself  the  Son  of  God 
(John  xix.  1-7).  This,  however,  increased  Pi- 
late's superstitions,  so  that  again  he  examined 
Jesus  privately  and  again  sought  to  release 
him  (8-12)  ;  but  the  Jews  finally  appealed  to 
his  political  ambition  and  practically  accused 
him  of  disloyalty  to  Caesar  in  abetting  a  rival 


king.  This  decided  the  matter.  Pilate  had 
the  grim  satisfaction  of  hearing  the  Jews 
proclaim  their  supreme  allegiance  to  the 
emperor  (13-15),  and  therewith  he  handed 
Jesus  over  for  execution,  .(esus  thus  died 
for  no  crime  and  without  any  real  legal  proc- 
ess. His  death  was  literally  a  judicial  mur- 
der. The  execution  was  carried  out  by  four 
soldiers  (John  xix.  23)  under  charge  of  a  cen- 
turion. With  him  also  two  common  robbers 
were  led  to  death.  The  victims  usually  car- 
ried their  crosses,  either  the  whole  of  them 
or  the  transverse  portion.  Jesus  seems  to 
have  carried  the  whole,  since  he  fainted  un- 
der it.  The  place  of  crucifixion  was  a  short 
distance  outside  the  city  ;  see  Golgotha.  The 
victim  was  usually  nailed  to  the  cross  on  the 
ground  and  then  the  cross  was  placed  up- 
right in  the  hole  prepared  for  it.  The  crime 
of  the  otfender  was  written  on  a  tablet  and 
placed  over  his  head.  In  Jesus'  case  the 
accusation  was  written  in  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin.  Its  longest  form  is  given  by  John 
(xix.  19),  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  king  of  the 
Jews."  Mark  tells  us  that  it  was  "  about  the 
third  hour"  ((.  e.  9  a.  m.)  when  the  crucifixion 
was  completed.  If  we  remember  that  the  pro- 
ceedings began  "as  soon  as  it  was  day  "  (Luke 
xxii.  66),  their  completion  about  nine  o'clock 
will  not  seem  incredible.  It  is  moreover  in 
accord  with  the  haste  which  had  characterized 
the  action  of  the  Jews  from  the  beginning. 

Into  the  incidents  which  the  gosjiels  have 
preserved  as  occurring  during  the  crucifixion 
we  cannot  go  here.  Such  suiferers  often  re- 
mained alive  for  several  days;  but  the  al- 
ready exhausted  frame  of  Jesus  did  not  en- 
dure the  agony  so  hmg.  At  the  ninth  hour 
he  expired  with  a  great  cry.  The  words 
spoken  from  the  cross,  however,  indicate  that 
he  retained  his  consciousness  to  the  end,  and 
that  he  fully  realized  the  significance  of  all 
that  happened.  When  be  died  there  seem  to 
have  been  but  few  present.  The  crowd  which 
followed  him  at  first  had  returned  to  the  city. 
The  mocking  priests  also  had  left  him.  A 
few  disciples  and  the  soldiers  are  all  that  we 
know  to  have  been  present  at  the  end.  The 
rulers  were,  therefore,  not  aware  that  he  had 
died.  Unwilling  to  have  the  bodies  hanging 
on  the  cross  over  the  Sabbath,  they  went  to 
Pilate  and  asked  that  their  legs  might  be 
broken  ;  but,  when  the  soldiers  came  to  Jesus 
for  this  purpose,  they  found  him  already  dead. 
One,  however,  pierced  his  side  to  make  sure, 
and  John,  who  was  near,  saw  blood  and 
water  issue  from  the  wound  (xix.  34).  Jesus 
seems  to  have  died  literally  of  a  broken 
heart.  Meanwhile  Josejdi  of  .Arimatbiea,  a 
secret  disciple  of  .Jesus,  though  a  rich  man 
and  a  member  of  the  sanhedrin — who.  how- 
ever, had  not  consented  to  his  ^Master's  con- 
demnation (Luke  xxiii.  51 1 — knowing  that 
death  had  come,  had  begged  for  the  body  of 
Jesus.  By  him  and  a  few  others  it  was  laid 
in  a  garden  of  Josej)h's.  iu  a  new  tomb  hewn 
out  of  a  rock. 


Jesus  Christ 


390 


Jesus  Christ 


Now  it  is  clear  that  the  disciples  were 
wholly  disconcerted  and  overwhelmed  by  the 
sudden  arrest  and  death  of  their  Lord. 
Though  he  had  on  three  recorded  occasions 
forewarned  tlieni  of  his  death  and  of  his 
resurrection  on  the  third  day,  they  were  too 
distressed  to  have  any  hojie.  Though  he 
had  told  them  to  go  to  (Jalilee  to  meet  him, 
tliey  lingered  in  Jerusalem.  Their  conduct 
will  not  seciu  incredible  nor  the  narrative 
doubtful  to  those  who  know  the  prostration 
which  often  accompanies  bitter  disappoint- 
ment and  sorrow.  Hence  Jesus  appeared  to 
them  in  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinity.  The 
resurrection  narratives  in  the  gospels  are  not 
intended,  however,  to  be  complete  accounts 
of  the  events.  They  do  not  pretend  to  mar- 
shal the  evidence  for  the  reality  of  the  res- 
urrection. That  consisted  in  the  testimony 
of  apostles  to  whom  he  repeatedly  appeared 
(1  Cor.  XV.  3-.S).  In  the  gospels  we  have  a 
number  of  incidents  preserved  either  because 
of  their  intrinsic  interest  or  for  the  sake  of 
the  spiritual  instruction  which  they  provided 
to  believers.  The  order  of  events  seems  to 
have  been  nearly  the  following :  Early  in 
the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  two 
companies  of  pious  (Talilsean  women  pro- 
ceeded to  the  sepulcher  to  anoint  tlie  body 
of  Jesus  for  permanent  burial.  The  one 
company  consisted  of  Mary  Magdalene,  Mary 
the  mother  of  James,  and  Salome  (Mark  xvi. 
1).  Joanna  and  other  unnamed  women  were 
jirobably  in  the  second  ])arty  (Luke  xxiv.  10, 
which  is  a  general  statement,  including  the 
report  of  all  the  women).  The  first  party 
.saw  the  stone  rolled  away  from  the  tomb, 
and  Mary  Magdalene,  supposing  that  the 
l)ody  had  been  stolen,  returned  to  Peter  and 
.rohu  with  the  news  (John  xx.  1,  2).  Her 
companions  went  on,  and  entering  the  tomb 
heard  from  the  angel  the  news  of  the  resur- 
rection and  the  message  to  the  disciples  (Mat. 
xxviii.  1-7;  Mark  xvi.  1-7).  As  they  has- 
tened away,  we  may  su]>pose  that  they  met 
the  other  com));iny  of  women,  and  that  all 
returned  again  to  the  toml),  but  only  to  re- 
ceive from  two  angels  a  more  emphatic  assur- 
ance and  direction  (Luke  xxiv.  1-8).  The 
women  then  basteiu'd  toward  tlie  city  with 
the  news  and  on  tlie  way  Jesus  met  them 
(Mat.  xxviii.  i),  10).  Meanwhile  Mary  Mag- 
dalene bad  re])orted  to  Peter  and  John  that 
tlie  tomb  was  emiity,  and  they  had  run 
thither  and  found  it  ev(>n  so  (John  xx.;5-10). 
She  had  followed  tlicm  and,  when  they  de- 
]iarti'd  from  the  garden,  she  remained,  and 
to  her  also  did  .lesus  ajiviear  (11-lH).  All 
the  women  (iually  returned  to  the  disci- 
jtles  and  rejiorted  the  wonderful  news.  It 
was  not,  however,  on  the  testiuumy  of  these 
women  that  faith  in  the  resurrection  of  .lesiis 
was  to  rest.  During  the  day  he  aiii>cared 
to  Peter  (Luke  xxiv.  :{4  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  T)),  later 
to  two  disciples  journeying  to  Kmmaus 
(Luke  xxiv.  i:!-;5r>),  and  in  the  evening  to 
all   the  eleven  exce]!!    Tbouias  (:'>(!  IIJ ;  .loliii 


XX.  19-23).  At  that  time  he  ate  before 
them,  proving  the  reality  of  his  physical 
resurrection.  Since,  however,  Thomas  even 
yet  would  not  believe,  the  disciples  still  lin- 
gered in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  following 
Sunday  Jesus  again  appeared  to  them,  and 
proved  to  the  doubting  apostle  that  he  had 
indeed  risen  (John  xx.  24-29).  Then,  it 
would  appear,  the  apostles  returned  to  Gali- 
lee. We  next  read  of  seven  of  them  fishing 
in  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  of  the  Lord's  ap- 
pearance to  them  (John  xxi.).  By  appoint- 
ment also  he  met  them  on  a  mountain  of 
Galilee  and  gave  to  them  "the  great  commis- 
sion," with  the  assurance  of  his  power  and 
presence  (Mat.  xxviii.  16-20).  This  may  very 
probably  have  been  the  occasion  when  five 
hundred  disciples  were  present  (1  Cor.  xv.  6). 
Soon  after  he  appeared  also  to  James  (7), 
but  where  we  know  not.  Finally  he  brought 
the  apostles  again  to  Jerusalem,  and  lead- 
ing them  out  to  the  mount  of  Olives  to  a 
place  where  Bethany  was  in  sight  (Luke 
xxiv.  50,  51)  he  was  taken  up  into  heaven 
and  a  cloud  received  him  out  of  their  sight 
(Acts  i.  9-12).  We  have  thus  ten  ajipear- 
ances  of  the  risen  Saviour  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament,  while  Paul  properly  adds 
the  appearance  to  him  on  the  way  to  Damas- 
cus (1  Cor.  XV.  8).  There  were  doubtless, 
however,  other  ajipearances  not  recorded. 
lAike  says  (Acts  i.  3)  that  "  he  showed  him- 
self alive  after  his  passion  by  many  proofs, 
appearing  unto  them  by  the  space  of  forty 
days"  (E.  Y.).  Yet  he  did  not  continue 
with  them  in  constant  intercourse  as  he  had 
done  before.  He  rather  manifested  himself 
to  them  (John  xxi.  1,  E.  V.).  The  forty  days 
between  his  resurrection  and  ascension 
formed  evidently  a  transitional  period,  in- 
tended to  train  the  disciples  for  their  future 
work.  It  was  necessary  to  give  ample,  re- 
peated, and  varied  proof  of  the  resurrection, 
and  this  was  done  as  we  have  seen.  It  was  nec- 
essary to  give  them  instruction  concerning  the 
necessity  of  his  death  and  the  character  of  the 
kingdom  which  through  their  labors  he  was 
to  establish.  It  was  requisite  to  point  out  to 
them  the_  fulfillment  of  Scripture  by  his  death 
and  resurrection,  for  thus  alone  would  they 
see  the  continuity  of  the  new  dispensation 
with  the  old.  For  this  instruction  they  had 
not  been  ready  before  his  death,  but  it  is  re- 
]ieatedly  referred  to  as  having  been  given 
during  these  fort v  days  (I^uke  xxiv.  44-48; 
John  XX.  21-23; 'xxi!  15-22;  Acts  i.  3-8). 
And  finally  the  ex])eriences  of  the  forty  days 
trained  the  discijiles  to  think  of  their  Master 
as  absent  and  yet  living;  as  invisible  and 
yet  near  them  ;  as  risen  to  a  new  life  and 
yet  retaining  the  old  finture  and  even  the  old. 
though  now  glorified,  body,  which  they  had 
loved;  as  exalted  but  still  the  same,  so  that 
they  were  prejiared  to  go  forth  and  proclaim 
him  as  the  glorified  Son  of  (4od  and  crowned 
king  of  Israel,  yet  also  the  Man  of  Nazareth 
and  the   l^anib  of  (iod  who  takes  awav  the 


Jesus  Christ 


391 


Jeuel 


sin  of  the  world.  Jleanwhile  the  Jews 
affirmed  that  his  disciples  had  stolen  his 
hody.  Fearing  this,  they  had  on  the  day  of 
his  death  requested  from  Pilate  a  military 
watch  to  guard  the  tomb.  Wlien  the  resur- 
rection occurred,  accompanied,  as  we  are 
told,  by  the  descent  of  an  angel  who  rolled 
the  stone  from  the  tomb,  the  soldiers  were 
overcome  with  fright  and  :ifter\vards  lied. 
Superstitious  pagans  as  they  were,  they 
doubtless  were  little  more  aiiected  by  what 
they  had  seen  than  ignorant  men  usually 
are  by  what  they  consider  ghostly  appear- 
ances. But  the  rulers,  who  may  possibly 
have  accounted  for  the  soldiers'  report  by 
supposing  a  trick  on  the  part  of  the  disciples, 
gave  the  men  money  to  keep  the  matter 
quiet,  and  thus  the  report  was  given  out 
that  the  body  had  been  stolen  while  the  sol- 
diers slept  (Mat.  xsviii.  11-15).  When,  how- 
ever, the  apostles  began,  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost, to  give  their  testimony  to  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  number  of  believers  in  it 
grew  rapidly  (Acts  ii.,  etc.),  it  was  by  at- 
tempts at  force,  not  by  proofs,  that  the  chief 
priests  tried  to  silence  their  witness  and  sub- 
due the  growing  sect  (Acts  iv.). 

We  have  not  sought  in  this  article  to  ex- 
hibit the  teaching  of  Jesus,  but  the  outward 
framework  and  historic  movement  of  his  life. 
In  the  latter  there  appears,  as  we  gather  it 
from  the  gospels,  a  gradual,  progressive 
revelation  of  himself  and  of  his  message, 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  strongest  evi- 
dences of  the  truthfulness  of  the  accounts 
on  which  our  knowledge  is  based.  The  real- 
ity of  the  humanity  of  Christ  made  it  possi- 
ble for  him  thus  to  appear  as  a  real  charac- 
ter of  human  history,  related  to  a  particular 
environment,  and  to  present  in  his  life  a 
career  which  moved  naturally,  yet  steadily, 
forward  to  a  definite  goal.  His  was  a  gen- 
uinely human  life  and,  therefore,  capable  of 
historical  treatment.  At  the  same  time  Jesus 
knew  and  declared  himself  to  be  more  than 
man  (e.  g.  Mat.  xi.  27 ;  John  v.  17-38  ;  x.  30 ; 
xvii.  5,  etc.).  As  his  self-revelation  advanced 
his  discij)les  realized  his  divine  dignity  (Mat. 
xvi.  16;  John  xx.  28).  Then  later  reflection 
and  experience,  under  the  illumination  of 
the  Spirit,  made  his  divinity  still  more 
evident  to  them,  until  the  last  surviving 
apostle  was  led  to  become  the  fourth  evan- 
gelist and  to  present  in  his  Lord's  earthly 
career  the  incarnation  of  the  personal  divine 
Word.  Yet  St.  John  never  forgot  nor  obscured 
the  real  humanity  of  Jesus.  He  gives  us  the 
full  truth  concerning  the  person  of  the  great 
Master.  '■  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word, 
and  the  Word  was  with  God.  and  the  Word 
was  God"  (John  i.  1).  and  "the  Word  was 
made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  (and  we 
beheld  his  glory,  the  glory  as  of  the  only 
begotten  of  the  Father,)  full  of  grace  and 
truth"  (14).  "These  [things]  are  written," 
he  concludes,  "that  ye  might  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God  ;  and  that 


believing  ye  might    have   life   through   his 
name  "  (xx.  31).  G.  T.  p. 

Je'ther  [abundance,  eminence,  excellence], 

1.  A  descendant  (if  Ju<lah  through  Jerah- 
meel.  He  died  childless  (1  Chrou.  ii.  32  ;  cp. 
26,  28). 

2.  A  man  registered  among  the  descendants 
of  Judah,  but  the  lineage  is  not  traced  be- 
yond his  father,  Ezra  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

3.  An  Asherite.  apparently  the  same  as 
Ithran,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii.  37  with 
38). 

4.  A  form  of  Jethro.  Moses'  father-in-law 
(Ex.  iv.  18.  R.  V.  margin). 

5.  The  firstborn  son  of  Gideon.  His  father 
bade  him  fall  upon  the  cajitives,  Zebah  and 
Zalmunna.  and  slay  them ;  but  the  youth 
shrank  from  the  deed,  and  they  escaped  the 
disgrace  of  dving  at  the  bauds  of  a  boy 
(Judg.  viii.  20'  21). 

6.  The  father  of  Amasa,  Absalom's  com- 
mander-in-chief (1  Kin.  ii.  5).     See  Ithra. 

Je'theth. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40  ;  1 
Chron.   i.   51). 

Jetli'lah.     See  Ithlah. 

Je'thro  [his  preeminence,  his  excellence]. 

A  priest  of  ISIidian  and  Moses'  father-in- 
law  (Ex.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Reuel  (ii.  18  ; 
Antiq.  ii.  12,  1).  Reuel,  which  means  friend 
of  God,  seems  to  have  been  his  personal 
name,  and  Jethro,  his  excellence,  to  have 
been  his  honorary  title.  His  seven  daugh- 
ters tended  his  flocks  ;  and  Moses,  who  had 
fled  from  Egypt,  rendered  them  a  service 
which  led  to  his  introduction  to  Jethro's 
family  and  marriage  with  Zipporah,  one  of 
the  daughters.  Moses  kept  his  father-in- 
law's  flocks  for  about  forty  years  (Ex.  iii.  1, 
2;  Acts  vii.  30).  When  called  by  God  to  re- 
turn to  Egypt  and  achieve  the  emancipation 
of  the  Hebrews,  Moses  obtained  Jethro's  jier- 
mission  to  depart,  and  took  with  him  his 
wife  Zipporah  and  his  two  sons  (Ex.  iv.  18- 
;20)  ;  but  he  afterwards  sent  her  and  her 
two  sons  temporarily  back  to  her  father's  house 
(24-26  ;  xviii.  2) ;  see  Zipporah.  After  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  conducted  the 
Israelites  into  the  vicinity  of  Jethro's  coun- 
try, the  Midianite  priest  brought  his  daugh- 
ter and  her  two  sons  back  to  Moses  (xviii. 
1-7).  He  rejoiced  in  the  deliverance  of  the 
Israelites,  offered  sacrifices  to  .Tehovah,  and 
suggested  the  app(>intment  of  judges  when 
he  saw  that  the  Hebrew  leader  was  wearing 
himself  out  by  deciding  even  trivial  cases 
personally  (8-27).     See  Hobab. 

Je'tur  [possibly,  nomad  or  nomadic  camp]. 

A  people  descended    frmn    Ishmael    (Gen. 

XXV.  15  ;  1  Chron.  i.  31  ;  v.  l!h.     See  Itur^A. 

Je'u-el  [perha])s.  treasure  of  God]. 

1.  A  man  of  ,Tudah.  family  of  Zerah.  At 
one  period  he,  with  690  of  his  clan,  lived  at 
Jerusalem  ll  Chron.  ix.  6i. 

2.  A    Levite,   a   descendant   of   Elizaphan. 


Jeush 


392 


Jezreel 


He  took  part  in  the  reformation  under  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Chi-on.  xxix.  lo.  iu  A.  V.  Jeiel). 

3.  A  contemporary  of  Ezra  who  with  mem- 
bers of  his  family  returned  from  Babylonia 
with  the  scribe  (Ezra  viii.  13,  in  A.  V.  Jeiel). 

Jeush,  in  A.  V.  once  Jehush  (1  C'hron. 
viii.  39)  [perhaps,  hastening]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah 
((Jen.  XXX vi.  5).  He  became  a  chieftain  in 
Edom  (IH). 

2.  A  Eeujamite,  son  of  Bilhan  (1  Cbron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon  and  a  sou 
of  Shimei  (1  Chron.  "xxiii.  10,  11). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  C'hron. 
viii.  39). 

5.  A  son  of  Eehoboam  (2  C'hron.  xi.  19). 

Je'uz  [counseling]. 

A  Beiijaniite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife 
Hodesh  (1  C'hron.  viii.  10). 

Jew  [fiom  Latin  Judseus,  Greek  lotidaios, 
Hebrew  Y'hiidi]. 

One  belonging  to  the  tribe  or  to  the  king- 
dom of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xvi.  6  ;  xxv.  25).  Then 
the  meaning  was  extended,  and  the  word  was 
applied  to  ;uiy  one  of  tbe  Hebrew  race  who 
returned  from  the  captivity  ;  and  finally  it 
comprehended  any  one  of  that  race  through- 
out the  world  (Esther  ii.  5  ;  Mat.  ii.  2). 
For  their  history  while  they  were  in  Pales- 
tine, see  HI8TORY.  Their  present  state  is  a 
fulfillment  of  prophecy  (Lev.  xxvi.  33,  39  : 
Deut.  iv.  27;  xx  viii.  2*5,  30,  37,  64-68);  they 
are  scattered  over  all  gentile  lands,  but  no- 
where in  the  world,  not  even  in  Palestine,  luive 
they  a  land  where  they  can  live  under  a  gov- 
ernment of  their  own.  The  Jews'  language 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  26  ;  Neh.  xiii.  24)  was  Hebrew. 

Jew'ess. 

A  woman  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  C'hron. 
iv.  IH,  K.  V.)  or  of  the  Hebrew  race  (Acts 
xvi.  1  ;  xxiv.  24). 

Jew'ry.    See  Jud.e.\. 

Jez-a-ni'ah ;  in  full  Jaazaniah  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  23)  [Jehovah  doth  hearken]. 

A  eai)tain  of  tbe  forces,  son  of  Hoshaiah,  a 
Maaeathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  7,  8  ; 
xlii.  1).  He  came  with  his  men  to  pay  his 
respects  to  ({edaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  a]ipointed  governor  of  .Judah  after  the 
captui-e  of  .Jerusalem.  .lezaiiiali  had  no  com- 
plicity in  the  subsecpu'iit  niui'derof  Gedaliah, 
and  seems  to  have  taken  a  i)ron)inent  part  in 
atteniptingtobring  the  iier]ietratorst(>justice. 
H(!  Joined  in  ajipcaling  lo  .Jercniiah,  the 
prophet,  to  ask  advice  of  God  concerning  the 
])urpose  of  the  remnant  of  tlie  Israelites  to 
migrate  to  Egypt  (xlii.).  He  was  a  brother 
of  Azariah,  or  more  jirobably  Azariah  is  a 
corruption  of  .Jezaniah  (xliii.  2). 

Jez'e-bel  [unmarricMl,  chaste]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Htliliaal.  king  of  the  Zi- 
donians  and  former  jiriest  of  .\starte  il  Kin. 
xvi.  31  ;  eon.  Apion.  i.  18).  She  became  the  wife 
of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.     She  was  a  woman 


of  masculine  temperament  and  swayed  her 
husband  at  will.  She  was  a  devoted  wor- 
shiper of  Baal,  and  intolerant  of  other  faiths. 
To  please  her.  Ahab  reared  a  tem])le  and  an 
altar  to  Baal  in  Samaria,  and  set  up  an  Ashe- 
rah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  32,  33).  Though  legally 
only  the  king's  consort,  and  not  the  ruler  of 
the  country,  yet  she  slew  all  the  jirophets  of 
Jehovah  on  whom  she  could  lay  hands  (xviii. 
4-13).  When  she  planned  the  death  of  Elijah 
(xix.  1, 2),  and  afterwards  effected  the  judicial 
murder  of  Naboth,  she  similarly  ignored  the 
king's  authority,  though  he  condoned  the  deed 
(xxi.  16-22).  On  account  of  these  murders 
and  other  violations  of  the  moral  law,  the 
divine  sentence  was  pronounced  against  her 
that  the  dogs  should  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall 
of  Jezreel  (23).  The  prophecy  was  fulfilled. 
When,  eleven  years  after  Ahab's  death,  Jehu 
executed  pitiless  vengeance  on  the  royal 
household,  Jezebel  painted  her  face,  tired 
her  head,  and,  looking  out  at  a  window, 
called  to  him  as  he  approached :  "  Had  Zimri 
peace,  who  slew  his  master?"  Jehu  looked 
up  at  the  window  and  said  :  "Who  is  on  my 
side?  who?"  Two  or  three  euinichs  looked 
out.  "  Throw  her  down,"  he  cried,  and  they 
unhesitatingly  obeyed.  She  fell  in  front  of 
his  chariot,  which  he  intentionally  drove 
over  her,  and  her  blood  bespattered  the 
horses  and  the  wall.  About  an  hour  later, 
recalling  that  the  dead  woman  was  a  king's 
daughter,  he  gave  directions  to  bury  her; 
but  it  was  found  that  dogs,  the  scavengers 
of  oriental  cities,  had  anticipated  him,  and 
had  left  of  her  nothing  but  the  skull,  and  the 
feet,  and  the  palms  of  the  hands  (2  Kin.  ix. 
y,  30-37). 

2.  A  woman  at  Thyatira  who  called  her- 
self a  prophetess,  and  seduced  some  members 
of  the  Christian  church  there  to  comniit 
fornication  and  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols. 
It  is  probable  that  Jezebel  is  a  symbolic 
name.  If  so,  it  was  given  because  of  a  resem- 
blance between  her  and  Ahab's  idolatrous 
and  wicked  queen  (Rev.  ii.  20,  23). 

Je'zer  [formation]. 

A  .son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24;  Num.  xxvi.  49;  1 
Chron.  vii.   13). 

Je-zi'ah.    See  Izziah. 

Je'zi-el  [assembly  of  God]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Azmaveth,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  C'hron.  xii.  3). 

Jez-li'ah.    See  Izliah. 

Je-zo'ar.     See  Izh.\r. 

Jez-ra-M'ah  [Jehovah  shineth  forth]. 

.\n  (iverseer  of  singers  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  xii.  42). 

Jez're-el  [God^soweth]. 

1.  A  fortified  town  (1  Kin.  xxi.  2.3.  wall ;  2 
Kin.  ix.  17,  tower;  x.  7,  8,  gate),  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Issachar  (Josh.xix.  17, 18),  not  far  from 
mount  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  1-5  with  xxix. 
1  and  2  Sam.  iv.  4).    The  Israelites  encamped 


Jezreel 


393 


Jezreel 


at  a  fountain  in  its  vicinity 
just  before  the  battle  of  Gil- 
boa  (1  Sam.  xsix.  1  :  cp.  2  Sam. 
iv.  4),  the  Philistines  follow- 
ing them  to  the  same  locality 
(1  Sam.  xxix.  11).  Ish-bosheth 
ruled  over  Jezreel  among 
other  places  (2  Sam.  ii.  9)  ; 
and  it  was  one  of  the  capitals 
of  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xviii.  45),  and 
also  of  his  son  (2  Kin.  viii.  29). 
Naboth  was  a  Jezreelite,  his 
vineyard  was  in  close  prox- 
imity to  Ahab's  palace,  and 
he  was  stoned  outside  the  city 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  1,  13).  Jezebel 
met  her  violent  death  in  Jez- 
reel (23;  2  Kin.  ix.  10,  30-35). 
The  heads  of  Ahab's  seventy 
sons  were  piled  at  the  gate 
of  Jezreel  by  order  of  Jelui 
(X.  1-11).  The  bloodshed  in 
these  sanguinary  transactions 
is  called  by  Hosea  "  the  blood 
of  Jezreel,"  and  he  prophesied 
that  it  should  be  avenged 
(Hos.  i.  4).  The  crusadei'S  cor- 
rectly identified  Jezreel  with 
the  Parvum  Gerinum,  now 
the  village  Zer'in.  The  discovery  lapsed 
into  oblivion,  and  was  not  revived  till  1814. 
The    identification   is   now   universally  ac- 


Jezreel. 


cepted.  Though  in  a  plain,  the  site  was  an 
admirable  one  for  a  f(n-tified  city,  standing  as 
it  does  upon  the  brow  of  a  very  steep,  rocky 


Plain  of  Esdraeliin. 


Jibsam 


394 


Joab 


descent,  of  100  feet  or  more,  toward  the  north- 
east, with  a  splendid  view  all  the  way  to  the 
Jordan.  The  I'onntain  of  Jezreel,  which 
is  below  the  village,  is  coi)ious  and  good.  It 
is  called 'Ain  el-AIeiyiteh.  Another  and  yet 
more  copious  one,  'Ain  Jalud,  is  at  no  great 
distance.  The  ancient  vineyards  seem  to 
have  been  to  the  east  of  the  city,  where 
rock-cut  wine  presses  now  exist. 

The  valley  of  Jezreel  is  either  the  great 
plain  intersecting  Palestine  immediately 
north  of  C'arniel,  or,  better,  that  i)art  of  it 
which,  adjacent  to  Jezreel,  descends  from 
Jezreel  eastward  to  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
16  ;  Hosea  i.  5).  lu  Gideon's  days  the  Midi- 
anites  and  Amalekites  pitched  within  its 
limits  (Judg.  vi.  o3).  The  whole  centi-al 
plain  is  now  called  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon,  a  slight  modification  of  Jezreel  (cp. 
Judith  i.  8;  iv.  6 ;  vii.  3).  Through  all  by- 
gone time  it  has  been  a  battletield  of  nations. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  56).  It  seems  to  have  been  from 
this  ])lace  that  David  obtained  his  wife 
Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess  (1  Sam.  xxv.  43 ; 
xxvii.  3).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur 
(1  C'hron.  iv.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  the  prophet  Hosea.  So  named 
because  Jehovah  had  declared  that  he  would 
avenge  the  blood  of  Jezreel  on  the  hou.se  of 
Jehu  (Hos.  i.  4,  5). 

Jib'sam.     See  Ibsam. 
Jid'lapli  [he  wee])eth]. 
A  son   of   Nahor  and   Milcah   (Gen.    sxii. 
22).     It  is  not  known  where  he  settled. 
Jim'na  and  Jimnah.     See  Imnah. 
Jiph'tah.    See  Iphtah. 
Jiph'thah-el.     See  Iphtah-el. 
Jo'ab  [Jehovah  is  father]. 

1.  Son  of  Seraiah  and  descendant  of  Kenaz, 
who  was  reckoned  with  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  of  craftstnen  (1  Chron.  iv.  13,  10. 

2.  A  son  of  Zeruiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  16), 
David's  half  sister  (1  Chron.  ii.  ](> ;  cp.  2 
Sam.  xvii.  2.")).  Joab  was,  therefore,  David's 
nejdiew.  He  was  the  .second  of  three  broth- 
ers, Abishai,  Joab,  and  Asahel,  all  men  of 
heroic  tyi)e.  He  first  api)ears  in  i)nblic  life 
at  the  head  of  David's  soldiers  in  the  war 
with  Lsh-boshefh.  He  commanded  al  the 
Iwttle  which  followed  the  tournament  at 
(iibeon,  and  was  victorious  (2  Sam.  ii.  12-32). 
Abner,  Lsh-boslieth's  commander-in-chief, 
after  a  quarrel  with  his  royal  nuister,  had 
an  interview  with  David.'  Joab  rejiroved 
tlie  king  for  allowing  Abner  to  dejiart  in 
l)eace,  denounced  Abner  as  a  .spy,  recalled 
him,  and,  with  the  connivance  of  .\bishai  (iii. 
30.  .-5!) :  cp.  ii.  21),  assassinated  him  at  a  nom- 
inally friendly  interview.  .Foab  conimitted 
the  murder  in  vengeance  for  the  death  of  his 
younger  brother  A.sahel  at  the  hands  of 
Abner   at     the    battle    of    (Jibeon    (ill.    30)  ; 


where,  however,  Abner  had  acted  reluctantly 
and  strictly  in  self-defense.  Probably,  also, 
a  second  reason  was  the  apprehension  of 
Joab  and  Abi.shai  that  Abner  might  be  giveu 
the  command  of  the  aruiy.  David  felt  him- 
self politically  too  weak  to  bring  them  to 
justice,  yet  he  never  ccmdoned  the  crime 
(2  Sam.  iii.  6-.39).  In  the  assault  on  the 
Jebusite  stronghold  on  mount  Ziou  Joab  was 
the  first  to  enter  the  fortress,  and  as  a  reward 
was  made  the  commander  of  the  armies  of 
all  Israel  (2  Sam.  iv.  8,  with  1  Chron.  xi.  6). 
He  soon  afterwards  repaired  a  portion  of  the 
city  (8).  After  David's  conquest  of  the 
Edomites  (2  Sam.  viii.  13, 14  ;  1  Chron.  xviii. 
12),  Joab  remained  in  Edom  with  the  army 
for  six  months,  cutting  ofl" every  male  (1  Kin. 
xi.  14-17).  He  commanded  in  the  war  with 
the  confederate  Syrians  and  Ammonites  (2 
Sam.  X.  1-14;  1  Chron.  xix.  1-19),  and  he 
pressed  the  siege  of  Rabbah  so  successfully 
that  he  could  have  taken  the  town  by  storm  ; 
but  instead  of  doing  so  he  sent  for  David 
that  the  king  might  have  the  credit  of  the 
victory  (2  Sam.  xi.  1;  xii.  26-29;  cp.  1 
Chron.  xx.  1-3).  He  obeyed  David's  order 
to  put  Uriah  in  the  forefront  of  the  battle 
that  he  might  be  slain  (2  Sam.  xi.  6-27).  It 
was  Joab  who  sent  to  David  the  wise  woman 
of  Tekoa  to  induce  him  to  forgive  Absalom 
(xiv.  1-27);  but  he  did  not  interfere  furtlier 
in  the  case  until  his  barley  field  had  been  set 
on  fire  by  the  prince  (28-33).  When  Absalom 
rebelled  Joab  remained  loyal  to  David,  and 
led  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  royal 
forces  which  defeated  the  rebels  (xviii.  1,  2). 
Then,  in  defiance  of  the  king's  command,  he 
thrust  three  darts  through  the  heart  of  the 
revolting  prince,  terminating  his  life  (9-17), 
and  afterwards  he  spoke  some  plain  though 
not  unwise  words  to  the  king  on  his  extrav- 
agant grief  at  the  death  of  a  rebellious  son 
(xix.  1-8).  David  shortly  afterwards  ap- 
pointed Amasa  to  be  captain  of  the  host  in 
the  room  of  .Toab  (13),  and  when  Sheba  re- 
belled Amasa  was  employed  to  lead  the  forces 
sent  to  crush  the  revolt.  Joab  was  overcome 
by  jealous  hate,  and  at  an  avowedly  friendly 
interview,  stabbed  him  dead  just  as  he  had 
killed  Abner  in  similar  circumstances  ;  but 
this  time  there  was  no  jjretense  of  a  blood 
feud  between  the  parties.  Then  Joab  and 
Abishai  put  down  the  rebellion  (xx.  1-22). 
Joab  thus  again  became  commander-in-cbief 
(23;  cp.  also  1  Kin.  ii.  34,  351.  He  was  op- 
posed to  David's  numbering  the  peojjle,  and 
intentionally  did  the  work  imperfectly  (2 
Sam.  xxiv.  1-9  ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  1-6).  When 
Adonijah  .set  himself  up  for  king  Joab  went 
with  him  (1  Kin.  i.  7),  but,  with  his  other 
supporters,  deserted  him  on  hearing  that 
Solonmu  had  been  ])roclaimed  king  (28-49). 
David  on  his  deathbed  indicated  his  wish 
tliat  .Foab  should  be  broiight  to  justice  for 
the  murders  of  Abner  and  of  Amasa.  Solo- 
mon carried  out  the  sentence.  Joab,  cling- 
ing to  the  horns  of  the  altar  iu  the  court  of 


Joah 


395 


Joash 


the  tabernacle,  fell  by  the  hand  of  Benaiah, 
chief  «f  the  ])odygn;ir(l,  and  was  buried  in 
his  own  house  in  the  wilderness  (ii.  5,  ii,  28- 
34). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  6;  viii.  9; 
Neb.  vii.  11). 

For  1  Chron.  ii.  54.  A.  V..  see  Ataroth  4 

Jo'ah  [Jehovah  is  brother] . 

1.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Zimmah  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  21).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Levite,  son  of  Zimmah  and  de- 
scendant of  Gershon  who  assisted  at  tlie  re- 
ligious reformation  under  king  Hezekiah  (2 
Chron.  xxis.  12). 

3.  A  son  of  Asaph.  He  was  the  recorder 
under  king  Hezekiah  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26 ; 
Is.  xxxvi.  3,  11,  22). 

4.  A  son  of  Joahaz.  He  was  recorder 
under  king  Josisih  (2  t^hron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo'a-haz  [Jehovah  hath  laid  hold  of]. 
Father  of  king  Josiah's  recorder  Joah   (2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  b).    For  others, see  Jkhoahaz. 

Jo-a'nan,  in  A.  V.  Joanna  [Greek  form  of 
Yohanan,  Jehovah  hath  been  gracious]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
500  B.  c.  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Jo-an'na  [a  Greek  form  of  Yohanan,  Je- 
hovah hath  been  gracious]. 

The  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of  Herod  the 
tetrarch.  She  was  one  of  those  women  who 
ministered  to  Jesus  of  their  substance  (Luke 
viii.  3),  and  one  of  the  party  who  accompa- 
nied Mary  Magdalene  to  the  sepulcher  of 
our  Lord  (xxiv.  10). 

For  the  man  called  Joanna  in   A.  V.,  see 

JOANAX. 

Jo-an'nan.     See  John  2. 

Jo'a-rib.     See  Joiarib  2. 

Jo'ash,  I.,  and  Jehoash  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 
The  longer  form  is  used  in  2  Kin.  only,  but 
the  shorter  form  also  occurs  there  frequently. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  22). 

2.  A  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Abiezer 
and  father  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.  11,  15).  He 
lived  at  Ophrah.  and  was  apparently  a  man 
of  substance.  He  had  reared  an  altar  to 
Baal  and  an  Asherah.  These  Gideon  was 
directed  to  throw  down.,  and  he  did  so.  The 
idolaters  demanded  that  Joash  should  sur- 
render his  son  to  be  put  to  death  for  the  sac- 
rilege, but  Joash  shrewdly  said  :  "  If  Baal  is 
a  god,  let  him  plead  for  himself"  (Judg.  vi. 
11-32). 

3.  A  Benjamite  of  Gibeah  who  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  26 ;  2 
Chron.  xviii.  25). 

5.  Son  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah.  When 
Athaliah,  the  mother  of  Ahaziah,  heard  that 
her  son  had  been  slain,  she  massacred  all  the 
seed   royal  except  Joash,  and  ascended  the 


throne.  Joash,  thi>n  only  an  infant,  e.scai)ed 
by  the  artifice  of  the  late  king's  sister  Jcho- 
sheba,  wife  of  the  high  priest.  He  was  hid- 
den with  his  nurse  for  six  years  in  the  tem- 
ple. In  the  seventh  year,  Jehoiada,  tlie 
high  priest,  summoned  five  captains  of  the 
royal  bodyguard,  ])ut  them  under  oath,  and 
showed  them  the  king.  Five  companies  of 
armed  men  were  arranged  for  (2  Kin.  xi.  5- 
7),  probably  consisting  of  three  companies  of 
the  guard  and  two  courses  of  Levites  with 
spears  from  the  temi)le  arsenal  ;  and  on  a 
Sabbath  day  these  five  bodies  were  drawn  up 
across  the  court  of  the  tenii)le  in  front  of  the 
altar,  representative  men  of  the  nation  as- 
sembled by  appointment,  and  the  kir.g  was 
brought  into  their  midst,  crowned,  and 
greeted  with  loud  acclaim.  Athaliah,  hear- 
ing the  noise,  hurried  into  the  temple  ;  but, 
by  the  high  priest's  orders,  she  was  at  once 
ejected  and  shiin,  leaving  Joash  now  without 
a  rival.  Then  Jehoiada  framed  two  cove- 
nants :  the  one  that  the  youthful  ruler  and 
his  people  should  serve  Jehovah,  and  the 
other  that  they  should  discharge  their 
mutual  duties  as  king  and  subjects.  Then 
they  proceeded  to  the  house  of  Baal,  and 
broke  it  down,  destroying  the  images  and 
killing  the  officiating  priest  (2  Kin.  xi.  1-20; 
2  Chron.  xxiii.  10-21).  Joash  ascended  the 
throne  835  B.  c,  but  was  the  only  legitimate 
king  since  842,  and  his  reign  was  apparently 
dated  from  this  year,  with  841  as  his  first 
regnal  year.  So  in  England,  the  Common- 
wealth was  ignored  and  the  first  year  of 
Charles  II. 's  actual  reign  was  called  the 
twelfth  :  kingrfc  jioron  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  January  30th,  1648-49,  king  de  facto  at 
the  Eestoration,  May  29th,  1660.  Joash  was 
seven  years  old  at  his  coronation  and  lie 
reigned  forty  years.  While  a  child,  the 
character  of  his  rule  depended  wholly  on  his 
advisers.  Hajipily,  he  was  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  h-igh  priest,  Jehoiada,  and  as  long 
as  that  wise  and  pious  counselor  lived,  Joash 
did  well,  one  notable  measure  of  his  being 
the  repair  of  the  temple,  though  the  people 
still  continued  generally  to  worsliip  at  the 
high  places  (2  Kin.  xii.  1-16).  But  on  the 
death  of  Jehoiada  both  the  king  and  his 
people  apostatized  from  Jehovah,  and  began 
to  set  up  Asherim  and  other  idols.  Zecha- 
riah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  denounced  judg- 
ment upon  the  evil  doers,  on  which  Joash 
gave  orders  for  his  nmrder  ;  and  the  multi- 
tude, breaking  out  into  riot,  stoned  him  to 
death  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  15-22;  Mat.  xxiii.  35). 
Soon  afterwards  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  hav- 
ing captured  the  Philistine  city  of  Gath, 
threatened  Jerusalem,  and  had  to  be  bought 
off  with  the  contents  of  the  temple  treasury. 
When  the  invaders  departed,  Joash  was  suf- 
fering from  sore  diseases.  Amaziah,  his  son, 
conducted  the  government;  and  in  the 
course  of  three  years,  as  it  would  appear,  the 
servants  of  Joash  slew  him  in  his  bed  in  re- 
venge for  the  murder  of  Zechariah  (2  Kiu. 


Joash 


596 


Job 


xii.  20  ;  2  Chroii.  xxi v.  25) ;  see  Chronology. 
He  was  Ijuried  in  the  citj'  of  David,  but  not 
ill  one  of  the  proper  sepulchers  of  the  kings. 
Joash  was  au  infant  in  842  B.  c.  and  was 
seven  years  old  in  835  (2  Kin.  xi.  21),  and 
his  sou  Amaziah  was  twenty-five  years  old 
in  804  (xiv.  2).  The  son  was  accordingly 
born  in  828,  in  Joash's  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
year.  In  oriental  life  this  is  physically  pos- 
sible and  is  readily  paralleled.  The  early 
marriage  of  Joash  was  desirable  and  was 
diuibtless  urged  by  the  high  priest  Jehoiada, 
since  Joash  was  the  sole  survivor  of  his 
family  and  in  his  oflspring  lay  the  only  hope 
that  so  great  a  calamity  would  be  averted  as 
the  extinction  of  the  direct  line  of  David. 

6.  Son  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Israel.  He 
began  to  reign  about  805  B.  c,  and  reigned 
sixteen  years.  He  continued  the  worship  of 
the  two  calves  at  Bethel  and  Dan.  Never- 
theless he  felt  veneration  for  Elisha,  and 
sorrowed  when  the  great  prophet  lay  dying. 
Elisha  told  him  to  open  the  window  east- 
ward and  shoot  out  an  arrow.  He  did  so. 
The  prophet  then  bade  him  take  arrows  and 
smite  upon  the  ground.  He  did  so,  smiting 
the  ground  thrice.  The  arrows  symbolized 
victories  which  he  was  to  gain  over  the 
Syrians;  and  had  he  struck  six  times  instead 
of  three,  the  number  of  victories  would  have 
been  doubled  (2  Kin.  xiii.  14-25).  .  After- 
wards he  furnished  100,000  mercenaries  to 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judali,  for  an  Edomite  ex- 
pedition. A  prophet  directed  them  to  be 
sent  home.  Though  they  had  been  j)aid  in 
•  advance  for  the  services  which  they  were 
not  allowed  to  render,  yet  they  departed  in 
a  rage,  and  plundered  the  territory  of  Judah 
as  they  went  along  (2  Chron.  xxv.  6-10,  13). 
Perhaps  on  this  account,  Amaziah  sent  Joash 
a  challenge  to  fight.  Joash  remonstrated, 
but  Aniaziali  would  not  forbear.  A  battle 
took  i)lace  at  Beth-shemesh,  in  which  Joash 
was  victorious  ;  and  he  followed  up  his  suc- 
cess by  Ijreakiiig  down  a  part  of  the  wall 
surrounding  Jerusalem,  and  carrying  oft'  the 
treasures  of  the  temple  and  the  palace,  with 
hostages  as  guarantees  against  further  dis- 
turbance of  the  peace.  On  the  death  of 
.loasli,  his  son,  Jeroboam  II.,  ascended  the 
throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  8-16  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  17-24). 

Jo'asli,  II.  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  hastened 
(to  help)]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  I?echer  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

2.  An  officer  who  had  charge  of  David's  oil 
cellars  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28). 

Jo'a-tham.     See  Jotham  2. 

Job,  I.  ((Jen.  xlvi.  13,  A.  V.).    See  Job. 

Job,  II.  [one  ever  returning  to  (lod  (  Ewald). 
If  (IcriM'd  from  'ni/eh,  it  denotes  not  one  })er- 
seculed  ((teseiiiiis),  but  rather  one  (■haracter- 
ized  by  hostility]. 

An  O.  T.  .saint  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Uz  (Job  i.  1).  He  is  mentioned  for  the  fir.st 
time  elsewhere  by  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14,  16,  20). 


He  lived  under  patriarchal  conditions,  iu 
some  district  to  the  east  of  Palestine  and 
near  the  desert,  at  a  time  when  the  Chal- 
deans made  raids  in  the  west  (i.  17).  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  he  is  an  historical 
personage  and  that  he  i)assed  through  the 
remarkable  experiences  which  are  described, 
albeit  with  poetic  license,  in  the  book  which 
bears  his  name.  These  experiences  brought 
the  <|uestion  to  the  forefront.  Why  does  God 
permit  the  righteous  to  suffer?,  and  afi'orded 
the  material  for  a  magnificent  philosophical 
poem. 

The  book  of  Job  is  a  poetic  book  of  the  O. 
T.  which  gives  an  account  of  the  suflerings 
of  Job,  of  the  argument  carried  on  between 
himself  and  his  friends  concerning  the  rea- 
sons for  his  sufierings,  and  of  the  solution  of 
the  problem.  It  is  not  known  whether  the 
poem  was  written  during  the  lifetime  of  Job 
or  later.  The  prologue  (i.-iii.  2),  the  intro- 
ductions to  the  various  speeches  and  es- 
])ecially  to  Elihu's  speech  (xxxii.  1-5),  and 
the  epilogue  narrating  the  prosperity  of 
Job  in  his  latter  days  under  Jehovah's 
blessing  (xlii.  7-17),  are  in  prose. 
•  In  the  opening  of  the  book.  Job  is  repre- 
sented as  being  very  prosperous,  possessing 
many  flocks  and  herds,  a  large  number  of 
servants,  and  a  numerous  family.  Satan  is 
permitted  to  try  Job's  faith  in  God,  first  by 
cau.sing  him  to  be  desjtoiled  of  his  possessions, 
and  to  be  bereaved  of  his  family  ;  when  this 
means  fails,  Satan  is  further  permitted  to 
cause  Job  much  sufl'eringin  body.  Job's  faith 
triiimi)hs  over  all  ditficulties,  and  he  is  finally 
restored  to  more  than  his  former  prosperity. 

The  book  between  the  introduction  and 
conclusion  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
parts,  each  of  which  may  be  again  divided 
into  three  minor  parts.  The  introduQ^tion 
describes  Job's  prospei'ity  and  happy  con- 
dition. In  part  first,  first  subhead,  we 
find  Job's  first  affliction  described,  the  loss 
of  his  property  and  family ;  under  the  sec- 
ond head  comes  the  second  stage  of  the 
affliction,  the  attack  on  Job's  person,  and  un- 
der the  third  head,  the  coming  of  his  three 
friends  to  condole  with  him.  Part  second 
contains  the  argument  between  Job  and  his 
three  friends,  this  being  threefold,  each 
friend  speaking  three  times  (except  the  third, 
who  speaks  twice),  and  Job  replying  to  each. 
This  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  book. 
The  three  friends  argue  on  the  basis  that 
aflliction  is  always  and  necessarily  a  result 
of  sin,  and  as  Job  accepts  this  general  prin- 
ciple, but  denies  its  application  to  himself, 
misundei'staudings  result,  and  the  speakers 
are  as  far  from  a  solution  of  the  situation  in 
the  end  as  in  the  beginning.  Firstly,  Eli- 
phaz  begins  the  argument  by  expressing  in 
general  the  sinfulness  of  man  and  hinting 
at,  rather  than  boldly  asserting,  Job's  special 
sinfulness.  Job  answers,  declaring  his  inno- 
cence. Secondly,  Bildad  continues  in  the 
same  strain,  insisting  that  the  Lord  cannot 


Job 


397 


Joel 


be  unjust,  therefore  man  must  be  at  fault. 
Job  answers  as  before  that  hv  is  unioceut,  ap- 
pealing to  God  to  lighten  his  burden  of  afflic- 
tion. Thirdly,  Zophar  follows  with  the  same 
argument,  implying  more  directly  that  Job 
must  be  a  sinner.  The  second  series  of 
speeches  (xii.-xx.)  now  begins.  The  same 
arguments  are  gone  over  by  the  speakers  in 
the  same  order,  the  friends  becoming  more 
vehement  and  impatient  of  what  they  con- 
sider Job's  obstinacy.  In  the  third  series 
(xxi.-xxxi.)  Eliphaz  openly  accuses  Job  of 
secret  sin.  After  Job's  earnest  denial,  Bildad 
falls  back  on  the  first  position,  and  Zophar 
remains  silent. 

During  the  whole  course  of  this  argument 
Job  has  been  profoundly  conscious  of  his 
own  uprightness,  yet  he  cannot  understand 
God's  apparent  harshness  to  him.  His  in- 
ward struggle  becomes  more  intense  as  his 
outward  situation  appears  more  hopeless,  but 
he  remains  firm  in  his  determination  that 
whatever  befall  him  still  will  he  trust  in 
God.  Then  the  thought  bursts  upon  him 
that  some  time,  in  God's  own  pleasure,  he 
will  be  justified.  It  may  not  be  in  this  life, 
but  it  will  certainly  come.  That  carries  with 
it  a  conviction  of  immortality,  and  with  the 
statement,  "  I  know  that  my  redeemer  livetli, 
and  that  he  shall  stand  up  at  the  last  upon 
the  earth  :  and  after  my  skin  hath  been  thus 
destroyed,  yet  from  my  flesh  shall  I  see 
God."  Job  reaches  a  foundation  from  which 
nothing  canafterwards  move  him  (xix.  25.26). 

In  the  third  part  of  the  book,  Elihu,  who 
until  this  time  has  been  a  silent  listener,  pro- 
poses to  argue  out  the  matter  upon  a  different 
basis.  Instead  of  regarding  the  afflictions  of 
men  as  a  jtunishment  for  sin,  he  declares  that 
they  are  often  sent  as  a  means  of  strength- 
ening and  purifying  the  children  of  God. 
They  are  not,  then,  the  expression  of  an 
angry  and  implacable  God,  but  the  chasten- 
ing of  a  loving  father.  In  this  Elihu  appears 
as  the  messenger  of  the  Lord,  preparing  the 
way  for  his  coming,  and  offering  an  argument 
which  Job  could  dispute  or  accept.  Job  ac- 
cepts this  view  (xxxii.-xxsvii).  Then  Je- 
hovah speaks  and  shows  to  Job  that  man 
knows  far  too  little  to  justify  him  in  attempts 
fully  to  explain  the  mysteries  of  God's  rule ; 
and  Job  humbles  himself  before  the  Lord 
(xxxviii.  1-xlii.  6).  Finally,  Job  is  restored 
to  double  his  former  prosperity,  and  his  fam- 
ilv  is  restored  to  the  same  number  as  before 
(xlii.  7-17). 

The  consistent  progress  of  the  argument  is 
strong  evidence  for  the  literary  unity  of  the 
book.  The  assumption  of  interpidations  or 
supplements  is  needless  so  far  as  the  dramatic 
development  is  concerned.  But  whether  the 
poem  has  been  .supplemented  by  the  addition 
of  chapters  xxxii.-xxxvii.  and  xxxviii. -xlii., 
as  many  students  of  it  contend,  or  not,  these 
chapters  are  the  work  of  a  master  mind  and 
gifted  poet,  to  whom  God  had  spoken,  and 
who  with  clear  insight  removed  the  errors 


of  the  popular  doctrine  that  distorted  the 
view  of  the  moral  question,  and  to  the  jtri- 
mary  truths  which  Job  had  discovered  added 
a  fuller  disclosure  of  the  truth,  though  not 
the  final  one  (xxxii.-xxxvii.),  and  directed 
attention  to  tlie  huml)le  position  which  it 
behooves  ignorant  and  impotent  man  to  take 
before  God  and  the  mysteries  of  the  divine 
government  (xxxviii.-xli.).  Behind  the  seen 
is  the  unseen  (as  shown  to  the  reader  in  the 
two  opening  chapters,  i.  (j-l'i  ;  ii.  l-Gj,  and 
the  disputants  had  argued  in  total  ignorance 
of  the  reasons  for  God's  action  and  of  tiie 
compensation  for  the  sufferer  which  (lod  had 
in  store  (as  made  known  to  the  rea<ler  in  tlie 
closing  chapter,  xlii.).  In  fact  this  outcome 
of  the  argument  (chaji.  xxxviii.  1-xlii.  <i) 
would  .seem  to  have  been  in  the  author's 
thought  when  he  wrote  the  opening  jiassage 
to  his  poem,  for  it  accounts  for  liis  intro- 
duction of  Satan  into  the  plot  and  his  inti- 
mation thereby  that  reasons  nuxy  exist  for 
God's  procedure  which  lie  beyond  the  ken 
of  man. 

Jo'balJ  [shouting,  trumpet  call,  howling,  a 
desert] . 

1.  An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  29;  1  Chrou.  i.  23).  It  is  not  known 
what  district  they  occupied. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom.  He  was  the  son  of 
Zei'ah  of  Bozrah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  33;  1  Chron. 
i.  44,  45). 

3.  A  king  of  Madon,  who  entered  into  the 
northern  confederacy  against  Joshua,  but, 
with  his  allies,  was  totally  defeated  at  the 
waters  of  Merom  (Josh.  xi.  1  ;  xii.  19). 

4  and  5.  Two  Benjamites,  a  son  of  Sha- 
haraim  and  a  remoter  descendant  (1  Chron. 
viii.  9,  18). 

Joch'e-bed  [Jehovah  is  glorious,  or  Jeho- 
vah is  the  great  one]. 

A  daughter  of  Levi,  who  marrietl  her 
nephew  Amram  and  became  the  ancestress 
of  Miriam,  Aaron,  and  Moses  (Ex.  vi.  20; 
Num.  xxvi.  59) ;  see  Egypt  iii.  3. 

Jod,  inA.E.V.  Yodh. 

The  tentli  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  I  and  its  modification  J  come  from 
the  same  source,  and  both  are  used  to  repre- 
sent it  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names,  as  in 
Jechoniah.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
tenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  ver.sions, 
in  which  section  each  verse  begins  with  tliis 
letter.  It  was  often  confused  by  readers  with 
vau  (q.  v.). 

Jo'da. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  near  the 
time  of  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26).  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  different  reading,  has  Juda — i.  e., 
Judah. 

Jo'ed  [Jehovah  is  witness]. 

A  Benjamite,  descended  from  .lesbaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

Jo'el  [Jehovah  is  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  familj-  of  Kohath,  and  an  an- 


Joel 


598 


Joel 


cestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Chron.  vi. 
36  with  34,  38).  Probably  he  is  not  identical 
with  Shaul  (24),  but  belongs  to  the  collateral 
line  descended  through  Zephaniah  from  Ta- 
hath. 

2.  The  elder  son  of  Samuel  the  prophet 
and  lather  of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Sam.  viii. 
2;  1  Chron.  vi.  33;  xv.  17).  Called  once  in 
the  Hebrew  text  and  A.  V.  Vashni  (vi.  28). 
This  name  the  R.  V.  relegates  to  the  margin, 
placing  Joel  in  italics  in  the  text. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Lcvite,  who  with  1.30  of 
his  brethren,  of  whom  he  was  the  head, 
aided  in  bringing  up  the  ark  from  the  house 
of  Obed-edom  to  th.e  city  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  7, 11,  12).  He  seems  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Ladan  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  8),  and  guardian 
of  the  treasures  dedicated  to  God  (xxvi.  21, 
22). 

4.  A  man  of  Issachar,  and  a  chief  of  that 
tribe.  He  was  descended  through  Uzzi  (1 
Chron.  vii.  3). 

.5.  One  of  David's  valiant  men,  a  brother 
of  Nathan  (1  Chron.  xi.  38);  see  Igal. 

6.  Son  of  Pedaiah  and  ruler  of  western 
Manasseh  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
20). 

7.  A  chief  of  the  Gadites  in  Bashan  prior 
to  the  reigns  of  .Totliam  king  of  Judah  and 
Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel  (1  Chron.  v.  12; 
cp.  17). 

8.  A  Reubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4),  probably 
he  whose  family  had  much  cattle  in  Gilead 
(8,  9). 

9.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Azariah,  Mho 
aided  in  cleansing  the  temple  during  Heze- 
kiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12 1. 

10.  One  of  the  Simeonite  princes  who  seized 
pasture  land  at  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  3."i-43). 

11.  A  son  of  Nebo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

12.  A  Beiijamite,  son  of  Zichri,  overseer  at 
Jerusalem  during  the  government  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

13.  Son  of  Pethuel,  and  the  author  of  the 
second  among  the  minor  jirophetic  books 
iJoel  i.  1).     His  history  is  unknowu. 

The  book  opens  with  a  des(ripti<»n  of  dire 
distress  caused  by  a  plague  of  locusts  and  ap- 
parently aggravated  by  drought  (i.  4-12,  17- 
20;  cj).  Amos.  vii.  1,  2,  4).  Ijocusts  are  a 
natural  figure  for  an  invadingaruiy  (Rev.  ix. 
3-11);  and  the  oldest  interi)ri;ters  of  the 
prophecy  regard  them  in  it  merely  as  sym- 
bols of  Israel's  foes.  An  actual  devastation 
by  these  insects  may,  liowever,  be  intended 
in  chap.  i. ;  and  probably  in  chap.  ii.  also, 
where  they  are  likened  to  an  army,  for 
swarms  of  locusts  occasionally  come  into 
Palestine  from  the  northeast,  and  they  quite 
frequently  perish  in  the  sea  (cp.  ii.  20).  If 
locusts  were  actually  wasting  the  country, 
the  event  served  tiie  pro|)het  as  a  type  of  tlu^ 
dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  and  as  an  occasion 
for  his  message. 

The  book  consists  of  a  sublime  address, 
comprising,  first,  a  twice    rei)eat(Ml    tale    of 


judgment,  followed  in  each  instance  by  a 
call  to  repentance  and  prayer  (i.  2-ii.  17),  and, 
secondly,  an  announcement  of  the  bless- 
ings, near  and  remote,  material  and  spiritual, 
that  follow  upon  repentance  (ii.  18-iii.  21 
[Hebrew  text,  iv.  21]).  The  prophecy  thus 
falls  into  four  parts : 

1.  The  prophet  depicts  the  distress  that 
has  occurred  or  is  impending,  and  calls 
upon  the  inhabitants  to  mourn  (i.  2-12) 
and  to  repent  and  cry  unto  Jehovah  (13,  14). 

2.  The  prophet  explains  the  event.  The 
day  of  Jehovah  is  at  hand,  and  shall  come  as 
destruction  from  the  Almighty  (15).  A  day  of 
affliction  :  a  people  great  and  strong,  like  an 
irresistible  army,  executing  the  will  of  Je- 
hovah (ii.  1-11).  But  even  now  repentance 
may  avail  (12-17). 

3.  The  result  of  repentance.  Jehovah, 
jealous  for  his  land,  promises  to  destroy  the 
spoilers,  to  give  seasons  of  plenty  which 
shall  make  good  the  first  suflering  and  loss, 
and  not  to  allow  that  his  people  be  again  put 
to  shame  (18-27). 

4.  This  deliverance  is  the  herald  of  de- 
liverance "afterward."  Having  poured  out 
the  rain  to  make  the  earth  bring  forth  alnin- 
dantly,  Jehovah  will  pour  out  his  spirit  upon 
all  flesh.  The  sun  shall,  indeed,  be  dark- 
ened, symbolical  of  the  wrath  of  God,  befpre 
the  terrible  day  of  Jehovah  conieth  (as  de- 
scribed in  iii.  14-17) ;  and  whosoever  calleth 
on  the  name  of  Jehovah  shall  be  saved,  for 
in  mount  Ziou  shall  be  tho.se  that  escape  (ii. 
28-32).  In  those  days,  when  Jehovah  shall 
bring  back  the  captivity  of  Judah,  all  ene- 
mies of  the  kingdom  shall  be  brought  to 
judgment.  In  one  picture  Joel  exhibits 
God's  successive  judgments  of  the  nations, 
and  the  final,  universal  judgment,  culminat- 
ing in  the  establisliment  of  Zion  forever  (iii. 
1-21  [Hebrew  text,  iv.  1-21] ). 

What  is  the  date  of  the  prophecy? 

1.  Joel  cites  earlier  prophecy  (ii.  32).  Part 
of  the  declaration  is  found  verbally  in  Oba- 
diah  (Ob.  17),  and  Joel  may  have  quoted 
from  that  book.  He  may,  however,  be  allud- 
ing to  a  previous  announcement  of  his  own  ; 
or  he  may  have  had  Is.  iv.  2,  3  in  mind,  where 
the  thought  and  the  several  words  occur. 

2.  The  book  mentions  the  scattering  of 
Israel  among  the  nations  (iii.  2),  but  the 
reference  is  not  to  the  ten  tribes  specifically, 
but  to  the  children  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  God's  people  and  heritage,  and  is 
moreover  a  prophecy.  So,  too,  the  captivity 
of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  is  mentioned  (iii.  1), 
but  likewise  prophetically  in  the  spirit  of 
Deuteronomy  (xxviii.)  or  Hosea  (vi.  11)  or 
of  Micah  (iii.  12;  iv.  10).  For  the  prophet 
and  people  are  in  Judah,  Zion  exists  (Joel  ii. 
1,  l.'j),  the  t(^niple  is  standing  (i.  14;  ii.  17), 
and  the  service  is  regularly  conducted,  al- 
tlu)ugh  the  meal  and  drink  olTerings  have 
been  cut  otl"  by  reason  of  the  destruction  of 
vegetation  ii.9-13;  ci>.  ii.  14). 

3.  The  reference  to  past  events  begins  with 


Joelah 


399 


John 


the  last  clause  of  iii.  2  [Hebrew  text,  iv.  2],  as 
the  grammatical  construction  seems  to  indi- 
cate. Hostile  nations  had  i)arted  Jehovah's 
land  among  them,  cast  lots  for  tlie  captives, 
plundered  the  temple  of  its  silver  and  gold, 
sold  children  of  Judah  to  the  Greeks,  and 
shed  innocent  blood  (2-6,  19).  The  allusions 
are  not  to  the  period  after  the  exile,  nor  to 
the  time  between  the  first  deportation  of  the 
Jews  and  the  fall  of  the  city,  nor  to  the 
earlier  period  when  the  Assyrians  were  in- 
vading the  laud,  for  (a)  Judgment  is  not  pro- 
nounced against  Assyria  or  Babylon  or  later 
enemies,  but  only  against  Judah's  foes,  Tyre 
and  Sidou,  Philistia,  Edom,  and  Egypt  (iii.  4, 
19).  Tyre  and  Sidon  had  forgotten  the  bro- 
therly covenant  (4;  Amos  i.  9),  and  had  pur- 
chased Jewish  captives  from  the  Philistines 
and  sold  them  to  the  remote  Greeks.  Phil- 
istia and  Edom  had  done  violence  to  .Tudah 
(Joel  iii.  4,  19;  2  Chron.  xxi.  16,  17;  xxviii, 
17,  "again  "). 

(b)  There  is  no  reference  to  Syria,  from 
which  Judah  scarcely  suffered  before  the 
reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xii.  17).  During  and 
after  tlie  reign  of  Ahaz,  the  j)rophets  of  Ju- 
dah frequently  refer  to  Syria  as  a  hostile 
power  (Is.  vii.  8;  viii.  4;  xvii.  ;  Jer.  xlix. 
23-27;  Zech.  ix.  1). 

(c.)  Nor  is  any  mention  made  of  the  Assy- 
rians, who  did  not  come  into  conflict  with 
.ludah  until  after  the  time  of  Ahaz,  and  who 
for  a  half  century  preceding  Aliaz's  reign  had 
not  been  active  in  western  Asia. 

(d)  There  is  reference  to  the  Greeks,  not 
as  present  in  Palestine  or  as  hostile  to  Judah, 
but  simply  as  a  nation  afar  off  to  wlium  the 
PhaMiiciaus  and  Philistines  had  sold  cajitive 
children  of  Judah,  and  as  contrasted  with 
the  men  of  Sheba,  a  nation  at  another  ex- 
tremity of  the  earth,  to  whom  Judah  shall 
sell  captives  taken  from  Philistia  and  Phav 
nicia  (Joel  iii.  1-8).  Accordingly  the  opinion 
has  found  a  general,  though  not  a  universal 
accejitance,  with  commentators,  that  the 
projihecy  was  uttered  before  the  time  of 
Ahaz.  The  position  of  the  book  as  second 
among  the  minor  jirophets  indicates  that  the 
belief  was  current  at  the  time  of  forming  the 
canon  that  Joel  began  to  prophesy  after 
Hosea  had  commenced  his  ])rophetic  Ia))ors 
and  before  Amos  had  entered  upon  his,  that 
is,  during  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah, 
and  while  Jeroboam  was  on  the  throne  of 
Israel  (Hos.  i.  1 ;  Amos  i.  1 ;  vii.  10). 

Jo-e'lah  [possibly,  let  him  help]. 
A   son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor.     He  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

Jo'e-zer  [Jehovah  is  help]. 

A  Korahite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  (5). 

Jog'be-liah  [lofty]. 

A  town  of  Gad  (Xum.  xxxii.  35;  Judg. 
viii.  11).  Its  name  still  lives  in  Jubeihah,  a 
village,  6  njiles  northwest  of  Eabbath  Am- 
mon  on  the  road  from  es-Salt  and  the  Jordan. 


Jog'li  [led  into  exile]. 
Father  of    Bukki,   of    the   tribe   of    Dan 
(Num.  xxxiv.  22). 
Jo'ha. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  16). 

2.  A  Tizite,  son  of  Shimri  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  45). 

Jo-ha'nan  [Jehovah  is  graciou.s]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2.  The  eighth  of  the  Gadites  who  did  so. 
He  was  made  a  captain  in  David's  army  (1 
Chron.  xii.  12,  14). 

3.  A  member  of  the  high-priestly  line,  who 
lived  about  800  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.'lO). 

4.  An  Ei>hraimite  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

5.  The  eldest  son  of  king  Josiah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  15).     He  seems  to  have  died  young. 

6.  A  captain,  son  of  Kareah.  He  and  his 
men  made  their  submission  to  Gedaliah, 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  set  as  governor  over 
Judah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22,  23 ;  Jer.  xl.  8,  9).  He 
warned  Gedaliah  of  tlie  plot  to  murder  him 
(13,  14)  ;  and  when  the  governor,  neglecting 
the  warning,  was  assassinated,  he  led  the 
force  which  went  to  avenge  his  death  (xii. 
11-15).  He  afterwards  counseled  and  carried 
out  a  removal  of  the  Jewish  remnant  to 
Egvpt,  against  the  advice  of  Jeremiah  (16- 
xliii.  13). 

7.  A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

8.  A  son  of  Hakkatan,  of  the  clan  of  Az- 
gad.  With  110  males,  he  accompanied  Ezra 
from  Babj-lon  (Ezra  viii.  12). 

9.  Son  of  Eliashib,  but  scarcely  of  the  high 
priest  Eliashib.  Ezra  went  to  Johanan's 
chamber,  and,  refusing  to  eat  or  drink, 
mourned  over  the  sin  of  those  who  had  con- 
tracted foreign  marriages  (Ezra  x.  6,  in  R. 
V.  Jehohanan). 

10.  Son  of  Tobiah,  the  Ammonite,  who 
married  a  Jewess  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  vi.  18,  in  R.  V.  Jehohanan). 

11.  A  high  priest  (Neh.  xii.  22),  grandson 
of  Eliashib  (23;  cp.  11).  In  ver.  11,  the  name 
appears  as  .Jonathan,  doubtless  through  cor- 
ruption of  the  text.  The  Jews  at  Elephan- 
tine ojjposite  Syene  in  Egypt,  whose  temple 
was  destroyed  in  411  B.  c.  by  the  command 
of  a  local  otiicial  at  the  instigation  of  tiie 
Egyptian  priests,  at  once  .sent  word  of  the  out- 
rage to  Johanan  in  the  hope  that  he  might 
be  able  to  secure  them  redress  (Elephantine 
Papyri).  .Tosephus,  who  correctly  calls  him 
.John,  says  that  he  killed  his  brother  .Jesus 
in  the  temple,  believing  that  he  was  about 
to  supersede  him  in  the  high  priesthood. 
This  murder  was  committed  in  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes  Mnemou,  405-362  b.  c.  (.\ntiii. 
xi.  7,  1 ;  cp.  5,  4). 

John  [Greek  'Tnainirs,  from  Hebrew  !''>• 
haniDi.  Jehovah  liatli  been  gracious]. 

1.  Father  of  Mattathias,  the  instigator  of 
the  Maccabiiean  revolt  ( 1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

2.  Eldest  son  of  Mattathias  ( 1  Mac.  ii.  2.  in 


John 


400 


John 


A.  V.  Joaiinan).  He  was  surnamed  Gaddis 
(in  A.  V.  Caddis),  a  word  of  unknown  mean- 
ing. He  was  slain  by  the  children  of  Jaiu- 
bii,  abont  160  B.  c.  (ix.  36,  38,  42;  aud  2 Mac. 
viii.  22,  where  he  is  erroneously  called 
Joseph). 

3.  A  man  who  obtained  special  privileges 
for  the  Jews  from  Antiochus  the  Great  (2 
Mac.  iv.  11).  He  was  son  of  Accos  and  father 
of  Eupolemus  (1  Mac.  viii.  17). 

4.  Son  of  Simon,  the  Maccabee  (1  Mac. 
xiii.  53  ;  xvi.  1).  He  became  known  as  John 
Hyrcanus.  About  142  B.  c.  he  was  appointed 
by  his  father  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
(.xiii.  .53).  He  met  and  defeated  Cendeba'us 
in  battle  near  Jamnia  (xvi.  1-10).  When  his 
father  and  two  brothers  were  murdered  in 
135  B.  c,  and  he  himself  was  marked  for 
destruction,  he  took  the  offensive  against  his 
adversary  and  drove  him  from  Judiea  (Antiq. 
xiii.  8,  1).  He  exercised  the  office  of  high 
priest  and  civil  governor  from  135  to  105  B. 
c.  Antiochus  Sidetes,  king  of  Syria,  invaded 
Judsea,  and  in  the  fall  of  134  b.  c.  laid  siege 
to  Jerusalem.  After  a  year,  the  Syrians  took 
the  city  and  dismantled  its  fortifications 
(xiii.  8,  2  and  3).  The  death  of  Antiochus 
afforded  John  an  opportunity  to  enlarge  his 
domains,  and  he  conquered  Samaria  and 
Idumsea.  He  also  renewed  the  alliance  with 
tiie  Romans  and  thereby  secured  the  resto- 
ration of  Jopi)a  and  other  towns  to  Jewish 
authority.  He  also  repaired  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  xvi.  23).  The  civil  war 
which  broke  out  in  Syria  in  125  B.  c.  and  a 
succession  of  Syrian  kings  from  whom,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  he  had  nothing  to 
fear,  enabled  John  to  maintain  his  independ- 
ence without  difficulty.  He  favored  the 
Pharisees  at  the  first,  but  when  they  unrea- 
sonably clamored  for  his  resignation  of  the 
high-priesthood,  he  went  over  to  the  Sad- 
ducees.  With  his  death  in  105  B.  c.  the  power 
of  the  Maccabees  and,  with  it,  of  Israel  rap- 
idly waned.     See  Maccabees. 

5.  John  the  Bai)tist.  The  immediate  fore- 
runner of  Jesus,  whose  way  he  was  sent  to 
lirepare.  John  was  born  of  godly  parents, 
and  was  of  full  priestly  descent,  both  his 
father  Zacharias  and  his  mother  Elisabeth 
being  descendants  of  Aaron  (Luke  i.  5).  At 
tlie  .same  time  IClisaltcth,  the  Levite,  was 
cousin  to  tlie  Virgin  Mary,  wiio  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (36).  The  residence  of 
John's  parents  was  at  a  town  in  the  hill 
country  of  Judiea  (39),  perhaps  Juttah  or 
the  priestly  city  of  Hebron.  When  Zacha- 
rias, in  the  pisrformanco  of  his  i)riestly  duties, 
was  burning  intn^nse  in  the  temjjle  at  Jeru- 
.salem,  the  aiig(^l  Gabriid  ajipeared  to  him, 
l)romis(!d  that  he  sliould  be<^onie  the  father 
of  a  son,  directed  that  the  child  should 
be  named  John,  and  lie  l)ronght  up  as  a 
Nazirite,  like  Samson  and  Samuel,  and  fore- 
told that  he  sliould  be  filled  with  the  Holy 
Spirit  from  birth  and  prepans  tlie  people  for 
the  Lord  (Luke   i.  8-17).     John    was   born 


in  the  year  5  b.  C.  He  spent  his  early 
years  in  seclusion  in  the  wilderness  near 
his  home,  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (80).  In 
A.  D.  26  he  appeared  as  a  preacher  in  the 
wilderness  adjoining  the  Jordan.  His  minis- 
try is  believed  to  have  been  exercised  dur- 
ing a  Sabbatic  year  (iii.  1,  2),  in  which  the 
people  were  relieved  of  labor  in  the  fields 
and  had  leisure  to  attend  John's  preaching. 
He  came  to  announce  a  new  dispensation, 
proclaiming  the  advent  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  and  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(Mat.  iii.  2,  11),  to  prepare  the  people  in  in- 
tellect and  heart  for  the  reception  of  Christ 
(3,  8),  to  point  out  the  Christ  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  (John  i.  15),  and  to  show  the  union 
of  the  two  dispensations  in  the  Christ,  as  the 
Lamb  of  God  (29,  36).  He  addressed  him- 
self with  great  earnestness  and  plainness  of 
speech  to  the  immense  multitudes  who  re- 
paired to  him  from  all  quarters.  He  urged 
the  necessity  of  immediate  and  sincere  re- 
pentance, the  special  reason  assigned  being 
that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  at  hand. 
The  penitents,  after  confessing  their  sins, 
were  baptized  by  John  in  the  Jordan  ;  and 
he  became  distinguished  from  others  of  the 
name  by  being  called  the  Baptist.  The  bap- 
tism by  water  which  he  administered  typi- 
fied cleansing  from  sin.  He  did  not  regard 
it  as  enough,  but  directed  his  hearers  to  One 
who  should  come  after  him,  whose  shoe- 
latchet  he  was  not  worthy  to  unloose,  and 
who  would  baptize  them  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  aud  fire  (Mat.  iii.  5-12).  Notwith- 
standing this  confession  of  inferiority  to 
Jesus,  our  Lord  sought  baptism  at  his  hands. 
John  remonstrated,  which  shows  that  he 
knew  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah  ;  but  he  obeyed, 
for  he  recognized  his  own  subordinate  posi- 
tion (13-17).  He  knew  Jesus  from  the  teach- 
ing of  his  parents,  and  the  correctness  of 
this  infoi'mation  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the 
visible  descent  of  the  Holy  Sj)irit  upon  Jesus 
at  his  baptism.  By  this  sign  he  was  author- 
ized to  declare  Jesus  to  be  the  Christ  (John 
1.  32,  33).  Malachi  had  foretold  the  appear- 
ance of  Elijah,  the  prophet,  before  the  great 
and  terrible  day  of  the  Lord,  to  turn  the 
heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children  and  the 
heart  of  tlie  children  to  their  fathers.  John 
denied  that  he  was  Elijah  in  person  (John  i. 
21) ;  he  defined  his  own  mission  and  charac- 
teristics by  .simply  quoting  Is.  xl.  3.  But 
John  came  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah 
(Mai.  iv.  5,  6,  with  Luke  i.  17),  he  was  the 
messenger  sent  to  prejjare  the  way  before 
Clirist  (Mai.  iii.  1,  with  Mark  i.  2),  and  Jesus 
applied  these  predictions  to  John  (Mat.  xi. 
10,  14  ;  xvii.  12,  13).  There  was  a  resem- 
blance between  the  two  men  also  in  their 
cheap  Mild  coarse  attire,  which  they  wore  to 
symbolize  the  renouncement  of  ease  and  lux- 
ury, and  in  their  blunt  manners,  which  ren- 
dered them  fi'tter  for  the  wilderness  than  for 
kings'  courts  (2  Kin.  1.  8,  and  Mat.  iii.  4;  xi. 
8  ;  Mark  i.  6).     John  had  said  of  Jesus,  "He 


John 


401 


John 


must  increase,  but  I  must  decrease;"  and 
without  jealousy  he  saw  the  fultilnient  of 
his  prediction  (John  iii.  25-30).  His  jjublic 
ministry  was  sliort,  but  his  popular  success 
was  immense.  At  length,  toward  the  close  of 
A.  D.  27  or  in  the  early  part  of  28,  having  with 
his  usual  tidelity  reproved  Herod  the  tetrarch 
for  liviug  in  sin  with  his  brother  Philip's 
wife,  he  was  committed  to  prison  (Luke  iii. 
19,  20).  While  there,  perplexed  and  impa- 
tient at  Christ's  method  of  developing  his 
work,  and  perhaps  feeling  that  he  was  for- 
gotten while  others  were  heljied,  he  sent  two 
of  his  disciples  to  ask  if  Jesus  were  the  prom- 
ised Messiah.  In  reply  Jesus  pointed  to  his 
works.  When  the  two  disciples  departed, 
Jesus  took  the  opportunity  of  jiassiug  a  high 
]ianegyric  on  John  (Mat.  xi.  2-15).  John  was 
the  greatest  of  the  prophets  in  that  he  was 
privileged  to  prejiare  the  people  for  the 
Christ's  appearance  and  to  point  out  the 
Christ  to  them.  The  vindlctiveness  of  the 
adulteress  Herodias  caused  John's  death. 
She  persuaded  her  daughter,  who  had  pleased 
Herod  by  her  dancing,  to  ask  the  head  of  the 
Baptist.  It  was  given  her,  and  the  headless 
body  was  soon  afterwards  removed  by  John's 
disciples  and  buried.  Finding  their  master 
gone,  they  remembered  his  testimony  to  the 
Lamb  of  God,  and  became  disciples  of  Jesus 
(Mat.  xiv.  3-12  :  Mark  vi.  16-29 ;  Luke  iii. 
19,  20).  Josephus  attributes  the  death  of 
John  the  Baptist  to  Herod's  jealousy  of  his 
great  influence  with  the  people.  He  says 
also  that  the  destruction  of  Herod's  army  in 
the  war  with  Aretas,  which  soon  after  oc- 
curred, was  generally  considered  a  divine 
judgment  on  the  tetrarch  for  the  murder  of 
John.  The  historian  makes  the  place  of  the 
Baptist's  imprisonment  and  death  the  fort  of 
Macha?rus  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  2).  Machaerus, 
now  called  Mekaur,  is  situated  in  the  moun- 
tains on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  5  miles  north  of  the  Anion,  and  on  the 
top  of  a  conical  hill  3800  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  wall  of  circumvallation  of  the  old 
stronghold  still  remains  clearly  traceable, 
while  inside  are  a  deep  well  and  two  dun- 
geons. One  of  the  latter  may  have  been  the 
prison  in  which  Johu  was  confined. 

6.  Father  of  the  apostle  Peter  (John  i.  42; 
xxi.  15-17,  both  R.  V.).  He  is  called  Jonah 
in  Mat.  xvi.  17.     See  Jonah. 

7.  John  the  apostle.  A  son  of  Zebedee, 
and  brother  of  that  James  who  sufiered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Mat.  iv.  21 ; 
Acts  xii.  1,  2).  It  is  reasonably  inferred  that 
he  was  younger  than  James,  and  that  his 
mother  was  named  Salome  and  was  sister  to 
the  mother  of  Jesus  ;  see  James.  His  father 
was  a  master  fi.shermau  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  his  two  sons  aided  him  in  his  occupation 
(Mark  i.  19,  20).  John  had  attended  the 
l)reaching  of  the  Baptist  at  the  Jordan,  and 
was  evidently  the  unnamed  disciple  to  whom 
and  Andrew  John  the  Baptist  pointed  out 
Jesus  as  the  Lamb  of  God  (John  i.  35-40).    He 

26 


doubtless  accompanied  J('sus  back  to  Galilee, 
and  attended  the  wedding  at  Cana  (ii.  l-ll! 
But  he  had  not  been  summoned  yet  to  per- 
manent fellowship  with  Jesus,  and  he  re- 
sumed his  work  on  the  lake,  sometimes  to- 
gether with  his  brother  in  ])artnersliip  with 
Peter  (Luke  v.  10).  Fn.ni  their  business 
Jesus  called  James  and  John  to  follow  him 
(Mat.  iv.  21,  22;  Mark  i.  19,  20).  Later  they 
were  appointed  apostles  (Mat.  x.  2).  Jesus 
named  them  Boanerges,  sons  of  thunder 
(Mark  iii.  17),  evidently  because  of  their 
vehemence.  The  impetuosity  of  their  nat- 
ural temperament,  not  yet  l\illy  chastened 
by  grace,  was  shown  when  John  rebuked  one 
who  cast  out  demons  in  Christ's  name,  but 
did  not  follow  t;hrist  in  the  company  of  the 
disciples  (Luke  ix.  49);  and  when,*  finding 
their  Master  rejected  in  a  Samaritan  village, 
they  wished  to  call  down  fire  from  heaven 
on  the  inhabitants  (52-56).  They  showed 
selfishness  once  in  joining  with  their  mother 
to  ask  for  the  places  of  honor  beside  Jesus  in 
his  future  kingdom  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
their  zeal  was  manifested,  for  they  declared 
themselves  ready  to  face  death  for  him  (Mat. 
XX.  20-24  ;  Mark  x.  35-41).  But  the  natural 
defects  of  their  character  were  overcome, 
and  their  very  vehemence,  chastened  by 
grace,  became  an  element  of  strength  and  a 
glory.  John  was  a  man  of  deep  spiritual 
insight  and  loving  disi)osition,  and  in  conse- 
ciuence  he  was  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
peculiarly  loved.  He  was  one  of  the  three 
apostles  whom  Jesus  chose  to  be  with  liim  at 
the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (Mark  v.  37; 
Luke  viii.  51),  at  the  transfiguration  (Mat. 
xvii.  1 ;  Mark  ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28),  and  at  the 
agony  in  the  garden  {'Mat.  xxvi.37;  Mark 
xiv.  33).  At  the  last  supper  he  occupied  the 
place  next  to  Jesus  at  the  table  (John  xiii. 
23).  He  followed  Jesus  from  Gethseniane 
into  the  palace  of  the  high  priest,  to  whom 
he  was  known,  and  to  the  place  of  cruci- 
fixion ;  and  on  the  cross  Jesus  commended 
his  mother  ]\Iary  to  John's  loving  care,  and 
he  accepted  the  trust  (xviii.  15;  xix.  27). 
When  the  tomb  of  Christ  was  reported  to 
him  to  be  empty,  he  ran  with  Peter  to  the 
st'])ulcher  to  investigate,  and  learned  by  what 
he  saw  that  Christ  had  risen  (xx.  1-10). 
With  the  other  disciples  he  saw  the  risen 
Christ  the  same  evening  and  again  a  M'eek 
later  (Luke  xxiv.  33-43;  John  xx.  19-30; 
1  Cor.  XV.  5),  and  like  tliem  John  went  to 
Galilee,  as  Jesus  had  directed,  and  again 
saw  the  Lord  (Mat.  xxvi.  32;  xxviii.  10, 
16;  John  xxi.  1-7).  While  there,  through  a 
misunderstanding  of  an  utterance  of  Jesus, 
the  idea  got  abroad  among  the  brethren 
that  John  was  not  to  die  Uohn  xxi.  22). 
After  the  ascension,  he  abode  for  some  time 
with  the  ten  other  apostles  in  an  upper  room 
at  .Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  13),  and  after  Pente- 
cost he  became  Peter's  colleague  in  active 
missionary  work  (iii.  1).  Both  were  impris- 
oned by  the  Jewish  authorities,  and  witnessed 


Jolin,  Epistles  of 


402 


John,  Epistles  of 


a  good  confession  (iv.  19).  Both  were  sent 
by  their  fcllow-aiiostles  to  Samaria  to  aid  in 
the  work  begiiu  by  Philip  (viii.  14).  John 
was  one  of  the  apostles  wlio  remained  in  Je- 
rusalem during  the  persecutions  that  soon 
assailed  the  infant  chnreh,  and  he  w;is  still 
there,  a  pillar  of  strength,  when  Paul  visited 
the  city  after  his  lirst  missionary  journey 
(XV.  6;' Gal.  ii.  9).  Five  books  of  the  N.  T. 
are  ascribed  to  him— the  Fourth  Gospel,  three 
epistles,  and  the  book  of  Revelation.  In  the 
title  of  the  last-named  work  the  author  is 
called  St.  John  the  Divine.  Tradition  fixes 
on  Ephesus  as  the  scene  of  his  later  minis- 
trations, and  it  is  probable  that  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  enjoyed  his  care  (Rev.  i.  11). 
When  he  penned  the  Revelation,  probably  in 
A.  D.  95,  he  was  in  the  island  of  Patmas,  an 
exile  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testimony 
of  Jesus  (Rev.  i.  9).  The  accession  of  Nerva 
is  said  to  have  freed  him  from  danger  and 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Ephesus.  Polycarp, 
Papias,  and  Ignatius  were  his  pupils.  Poly- 
carp's  disciple  Irenjeus  states  that  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Ephesus  until  his  death 
in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

S.  John  ^lark.  ^Nlark  the  e\augelist.  Mark, 
however,  was  only  the  surname  ;  John  was 
the  proper,  and  probably  the  earlier,  name 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25).     See  Mark. 

9.  A  Jewish  dignitary  who  took  part  with 
Annas,  Caiaphas,  Alexander,  and  as  many  as 
were  of  the  kindred  of  the  high  priest, 
which  perha])s  he  was  himself,  in  calling  the 
apostles  Peter  and  John  to  account  for  their 
jireaching  (Acts  iv.  (>). 

John,  E-pis'tles  of. 

The  First  Ejnstle  of  John  is  evidently  by 
the  author  of  the  Fourth  (Jospel.  The  same 
characteristic  phraseology  is  t\)und  in  both 
works  and  the  same  way  of  cdustructing 
sentences.  The  epistle  moreover  jilainly  sup- 
poses the  readers'  actiuaintance  with  the  gos- 
])el.  Both  were  evidently  sent  i)rimarily  to 
the  same  churches,  and  in  the  opinion  of 
many  theeiiistle  was  an  acconiiianiment  of 
the  gospel.  The  ojiening  words  of  the  epis- 
tle suggest  at  once  the  gosiiel's  prt)logue,  and 
parallels  between  the  two  books  may  be 
fipimd  in  nearly  every  verse  of  the  ejustlc. 
Tlie  epistle.  nu>r(M)vei-,  has  in  view  the  world 
as  the  antagonist  of  the  church  and  the  field 
of  its  operations  (ii.  2,  15-17  ;  iv.  3-5  ;  v.  4.  5, 
19).  and  warns  against  heresies  which  struck 
at  the  integrity  of  Christ's  iiersou  (ii.  lS-2(); 
iv.  l-:5;  v.  (i-lO).  These  features  harmonize 
with  the  date  and  jiurjiose  of  the  gospel.  The 
two  works  therefore  clearly  came  from  the 
same  hand  and  at  about  the  same  time.  The 
epistle  seeks  to  apply  to  Christian  life  the 
truth  whose  liistorical  nidation  is  reciir(lc<l 
in  the  gospel.  It,  no  less  than  the  gosjie). 
claims  to  be  by  an  apostle.  The  writer  was 
one  of  those  who  had  lived  in  personal  con- 
tact with  Christ  (i.  l-o,  5;  iv.  11)  and  writes 
in    an    authoritative    manner  as  became  an 


apostle  (i.  4;  ii.  1;  iv.  6,  14).  How  deeply 
he  had  absorbed  the  teaching  of  his  Lord  is 
proved  by  the  similarity  of  phraseology  and 
thought  between  the  epistle  and  Christ's  dis- 
courses in  the  gospel.  The  Johannean  author- 
ship of  the  epistle  is  vouched  for  by  Ireneeus 
and  the  Muratori  Fragment ;  while  earlier 
quotations  by  Polycarji,  Papias,  etc.,  prove 
its  use  in  the'  church  from  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century.  Its  train  of  thought 
may  be  outlined  as  follows:  After  the  intro- 
duction (i.  1-4),  in  which  John  declares  the 
purpose  of  his  ministry  to  be  the  declaration 
to  men  of  the  manifestation  of  the  life-giv- 
ing, divine  Word,  in  order  that  they  may 
have  joyful  fellowship  in  him  with  the  orig- 
inal apostles,  he  teaches  that  the  character 
of  God,  as  learned  from  Christ,  must  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  Christian's  inward 
and  outward  life  (i.  5-ii.  6)  ;  hence  be  urges 
to  love  of  the  brethren,  warns  against  love 
of  the  world  and  heretical  teaching  (ii.  7-27). 
He  next  insists  (ii.  28-iii.  24)  on  the  necessity 
of  doing  righteousness,  and  so  of  abiding  in 
God,  in  view  of  the  coming  second  advent  of 
Christ ;  since  at  it  our  divine  sonship  will 
be  fully  manifested  and  that  sousliip  is 
distinguished  by  obedience  and  love.  Then 
he  reminds  his  readers  (iv.)  that  the  test  of 
having  the  Spirit  of  God  is  to  be  found  in  the 
true  confession  of  Christ  as  the  incarnate  Son 
of  God,  in  adherence  to  apostolic  teaching,  and 
in  love  ;  and  that  right  faith  in  Jesus  is  the 
condition  of  the  whole  spiritual  life  of  love  (v. 
1-12).  In  the  conclusion  (v.  13-21)  he  tersely 
summarizes  the  purpose  of  the  epistle  as  in- 
tended to  confirm  them  in  faith  and  com- 
munion with  God,  and  solemnly  recites  the 
historical  and  spiritual  facts  on  which  their 
eternal  life  steadfastly  reposes. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  John.  Quite  in  ac- 
cord with  the  reserve  shown  by  the  apostle 
John,  the  author  of  the  second  epistle  calls 
himself  "  the  elder,"  a  designation  used  by 
Peter  of  himself  (1  Pet.  v.  1)  and  given  by 
Papias  to  all  the  apostles.  The  author  writes 
to  "the  elect  lady  and  her  children,"  ex- 
pressing his  joy  at  the  Ciiristian  life  of  her 
childi'en  and  warning  her  against  heretical 
teachers.  The  brevity  of  the  epistle  easily 
explains  the  paucity  of  references  to  it  in 
the  earliest  writers.  In  fact,  tlie  external 
evidence  is  larger  than  would  be  expected. 
The  most  ancient  historical  testimony 
ascribes  the  epistle  to  the  apostle  John. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  was  acquainted  with 
at  least  one  shorter  e]>istle  by  the  apostle, 
and  Ireurtuis  quotes  2  John  10,  11,  as  coming 
from  John  the  discijile  of  the  Lord.  More- 
over, the  Johannean  authorship  is  abundantly 
jiroved  by  the  remarkable  coincidences  of 
language  and  thouubt  with  1  John  and  no 
motive  can  be  inuigincd  for  its  forgery.  Some 
have  supposed  that  by  the  elect  lady  was 
meant  a  church  ;  others  suppose  her  an  indi- 
vidual nanu>d  Kuria  Uhe  Greek  for  lady).  It 
is  i)robably  best  to  leave  the  name  indefinite. 


John  the  Divine,  Revelation  of  St.    4UH        John,  Gospel  according  to  St. 


The  Third  Epistle  of  John.  Another  brief 
letter  addressed  ))y  tlie  elder  to  Gains  the 
well-beloved,  expressiniijoy  at  the  hospitality 
to  the  In-ethren  whicli  Gains  had  shown,  and 
nrging  his  friend  to  continue  to  imitate  that 
which  is  good.  Reference  is  also  made  to  a 
certain  Diotrephes  who  had  opposed  the 
writer  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  to  a  Demetrius 
whoisjiraised.  It  is  impossible  to  identify  this 
Gains  with  any  of  that  name  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T. ;  see  Gaius  3.  He  appears  to  have 
been  a  prominent  man  in  one  of  the  churches 
of  Asia,  but  not  an  officer  of  the  church. 
This  epistle  is  remarkably  like  the  first  and 
second  in  style  and  thought :  so  that  there  is. 
uo  reason  to  doubt  that  the  three  were  by  the 
same  writer. 

All  John's  epistles,  with  those  of  James, 
Peter,  and  Jude.  are  frequently  included  iu 
the  number  of  the  so-called  "' catholic  "  or 
"general"  epistles,  i.  e.  those  addressed  not 
to  particular  churches  or  persons,  but  to  large 
or  many  communities.  1  John  was  uo  doubt 
sent  to  the  churches  of  Asia,  among  which 
the  Fourth  Gospel  was  first  issued.  To  2  and 
3  John,  however,  this  title  does  not  apply, 
nor  are  they  styled  "general"  in  A.  V.  or 
E.  V.  They  were  probably  jilaced  among 
the  "general''  epistles  simply  l)ecause,  being 
In-ief,  they  were  attached  to  1  John. 

G.  T.  p.  (supjilemented  I. 

John  the  Divine,  The  Revelation  of  St. 

See  Ekvki.atiox. 

John,  Gos'pel  according  to  St. 

The  title  jirefixed  to  the  Fourth  Gospel,  in 
accordance  with  the  universal  belief  of  the 
early  church  that  the  book  was  written  by 
the  apostle  John.  Like  the  other  gosjiels  it 
does  not  mention  the  writer's  name,  but  lioth 
internal  and  external  considerations  sujiport 
the  traditional  belief. 

I.  Itifenial  evidence.  (1)  The  writer  was 
one  of  the  apostles.  This  appears  from  his 
n.se  of  the  first  person  plural  (i.  14  and  jier- 
haps  xxi.  24)  and  from  many  items  of  minute 
description,  especially  concerning  the  impres- 
sion made  on  the  disciples  by  events  iu 
Christ's  life,  etc.  (i.  37  :  ii.  11,  IT;  iv.  27,  54  ; 
ix.  2;  xi.  8-16;  xii.  4-0,  21,  22;  xiii.  23-26; 
xviii.  15 ;  xix.  26,  27,  35 ;  xx.  8),  and  from 
the  explicit  statement  in  xxi.  24.  (2)  He 
mentions  a  "  disci]ile  whom  Jesus  loved" 
(xiii.  23:  xix.  26  :  xx.  2  :  xxi.  7,  20,  21),  who, 
in  xxi.  24,  is  said  to  be  the  author.  All  the 
a]u)stles,  however,  are  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  book  except  i\Iatthew,  James  the  son  of 
Al|ih{eus.  Simon  Zelotes,  and  the  sons  of 
Zeliedee.  The  three  ft)rmer  did  not  belong 
to  the  narrower  circle  of  intimate  disciples, 
to  one  of  whom  this  title  would  alone  be 
aii])licable.  and  James  the  son  of  Zebedee 
died  early  (Acts  xii.  2).  John,  therefore, 
alone  remains.  (3)  That  the  writer  was  a 
Jew  is  proved  incontestably  by  the  strongly 
Hebraistic  character  of  his  style  in  writing 
Greek.     (4)  He  shows  intimate  acquaintance 


with  the  geograi)hy.  history,  and  customs  of 
the  .lews  during  Christ's  ministry  (e.g.  i.  21, 
28.  46;  ii.  6;  iii.  23;  iv.  5,  27,  K.  V.";  v.  2, 
3;  vii.  40-52;  ix.  7;  x.  22,  23;  xi.  18;  xviii. 
28 ;  xix.  31),  and  his  book  gives  more  jiensonal 
details  than  any  of  the  gospels.  The  internal 
evidence  thus  harmonizes  strikingly  witli  the 
Johannean  authorship.  Nothing  stronger 
could  l)e  asked,  short  of  an  exi)licit  state- 
ment. The  lattin-,  iu  fact,  is  almost  given  in 
xxi.  24,  for,  according  to  the  unanimous  tes- 
timony of  early  Christian  history,  John  was 
the  only  apostle  who  lived  long  enough  to 
give  rise  to  the  belief  that  he  would  survive 
till  the  second  advent.  Chap.  .xxi.  is  evi- 
dently an  addition  by  the  author  to  his  work, 
which  was  originally  intended  to  close  with 
chu]).  XX.  It  amounts  substantiall.v  to  an 
atiirmation  that  St.  John  was  the  author  of 
the  wliole  treatise. 

II.  Extenitd  evidence.  The  testimony  of 
Irenfeus  (born  alxjut  A.  D.  115-125  and 
bishop  of  Lyons  in  the  last  part  of  thi' 
second  century),  who  was  a  disciple  of 
Polycarp,  who  was  a  discii)le  of  St.  John,  is 
explicit  that  John  wrote  this  (iospel  in  Ejtlu- 
sus  after  the  other  gospels  had  been  issued. 
This  is  of  itself  sufficient  evidence.  It  is 
confirmed,  however,  by  a  line  of  testimonies 
from  the  very  close  of  the  apostolic  age.  The 
First  Ei)istle  was  plainly  written  by  the  au- 
thor of  the  Gosi)el,  and  its  apostolic  authority 
is  atte.sted  by  its  use  by  Polycarp  (a.  d.  110) 
and  Papias  (a.  d.  130-140)."  The  Ignatian 
epistles  (a.  d.  100)  show  that  the  (Tosi)el  was 
familiar  and  authoritative  to  the  churches  of 
Asia  Minor  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century.  Justin  (a.  d.  150)  used  it  freel>-, 
and  quotes  from  it.  evidently  considering  it 
one  of  "  the  memoirs  of  the  apostles."  which 
he  says  were  called  gospels,  and  were  written 
by  the  apostles  and  their  com])anions.  In  th(> 
Teaching  of  the  Apostles  the  use  of  lli<^ 
Fourth  Gos])el  is  thought  by  many  to  be  im- 
l)lied  ;  and,  while  that  is  perhaps  doubtful, 
the  more  recently  recovered  ajiocryiihal  Gos- 
pel of  Peter  shows  that  the  Fourth  Gospel 
formed  with  the  other  tliree  the  narrative 
upon  the  basis  of  which  the  i>seudo-Peter 
wrote.  Tatian's  Diatessaron  was  a  harmony 
of  the  gospels  used  in  the  churches,  and  is  a 
combination  of  our  four.  The  MS.  of  .Syriac 
gospels,  recently  found  by  Mrs.  Lewis,  proves 
that  in  the  second  century  our  four  gospels 
were  the  accepted  ones  in  the  Syrian  church. 
Finally,  it  is  certain  that  even  the  earliest 
heretics  (Gnostic)  of  the  second  century  ac- 
cepted the  Fourth  (Gospel  as  ajtostolic.  Thus 
external  evidence  ami)ly  confirms  the  belief 
that  the  Fourth  Gospel  was  written  by  St. 
.John,  and,  as  such,  was  received  as  authori- 
tative by  the  church  from  the  very  l)eginning 
of  the  post-apostolic  age.  The  evidence  also 
points  to  its  composition  in  Asia  Minor  (tra- 
dition says  Ephesus)  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  first  century.  The  opponents  of  Jesu.s 
are  called  simply  the  Jews.(i.   19;    ii.   18; 


Jolin,  Gospel  according  to  St.        404 


Jokmeam 


V.  10;  vii.  15,  etc.),  explanations  are  given 
about  the  Jewish  feasts  (vi.  4;  vii.  2;  xi.  55; 
xix.  31),  the  sea  of  Galilee  is  explained  by 
its  gentile  name,  sea  of  Tiberias  (vi.  1),  and 
the  designation  in  the  prologue  of  Christ 
as  the  Word  of  God  points  to  a  period  when 
Christianity  was  confronted  with  such  philo- 
sophical tendencies  as  we  know  existed  in 
Asia  Minor.  This  explains  also  the  apparent 
purpose  of  the  book.  It  was  to  give  Christ's 
testimony  to  himself  as  the  incarnate  Son  of 
God  and  Saviour  of  the  world  (xx.  30,  31). 
It  assumes  acquaintance  with  the  other  gos- 
pels and  intends  to  supplement  them ;  see 
Gospel.  They  had  not  given  those  great 
discourses  of  the  Lord,  in  which  he  had  re- 
plied to  the  attacks  of  the  Jews  upon  his  di- 
vine claims  or  had  unfolded  to  his  disci])les 
the  mysteries  of  his  being  and  their  spiritual 
relations  to  himself.  This  self-testimony  of 
Jesus  John  determined  to  set  down,  especial- 
ly since  heresies  had  risen  which  denied 
some  aspects  of  the  jjerson  of  Christ.  With 
this  he  combined  also,  as  was  natural,  many 
items  of  personal  reminiscence.  The  result 
was  to  provide  the  church  with  a  complete 
portrayal  of  her  divine-human  Lord. 

Johu's  Gospel  begins  with  a  prologue  (i.  1- 
18),  in  which  the  apostle  summarizes  the 
great  truth  about  to  be  shown  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  viz.  the  existence  of  a  second  divine 
person  whose  oflice  it  is  to  reveal  God  and 
who  is,  therefore,  called  the  Word,  who,  be- 
sides being  the  universal  source  of  life  and 
light  to  creation,  became  incarnate  as  Jesus 
Christ,  and  thus  to  tho.se  who  believed,  re- 
vealed God  and  imparted  salvation.  He 
then  relates,  1.  The  opening  testimonies  to 
Jesus  given  by  John  the  Baj)tist  and  by  Jesus 
himself  to   his   first   disciples   (i.    19-ii.    11). 

2.  Christ's  revelation  of  himself  in  a  series  of 
acts  and,  still  more,  of  discourses  addressed 
to  inquirers  or  to  his  adversaries  (ii.  12-xii. 
50).  This  includes  (a)  his  testimony  at  his 
first  passover  (ii.  12-25),  and  the  discourse 
with  Nicodemus  (iii.  1-21),  together  with 
the  renewed  testimony  of  the  Baptist  (22- 
3()) ;  (fi)  the  conversation  with  the  woman  of 
Samaria  (iv.  1-42)  ;  (c)  the  second  miracle  in 
Galilee  (43-54)  ;  {d)  Christ's  defense  to  the 
Jews  of  his  divine  dignity  aiid  authority  (v.)  ; 
((')  his  i)resentation  of  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  (vi.)  ;  (/)  his  renewed  defense  of  his 
authority  and  dignity  at  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles (vii.,  viii.)  ;  ig)  the  healing  of  the 
blind  man  and  i>arabk'  of  the  good  sliei)herd 
(ix.  1-x.  21);  (/()  (Christ's  final  testimony  to 
the  Jews  (22-42)  ;  ( j)  the  raising  of  Laz- 
firus  and  its  conse(|uences  (xi.)  ;  {h)  the  tes- 
timony given  at  Bethany,  in  the  triuni])]ial 
entry,  and  at  the  visit  of  the  (Jrceks  (xii.). 

3.  Christ's  revelation  of  himself  in  connec- 
ti(m  with  his  death  and  resurrection  (xiii. 
1-xxi.  25). '  This  ini^ludes  in)  his  last  dis- 
courses with  his  disciples  (xiii.-xvii.)  ;  (h)  his 
arrest,  trial,  and  crucifixion,  in  which  he 
bore  witness,  particularly  before  Pilate,    to 


his  person  and  work  (xviii.,  xix.) ;  (c)  his 
resurrection  and  certain  testimonies  con- 
nected with  it  (xx.,  xxi.).  The  result  is  to 
show  that  in  the  human  Jesus  there  was  the 
eternal  Son  of  God,  who  by  his  person, 
teaching,  and  redeeming  work  has  revealed 
God  and  secured  eternal  life  to  those  who 
receive  him.  St.  John  thus  represents  the 
mission  of  Jesus  as  the  climax  of  God's  self- 
revelation  and  as  the  procurement  for  be- 
lievers of  that  light  which  consists  in  knowl- 
edge of  the  highest  truth  and  of  that  life 
which  consists  in  spiritual  union  with  God, 
which  together  constitute  the  perfect  good 
and  the  everlasting  salvation.  "These 
[things]"  he  says,  "are  written,  that  ye  might 
believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God  ;  and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life 
through  his  name  "  (xx.  31). 

G.  T.  P. 

Joi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  repaired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6;  in  A.  V.  Jehoiada). 

2.  A  high  priest,  great  grandson  of  Jeshua 
(Neh.  xii.  10).  One  of  his  sons  married  a 
daughter  of  Sanballat,  the  governor  of 
Samaria,  and  for  thus  defiling  the  priesthood 
was  expelled,  probably  from  Jerusalem,  by 
Nehemiah  (xiii.  28). 

Jo'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  high  priest,  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10, 
12,  21-26),  in  the  reign  of  [Arta]xerxes  ( An- 
tiq.  xi.  5,  1). 

Joi'a-rib  or  Jehoiarib,  the  two  forms  freely 
interchanging  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  defends]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.    See  Jehoiarib. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6,7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore 
this  name  (19  ;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1,  Joarib  being 
the  Greek  form). 

3.  A  man  of  understanding  who  was  re- 
turning from  Babylon  with  Ezra  and  was 
sent  with  others  from  the  encampment  on 
the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  service  of  the  temple 
(Ezra  viii.  16,   17). 

4.  A  nuin  of  Judah,  descended  from  a  cer- 
tain Zechariah  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Jok'de-am  [perhaps,  possessed  by  people]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  56).     Site  unknown. 

Jo'kim. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chrou.    iv.  22). 

Jok'me-am  [the  people  is  brought  to- 
gether]. 

A  town  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vi.  68),  ap- 
parently near  Abel-meholah  (1  Kin.  iv.  12, 
where  A.  V.,  contrary  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
calls  it  Jokneam).  The  Kohathite  Levites 
were  given  residence  in  it  (1  Chron.  vi.  66, 
68).  Instead  of  this  town,  Kibzaim  is  given 
in  .To.sli.  xxi.  22,  and  is  commonly  believed  to 
bo  another  name  of  the  same  jdace. 


Jokneam 


405 


Jonah 


Jok'ne-am  [the  people  is  permitted  to 
possess,  or  it  is  allowed  to  possess  people]. 

1.  A  town  on  or  near  mount  Carmel  (Josh, 
xii.  22).  The  boundary  line  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  extended  to  the  river  that  is  before 
Jokneam  ixix.  11).  It  was  given  with  its 
suburbs  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  34). 
The  identification  proposed  by  Eli  Smith  and 
Eobinson  is  generally  accepted,  namely  Tell 
Keimun,  probablj-  the  Cyamon  of  Judith  vii. 
3,  ou  the  southern  margin  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  on  the  slopes  of  C'armel,  a  little 
south  of  the  Kishon,  and  about  15  miles 
northwest  by  west  of  Jezreel.  It  commands 
the  main  pass  from  the  western  portion  of 
Esdraelon  to  the  more  southern  plain. 

2.  A  place  mentioned  in  A.  V.  of  1  Kin.  iv. 
12  ;  but  see  Jokmeam. 

Jok'shan  [perhaps,  a  fowler]. 

A  tribe  and  its  progenitor  descended  from 
Abraham  by  Keturah  i  Gen.  xxv.  1,  2).  From 
Jokshan  sprang  Shebaand  Dedau  (3).  Exact 
place  of  settlement  unknown. 

Jok'tan  [Hebrew  YoMan.  little,  small]. 

A  person  or  rather  tribe  descended  from 
Shem  through  Eber  and  from  whom  thirteen 
tribes  of  Arabia  sprang  (Gen.  x.  25,  20;  1 
Cliron.  i.  19-23).  The  Mussulmans  correctly 
or  incorrectly  call  Joktan  Knhtdn. 

Jok'the-el  [probably,  subjection  to  God  or 
it  is  made  to  serve  God]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.Tosh. 
XV.  33,  38).  The  identification  with  the  ruin 
Kutlaneh,  about  four  miles  east  by  south  of 
Ekron  and  4  west-southwest  of  Gezer,  is 
groundless. 

2.  A  name  given  by  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  to  Sela,  now  Petra,  when  he  had 
taken  it  in  war  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7,  R.  V.). 

Jo'na.     See  Jonah  2. 
Jon'a-dab  and    Jehonadab    [Jehovah    is 
bounteous]. 

1.  Sou  of  David's  brother  Shimeah  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Eechab,  the  Kenite  (Jer.  xxxv. 
6  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  55).  He  became  head  of 
the  tribe  and  gave  character  to  it  by  his  rule 
re(|uiring  his  people  to  dwell  in  tents,  refrain 
from  agriculture,  and  abstain  from  wine  (Jer. 
xxxv.  6,  7)  in  order  to  preserve  primitive 
simplicity  of  manners.  Jehn,  finding  that 
Jonadab  sympathized  with  his  work  of  sup- 
pressing Baal  worship,  took  him  to  Samaria, 
where  he  aided  Jehu  in  putting  out  of  BaaTs 
temple  all  who  were  not  priests  of  that  god, 
in  preparation  for  the  massadre  which  was  to 
ensne  (2  Kin.  x.  15,  23). 

Jo'nah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jonas,  twice 
Jona,  the  Greek  genitive  case  (Mat.  xvi.  17  ; 
John  i.  42)  [a  dove]. 

1.  A  prophet  of  Israel,  a  son  of  Aniittai, 
and  citizen  of  Gath-hepher  in  Galilee,  who 
before  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II. 
foretold  Israel's  recovery  of  its  borders  from 
the  entering  of  Hamath  to  the  sea  of  the 
plain  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25;  Jon.  i.  1). 


The  book  of  Jonah  is  the  fifth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophetic  books  in  the  Hebrew 
original  and  in  the  English  version.  In  the 
Septuagiut  it  is  the  sixth  ;  not,  however,  in 
all  editions.  It  may  be  divided  into  three 
sections : — 

I.  Jonah's  disobedience  (i.).  He  was  bid- 
den to  go  to  Nineveh  and  cry  against  it.  But 
he  desired  the  destruction  of  the  city,  pr(jl)a- 
bly  because  its  punishment  would  humble  an 
enemy  of  Israel ;  and  he  feared  lest  it  should 
repent  at  his  message  and  be  spared  to  tlie 
destruction  of  his  nation.  Accordingly  he 
took  ship  at  Joppa  to  flee  to  Tarshish.  A  great 
storm  arose.  The  shij)  was  in  danger.  At 
length  the  sailors  cast  lots  to  ascertain  on 
whose  account  the  storm  had  been  sent.  The 
lot  fell  upon  Jonah.  He  told  them  that  he 
was  a  worshiper  of  the  God  of  heaven 
who  had  made  the  sea  and  the  drj^  land  ;  and 
that,  if  they  would  cast  him  overboard,  the 
sea  would  become  calm.  They  reluctantly 
obeyed.  The  sea  became  quiet ;  and  the 
prophet,  who  had  disappeared  in  the  depths, 
was  swallowed  l)y  a  great  fish  which  the  Lord 
had  prepared.  II.  Jonah's  prayer  (ii.).  Sur- 
prised at  finding  himself  alive  in  the  mid.st 
of  the  sea,  the  prophet  gave  thanks  to  God 
for  his  present  escape  from  death  and  grate- 
fully expressed  the  hope  of  ultimate  deliver- 
ance. The  fish  at  length  vomited  him  upon 
the  dry  land.  III.  .Tonah's  message  and  its 
results  (iii.,  iv.).  Bidden  a  second  time  to  go 
to  Nineveh,  he  obeyed  and  delivered  his  mes- 
sage. The  Ninevites  publicly  repented  and 
God  spared  the  city.  At  this  Jonah  was  dis- 
pleased ;  not  that  his  prophecy  had  been  nulli- 
fied by  the  repentance  of  the  people,  for  he 
and  his  hearers  expected  that  it  would  be 
(iii.  9;  iv.  2),  but  probably  because  he  felt 
that  the  doom  of  his  own  country  was  .sealed. 
But  by  the  withering  of  a  gourd  the  Lord 
taught  him  the  lesson  of  divine  compassion 
on  man  and  beast  generally,  irrespective  of 
man's  relation  to  the  church. 

The  motive  that  led  Jonah  to  flee  was 
probablj'  a  narrow  and  mistaken  ))atriotism. 
He  feared  that  Nineveh  would  repent  and 
that  God  in  his  mercy  would  spare  the  city. 
Jonah  wished  Nineveh  to  i)erish  (iv.  2,  4, 
11 )  ;  for  it  was  a  powerful  foe  of  Israel  and, 
if  it  were  not  destroyed,  the  doom  of  Israel 
was  sealed. 

The  purpose  of  the  book  is  primarily  to 
teach  that  God's  purposes  of  grace  are  not 
limited  to  the  children  of  Aljraham,  but  the 
gentiles  can  receive  mercy  while  still  outside 
tlie  pale  of  Israel's  law.  But  besiiles  this 
great  lesson  the  book  of  Jonah  affords  ilhis- 
trations  of  truth,  which  i"rom  tlieir  nature 
may  perhaps  even  be  regarded  as  types 
teaching  truth. 

1.  Nineveh  repented  at  the  preaching  of 
one  prophet ;  whereas  Israel  repented  not, 
although  many  prophets  were  sent  to  it  icp. 
Mat.  xii.  41).  This  seems  to  be  a  type,  to  be 
related    to  and    look   forward  to   a   general 


Jonah 


406 


Jonah 


truth,  that  the  gentiles  yield  a  readier  ac- 
(luiescenee  to  the  doctrines  of  God  tlian 
Israel  had  done:  aequiescing  not  more  read- 
ily to  the  moral  law  indeed,  but  to  the  reve- 
lation of  God  as  a  whole  ;  for  example,  to  his 
method  of  salvation  as  outlined  in  Hosea 
xiv.  (cp.  Is.  ii.  2-4  with  5). 

2.  Jonah,  an  Israelite  and  God's  servant 
s.'ut  to  preach  to  the  gentiles,  is  an  evidence 
of  God's  will  that  the  people  of  God's  king- 
dom shall  lead  the  gentiles  to  rejientance 
and  to  God.  Jonah  was  not  the  only  Israel- 
ite in  whom  this  truth  was  exemplified : 
Elijah  was  sent  to  a  woman  of  Zarephath  (1 
Kin.  xvii.),  Elislia cured  Naamaii  the  Syrian 
(:2  Kin.  v.),  Christ  talked  to  a  woman  of  Sa- 
maria about  the  things  of  God  and  healed  the 
daugliter  of  a  Syrophoenician  woman  (Mark 
vii. ;  John  iv.). 

.',.  Jonah,  an  Israelite  and  God's  servant 
fli'cing  from  duty,  is  cast  into  the  sea,  but  is 
afterwards  delivered  in  order  that  he  may 
fulfil  his  mission.  This  illustrates  the 
proiihetic  doctrine  tliat  the  children  of 
Israel,  untrue  to  their  assigned  task,  shall 
be  cast  forth  from  their  native  laud  ;  but  a 
remnant,  chiefly  of  the  southern  kingdom, 
sliall  be  saved  to  fulfil  Israel's  mission  to  the 
world  (Is.  xlii.  1-4;  xlix.  1-13;  cp.  ii.  2-4; 
xi.  10). 

4.  Jonah,  an  Israelite  and  (Jod's  servant 
cast  into  the  depths  of  Siieol  and  yet  brought 
up  alive  out  of  the  i)it  (Jon.  ii.  2,  (i),  illus- 
trates and  probably  portended  the  death  for 
sins  not  his  own,  and  the  burial  and  the 
resurrection  of  the  Messiah,  the  representa- 
tive Israelite  and  perfect  servant  of  the  Lord 
(Mat.  xii.  40). 

It  has  been  urged  that  the  book  of  Jonah 
nowhere  claims  to  have  been  written  by  that 
projihet.  But  the  title  (i.  1)  is  like  the  title 
of  Ho.sea,  Joel,  Micah,  Zei)lianiah,  Haggai, 
and  Zeciiariah,  books  of  which  the  author- 
siii()  is  not  disputed.  It  is  urged  further  that 
the  l)ook  was  written  long  after  Jonah's  time, 
because  1.  In  the  prayer  ascribed  to  him  are 
some  quotations  from  late  psalms  (ii.  3  with 
Ps.  xlii.  7;  5  with  Ps.  Ixix.  1;  9  with  Ps.  1. 
14).  But  the  i)salnis  may  etpially  well  con- 
tain quotations  from  Jonah.  2.  Tlie  language 
contains  Aramai(!  elements  and  grammatical 
constructions  which  are  found  in  the  latest 
books.  Hut  the  prophet  .Jonah  belonged  to 
the  northern  kingdom,  and  tlie  linguistic 
features  of  tlie  ))ook  resemble  those  in  early 
literature  of  the  north;  for  e.xampic,  the 
song  of  Deborah,  the  narratives  of  Elijah 
and  Klisha,  and  the  pr()])hecies  of  Hosea. 
The  word  ta'nin,  classed  as  Aramaic  in  mean- 
ing, is  the  Assyrian  word  for  a  royal  com- 
mand, and  is  so  used  in  the  book  of  Jonah  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Assyrian  king.  3.  The 
failure  to  give  the  name  of  the  Assyrian 
king  indicates  that  it  was  unknown  to  the 
author.  But  the  referiMice  is  merely  to  the 
ruler  as  such  ;  and  the  king  of  Nineveh  is 
s|)okeu  of  just  as  are  the  king  of  the  children 


of  Amnion  (Judg.  xi.  12,  13),  the  king  of 
Moab  (1  Sam.  xxii.  3),  the  king  of  Edom  (2 
Kin.  iii.  9,  12),  the  king  of  Assyria  (xxiii.  29; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11),  the  king  of  Damascus 
(2  Chron.  xxiv.  23,  though  fully  known,  cp. 
2  Kin.  xii.  17,  18),  whose  personal  names  did 
not  require  mention.  Ordinarily  the  He- 
brews spoke  of  the  king  who  ruled  at  Nin- 
eveh as  the  king  of  Assyria,  but  here  he  is 
called  the  king  of  Nineveh.  So  they  spoke 
of  Sihou  as  the  king  of  the  Amorites  (Num. 
xxi.  21,  29;  Dent.  i.  4 ;  iii.  2;  iv.  46),  but  also 
as  the  king  of  Heshbon  (Deut.  ii.  26;  Josh, 
xii.  5 ;  xiii.  27),  where  he  resided  ;  and  Ben- 
hadad  they  called  the  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin. 
XX.  1),  but  also  the  king  of  Damascus  (2  Chron. 
xxiv.  23) ;  and  Ahab  they  entitled  tlie  king 
of  Israel,  but  also  the  king  of  Samaria  (1 
Kin.  xxi.  1,  R.  V.).  The  prophecy  may  be 
dated  before  or  shortly  after  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25).  It 
perhaps  belongs  chronologically  after  Amos 
(Amos  i.  1)  and  probably  before  the  vigorous 
reign  of  Tiglath-pileser  over  Assyria,  which 
began  in  745  b.  c. 

The  narrative  has  been  variously  regarded 
as  myth,  legend,  parable,  history.  The  chief 
inter])retations  are — 1.  The  allegorical  or  par- 
abolical. This  conception  of  the  projihecy  is 
much  in  vogue,  for  it  avoids  the  miracle  or, 
if  no  miracle  was  involved  in  the  escape  of 
■Jonah,  the  extraordinary  nature  of  the  event. 
It  interprets  Jonah  as  a  tj-pe  of  Israel  fleeing 
from  the  duty  imposed  on  the  nation  to  bear 
witness  to  the  world  for  God.  The  sea  typi- 
fies, as  frequently,  the  raging  nations;  the 
sleep  of  Jonah  represents  Israel's  sloth  to  ful- 
fil its  mission  to  the  gentiles,  for  which  it  is 
delivered  into  captivity  to  the  world,  but  yet 
is  preserved  alive :  having  been  disciplined, 
it  is  ready  to  engage  in  its  appointed  mission, 
but  it  is  still  narrow  and  needs  to  be  taught 
the  wideuess  of  God's  mercy.  In  support  of 
this  view  it  is  i)ointed  out  that  Jeremiah 
speaks  of  Nebuchadnezzar  under  the  figure 
of  a  dragon  swallowing  up  Israel,  but  com- 
pelled to  disgorge  his  prey  (Ii.  34),  and  Hosea 
represents  the  exile  of  Israel  as  lasting  three 
days  (vi.  2).  If,  however,  there  was  any  bor- 
rowing at  all,  Jeremiah  is  as  likely  to  have 
borrowed  from  Jonah  as  vice  rerm.  Hosea 
was  a  contemporary  prophet  with  Jonah  in 
the  northern  kingdom,  and  might  draw  a 
lesson  from  .Jonah's  experii'uce,  if  there  is 
any  interdei)endence  of  Hos.  vi.  2  and  Jon.  i. 
17.  2.  The  historical.  The  miraculous  ele- 
ment is  magnified  or  minimized  according  to 
individual  judgment  and  knowledge.  The 
ioncei)tion  (tf  the  narrative  as  historical  has 
these  sujiports:  (1)  The  form  of  the  book  is 
historical  and  has  left  this  impression  on  its 
readers.  (2)  Jonah  himself  was  unquestion- 
ably a  historical  iicrsonage.  (3)  While  it  is 
conceivable  that  the  words  of  Christ  regard- 
ing .Jonah  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  and  at 
Nineveh  do  not  imply  his  belief  in  the  events, 
it  is  highly  i)rol)able  that  they  do,  esjiecially 


Jonam 


40" 


Jonathan 


since  Jonah  was  a  real  person  (Mat.  xii.  39, 
40;  Luke  xi.  29,  30;.  (4)  Tlie  narnitive  was 
regarded  l)y  the  Jews  as  historical  (Antiq.  ix. 
10,  2).  (.5)  The  repentance  of  the  Ninevites 
i.s  credible.  They  were  given  to  superstition  ; 
national  distress  and  a  low  state  of  the  em- 
]iire  would  dispose  them  to  listen  to  a  warn- 
ing from  the  gods  ;  the  arrival  from  a  for- 
eign country  of  a  strange  proi)het,  of  whose 
l)eculiar  history  they  may  have  heard,  was 
calculated  to  affect  them  ;  the  Spirit  of  God 
worketh  when  and  where  In;  will.  It  is 
urged,  indeed,  against  the  historical  charac- 
ter of  the  book  that  (a)  permanent  conver- 
sion of  the  Ninevites  did  not  take  place. 
Certainly  it  did  not,  and  it  is  nowhere  as- 
serted that  it  did.  The  statement  merely  is 
that  the  men  of  that  generation  repented 
under  the  lead  of  their  king.  So  the  men  of 
Judah  in  Hezekiah's  and  Josiah's  reigns 
sanctified  themselves  under  the  leadership 
of  those  kings.  {!>)  Against  the  historical 
character  of  the  book  is  also  urged  the  size 
ascribed  to  Nineveh  (iii.  3  ;  iv.  11).  But  see 
Nineveh,  (c)  Also  tlie  rapid  growth  of  the 
gourd  or  ricinus  has  been  regarded  with  sus- 
picion (iv.lO).  But  was  this  growth  miracu- 
lous or  extraordinary?  Ver.se  10  is  rendered 
by  the  Targum,  "which  this  night  was,  and 
in  another  night  perished."  Probal)ly  tiie 
words  describe  merely  the  ephemeral  char- 
acter of  the  plant.  From  the  narrative 
itself,  verses  G-8,  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
growth  was  supernaturally  rapid  (cp.  Ps,  xc. 
0;  Mat.  vi.  30).  id)  It  is  further  urged  that 
the  book  was  scarcely  regarded  as  a  histori- 
cal narrative  when  the  Hebrew  canon  was 
arranged,  or  it  would  have  been  placed 
among  the  historical,  and  not  among  the 
prophetical,  books.  But  the  recorded  events 
are  typical  and  prophetic,  like  the  events 
narrated  in  Zech.  vi.  9-15.  And,  what  is 
more,  the  Hebrew  canon  does  not  make 
the  distinction  between  historical  and  pro- 
phetical books.  The  prose  writings  of  of- 
ficial prophets  are  grouped  bj'  themselves. 
Omitting  Ruth,  the  books  from  Joshua  to  2 
Kings  inclusive  are  classed  as  prophetic. 
Tliis  collection  forms  continuous  history,  and 
it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  second  group 
denominated  prophetic,  and  containing  all 
the  remaining  books  which  bear  the  name  of 
an  othcial  prophet.  Here  Jonah  rightlj'  be- 
longs, and  here  the  book  has  been  placed. 
See  Canon. 

2.  Father  of  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  xvi.  17  ; 
John  i.  42;  xxi.  15).  In  R.  V.  of  John 
Simon's  father  is  called  John  on  the  author- 
ity of  manuscripts.     See  Bar-Jon.\h. 

Jo'nam,  in  A.  V.  Jonan,  the  reading  of 
v.iriant  texts  [perhaps  a  modification  of  the 
Hebrew  Ynhfuian,  .lehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  two 
hundred  years  after  David  (Luke  iii.  .30). 

Jo'nas.     See  Jonah. 


Jon'a-tlian  [Jehovah  has  given]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  or  remoter  descendant  of 
Gershom,  son  of  Moses  (.ludg.  xviii.  .3(1,  R.  V.). 
He  was  doubtless  tiie  Levite  who  had  so- 
journed at  Bethlehem-judah,  but  had  left 
that  town  to  seek  another  residence,  and, 
when  passing  through  Ei)hraim,  was  hired 
by  Micah  to  officiate  as  i)rit'st  before  an  imagr 
of  Jehovah  (xvii.  7-13).  When  the  Daiiitc^ 
were  on  their  way  to  seek  new  settlements 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  they  robbed  jNIicah 
of  his  image,  and  i)ersuaded  his  mercenary 
priest  to  go  with  them,  temi)ting  his  ambition 
by  promising  that  he  should  be  the  priest, 
not  of  a  single  household,  ))ut  of  a  tribe. 
They  kept  their  word,  and  Jonathan  became 
the  first  of  a  line  of  ])riests  M-ho  worshiped 
at  the  .shrine  of  the  stolen  idol  all  the  time 
that  the  tabernacle  was  in  Shiloh,  till  the 
captivity  of  the  land  or  district  (Judg.  xviii. 
3-fi,  14-31).  To  avoid  the  dishonor  accruing 
to  Moses  from  the  idolatry  of  his  descendant, 
a  nun  was  inserted  in  the  Hebrew  word  for 
Moses,  which  changed  it  into  Mauasseh  (30, 
A.  v.).  The  inserted  letter  was  not  incor- 
porated into  the  text,  hut  was  su.spended  above 
the  line. 

2.  Eldest  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49; 
cp.  XX.  31).  When  first  mentioned,  after  his 
father  had  become  king,  he  is  in  command 
of  1000  men,  while  Saul  leads  other  2000. 
Jonathan  smote  the  Philistine  garrison  or, 
rather,  deputy  at  Geba  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3). 
Shortly  afterwards  the  young  i)rince,  at- 
tended only  by  his  armor-bearer,  climbed  up 
a  precipice  to  the  Philistine  camp  overlook- 
ing the  pass  of  Michmash,  and  falling  upon 
the  first  Philistines  he  met,  created  a  panic 
in  tlieir  army,  which  became  so  great  that  in 
their  fright  the  soldiers  turned  their  arms 
against  each  other  (xiv.  1-23).  The  same  day 
Saul  had  almost  put  his  heroic  son  to  death 
for  having  eaten  honey  in  a  wood,  being  igno- 
rant that  the  king  had  pronounced  a  rash  im- 
precation against  any  one  who  should  partake 
of  food  that  day.  But  the  people  interfered, 
and  would  not  allow  .lonathan's  life  to  be  .sac- 
rificed (24-46).  When  David,  then  a  young 
man  and  known  to  but  few,  achieved  his 
great  victory  over  Goliath,  Jonathan,  who 
was  of  a  singularly  unselfish  nature,  con- 
ceived a  warm  friendship  for  the  hero 
(xviii.  1).  and  would  not  give  it  up,  even 
when  Saul  pointed  out  that  his  friend  might 
one  day  supersede  him  on  the  throne.  During 
Saul's  persecution  of  David,  Jonathan  com- 
municated with  his  youthful  associate,  giving 
him  most  valuable  intelligence  of  the  king's 
feelings  and  movements,  till  at  length  the 
tyrant,  provoked  by  what  he  considered  his 
uufilial  conduct,  threw  a  javelin  at  him,  as 
he  had  more  than  once  done  at  David  (xviii.- 
XX.).  On  this  last  occasion  Jonathan  was 
seeking  to  discover  whether  a  reconciliation 
of  Saul  with  David  was  jiossible.  David  was 
lying  in  concealment  in  the  fields  waiting 
for  word.     The  two  friends  anti(ii)ated  the 


Jonathan 


408 


(lifriciilty  Jonathan  niioht  liave  in  conveying 
this  infonnatiou  to  David,  especially  in  case 
Sanl  sliould  he  evilly  minded  toward  the  son 
of  Jesse,  for  Jonathan  was  known  to  favor 
David,  and  Saul  and  the  party  opposed  to 
David  would  watch  Jonathan  to  prevent  him 
fmni  communicating  with  David  and  a  sec- 
ond time  frustrating  their  plans.  Accord- 
ingly, to  disarm  suspicion,  Jonathan  arranged 
to  go  out  with  company,  and  as  though  to 
hunt,  and  by  means  of  arrows  to  give  a  sign 
to  David.  He  did  so,  and  then,  finding  that 
suspicion  had  been  allayed  and  that  he  was 
no  longer  observed,  he  sent  the  boy  back  to 
the  town  with  the  bow  and  arrows,  and  re- 
mained for  a  final  interview  with  David. 
The  two  friends  met  once  after  this  in  the 
wood  of  Ziph  (I  Sam.  xxiii.  Ifi-lSi.  Jona- 
than was  killed,  with  two  of  his  brothers 
and  their  father,  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  and 
his  ))ones,  like  theirs,  were  affixed  to  the 
wall  of  Bcth-shean,  till  the  men  of  Jabesh- 
gilead  removed  them  and  gave  them  honor- 
able burial  (xxxi.  1,  11-13;  1  Chron.  x.  2,  8- 
12).  David  deeply  lamented  his  death  (2 
Sam.  i.  17-27).  Jonathan  left  one  son,  called 
Mephibosheth  and  Merib-baal,  who  was  lame 
(2  Sam.  iv.  4).  David  showed  him  kindness 
for  Jonathan's  sake,  and  the  line  of  his  de- 
scendants is  traceable  for  .several  generations 
in  increasing  numbers,  as  if  all  danger  of  its 
extinction  had  passed  away  (2  Sam.  ix.  1-13  ; 
1  fhron.  viii.  33-40;  ix.  39-44). 

3.  Uncle  of  king  David.  He  was  a  coun- 
selor, a  man  of  understanding,  and  a  scribe 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32).  Some  expositors  believe 
that  in  this  passage  the  Hebrew  word  for 
uncle  is  used  in  a  general  sense  for  relation, 
and  they  identify  this  counselor  with  David's 
nephew  Jonathan  (R.  V..  margin). 

4.  Son  of  the  high  priest  Abiathar.  He 
was  one  of  two  young  m(>n  who  concealed 
themselves  at  En-rogel,  near  .Jerusalem,  dur- 
ing .Absalom's  rebellion,  and  sent  David  in- 
formation of  everything  passing  in  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XV.  36  ;  xvii.  l.^-22).  When  Adonijah 
attempted  to  usurp  the  thront'  and  was  ceU'- 
braling  a  feast,  Jonathan  brought  the  news 
that  Solomon  had  been  proclaimed  king,  a 
piece  of  intelligence  which  led  to  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  assemblage  (1  Kin.  i.  11-li)). 

r>.  ,\  son  of  David's  brother  Shinieah,  and 
disliuguished  as  the  slayer  of  one  of  the 
gigantic  men  of  (iath  (2  Sam.   xxi.  21,  22'. 

<).  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  son  of 
Shage  or,  rather,  Shanimah  the  Hararite  (1 
C'lirou.  xi.  34;  cp.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  111.  The 
text  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32,  33  is  to  be  emended 
by  comparison  with  t'iironicles. 

7.  An  ollicial  under  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
2")).     Set!  Jkiionatii.\n. 

8.  A  .son  of  Kareah.  After  the  capture  of 
JerusaU^m  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  placed 
liimself  under  tlie  protection  of  (Tcdaliah 
(.ler.  xl.  8).  The  name  is  not  found  in  tln^ 
corresponding  i)as.sage  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23).  Per- 
haps it  accidentally  dropi)ed  out  of  Kings 


Jonathan 

or  erroneously  crept  into  the  text  of  Jere- 
miah. 

9.  A  scribe,  in  whose  house  Jeremiah  was 
imprisoned  (Jer.  xxxvii.  15,  20). 

10.  A  son  of  Jada  (1  Chron.  ii.  32). 

11.  A  descendant  of  Adin  (Ezra  viii.  6). 

12.  An   opponent  of  Ezra's  proposal  that 
foreign  wives  should  be  put  away  (Ezra  x. 

15,  r:  v.). 

13.  A  Levite  of  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (Neh. 
xii.  35  ;  cp.  xi.  15,  17). 

14.  A  ]>riest,  head  of  a  father's  house  in  the 
daysof  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  14). 

is.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Joiada  (Neh.  xii. 

11).      See  JOHANAN  11. 

16.  Youngest  son  of  the  priest  Mattathias 
(1  Mac.  ii.  5).  When  his  brother  Judas  Mac- 
cabseus  was  slain  in  battle  in  160  b.  c,  Jona- 
than was  chosen  his  successor  (ix.  23-31). 
The  forces  at  his  disposal  were,  however,  too 
few  for  otfensive  operations  against  the 
Syrians,  and  he  withdrew  into  the  wilder- 
ness of  Tekoa  (33).  He  was  surnamed 
Apphus  (ii.  5),  which  is  thought  to  mean 
Dissembler,  and  to  have  been  given  him  on 
account  of  his  first  exploit,  in  which  he  laid 
an  ambush  for  the  children  of  Jambri  and 
slew  them  because  they  had  killed  his 
brother  John  (ix.  37-41).  On  a  Sabbath  day 
in  1.57  B.  C.  he  repulsed  an  attack  of  the 
SjTians  under  Bacchides  on  the  Jordan, 
probably  on  the  eastern  bank  ;  but  after  the 
victory  he  and  his  followers  leaped  into  the 
river  and  swam  to  the  other  side  (ix.  43-48), 
where  they  remained  (58).  outwitting  the 
attempts  which  were  made  to  assassinate 
their  leader  (60.  61).  Jonathan  and  Simon 
afterwards  fortified  themselves  at  Bethbasi 
in  the  wilderness,  probably  of  Tekoa  ;  and 
when  Bacchides  besieged  the  fortress,  Jona- 
than left  Simon  to  defend  the  place,  while 
he  himself  ravaged  the  surrounding  country 
(62,  66).  Bacchides  was  so  straitened  that 
he  made  peace  with  Jonathan  and  withdrew 
from  Juda;a  (67-72).  Jonathan  took  up  his 
residence  at  Michmash,  and  began  to  .judge 
the  people  (73).  When  Alexander  Balas  re- 
volted against  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria,  the 
latter  hastened  to  secure  .Jonathan  as  an 
ally,  and  gave  him  authority  to  gather 
ti'oops.  The  Syrians  who  were  still  in  the 
strongholds  of  Judaea  fled,  and  Jonathan  en- 
tered Jerusalem  in  1.52  B.  c.  (x.  1-14).  Alex- 
ander, eciually  desirous  to  have  the  support 
of  .Jonathan,  appointed  him  high  priest  of 
the  Jews  and  king's  friend,  and  Jonathan 
])iit  on  the  pontifical  robes  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  1.52  B.  v.  (15-21).  Upon  hear- 
ing of  this  event,  Demetrius  hastened  to 
make  further  concessions  to  the  Jews  (22-45). 
Jonathan,  however,  gave  no  credence  to  the 
words  of  Demetrius;  and  Alexander,  when 
he  secured  the  throne  of  Syria  in  1.50  b.  o. 
a])i)ointed  him  governor  of  Judaia  (46,  59- 
6()).  In  148-7  B.  c.  Demetrius  II.  rai.sed 
the  standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander. 
Demetrius  was  assisted  by  Apollonius,  who 


Jonath  elem  rehokim 


409 


Joram 


sent  a  tbreateniug  message  to  Jonathan. 
Jonathan  seized  Joppa  and  defeated  Ai>ol- 
loniiis  in  the  neigliboring  plain  (67-87). 
When  Alexander's  father-in-law,  Ptolemy, 
intervened  in  the  war,  Jonathan  showed  his 
friendship  and  accompanied  him  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Syria  (xi.  1-7).  Ptolemy  proved 
treaclierons  to  Alexander  ami  placed  Deme- 
trius on  the  throne.  Jonathan  was  able  to 
secure  the  friendship  of  the  new  king,  and 
rendered  him  great  service  by  a  contingent 
of  3000  Jewish  soldiers,  who  quelled  an  ia- 
surrection  against  Demetrius  in  Autioch. 
Demetrius  proved  false,  and  Jonathan  sided 
with  the  young  Antiochus  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully with  the  troops  of  Demetrius  near 
Kedesh  in  Galilee.  Jonathan  now  sought 
the  aid  of  the  Romans  and  Spartans  (xii.  1, 
2) ;  he  also  undertook  aggressive  operations 
against  Demetrius,  and  defeated  his  troops 
and  allies  in  the  vicinity  of  Hamath  (24-35). 
But  Tryphon,  who  had  championed  the 
cause  of  the  young  Antiochus,  now  lifted  up 
his  hand  against  his  master  and  sought  to 
destroy  Jonathan  also.  He  persuaded  the 
Jewi^vh  leader  to  come  with  but  a  small  body- 
guard to  Ptolemais.  When  Jonathan  en- 
tered, the  gates  of  the  city  were  closed, 
Jonathan's  escort  was  put  to  the  sword,  he 
himself  was  seized  and  kept  for  a  time  a 
prisoner  and  finally  slain  in  Gilead  in  143 
B.  c.  (39-48;  xiii.  12-23).  The  bones  of 
Jonathan  were  recovered  and  buried  in  the 
family  .sepulcher  at  Modin  (25-27). 

17.  A  general  who,  at  the  command  of 
Simon  Maccabaeus,  took  possession  of  Joppa. 
He  was  a  son  of  Absalom  (1  Mac.  xiii.  11). 

Jo'nath  e'lem  re-ho'kim,  in  A.  V.  Jonath- 
elem-rechokim  [the  silent  dove  of  them  that 
are  afiir  off  or,  by  changing  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  middle  word,  the  dove  of  the  dis- 
tant terebinths]. 

Probably  the  air  to  which  Ps.  Ivi.  was  to 
beset  (Ps.'lvi.  title). 

Jop'pa,  in  A.  V.  once  Japho  (Josh.  six.  46), 
and  so  twice  on  margin  of  R.  V.  of  O.  T., 
this  being  the  Hebrew  form,  while  Joppa  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  [beauty]. 

A  town  in  Palestine  which  was  assigned  to 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  46).  It  was  the  seaport  of 
Jerusalem,  to  which  the  wood  cut  down  in 
Lebanon  for  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple 
was  floated  from  Tyre  (2  Chron.  ii.  16).  Jonah 
embarked  at  Joppa  in  a  ship  about  to  sail  to 
Tarshish,  when  he  made  his  vain  attempt  to 
escape  from  Jehovah  (Jon.  i.  3).  When  the 
temple  was  rebuilt,  after  the  return  from 
Babylon  under  Zerubbabel  and  Jcshua,  rafts 
of  cedar  trees  were  again  floated  from  Tyre 
to  Jopiia  (Ezra  iii.  7,  R.  V.).  The  Christian 
woman  Tabitha  lived  her  charitable  life  and 
died  at  Joppa  and  was  raised  from  the  dead 
by  Peter  (Acts  ix.  36-42).  The  miracle  re- 
sulted in  many  converts  to  Christianity  being 
made  in  the  place.  The  apostle  remained 
with  them  for  some  time,  lodging  in  the  house 


of  one  Simon  a  tanner  (43;  x.  5,  6);  and  it 
was  to  Joppa  that  the  servants  of  Cornelius 
came  to  invite  Peter  to  Ctesarea  (7-48). 
Joi)])a  still  flourishes.  It  is  called  by  the 
Arabs  Yafa,  and  by  the  English  Jatfa.  A 
ledge  of  rocks  runs  out  from  the  promontory 
on  which  the  houses  stand,  and  makes  a 
harbor  which,  though  small  and  dangerous, 
is  still  the  only  one  on  the  coast  for  many 
miles  north  and  south.  The  harbor  is  sur- 
rounded by  rocks,  with  two  entrances,  the 
most  northerly  one  rendered  dangerous  by 
sandbanks,  the  other,  which  is  only  10  feet 
wide,  by  its  proximity  to  rocks.  Only  a  few 
small  vessels  can  find  accommodation  within 
its  confined  area.  The  town  stands  on  a 
rocky  hill  of  oblong  form  on  successive  plat- 
forms produced  by  strata  reposing  the  one  on 
the  other.  In  the  vicinity  are  fine  gardens, 
watered  by  Persian  water  wheels,  and  con- 
taining orange,  lemon,  apricot,  quince,  and 
other  fruit  trees.  It  ha.s  various  soap  works, 
and  tanneries  still  exist  upon  the  seashore. 
It  is  a  gate  of  entrance  into  Palestine  for  pil- 
grims, and  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to 
Jerusalem.     (See  illustration,  p.  410.) 

Jo'rah.    See  H.\riph. 
Jo'rai. 

A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

Jo'ram  and  Jehoram,  the  forms  being  in- 
terchangeable in  Hel)rew  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  A  son  of  Toi,  king  of  Hamath,  who  was 
sent  by  his  father  to  congratulate  David  on 
his  victory  over  Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  viii.  10). 
Called  in'l  Chron.  xviii.  10  Hadoram.  which 
in  this  case  probably  means  "the  god  Addu 
or  Hadad  is  exalted." 

2.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses'  son 
Eliezer  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  25;  cp.  xxiii.  15,  17). 

3.  Son  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  On  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  Ahaziah.  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  853  B.  c,  and  reigned 
till  842  B.  c.  He  put  away  the  image  of  Baal 
which  his  father  had  made,  but  adhered  to 
the  calf  worship  instituted  by  Jeroboam.  On 
the  death  of  Ahab,  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  had 
rebelled  and  withheld  tribute.  To  recover 
his  dominion  over  Moab,  Joram  obtained  the 
assistance  of  king  Jehoshaphatof  Judah,  and 
of  the  Edomite  ruler.  As  the  confederates 
were  marching  around  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  they  were  nearly  perishing 
with  thirst,  but  Elisha  bade  them  dig  trenches, 
and  on  the  following  morning  water  came 
rushing  down  the  wady  and  filled  the 
trenches.  Not  only  did  the  water  supply 
the  needs  of  the  Israelites,  but,  looking  ruddy 
under  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  was  mis- 
taken by  the  Moabites  for  blood  ;  and,  suppos- 
ing that  the  Israelites  had  fallen  out  among 
themselves,  they  rushed  to  the  spoil.  Joram 
and  his  allies  rose  against  them  when  they 
were  thus  off  their  guard,  and  ]iut  them  to 
flight,  and  then  overran  Moab,  but  without 
being  able  permanently  to  reduce  it  to  sub- 
jection   (2    Kin.    iii.   1-27) ;    see    Moabite 


Joram 


411 


Jordan 


Stone.  Joram  was  without  doubt  the  king 
ti)  whom  the  king  of  Syria  sent  Naaman  to  be 
cured  of  his  leprosy  (v.  1-27)  ;  and  to  wliom 
Elislia  made  known  every  movement  of  the 
Syrian  invaders,  and  wlio  liad  them  in  his 
power  at  Samaria,  and  by  Elisha's  advice  sent 
them  home  unmolested  (vi.  8-2li)  ;  and  who, 
during  the  famine,  when  Ben-hadad  was  be- 
sieging Samaria,  vowed  vengeance  against 
Klislui  for  the  distress  (;24-31 ;  called  in  verse 
'.12  the  sou  of  a  murderer).  His  end  was  tragic. 
He  was  at  Jezreel,  seeking  cure  fnnii  wounds 
received  at  Ramoth-gilead,  when  a  watch- 
uiiin  announced  the  appi'oach  of  Jehu. 
^Mounting  his  chariot  and  accompanied  by 
liis  nephew,  the  king  of  Judah,  in  another 
chariot,  the  two  kings  dr'ove  forth  to  meet 
.Jehu.  They  came  up  to  him  at  the  field 
which  .Foram's  mother  had  gotten  for  his 
father  l)y  having  its  owner,  Naboth,  slain, 
.lehu  shot  Joram  through  the  heart  with  an 
arrow  and,  recalling  a  jirophecy  to  mind,  had 
tlie  body  thrown  from  the  chariot  into  the  field 
of  Xabotli  (ix.  ]4-2(i).  With  Joram  the  dy- 
nasty of  Omri  ceased,  and  that  of  Jehu  began. 

4.  One  of  the  priests  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

,").  Son  of  Jehoshaphat.  From  about  854 
B.  t'.  he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
government,  and  in  849  i?.  c,  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  the  reins  of 
government  were  transferred  entirely  to  his 
liands  (2  Kin.  viii.  16;  cp.  i.  17;  iii.  1).  No 
sooner  did  he  feel  himself  secure  on  his 
throne  than  he  murdered  all  his  brothers  and 
some  other  princes  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
1-4).  He  had  for  his  wife  a  daughter  of 
Aliab,  who  led  him  into  gross  forms  of 
heathenism,  as  Jezebel  had  seduced  Aliab  (2 
Kin.  viii.  18  ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  6,  11).  As  in 
other  cases,  his  departure  from  Jehovah 
brought  with  it  adversity.  The  Edomites 
rose  in  rebellion,  and  though  he  gained  a 
victory  over  them,'  yet  this  did  not  prevent 
their  achieving  their  independence.  Libnah 
also  revolted,  and  successfully  (2  Kin.  viii. 
20-22;  2  Chron.  xxi.  8-lU).  Philistine  and 
Arab  marauders  ente'-ed  Judah  and  plun- 
dered the  palace,  carrying  otf  the  king's  wives 
and  children,  with  the  single  exception  of 
.Jehoahaz,  or  Ahaziah,  the  youngest  boy  (2 
Chron.  xxi.  16,  17;  xxii.  1).  A  writing  from 
the  prophet  Elijah  was  handed  to  the  king, 
denouncing  his  apostasy  and  his  wickedness, 
and  threatening  him  with  painful  disease  and 
death ;  see  Elijah.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards seized  with  dysentery,  which  became 
chronic  and  continued  for  two  years  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  18,  19).  During  this  sicTiness  Ahaziah 
acted  as  regent  (2  Kin.  ix.  29  with  viii.  25, 
26).  There  was  no  pretense  at  lamentation 
when  his  death  occurred.  His  sole  reign, 
beginning  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoram  of 
Israel,  was  eight  years.  He  died  in  842  B.  c, 
leaving  his  one  surviving  son  Ahaziah  to  as- 
cend the  throne  (2  Kin.  viii.  24  ;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
12-xxii.  1). 


Jor'dan  [descender]. 

I  The  most  important  river  in  Palestine. 
It  rises  from  various   sources.     The  eastern 

j   source  is  at  Banias,  the  ancient  Csesarea  Pliil- 

j  ippi,  wliere  a  copious  stream,  the  Banias, 
issues  from  a  cave  in  a  lofty  cliff.  The  cen- 
tral and  largest  source  is  at  Tell  el-Kadi, 
probably  the  ancient  Dan,  where  from  two 
great  springs  the  abundant  Lcddan  takes  its 

I  rise.  The  third  source,  the  most  noi'thern 
and  highest  perennial  one,  is  the  fountain, 
below  Hasbeiya,  from  which  the  river  Has- 
bany  flows.  Thomson  says  that  the  Hasl)Any 
is  the  longest  by  40  miles,  the  Jjcddaii  imikIi 
the  largest,  and  the  Banias  the  most  beauti- 
ful. From  the  source  of  the  river  at  Banias 
to  the  lake  of  the  Huleh  the  distance  is  12 
miles;  the  junction  of  the  Banias  and  the 
Lcddan  taking  jilace  about  midway  between 
these  points,  and  the  confluence  with  tlie  Has- 
bany  afraction  of  a  mile  lower.  The  lake  itself 
is  4  miles  long.  The  Jordan,  emerging  from 
it  at  its  southern  side,  next  makes  its  way 
lOj  miles  more  to  the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  is 
12V  miles  long.  After  passing  through  this 
lake,  it  pursues  a  tortuous  course,  till  it 
enters  the  Dead  Sea,  at  a  point  65  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  southern  part  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee.  Including  the  two  lakes,  and 
taking  no  note  of  the  windings,  the  river 
from  Banias  to  the  Dead  Sea  is  104  miles 
long.  As  far  as  is  known,  it  stands  absolutely 
aloue  among  the  rivers  of  the  world  in  the 
fact  that  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 
course  it  runs  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
When  it  issues  from  the  cave  at  Banias  it  is 
1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. By  the  time  it  enters  the  lake  of  the 
Huleh  it  has  fallen  to  within  seven  feet  of 
sea  level.  At  the  sea  of  Galilee  it  is  682  feet 
])elow  the  sea  level,  and  when  entering  the 
Dead  Sea  1292  feet.  It  was  appropriately 
named  Jordan,  the  descender.  The  stream  is 
tortuous  also.  Lieut.  Lynch,  of  the  Ameri- 
can navy,  who  in  1848  led  an  expedition  from 
the  United  States,  sailed  from  the  sea  of 
Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Lieut.  Lynch 
wrote:  "In  a  space  of  60  miles  of  latitude 
and  4  miles  of  longitude  the  Jordan  traver.ses 
at  least  200  miles.  .  .  .  We  have  plunged 
down  twenty-seven  threatening  rapids,  be- 
sides a  great  many  of  lesser  magnitude." 

The  biblical  associations  with  the  river 
proper  attach  mainly  to  the  stretch  from  the 
sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea.  The  river 
was  fringed,  as  it  is  now,  with  a  thicket  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  principally  tamarisks, 
oleanders,  and  willows,  among  which  lions 
lurked  (Jer.  xlix.  19;  Zech.  xi.  3).  The 
valley  in  its  southern  part,  where  the  de- 
pression below  sea  level  is  greatest,  is  vir- 
tually a  troi)ical  country,  and  under  irriga- 
tion produced  crops  of  tropical  luxuriance 
(War  iv.  8,  3).  On  account  of  its  fertility 
Lot,  forgetful  of  moral  considerations,  chose 
it  as  the  place  of  his  residence  ((ien.  xiii.  8- 
13j.     The  river  was  not  bridged  until  Roman 


Jorim 


413 


Joseph 


times,  but  was  forded.  The  fords  are  fre- 
quent and  easy  in  the  upper  stream  and  as 
far  down  as  the  mouth  of  tlie  Jabbok,  wliere 
Jacob  crossed  (xxxii.  10  ;  xxxiii.  18).  Below 
that  point  the  river  is  rarely  fordable,  and 
then  only  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
Tlie  current  of  the  river  is  so  rapid  near 
Jericho  that  the  numerous  pilgrims  who  go 
thither  to  bathe  are  always  in  danger,  and 
not  infrequently  are  swept  away.  For  the 
Israelites  to  cross  the  Jordan  at  any  time, 
and  above  all  when  the  river 'was  in 
flood,  required  the  miracle  or  extraor- 
dinary providence  of  the  checked  waters 
(Josh.'  iii.  1-17;  iv.  1-rM ;  Ps.  cxiv.  3, 
5).  The  fulness  of  the  .Jordan,  with  the 
overflow  of  its  water  over  the  banks  imme- 
diate to  its  channel,  during  the  time  of  har- 
vest (March  or  April  in  that  warm  valley)  is 
produced  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  on 
mount  Hermon  (Josh.  iii.  15).  The  fleeing 
Midianites,  pursued  by  Gideon,  crossed  by 
the  fords  at  and  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Jabljok  (Judg.  vii.  24 ;  viii.  4,  5).  David, 
when  fleeing  from  Absalom  and  on  returning 
to  his  kingdom,  crossed  twice  somewhere 
between  Jericho  and  the  Jabbok  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  22,  24  ;  xix.  15-18).  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
amidst  the  wonderful  events  at  the  close  of 
Elijah's  career,  crossed  at  Jericho  (2  Kin.  ii. 
5-8;  13-15).  Xaamau  the  Syrian,  as  directed 
by  the  prophet,  washed  seven  times  in  the 
Jordan,  somewhere  in  its  upper  reaches, 
either  north  or  south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  was  cured  of  his  leprosy  (2  Kin.  v.  14). 
John  the  Baptist  administered  the  special 
rite  which  gave  him  his  designation,  in  the 
Jordan,  and  it  was  there  that  our  Lord  was 
baptized  (Mat.  iii.  6,  13-17). 

Jo'rim. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  350 
years  after  David  (Luke  iii.  29). 

Jor'ke-am,  in  A.  V.  Jorkoam  [perhaps, 
pallor  or  fear  of  the  people,  or  possibly,  sta- 
bility, expansion]. 

A  place  peopled  by  members  of  the  family  of 
Hezrou  and  house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  44J. 

Jos'a-bad.     See  Jozabad. 

Jos'a-phat.     See  Jehoshaphat. 

Jo'se.     See  Jesus  2. 

Jo'sech. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  probably  lived 
after  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26).  The  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  diflerent  reading,  calls  him  Joseph. 

Jos'e-decli.    See  Jozadak. 

Jo'seph  [may  he  add].  The  name  has  also 
the  sound  of  a  verb  of  diflerent  etymology, 
meaning  "he  taketh  away  ;"  and  the  Hebrew 
writer  in  Gen.  sxx.  23,  24,  following  custom, 
plays  upon  the  sound  and  upon  both  etymol- 
ogies when  he  explains,  not  what  the  root  of 
the  word  is,  but  the  reason  for  bestowing  the 
name. 

1.  The  eleventh  of  Jacob's  twelve  sons, 
and  the  elder  son  of  Eachel,  who,  when  she 


gave  him  birth,  said,  "The  Lord  add  to  me 
another  son,"  and  therefore  called  his  name 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxx.  22-24).  He  was  born  in 
Paddan-aram,  about  six  years  before  the  re- 
turn of  Jacob  to  Canaan  (25 ;  cp.  xxxi.  41), 
when  Jacob  was  90  or  91  years  old.  He  was 
his  father's  favorite  child,  because  he  was  the 
son  of  his  old  age  and  Eachel's  child  ;  and  he 
made  him  a  coat  such  as  was  worn  by  young 
people  of  the  better  class  (xxxvii.  3).  The 
father's  favoritism  aroused  the  envy  of  the 
elder  brethren  ;  and  their  ill-will  was  in- 
creased by  two  dreams  which  Joseph  had,  and 
which  foreshadowed  the  time  when  his 
father,  his  mother,  and  his  brethren  should 
bow  down  and  do  him  obeisance.  When 
Joseph  was  seventeen  years  old  (xxxvii.  2), 
Jacob  sent  him  to  Shechem,  where  his  broth- 
ers were  feeding  their  flocks,  to  ask  after 
their  welfare.  On  reaching  Shechem,  he 
found  that  they  had  gone  on  to  Dothan,  and 
he  followed  them  thither.  As  he  was  seen  ap- 
proaching, the  brothers  proposed  to  slay  him 
and  report  to  his  father  that  a  wild  beast  had 
devoured  him.  Eeuben,  however,  prevailed 
upon  them  not  to  take  Joseph's  life,  but  to 
cast  him  alive  into  a  pit,  intending  eventu- 
ally to  take  the  youth  out  and  restore  him  to 
his  father.  In  Eeuben's  absence  a  caravan 
of  Ishmaelites,  traveling  on  the  great  high- 
way that  led  down  into  Egypt,  drew  near. 
To  Midianite  merchantmen  of  the  company 
Joseph  was  sold.  A  kid  of  the  goats  being 
killed,  his  coat  was  dipped  in  the  blood  and 
the  besmeared  garment  was  sent  to  Jacob, 
who  concluded  that  his  sou  had  been  torn  to 
pieces  by  some  wild  beast  (Gen.  xxxvii.  1-35). 
Meanwhile  the  slave  dealers  took  Joseph 
down  into  Egypt,  and  sold  him  to  Potiphar, 
the  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard.  The  young 
slave's  ability  was  soon  discovered,  and 
Potiphar  gave  him  charge  of  all  his  house. 
But  on  false  accusations  he  was  committed 
to  prison,  where  he  was  confined  for  years. 
There  he  so  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
jailer  that  all  the  prisoners  were  committed 
to  his  charge.  God  enabled  him  to  interpret 
prophetic  dreams  of  the  chief  butler  and  the 
chief  baker  of  Pharaoh,  who  were  confined 
with  him  in  prison,  and  his  interpretation  in 
each  instance  was  found  correct.  Two  years 
later  Pharaoh  dreamed  two  prophetic  dreams, 
which  no  one  could  interpret,  and  the  chief 
butler,  who  had  been  restored  to  his  royal 
master's  favor,  remembered  Joseph  and  told 
of  the  occurrences  in  the  prison.  Joseph  was 
immediately  sent  for,  and  interpreted  the 
dreams,  both  of  which  had  the  same  mean- 
ing. Seven  years  of  great  plenty  were  to  be 
succeeded  by  seven  years  of  grievous  famine. 
He  ventured  to  recommend  that  some  one 
should  be  appointed  to  collect  the  surjilus 
produce  during  the  seven  years  of  plenty, 
and  store  it  against  the  years  of  famine.  Pha- 
raoh approved  the  plan  ;  and,  having  had 
evidence  of  the  wisdom  of  Joseph  (xli.  9-13, 
25-36),  he  appointed  him   superintendent  of 


Joseph 


414 


Joseph 


flic  royal  granaries  and  as  such  the  head  of 
a  ile|)artinent  of  tlie  state  and  one  of  the  of- 
ficials next  in  rank  to  the  kini;  I  xli.  ;J!)-44). 
Joseph  was  now  thirty  years  of  afje  (xli.  46). 
He  had  heen  diasteiied  and  lninil)U>d  by  the 
sufferings  of  thirteen  years.  IMiaraoh  save 
him  Asenath,  dans;hterof  a  priestly  family  at 
On,  to  wife;  and  before  tlic  faniinc  bcjiau 
two  sons  w<'re  born  to  him,  Manasscli  and 
Eplu-aim  (xli.  50-52).  The  famine  came  as 
predicted  (see  Xii.k),  and  affected  all  the 
known  world,  especially  the  western  part  of  it 
around  the  Mediterranean  i  xli.  .">(,  5(i,  57;  see 
World).  In  Kuiypt,  however,  there  was  a 
store  of  food,  and  Joseph's  brothers  went 
thither  to  buy  grain.  They  did  not  recognize 
Joseph,  hut  lie  knew  them  ;  and  as  they  did 
obeisance  to  him.  he  .saw  that  the  dreams 
which  lirouuht  him  into  such  trouble  had 
come  to  be  verified.  After  testing  their  char- 
acter in  various  ways,  on  their  second  visit 
he  revealed  himself  to  them,  forgave  them 
the  wrong  they  had  done  him,  and  ]iersnaded 
them  and  their  father  to  settle  in  Egypt. 
Pharaoh  warmly  welcomed  them.  The  king 
who  acted  thus  kindly  has  long  lieen  believed 
to  have  been  A]iepi  II.  or  Aiiojjhis  (Eiisebius). 
At  any  rate,  he  was  doulitless  of  the  Hyk- 
sos  or  Shejilierd  dynasty,  and  being  himself 
a  Semite,  was  the  more  ready  to  welcome 
men  of  a  race  identical  with  his  own.  Jo.seph 
died  at  the  age  of  110  years,  and  his  body 
was  embalmed  and  ]>iit  in  a  coffin  in  Egypt  ; 
but  he  had  left  strict  injunctions  that  when 
the  exodus  took  place  his  remains  should  be 
removed  to  Canaan  ((ien.  xlii.-l.;  Hel).  xi. 
22t.  His  wishes  were  carried  out  ;  and  his 
remains  were  ultimately  buried  near  Slie- 
chem,  in  the  very  center  of  the  promised  land 
(Ex.  xiii.  19 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

The  particulars  of  Joseph's  life,  whiidi  in- 
volve Egyptian  customs,  are  borne  out  by 
the  monumeiitsand  the  i)a]iyri.  It  is  known, 
for  instance,  from  the  Kosetta  stone  that  it 
was  the  habit  of  the  king  to  release  iirisoners 
at  his  liirthday  feast  and  on  other  great  occa- 
sions, lieferences  to  magicians  and  sooth- 
sayers are  freijueiif,  and  great  stniss  is  laid 
on  dreams  as  messages  from  tlie  gods.  When 
Joseph  was  sent  for  in  the  prison,  although 
there  is  express  mention  of  haste,  yet  lie 
stayed  to  shave  himself  and  put  on  clean 
raiment  (Gen.  xli.  14).  Shaving  was  particu- 
larly practiced  and  among  the  ])riests  was  a 
religious  rite.  The  term  "  Ijord  over  tiie 
whole  land"  has  been  found  Imt  once  (on  a 
monument  in  the  museum  of  Turin),  but  the 
investiture  of  an  official  of  high  rank  is  fre- 
quently depicted  and  agrees  with  the  descrip- 
tion in  ( Jenesis,  the  signet  ring,  the  linen  ves- 
ture, and  the  chain  about  tlie  neck  being 
liromiiienf.  The  phrase,  also,  "  According  un- 
to thy  word  [mouth]  shall  all  my  ]ieo|ile  be 
ruled  "  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  the 
hieroglyph  for  ruler  is  a  mouth.  An  eco- 
nomic change,  whereby  the  land  came  to  lie 
owned  entirely  by  the  king  and   the  jiricsts. 


took  place  some  time  before  the  rise  of  the 
New  Empire  ;  see  Egypt  II.  5. 

There  is  reference  to  Egyptian  conceptions 
of  propriety  in  the  separate  setting  of  bread 
for  Joseph,  for  his  brethren,  and  for  the  Egyji- 
tians  present  (Gen.  xliii,  32).  Joseph  ate  by 
himself,  because  he  was  a  man  of  highest 
rank  and  a  member  of  the  priestly  class, 
which  kept  apart  from  the  laity.  The  Egyp- 
tians ate  by  themselves,  for  Egj'ptians  held 
aloof  from  foreigners ;  the  priests  ate  and 
drank  nothing  that  was  imported  (Porphery 
iv.  7),  and  the  jieople  generally  considered  it 
an  abomination  to  use  the  eating  utensils  of 
the  Greeks  (Herod,  ii.  41),  and  ostracized 
shepherds,  swineherds,  and  cowherds,  even 
when  native  Egyptians,  because  the  occujia- 
tion  of  tending  cattle  was  incompatible  with 
the  refinement  and  cleanliness  demanded  by 
Egyptian  standards  (Gen.  xlvi.  34  ;  Herod,  ii. 
47  ;  cp.  1H4).  This  objection  to  herdsmen 
was  probalily  the  cause  of  Joseph's  settling 
his  kindred  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  where 
they  would  not  come  in  contact  with  the  na- 
tives of  the  laud. 

Jacob-el  and  Joseph-el  are  names  of  places 
in  Palestine  con()uered  by  Thothmes  III., 
the  Egyptian  warrior-king,  long  after  the 
descent  of  .Jacob  and  his  sons  into  Egypt  and 
about  a  century  before  the  exodus.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  they  stand  in  any  relation 
to  the  patriarch  .Tacoli  and  liis  son  Joseph. 
They  are  names  like. Jiphthah-el  or  Iiihtah-el, 
a  valley  in  the  territory  of  Zebulun  (Josh. 
xix.  14),  may  mean  God  doth  supjilant  and 
God  doth  take  away,  and  they  were  in  use  in 
Babylonia  as  personal  names. 

An  Egyptian  story,  known  as  the  Tale  of 
the  Two  Brothers,  recounts  the  temptation 
of  a  young  man  in  the  home  of  his  elder 
lirother,  similar  to  the  experience  of  .Josejih 
ill  the  house  of  Potiphar  {Gen.  xxxix.).  The 
younger  brother  is  saved  from  the  wrath  of 
the  elder  by  the  inter|)osition  of  the  sungod, 
who  makes  a  river  full  of  crocodiles  to  How 
as  a  barrier  between  the  two.  The  further 
adventures  of  the  twain,  at  length  reconciled 
to  each  other,  are  equally  fabulous.  Th(> 
story  was  transcribed  in  the  reign  of  Seti  II., 
of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  centuries  after 
the  time  of  Joseph  ;  hut  when  the  tale  was 
composed  is  not  known.  Such  incidents 
were  not  uncmnmon.  and  were  introduced 
into  story  (Homer,  Iliad  vi.  155  seq.). 

Tlie  two  tribes  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim 
descended  from  Joseph's  two  sons.  The  bless- 
ings ])roiiounced  on  Joseph  by  the  dying 
.Jacob  were  designed  for  these  tribes  as  "well 
as  for  Joseidi  himself  (Gen.  xlviii.  8-22;  xlix. 
22-2()).  In  P.s.  Ixxx.  1  Joseph  is  a  poetic 
designation  of  the  tribes  of  Manasseh  and 
ICjihraim. 

2.  Father  of  the  sjiy  from  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
cliar  (Num.  xiii.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Asaph  and  head  of  a  course  of 
musicians  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron, 
XXV.  2,  !(). 


Joseph 


415 


Joshibiah 


4.  All  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  between 
the  time  of  David  and  the  exile  (Luke  iii. 
30). 

5.  A  soK  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreigu  wife  (Ezra  x.  42). 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  the  family  of  Shelui- 
iiiali  in  the  days  of  the  high  jiriest  Joialcim 
(Neh.  xii.  14). 

7.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26,  in  E.  V.  Josech). 

8.  Son  of  Mattathias,  in  the  ancestry  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24,  25). 

9.  Son  of  Zacharias.  When  Judas  ]\Iacca- 
ligeus  sent  Simon  to  aid  the  Jews  in  (xalilee 
and  himself  went  to  fight  in  Gilead,  he  left 
Joseph  and  Azarias  in  charge  of  the  forces  in 
Judiea.  They  engaged  in  battle,  contrary  to 
their  orders,  and  were  defeated  (1  Mac.  v.  18, 
55-62). 

10.  The  husband  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus  (Mat.  i.  16  ;  Luke  iii.  23).  For  his  an- 
(testry  see  Genealogy.  When  Mary  was 
found  with  child  before  marriage,  Jost^jih 
was  minded  to  put  her  away  without  pul)lic 
exposure,  for  he  was  a  just  man.  But  an 
angel  informed  him  in  a  dream  that  the  child 
to  be  born  had  been  miraculously  conceived 
by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Now  he  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  carrying  out  his  contract  with  her, 
and  he  made  her  his  wife  (Mat.  i.  18-25). 
Being  a  descendant  of  David,  he  had  to  go 
to  Bethlehem,  the  early  home  of  his  ances- 
tors, for  enrollment,  according  to  the  decree 
of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  was  there  with 
Mary  when  Jesus  was  born  (Luke  ii.  4,  16). 
He  was  with  Mary  when,  at  the  presentation 
of  Jesus  in  the  temple,  Simeon  and  Anna 
gave  forth  their  prophetic  utterances  (33). 
Warned  by  an  angel  in  a  dream  that  Herod 
plotted  the  murder  of  the  child,  Joseph  con- 
ducted the  flight  into  Egypt  (Mat.  ii.  13,  19). 
He  returned  to  Nazareth  when  Herod  was 
dead  (22,  23).  He  was  accustomed  to  go  with 
Mary  annually  to  the  passover  at  Jerusalem, 
and  he  took  Jesus  also  to  the  feast  when 
our  Lord  was  twelve  years  old  (Luke  ii. 
43).  and  he  also  safely  reached  Nazareth 
on  the  return  journey  (51).  He  was  a  car- 
penter (]Mat.  xiii.  55),  and  was  assisted  in  his 
work  by  the  young  man  Jesus  (Mark  vi.  3). 
Apparently  Joseph  was  alive  when  Jesus'  min- 
istry had  well  begun  (]\Iat.  xiii.  55),  but  as 
we  do  not  hear  of  him  in  connection  with 
the  crucifixion,  it  may  be  inferred  that  he 
died  previously  to  that  event.  This  was  the 
reason  why  Jesus,  when  on  the  cross,  com- 
mended Mary  to  the  kindness  of  the  apostle 
John,  which  he  would  scarcely  have  done 
had  her  natural  guardian  still  been  alive 
(John  xix.  26,  27). 

11.  The  same  as  Joses  1  (Mat.  xiii.  55,  K.  V.). 
See  Brethren  of  the  Lord. 

12.  A  Jew  of  Arimatha^a,  a  member  of  the 
sanhedrin,  a  councihn-  of  honorable  estate, 
who  looked  for  the  kingdom  of  God  (Mark 
XV.  43).  He  had  not  consented  to  the  resolu 
tion  of  the  sanhedrin  to  put  Jesus  to  deaili. 


for  he  was  a  disciple  of  Je.sus,  although  se- 
cretly, for,  like  Nicodenius,  the  only  other 
member  t)f  the  governing  body  who  believed 
on  our  Lord,  he  was  fearful  of  publicly  com- 
mitting himself.  Both  became  more  cour- 
ageous when  they  saw  the  crucifixion.  Joseph 
went  boldly  to  Pilate,  begged  the  body  of 
Jesus,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  new  tomb,  whicli 
he  had  hewn  out  in  a  rock  (Mat.  xxvii.  57 
60  ;  Luke  xxiii.  50-53;  John  xix.  38). 

13.  A  Christian  called  Bar.sabbas  or  son  of 
Sabbas,  and  Justus.  He  had  companied  with 
Jesus  and  the  disciples  from  the  time  of 
Jesus'  baptism,  and  was  one  of  two  who 
were  considered  worthy  to  fill  the  vacancy- 
among  the  apostolic  twelve  produced  by  the 
apostasy  of  Judas;  but  the  lot  fell  upon 
Matthias  (Acts  i.  21,  26).  He  was  probably  a 
brother  of  Judas,  called  Barsabbas  (Acts  xv. 
22). 

14.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas  (Acts 
iv.  36,  in  A.  V.  .loses). 

Jo'ses  [a  Greek  form  of  .loseph]. 

1.  One  of  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  (ISlark 
vi.  3).  Ill  Mat.  xiii.  55,  E.  V.  jirefers  the 
manuscripts  which  gave  the  name  as.Iose])h. 

2.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas,  for  a 
time  the  missionary  colleague  of  Paul  (Acts 
iv.  36,  in  E.  V.  Joseph). 

Jo'shah  [perhaps,  uprightness]. 
A    Simeonite,    son  of   Amaziah  (1    Chron. 
iv.  34). 
Josh'a-phat  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 

1.  A  ^lithnite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  the  trumpeters  before 
the  ark  during  its  removal  to  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xv.  24,  in  A.  V.  Jehoshaphat). 

Josh-a-vi'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  setteth 
upright]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
46). 

Josh-be-ka'shah  [possibly,  seat  of  hard- 
ness]. 

A  singer,  .son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4i, 
and  head  of  the  seventeenth  course  of  singers 
(24). 

Josh-eb-bas'she-betli,  in  A.  V.  margin 
Josbeb-bassebet. 

A  textual  corruption  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  "^  for. 
apparently,  Ish-baal,  there  is  a  Lord.  Baal 
was  altered,  as  was  often  done  after  it  had 
acquired  idolatrous  associations,  to  hoaheth, 
shame  ;  and  instead  of  bosheth,  /.  e.  b-sh-th, 
the  word  b-sh-b-ih  which  ends  the  ])rc(ediiig 
verse  was  seen  by  a  copyist.  His  identity 
with  Jashobeam  is  fairly  established  by  com- 
parison of  this  verse  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11 
and  verses  8  and  9  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  2. 
4.  This  latter  form  is  perhajis  another  mode 
of  avoiding  the  name  Baal. 

Josh-i-bi'ab,  in  A.  V.  Josibiab  [Jehovah 
gives  an  aboflc]- 

A  Simeonite,  family  of  Asiel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  35). 


Joshua 


416 


Joshua 


Josh'u-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Jehoshua  (Nnm. 
xiii.  Ki),  and  once  Jehoshuah  (1  Chion.  vii. 
27),  the  latter  an  iiiconsisli  ncy  not  found  in 
A.V.  in  the  original  edition  of  Kill.  Jehoslma 
deveh)jied  into  Jeshua  (Xev.  viii.  17),  and 
this  form  was  Greeianized  and  appears  as 
Jesus  (Acts  vii.  4."))  [Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  An  Ephraniite,  the  son  of  Kun  (Num. 
xiii.  8,  16).  He  eoninianded  the  Israelites  in 
their  successful  conflict  with  the  Anialekites 
atKei)hidim  (Ex.  svii.  S-Ki).  A  personal  at- 
tendant on  Moses,  he  was  with  him  on  mount 
Sinai  when  the  golden  calf  was  made,  and 
mistcn)k  the  noise  of  idolatrous  revelry  in  the 
camp  for  the  shouting  of  hostile  comhatants 
(xxiv.  13  ;  xxxii.  17,  18).  He  had  charge  of 
the  tirst  tent  of  meeting  (xxxiii.  11).  As 
prince  of  Ei>hraim,  he  was  a  memher  of  the 
commission  of  twelve  sent  to  re])ort  on  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  its  assailability;  and  he 
joined  Caleb  in  seeking  to  persuade  the 
people  to  go  and  possess  tlie  land  (NuBi.  xiii. 
8;  xiv.  6-9).  For  this  the  two  narrowly 
escaped  being  .stoned  to  death  (10),  but 
God  rewarded  them  for  their  fidelity  and 
trust  in  Jehovah  by  keeping  them  alive 
to  enter  the  promised  land  (30,  38).  At 
the  end  of  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  by  divine  direction  Moses  placed 
Joshua  before  the  high  jiriest  and  the  congre- 
gation in  Shittim  and  publicly  ordained  him 
to  be  his  successor  (Num.  xxvii.  18-23  ;  Deut. 
i.  38)  ;  and  just  before  death,  the  lawgiver 
took  Joshua  to  the  tabernacle  to  receive  his 
charge  from  the  Lord  (xxxi.  14.  23).  On 
the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  began  immediate 
prejiarations  for  crossing  the  Jordan.  The 
people  were  allowed  three  days  in  which  to 
prepare  victuals  (.Tosh.  i.  10,  11).  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes  were  reminded  of  their  obliga- 
tion to  render  their  lirethren  armed  assist- 
ance (12-18).  and  spies  were  dispatched  to 
search  out  Jericho  (ii.  1).  The  camp  was 
then  moved  to  the  river  and  the  people  care- 
fully instructed  as  to  the  order  of  march  (iii. 
1-6).  He  showed  his  military  skill  in  the 
Iilan  of  cami)aign  whicli  he  adopted  for  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  :  a  central  camp,  advan- 
tageously situated  ;  the  captnreof  the  towns 
which  commanded  the  approaches  to  his 
cami>;  great  canijiaigns  following  up  vic- 
tories; see  Cana.\.\.  He  blundered,  how- 
ever, in  making  a  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites 
and  in  not  garrisoning  the  citadel  of  the 
Jebusites.  Hy  these  two  mi.stakes  Judah 
was  to  a  degree  isolated  from  the  northern 
tribes.  He  carried  out  the  injuncti(Mi  to  as- 
semble the  people  on  l^bal  and  (ierizim  to 
hear  the  blessiugs  and  the  cursings  (viii.  30- 
35).  His  cain])aigns  had  broken  the  jjower 
of  the  Canaan itcs,  but  not  exterminated 
them  (see  C.VNAAN).  Hut  although  the 
l)rospect  of  further  fighting  remained,  the 
time  had  come  to  jilan  for  the  settlement 
of  the  country.  Aided  by  the  high  jjriest 
and  a  commission,  he  su])erintended  the  al- 
lotment   of  the  conquered    count ly,    begin- 


ning the  distribution  while  the  camp  was 
at  Gilgal  (xiv.  6-xvii.),  and  completing  ifc 
and  assigning  cities  of  refuge  and  the 
Le\itical  towns  after  he  had  removed  the 
tabernacle  to  Shiloh  (xviii.-xxi.).  For  him- 
self he  asked  and  obtained  a  town,  Timnath- 
serah,  in  mount  Ephraim  (xix.  .50).  When 
old,  he  convoked  an  assembly  of  the  people 
at  Shechem,  because  it  was  the  place  of 
Abraham's  first  altar  on  entering  Canaan  and 
the  locality  where  the  tribes  had  invoked 
blessings  and  cursings  upon  themselves. 
There  he  made  them  a  powerful  address, 
urging  them  not  to  forsake  Jehovah  (xxiv. 
1-28).  Soon  afterwards  he  died,  at  the  age 
of  110,  and  was  buried  at  the  place  of  his 
choice,  Timnath-serah  (29,  30). 

The  Book  of  Joshua  properly  follows  Deu- 
teronomy in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  in 
the  English  Bible  ;  for  it  continues  the  his- 
tory from  the  death  of  Moses,  which  was  the 
last  event  recorded  in  Deuteronomy.  It  is 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  Penta- 
teuch than  with  the  books  which  foUow  it : 
for  the  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  times  was  still 
active  in  the  liistory  which  it  recounts ;  and 
it  is  the  sequel  of  Genesis  in  that  it  records 
the  possession  of  the  promised  land  for  which 
Abraham  waited,  as  related  in  Genesis.  But 
since  it  was  not  written  by  Moses,  it  was 
kept  distinct  from  the  tive  books  of  Moses  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  In  these  Scriptures 
it  is  the  first  of  "  the  prophets  ;  "  and  begins 
that  division  of  them  called  the  "  former 
prophets,"  which  embraces  all  the  books  of 
the  English  Bible  between  Joshua  and  2 
Kings  inclusive,  except  Euth  ;  see  Canon. 
The  book  maybe  divided  into  three  sections  : 

I.  The  conquest  of  Canaan  (i.-xii.)  ;  includ- 
ing the  preparation  for  crossing  the  Jordan 
and  the  passage  of  the  river  (i.-iv.  18),  the 
establishment  of  the  camp  and  celebration 
of  the  passover  (iv.  19-v.  12),  the  capture  of 
Jericho  and  Ai,  the  confirmation  of  the  cov- 
enant on  Ebal,  and  the  treaty  with  the  Gibe- 
onites (v.  13-ix.),  the  southern  and  northern 
campaigns  (x.,  xi.),  and  the  summary  (xii.). 

II.  The  distribution  of  Canaan  (xiii.-xxii.i ; 
including  a  description  of  the  land  which  re- 
mained to  be  divided  (xiii.),  its  allotment, 
with  the  assignment  of  cities  of  refuge  and 
the  allotment  of  towns  to  the  tribe  of  Eevi 
(xiv.-xxi.),  and  the  temporary  misunder- 
standing about  the  altar  on  the  Jordan,  as 
though  it  were  intended  to  divide  the  nation 
(xxii.).  III.  Joshua's  farewell  address  and 
death  (xxiii.,  xxiv.). 

It  is  expressly  stated  that  Joshua  wrote 
"these  words,"  including  at  least  the  ac- 
count of  the  proceedings  at  Shechem  (xxiii. - 
xxiv.  25)  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God 
(xxiv.  26).  The  ctmcluding  verses  of  the 
book  (xxiv.  29-33)  were  written  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  Eleazar,  and  the  men  of 
that  generation.  The  simplest  theory  is  that 
the  conquest  of  Hebron,  Debir,  and  Anab  by 
Caleb  took   jdace  after  the  death  of  Joshua 


Josiah 


417 


Josiah 


aud  is  recorded  prolepticiilly  in  xv.  lo-20 
(see  Hebron),  that  Zephath  is  called  Hormah 
by  anticipatiou  in  xii.  14,  aud  that  this  verse 
reflects  an  event  which  occurred  after  the 
death  of  Joshua  (Judg.  i.  17;  see  Hokmah)  ; 
and  that  xix.  47  records  the  migration  of  the 
Danites  in  the  days  of  the  judges.  It  is 
reasonable  to  conclude  •  from  the  genei-al 
character  of  the  documents  and  casual  state- 
ments in  them  that  large  portions  of  the 
book  were  in  writing  in  the  time  of  Joshua. 
At  any  rate,  they  received  final  form  while 
the  town  of  Ai  was  still  in  ruins  (viii.  28), 
before  the  reign  of  Solomon,  while  the 
Canaanites  still  dwelt  in  Gezer  (xvi.  10  with 
1  Kin.  ix.  16),  and  before  the  reign  of  David, 
at  a  time  when  the  Jebusites  still  occupied 
the  stronghold  of  Jerusalem  {xv.  63).  In  gen- 
eral, see  Pentateuch. 

2.  A  native  of  Beth-shemesh,  the  owner  of 
a  field  to  which  the  kine  drawing  the  cart 
which  carried  the  ark  from  the  Philistine 
country  made  their  way  (1  Sam.  vi.   14). 

3.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  dui'ing  the 
reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  8). 

4.  The  high  priest  while  Zerubbabel  was 
governor  of  Judah  (Hag.  i.  1,  12,  14  ;  ii.  2- 
4  :  Zech.  iii.  1-9).  Called  in  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  Jeshua  (q.  v.). 

Jo-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Josias  [Jehovah 
healeth]. 

1.  Son  and  successor  of  Anion  as  king  of 
Judah.  He  came  to  the  tlirone  about  the 
year  639  B.  c,  when  eiglit  years  old.  In  his 
youth  his  adviser  seems  to  have  been  the 
high  priest  Hilkiah,  and  Josiah  hearkened  to 
him.  In  the  eighth  year  of  his  reign  he 
began  the  attemjit  to  conform  his  own  con- 
duct as  king,  and  the  life  of  the  court,  to  the 
laws  of  God.  In  his  twelfth  regnal  year  he 
commenced  to  suppress  idolatry  and  other 
unlawful  worship;  a  work  which  he  pros- 
ecuted for  years  not  only  in  Judah  and  .Jeru- 
salem, but  after  his  eighteenth  year  in  Israel 
also  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,  2  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  1-7, 
33).  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  took  ener- 
getic steps  to  repair  and  adorn  the  temple  ; 
and  the  workmen,  entering  with  enthusiasm 
into  his  plans,  acted  with  exemplary  fidelity 
in  using  the  money  entrusted  to  them  for  the 
purpose.  While  the  repairs  of  the  temple 
were  being  executed,  Hilkiah,  the  high 
priest,  found  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  house 
of  the  Lord,  and  handed  it  over  to  Shaphan, 
the  scribe,  who  read  it  to  the  king.  Josiah 
was  deeply  impressed  by  the  prophecy  that 
if  the  people  departed  from  Jehovah  dread- 
ful consequences  would  ensue.  He  rent  his 
clothes  and  humbled  himself  before  God,  who 
was  pleased  to  give  him  the  gracious  assur- 
ance that  the  threatened  calamity  should  not 
come  in  his  time  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8-20  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  15-281.  The  prophecy  which  so  af- 
fected Josiah  was  Deut.  xxviii.-xxx.,  especial- 
ly xxix.  25-28.  The  book  found  by  Hilkiah 
must  thus  have  contained   Deuteronomy  at 

27 


least,  and  it  may  have  been  a  copy  of  the 
entire  Pentateuch.  The  .sacred  books  had. 
doubtless,  been  generally  destroyed  and  lost 
sight  of  during  the  apostasy  and  persecution 
in  the  long  reign  of  Maiuisseh  (2  Kin.  xxi. 
16;  2  Cliron.  xxxiii.  9);  aud  the  book  found 
by  Hilkiah  was  probably  the  temple  copy  of 
the  law,  which  had  been  hidden  or  thrown 
aside  during  the  profanation  of  tlio  sanctuary 
(Deut.  xxxi.  9,  26)  ;  or  possibly  it  was  a  law 
book  that  had  been  placed  in  the  wall,  ac- 
cording to  an  ancient  custom,  when  the  tem- 
ple was  first  built.  That  Deuteronomy  was 
an  old  book  at  the  time  may  be  argued  from 
the  fact  that  it  reflects  the  condition  of  Israel 
in  early  times  and  not  in  the  reign  of  Jo.siah. 
It  enjoins  upon  the  people  the  extermiuation 
of  the  Canaanites  and  Amalekites  (xx.  16- 
18 ;  XXV.  17-19),  but  in  Josiah's  day  there 
was  no  occasion  for  such  a  law.  It  contem- 
plates foreign  conquest  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelites  (xx.  10-15)  ;  but  in  Josiah's  day 
and  for  nearly  a  century  previously  the  ques- 
tion was  not  of  conquest,  but  whether  Judah 
could  maintain  its  existence  at  all.  It  vests 
the  supreme  authority  under  Jehovah  in  a 
judge  and  the  priesthood,  but  makes  pro- 
vision foi  a  time  when  the  Israelites  should 
desire  a  king  (xvii.  8-20;  xix.  17);  but  in 
Josiah's  day  the  Israelites  had  been  ruled  by 
kings  for  centuries.  It  discriminates  against 
Ammon  and  Moab  in  favor  of  Edom  (xxiii. 
3-8)  ;  but  in  Josiah's  day  and  for  a  longtime 
previously  Egypt  was  the  representative  foe 
of  the  people  of  God  (Is.  Ixiii.  6 ;  Joel  iii.  19 ; 
Obad.),  and  Jeremiah  promises  future  resto- 
ration to  Moab  and  Ammon,  but  denies  it  to 
Edom  (xlviii.  47  ;  xlix.  6,  17,  18).  The  leg- 
islation of  Deuteronomy  was  in  force  long 
before  the  time  of  Josiah  :  it  was  observed  at 
the  coronation  of  Joash  in  835  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xi.  12),  and  was  followed  by  Joash's  son  and 
successor,  Amaziah  (xiv.  6 ;  cp.  Deut.  xxiv. 
16).  The  reading  of  the  book  to  the  people 
affected  them  as  it  had  the  king.  So  deep 
was  the  impression  produced  that  a  sec- 
ond assault  upon  idolatry  was  begun,  more 
sweeping  than  the  first.  After  the  king  and 
his  subjects  had  together  covenanted  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  only,  they  proceeded  to  take 
the  vessels  of  Baal,  of  the  Asherim,  and  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  burn  them,  and  cast  the 
ashes  into  the  brook  Kidron.  The  Asherah  in 
the  house  of  the  Lord  was  similarly  burnt, 
the  residences  of  the  sodomites  were  broken 
down,  and  the  high  places  were  destroyed, 
not  merely  through  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
but  through  the  former  territory  of  the 
northern  tribes,  now  largely  empty  of  its 
Israelitish  inhabitants.  The  valley  of  Hin- 
uom  and  the  shrine  of  Topheth,  in  which 
children  had  been  made  to  pass  through  the 
tire  to  Molech,  were  defiled,  and  other 
sweeping  reforms  effected.  When  at  Bethel, 
Josiah  took  the  bones  of  the  idolatrous 
priests  from  their  graves,  and  burnt  them  on 
the  altar,  thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  a 


Josibiah 


418 


Jotham 


man  of  God  in  Jeroboam's  time  (1  Kin.  xiii. 

2).  Nor  did  he  scruple  to  slay  the  living 
idolatrous  priests  themselves  on  the  altars  on 
\vhi(li  they  had  l)ceii  aeeust<imed  to  sacrifice. 
Tlitii  lie  coiicliuled  liy  holding  a  jiassover,  so 
well  attended  and  so  solemn  that  nothing 
like  it  had  been  celebrated  since  the  time  of 
Samuel  {'2  Kin.  xxiii.  1-25;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
2!)-xxxv.  19).  Thirteen  years  afterwards 
Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt,  marclicd  an 
army  along  the  maritime  portion  of  I'alestine 
on  his  way  to  the  Euphrates,  where  he  de- 
signed to  try  his  strength  against  the  great 
Assyrian  jiower.  Situated  as  the  small  and 
ednijiaiatively  feeble  king<li)m  of  Judah  was 
between  the  Assyrian  and  Egyjitiau  empires, 
then  in  mutual  hostility,  it  was  difficult  for 
it  to  maintain  neutrality;  indeed,  Josiah 
seems  to  have  looked  on  himself  as  a  vassal 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  legally  and  morally 
bound  to  give  him  military  aid  in  war;  and 
he  gave  battle  to  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo 
in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  in  the  fight 
was  mortally  wounded  by  an  ari'ow  .  His  at- 
tendants removed  him  from  his  war  chariot 
to  a  second  conveyance,  which  brought  him 
to  Jerusalem.  He  had,  however,  only  reached 
that  capital  when  he  died.  Great  lamenta- 
tions were  made  for  him  by  Jeremiah,  the 
singing  men  and  the  .singing  women,  and  the 
people  generally.  His  loss  to  his  country  was 
irreparable.  The  religious  reforms  which  he 
liad  commenced  were  a.ssailed,  and  the  par- 
tial indt'iiendence  which  his  country  had  cn- 
jiiyed  under  his  rule  passed  away.  He  had 
reigned  thirty-one  years,  but  was  only  thirty- 
nine  when  he  died,  about  608  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  1  ;  xxiii.  29,  30 ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20- 
27:  (•]).  Zech.  xii.  11).  Jeremiah  and  Zeph- 
aniali  ]>ro])liesied  during  the  latter  part  of 
of  his  reign  (Jer.  i.  2;  iii.  (! ;  Zeph.  i.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Zei)haniah,  in  Zechariah'sdays 
(Zech.  vi.  10).  Perhajjs  the  same  as  Hen  of 
ver.  11  :  but  see  Hen. 

Jos-i-bi'ah.     See  Joshiisiah. 

Jos-i-phi'ah  [Jehovah  will  increa.se]. 

Head  of  the  iiousc  of  Shelomith,  who  re- 
in rneil  from  exile  witii  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
10  . 

Jot.  .\  transliteration  of  the  Greek  word 
iotd  (Mat.  V.  l.S),  the  narue  of  the  letter  of 
tiie  (Jrcek  alpiiabet  which  corresponds  to  the 
llehrcw.jod  and  is  its  e(|uivalent  etyniolog- 
ieally.  Till!  discourse,  of  wliii;h  Mat.  v.  IS 
forms  a  ])art,  was  ])rol)ably  sjioken  in  the. 
vernacular  Hebrew;  and  the  allusion  to  the 
law  is  a  reference  to  Helirew  literature.  Th'.^ 
word  Jot,  therefore,  doubtless  stajids  for  llu; 
Hebrew  Jod.  .\t  tiie  l)egiiiiiing  of  the  first 
cenlnry  \.  D.  this  letter  did  not  always  diller 
in  size  from  the  other  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
aljiiialiet  (see  examples  on  coins,  artich^ 
MiiNKV),  iiltimugh  as  srmetinies  written  it 
was  one  of  tbe  smaller  om-s  (see  V.\ii);  ]ier- 
baps.  tiu'refore.  tbe  jKiint  of  the  comparison 
does  not  lie  in  the  small  ness  of  t  lie  letter.  i5ut 


in  many  Hebrew  words  the  use  of  the  jod  is 
a  matter  of  comparative  indifference,  and  in 
such  cases  the  letter  may  be  emjjloyed  or  dis- 
pensed with  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer ; 
hence  figuratively  jod  signifies  a  matter  that 
seems  to  be  of  small  moment. 

Jot'bah  [jileasantness,  goodness]. 

The  town  of  king  Amon's  grandfather  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  19). 

Jofba-thali,  in  A.  V.  once  Jotbath  (Deut. 
X.  7)  [goodness,  pleasantness]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, apparently  near  Ezion-geber  (Num. 
xxxiii.  33).  The  place  abounded  in  brooks 
of  water  (Deut.  x.  7).     Situation  unknown. 

Jo'tham,  in  A.  V.  once  Joatham  (Mat.  i. 
9),  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  form  [Jehovah 
is  upright]. 

1.  Youngest  son  of  Gideon.  He  escaped 
when  his  seventy  brothers  (the  offspring  of 
polygamy,  of  course)  were  massacred  by  their 
half-brother  Abimelech ;  and  afterwards,  in 
contempt  of  the  usur])ation,  standing  on 
mount  Gerizim,  he  uttered  the  parable,  audi- 
ble to  the  Shechemites  in  the  valley  below, 
of  the  trees  anointing  a  king  (Judg.  ix.  1-21). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  who  reigned  as  regent 
of  his  father,  Uzziah,  while  the  latter  was  a 

'  leper  (2  Kin.  xv.  5).  His  regency  began 
'  while  Jeroboam  II.  was  still  kiug  of  Israel 
i  (1  Chron.  v.  17).  Further  evidence  of  the 
partial  contemporaneousness  of  the  regency 
\  of  Jotham  and  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  exists, 
if  the  earthquake  took  place  while  Uzziah 
and  Jeroboam  were  reigning  (Amos  i.  1  ; 
Zech.  xiv.  5)  and  occurred  coincidently  with 
or  shortly  after  Uzziah's  invasion  of  the 
priest's  office  (Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Jotham  be- 
came sole  ruler  when  his  father  died,  about 
734  B.  c.  He  followed  Jehovah,  but  did  not 
interfere  with  the  high  places  at  which  the 
people  worshiped  other  gods.  He  built  the 
high  gate  of  the  temple  and  worked  on  the 
wall  on  the  hill  of  Ophel,  south  of  the  holy 
house.  He  erected  cities  in  the  uplands  of 
Judah  and  castles  and  towers  in  the  forests. 
He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ammonites 
and  made  them  tributary.  During  his  reign 
of  sixteen  years  Isaiah  and  Hosea  continued 
to  prophesy  (Is.  i.  1  ;  Hos.  i.  1).  At  the 
close  of  his  reign  the  allied  Israelites  and 
Syrians  began  their  invasion  of  Judah.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  forty-one ;  surviving  his 
father  scarcely  a  year,  it  seems.  He  left  his 
son  Ahaz  to  ascend  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
32-38;  2  Chron.  xxvii.  1-9).  With  Jotham, 
Ho.shea  is  connected  by  a  strange  syn- 
chronism: "Hoshea  reigned  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  .lotham  "  (2  Kin.  xv.  30).  This  ref- 
erence has  been  explained  as  meaning  the 
twentieth  year  since  Jotham  began  to  reign, 
his  accession  having  been  recorded  (ver.  5), 
but  his  reign  and  death  not  having  been  yer 
described  by  the  author  of  Kings.  What- 
ever be  the  true  explanation,  this  strange 
synchronism   goes  far  to  bring  the  data  of 


Journeys  of  the  Israelites 


419 


Judah 


the  Hebrew  record  into  harmony  with  the 
Assyrian  chronology. 

3.  A  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron.  ii.  47). 
Jour'neys  of  the  Is'ra-el-ites.    See  Wil- 
derness OF  THE  \Vanderin(;. 

Joz'a-bad,  in  A.  V.  once  Josabad  (1  Chron. 
xii.  4)  [Jeliovah  has  bestowed] . 

1.  A  Uederathite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
!ag  (1  C'liron.  xii.  4). 

2  and  3.  Two  Manassites  who  assisted 
David  to  pursue  the  Amalekites  after  their 
capture  of  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

4.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  over.seers  of  the 
tithes  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi 
13). 

o.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  the  time  of 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

ti.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeshua  (Ezra  viii.  33). 
Perhajis  he  was  the  Jozabad  who  by  order 
of  Ezra  took  part  in  teaching  the  people  the 
law  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and  was  the  Levitical 
chief  who  had  the  oversight  of  the  outward 
business  of  the  house  of  God  (Neh.  xi.  16)  ; 
he  may  have  been  the  Levite  of  the  name, 
who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (x.  23). 

7.  A  priest,  a  sou  of  Pashhur,  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

Joz'a-car,  in  A.  V.  Jozachar  [Jehovah  has 
remeuibered]. 

Son  of  an  Ammonitess  and  one  of  the  two 
assassins  of  Joash,  king  of  Judali  (2  Kin. 
xii.  21).  Called  erroneously  Zabad  in  2 
Chron.  xxiv.  26  ;  see  Beth  and  Daleth. 

Joz'a-dakand  Jehozadak,  in  X.X.  Josedech 
in  Haggai  and  Zecliariah  [Jehovah  is  just]. 

Father  of  Jeshua,  the  high  priest  (Ezra  iii. 
2,  8).  He  was  carried  captive  to  Babylonia 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 

Ju'bal  [a  stream,  a  moist  region ;  perhaps 
also  music]. 

The  younger  son  of  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Adah.  Jubal  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  pipe  (Gen.  iv.  21). 

Ju'bi-le,  in  A.  E.  V.  and  some  editions  of 
A.  ^^  Jubilee  [joyful  shout,  sound  of  the 
trumpet]. 

The  fiftieth  year  occurring  after  seven 
times  seven  years  had  been  counted  from 
the  institution  of  the  festival  or  from  tlie 
last  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  8-10) ;  cp.  the  calcu- 
lation of  Pentecost.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  custom  of  proclaiming  it  by  a  blast 
on  the  trumpet.  As  every  seventh  year  was 
a  Sabbatic  year,  the  jubilee  followed  imme- 
diately after  one  of  this  character.  In  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  (the  great 
day  of  atonement),  in  the  fiftieth  year,  the 
trumpet  of  the  jubilee  was  sounded.  It  pro- 
claimed liberty  to  all  Israelites  who  were  in 
bondage  to  any  of  their  countrymen,  and  the 
return  to  their  ancestral  ]iossessions  of  any 
who  had  been  compelled  through  poverty  to 
sell  them.  Even  the  ground  for  that  year  was 
allowed  to  remain  fallow,  though  it  had  been 


so  in  the  })revious  Sabbatic  year.  To  i)re- 
vent  inju.stice  to  one  who  having  jiurcliased 
land  could  retain  it  only  to  the  first  jubilee, 
the  practice  (thoroughly  in  conformity  with 
the  principles  of  political  economy)  was  fo 
give  for  the  purchased  i)ossession'  only  the 
worth  of  the  temporary  occupation  till  the 
jubilee  year.  But  one  purchasing  from  an- 
other a  hou.se  in  a  walled  city  retainc'd  it 
permanently ;  it  did  not  revert  to  the  orig- 
inal owner  at  the  jubilee,  since  city  lots  were 
apparently  not  bound  up  witli  the  several 
portions  of  Canaan  as  originally  allotted  to 
families.  Tho.se  of  the  unwalled  villages  were 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  field  and  did  so 
return ;  so  also  did  the  houses  of  Levites 
wheresoever  situated  (Lev.  xxv.  8-55;  xxvii. 
17,  18;  Num.  xxxvi.  4).  There  appears  to 
be  an  allusion  to  the  jubilee  in  Is.  Ixi.  1-3 
and  Ezek.  xlvi.  17 ;  cp.  also  Neh.  v.  1-13. 

Ju'cal.     See  Jehucal. 

Ju'da.     See  Judah,  Jud.\s,  Joda. 

Ju-dse'a,  in  A.  V.  in  canonical  books  once 
Judea  (Ezra.  v.  8),  and  thrice  Jewry  (Dan.  v. 
13;  Luke  xxiii.  5;  John  vii.  1)  [Latin  from 
Greek  londaia,  Jewish  land,  and  that  in  turn 
from  Hebrew  Y^hiidah], 

A  geographical  term  first  introduced  in 
the  Bible  in  Ezra  v.  8,  A.  V.,  to  designate  a 
province  of  the  Persian  empire.  It  is  there 
the  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  Y'liud.  The 
E.  V.  translates  it  "the  province  of  Judah." 
The  laud  of  Judaea  is  mentioned  in  1  Esdras 
i.  39,  and  the  kings  of  Judaea  in  verse  33. 
The  land  of  Juda-a  is  also  sjioken  of  in  Mac- 
cabeetimesaftertlie  Persian  had  given  place  to 
the  Macedonian-Greek  dominion  (1  Mac.  v.  45 ; 
vii.  10,  A.  v.).  On  the  banishment  of  Arche- 
laus  Judaea  was  annexed  to  the  Eoman 
province  of  Syria ;  but  it  was  governed  by 
l)rocurators  appointed  by  the  Eoman  eni- 
peror.  The  succession  of  procurators  was 
interrupted  for  a  brief  period  by  the  reign 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  a.  d.  41-44.  The  ])ro- 
curator  resided  at  Cae.sarea.  His  innnediatc 
superior  was  the  proconsul,  or  president,  of 
Syria,  ruling  from  Antioch  (Luke  iii.  1  ; 
Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5;  xviii.  1,  1).  This  ar- 
rangement obtained  when  our  Lord  carried 
out  his  ministry  on  earth,  and  Judaea  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  xxiii.  5-7 : 
John  iv.  3;  vii.  3;  Acts  i.  8).  Its  northern 
boundary  may  be  considered  as  extendiiij^ 
from  Joppa  on  the  Mediterranean  to  a  ]ioiiu 
on  the  Jordan  about  10  miles  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  southern  boundary  may  In- 
drawn from  the  wady  Ghuzzeh,  about  7 
miles  southwest  of  Gaza,  through  Beer-sheha. 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  55 
English  miles,  and  that  from  east  to  west 
the  same.     See  History. 

Ju'dah,  Grecianized  Judas,  genitive  Juda, 
and  once  anglicized  Jude  (Jude  i.)  [oliject  of 
praise] . 

1.  The  fourth  .son  of  .Jacob,  the  fourth  also 


Judah 


420 


Judah 


of  Leah.  He  was  not  associated  with  his 
brothers  Simeou  and  I^evi,  when  by  treach- 
ery and  murder  tiiey  avenged  the  wrong 
done  to  Dinah,  who  was  the  fnll  sister  of  all 
three  (Gen.  xxxiv.).  He  married  a  ("anaan- 
ite,  a  daughter  of  Shua  of  AduUam,  and  liad 
two  sons,  Er  and  Onan,  who  were  slain  by 
divine  judgment  for  their  sins  (xsxviii.  1- 
10).  Prior  to  this  he  had  had  a  third  son.  She- 
lah  (5).  Afterwards,  hy  Tumar,  the  deceased 
Er's  widow,  Judah  became  the  fatheroftwin 
sons,  Perezand  Zerah  (11-30  ;  xlvi.  12  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  19).  It  was  through  Perez  that  Judah 
became  the  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  18-22), 
and  when  the  fullness  of  time  was  come,  of 
our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  3-16).  Judah  saved 
Joseph's-  life  by  proposing  that  he  should 
be  sold  instead  of  murdered  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
26-2S).  When  Joseph,  whose  relationship 
to  his  l)rother  was  not  susi>ected.  jiroposed 
to  detain  Benjamin  iu  Egypt,  Judah  depre- 
cated the  step  in  a  speech  marked  by 
great  natural  eloquence,  and  ended  by  offer- 
ing himself  to  remain  a  })risoner  provided 
Benjamin  was  set  free  (xliv.  33,  34).  The 
result  of  this  splendid  advocacy  was  that 
Joseph,  with  no  further  delay,  revealed  him- 
self to  his  brethren  (xlv.  1).  When  Jacob 
was  on  his  way  to  Egy]>t  he  chose  Judah, 
though  not  the  eldest  son,  to  go  before  him 
to  Josei)h,  to  show  the  way  before  him  unto 
Goshen  (xlvi.  28).  On  account  of  the  sins 
of  Eeuben,  Simeon,  and  Levi,  they  were 
j)assed  over,  and  the  blessing  of  the  birth- 
right was  bestowed  by  Jacob  on  Judah  (slix. 
3-10).     See  Shiloh. 

2.  A  tribe  sprung  from  Judah.  It  was  di- 
vided into  five  ti'ibal  families  which  proceeded 
from  his  three  sons  and  two  grandsons  (Num. 
xxvi.  19-21 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3-6).  The  jn-ince  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  early  period  of  the 
wanderings  was  Nahshon,  the  son  of  Am- 
minadab  (Num.  i.  7;  ii.  3  ;  vii.  12-17;  x.  14). 
Another  prince  was  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(xiii.  6;  xxxiv.  19).  At  the  first  census  in 
the  wilderness  it  numbered  74,600  (i.  26,  27) ; 
and  at  the  second  census,  taken  at  Shittim 
on  the  eve  of  entering  Canaan,  76,500  (xxvi. 
22).  It  was  one  of  the  tribes  which  stood  on 
mount  (i(!rizim  to  bless  the  people  (Deut. 
xxvii.  12).  Achan,  who  brought  trouble 
upon  all  Israel  by  his  greed,  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  18).  After 
the  death  of  Joshua,  this  tribe  was  tluy  first 
one  sent  to  take  iiosscssion  of  its  allott<'(l  tei'- 
ritory  ;  and  its  fighting  men,  with  tlu'  aid  of 
the  Simeonites,  captured  such  towns  as  were 
found  occui>ied  by  the  Cauaanites,  and  drove 
out  the  inhabitantsof  the  hill  country  (Judg. 
i.  1-20) ;  see  Canaan  2. 

The  tribe  of  Judali  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  southern  Palestine.  The  boundary 
drawn  for  it  by  Joshua  commenced  at  the 
extiH^me  .southern  ixiint  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
passed  thetice,  iirol)Mlily  by  wady-el-Kikreh, 
south  of  the  ascent  of  Akrabbini,  to  the 
wilderness  of  Zin,  ttience  by  the  south  of 


Kadesh-barnea  and  the  brook  of  Egypt  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  eastern  border 
was  the  Dead  Sea.  The  northern  boundary 
started  from  the  northern  end  of  the  sea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and  passing  by 
Beth-hoglah  and  near  Jericho,  went  up  by  the 
ascent  of  Adummim,  by  En-shemesh,  to  En- 
rogel  and  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom, 
south  of  Jerusalem,  passed  on  to  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  thence  by  Beth-shemesh  and 
Tininah,  north  of  Ekron,  to  Jabncel,  and  on 
to  the  Mediterranean.  That  sea  itself  con- 
stituted the  western  boundary,  but  a  portion 
of  the  area  was  almost  always  in  the  hands  of 
the  Philistines  (Josh.  xv.  1-12  ;  cp.  also  13-63  ; 
xviii.  11-20).  The  length  of  the  territory  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  from  north  to  south  was  about 
50  miles  where  mo.st  thickly  inhabited,  but 
about  95  miles  from  Jerusalem  to  Kadesh- 
barnea  ;  and  its  breadth  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
Philistine  plain  was  about  45  miles.  As  to  its 
physical  features,  it  is  naturally  divided  into 
three  regions:  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48  ;  Luke  i.  39)  ;  the  lowland  or 
Shephelah  (Josh.  xv.  33),  and  the  plain  near 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  country  about 
Beer-sheba  was  known  as  the  Negeb  or  south. 
A  great  part  of  Judah  is  rocky  and  barren, 
but  it  is  admiralily  adapted  for  the  culture 
of  the  vine  and  tor  jiasture  (cp.  Gen.  xlix.  11, 
12).  The  artificially-terraced  hills  (now  neg- 
lected) were  once  the  scene  of  extensive  cul- 
tivation. Parts  of  the  territory  were  regarded 
as  a  wilderness,  especially  the  region  south 
of  Arad  (Judg.  i.  16)  and  that  immediately 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Ps.  Ixiii.  title).  The  city 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  28)  is  the  city  of 
David  (2  Kin.  xiv.  20).  The  text  is  probably- 
corrupt. 

Soon  after  their  conquest  of  Canaan  the 
Israelites  were  oppressed  by  the  king  of  Meso- 
potamia, but  Othniel  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
delivered  the  nation  from  the  foreign  domi- 
nation (Judg.  iii.  8-11).  In  the  troublous 
times  which  now  came  upon  the  Israelites, 
due  to  their  neglect  of  God,  to  tribal  jealousies, 
arnd  to  failure  to  dispossess  all  the  heathen, 
Judah,  Dan,  and  Simeou  became  a  group  by 
themselves,  separated  from  the  other  tribes 
to  the  north  hy  a  strip  of  country  several 
miles  broad  which  was  traversed  with  incon- 
venience, in  part  by  reason  of  its  Canaanite 
inhabitants,  Amorites,  Gibeonites,  and  Jebu- 
site.s,  and  in  i)art  on  account  of  its  natural 
roughness  and  wildness,  being  cleft  by  deep 
transverse  valleys  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho.  It  was  also  separated  from  Gad  and 
Eeuben  by  the  chasm  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  tribe  had  its  own  difficulties 
to  contend  with,  being  beset  by  the  Philis- 
tines (Judg.  iii.  .31;  x.  7;  xiii.  1),  and  took 
little  part  in  the  wars  of  the  other  tribes 
against  oppressors.  Boaz  and  Ruth  lived  in 
Bethlehem  at  this  time.  Judah,  however, 
uniteil  with  the  other  tribes  to  punish  Benja- 
min (xx.  1,  IS).  In  the  time  of  Eli  and  Samuel, 
when  the  I'hilistines  oppressed  both  Judah 


Judah 


421 


Judah 


111(1  Benjamin,  intercourse  with  the  northern 
tribes  became  closer;  and  Judah  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saul.  After  the  death  of 
Saul,  the  men  of  Judah  supported  the  claims 
of  their  tribesman  David  to  the  throne,  and 
for  seven  years  warred  in  his  behalf.  When 
his  cause  triumphed,  Jerusalem  on  the  bor- 
der of  Judah  and  Benjamin  was  made  tlie 
capital  of  all  Israel.  The  promise  had  been 
given  to  David  that  his  posterity  should  for- 
ever occupy  his  throne  (2  Sam.  vii.  13-lfi  ;  1 
Chron.  xvii.  12,  14,  23),  though  chastisement 
would  be  inflicted  if  there  were  a  departure 
from  Jehovah.  The  promise  was  not  intended 
to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  wisdom  in 
the  king,  and  when  Rehoboam  manifested 
his  unacquaiutance  with  the  first  jirinciples 
of  government,  ten  tribes  were  lost  to  the 
house  of  David.     See  Israel. 

Judah  and  a  large  part  of  Benjamin  re- 
mained loyal  to  David's  line,  and  constituted 
the  main  elements  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
This  kingdom  lasted  from  about  931  a.  c. 
until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  5H7  B.  c.  During 
this  time  uiueteeu  kings  of  David's  line,  ex- 
clusive of  the  usurping  queen  Athaliah,  oc- 
cupied the  throue  ;  see  Chronology.  Its 
territory  was  nearly  coincident  with  that  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  save  that 
the  northern  boundary  fluctuated.  Bethel 
being  sometimes  held  by  Judah,  especially 
after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  An  event  wliich 
exercised  the  most  powerful  influence  ou 
the  history  and  ultimate  fate  of  the  rival 
kingdoms  was  the  construction  of  the  two 
golden  calves  by  Jeroboam,  that  the  people 
of  his  kingdom  might  have  local  sanctuaries, 
and  not  have  to  visit  Jerusalem  for  worship, 
and  perhaps  be  there  won  over  to  their  old  al- 
legiance. One  effect  this  had  was  to  make  all 
who  were  faithful  to  Jehovah  emigrate  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  bringing  it  no  mean  ac- 
cession of  spiritual  and  even  of  political 
strength  (1  Kin.  xii.  26-33  ;  xiii.  33;  2  Chron. 
X.  16, 17).  The  first  relations  of  the  two  rival 
kingdoms  were  naturally  those  of  mutual  hos- 
tility. This,  doubtless,  emboldened  the  neigh- 
boring nations  to  intermeddle  in  Jewish  af- 
fairs, and  in  the  fifth  year  of  Ilehoboani's 
reign  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  plundered  Je- 
rusalem (1  Kin.  xiv.  25-28;  2  Chron.  xii. 
1-12).  War  between  Judah  and  Israel  went 
on  in  a  languid  way  during  the  first  sixty 
vears  of  their  separate  existence  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
30;  sv.  7,  16;  2  Chron.  xii.  15;  xiii.  2-20); 
after  which,  under  Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat, 
not  merely  peace,  but  a  political  and  family 
alliance  took  place  between  the  two  reigning 
houses.  In  consequence,  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  introduced  into  Judah,  and  at  last  be- 
came a  potent  factor  in  the  destruction  of 
the  kingdom.  Two  great  parties  were  formed, 
the  one  attached  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
the  other  in  favor  of  Baal  and  other  foreign 
divinities.  During  the  subsequent  period  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  these  parties  were  in 
continual  conflict  with  each  other,  first  one 


and  then  the  other  becoming  icmporarily 
dominant,  according  as  the  reigning  monarch 
was  its  friend  or  its  opponent.  As  at  otlicr 
periods  of  tlie  theocracy,  fidelity  to  Jehovah 
brought  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  i)r(is- 
perity,  while  apostasy  from  liini  wa.s  attended 
by  disaster.  Among  the  good  kings  were  Asa, 
Jehosha]ihat,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  while 
Ahaz,  Maii.isseh,  and  .some  others  were  c(m- 
spicuously  the  reverse.  The  foreign  relations 
of  the  kingdom  were  important.  Egypt  was 
Judah's  neighbor  on  the  southwest,  and  was 
frequently  involved  in  the  affairs  of  Judah. 
The  Egyptian  kings  Shishak  and  Zeiali  and, 
after  a  long  interval,  Necho  warred  with 
Judah.  Ou  the  other  hand,  Egypt  was  re- 
garded as  a  valuable  ally  against  the  greai 
empires  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates;  and 
the  blow  inflicted  upon  the  Assyrians  by 
Tirhakah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  contribu- 
ted to  the  deliverance  of  Judah,  and  later 
the  advance  of  the  Egyptians  compelled  the 
army  of  Nebuchadnezzar  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  temporarily.  See  I'HAliAoH. 
On  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, a  large  body  of  Jews  found  refuge 
in  the  country  of  the  Nile.  During  all  these 
years  the  varied  influences  of  Egyjitian  cul- 
ture and  religion  were  exerted  ujiou  the 
people  of  Judah.  In  respect  to  the  i)Owerful 
nations  on  the  Tigris  and  Eujihrates,  there 
were,  of  course,  an  Assyrian  and  a  Baby- 
lonian period.  The  Assyrian  period  began 
in  734  B.  c,  when  Ahaz  invoked  the  aid 
of  Tiglath-pileser  against  the  allied  kings  of 
Israel  and  Syria,  and  afterwards  did  homage 
to  him  at  Damascus.  After  the  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  the  northern  kingdom  a  decade  later, 
Judah  was  exposed  for  nearly  a  century  and 
a  quarter  to  the  greed  and  fury  of  the  As- 
syrians, until  Niueveh  was  overthrown  by 
the  Babylonians.  Sargon.  .Sennacherib,  Esar- 
haddon,  and  Ashurbauiiial,  four  successors  on 
the  Assyrian  throne,  niention  more  or  less 
extensive  conquests  of  Judah.  Three  of 
these  four  kings  are  mentioned  in  the  He- 
brew records  (Is.  xx.  1  ;  xxxvi.  1  ;  xxxvii. 
38),  and  perhaps  the  fourth  also  (see  Asnap- 
PAR).  The  Babylonian  jpcriod  began  in  H05, 
when  Jehoiakim  was  siilyugated  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. In  less  than  a  score  of  years 
Jerusalem  was  in  ruins  and  tiie  iieople  of 
Judah  were  deported  to  Babylonia.  The 
divine  promise  to  David  did  iir>t  preclude 
the  temporary  loss  of  the  throue  liy  his  de- 
scendants. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  exile  were  :  1.  Those  causes  which 
issued  in  the  disruption  of  tlie  kingdom  and 
the  fall  of  Samaria,  which  left  Judah  solitary. 
See  Israel.  2.  Tlie  neglect  of  God's  com- 
mand to  exterminate  the  Canaanites.  When 
the  Israelites  could  not,  that  is,  would  not, 
utterly  destroy  the  Canaanites,  they  pre- 
served the  leaven  of  corruption  in  their 
midst.  3.  Social  and  political  alliances  with 
idolatrous    peoples.      4.  The  loss    of   moral 


Judas 


■1-22 


Judas 


strength  by  apostasy  and  the  loss  of  enthu- 
siasm for  a  great  cause  on  earth,  the  estab- 
lishment of  God's  kinfrdom.  5.  Refusal  to 
repent  at  tlie  call  of  the  i)rophets.  6.  When 
these  agencies  had  wrought  ruin  +o  the  state 
and  to  manhood,  when  it  was  tinie  to  yield, 
the  ])ersistent  resistance  to  the  dominant  em- 
jtire  made  with  the  hel])  of  petty  alliances 
was  a  short-sighted  ])olicy,  and  a  mistaken 
<'stimate  of  the  coming  imi>erial  ])ower.  Little 
Judah  should  not  have  been  submissive  to 
Assyria,  but  should  have  yielded  to  Babylon 
toward  the  last.  Such  was  the  exhortation 
of  .Jeremiah.  From  the  very  beginning  of 
their  national  existence  the  Hebrew  people 
needed  to  husl)and  all  their  resources,  physi- 
cal and  political,  moral  and  spiritual,  if  their 
kingdom  was  to  stiiud  amidst  the  emi>ires  of 
tlie  world.  On  the  return  from  exile,  Zerub- 
babel,  a  descendant  of  David,  was  the  civil 
ruler  ;  but  he  was  only  a  local  governor  under 
the  Persians.  He  was  followed  after  a  time 
by  Nehemiah,  also  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Ex- 
cept during  the  administration  of  these  two 
men,  the  governor  of  the  Persian  province 
J}eyond-the-river,  of  which  Judah  formed  a 
l)art,  was  the  responsible  head.  After  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Judsea  be- 
longed to  Egypt  and  Syria  in  turn.  The  suc- 
cessful revolt  of  the  Maccabees  against  the 
Syrians  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  dynasty 
of  i)riest-kings,  who  sjjrang  from  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  but  occui)ied  the  throne  of  David.  See 
Maccabees.  They  were  succeeded  by  an 
Idumsean  dynasty,  beginning  with  Herod  the 
Great,  ruling  under  the  authority  of  the  Ro- 
mans. See  Hekod,  Hi.'^toky,  Jerusalem. 
NVhen  the  scejiter  reverted  to  the  house  of 
David  the  kingdom  was  no  longer  tem]>oraI 
but  spiritual,  and  the  sovereign  no  earthly 
jiotentate,  but  tlie  Son  of  God. 

To  judge  from  the  context,  by  Judah  the 
tribal  territory  is  meant  in  Josh.  xix.  34. 
The  passages  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained, the  W()rd  Judah  is  not  found  in  the 
Sei)tuagint ;  perhai)S  the  text  is  corrupt. 

;i.  A  J^evite,  among  whose  descendants  was 
Kadniiel  (E/ra  iii.  9).     See  Hodaviah. 

1.  A  Levite  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zernbbabel  (Neh.  xii.  H). 

5.  A  Levite,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Hassenuah,  and 
second  in  command  over  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
h'm  (Neh.  xi.  !•). 

7.  One  who  took  part  in  the  dedication  of 
tlie  wall,  i)robablv  a  i)riuce  of  Judah  (Neh. 
xii.  31). 

Ju'das,  genitive  Juda ;  the  Greek  form  of 
the  Hebrew  proi)er  name  .ludah. 

1.  Judah,  son  of  .Jacob  (Mat.  i.  2,  ."},  A.  V.). 

2.  An  ancestor  (»f  Jesus,  who  lived  before 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  30;  in  A.  V.  Juda). 

.'J.  Judas  Maccabicus,  third  of  the  five  sons 
of  the  iiriest  Mattathias  (1  Mac.  ii.  1-.")).  His 
father,  driven   to  des]ieration  by  the  deter- 


mination of  Antiochus  Epiphaues  to  force 
idolatry  upon  the  Jews,  began  tlie  struggle 
for  religious  liberty.  On  the  death  of  Matta- 
thias, in  106  B.  c,  Judas,  in  ccmpliauce  with 
his  father's  wish,  assumed  the  military  lead- 
ership of  the  faithful  Jews  (ii.  GG;  iii.  1).  He 
entered  immediately  upon  a  career  of  vic- 
tory. A  combined  Syrian  and  Samaritan 
army,  under  the  command  of  Apollonius,  ad- 
vanced against  him.  He  routed  it,  slew  Apol- 
lonius, and  took  his  sword  (10,  11).  Judas 
fought  with  this  sword  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  (12).  He  defeated  another  Syrian 
army  under  Seron  near  Beth-horon  (13-24), 
and,  probably  still  in  166  B.  c,  won  a  de- 
cisive battle  with  Gorgias  near  Enimaus  (27- 
iv.  25).  In  the  following  year  Antiochus 
sent  a  large  army  into  Juda;a  under  the  com- 
mand of  Lysias,  but  it  was  defeated  by  Judas 
at  Beth-zur  (iv.  26-34).  In  consequence  of 
these  successes,  the  Jews  recovered  control 
of  the  temple,  purified  it,  and  consecrated  it 
anew  (36-.53).  This  event  was  celebrated  by 
the  annual  feast  of  dedication  (John  x.  22). 
This  Syrian  war  was  followed  by  otfensive 
operations  under  Judas  and  his  brother  Simon 
against  hostile  neighboring  nations  (1  Mac.  v. 
9-54).  Antiochus  Eupator  succeeded  his  father 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  on  the  throne  of  Syria, 
and  reigned  from  164  to  162  B.  c.  Under  the 
guidance  of  Lysias  he  renewed  the  Avar  with 
the  Jews.  Lysias  defeated  Judas  at  Beth- 
zacharias  (vi.  28-47),  and  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem (48-54),  but  was  compelled  by  compli- 
cations at  home  to  conclude  a  peace  with 
Judas  and  return  to  Antioch.  The  Jews  ac- 
knowledged the  suzerainty  of  Syria,  but  were 
promised  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
(.55-61).  Demetrius  Soter,  who  reigned  from 
162  to  150  B.  c,  again  favored  the  Grecian 
party  among  the  .Tews,  and  put  the  heljen- 
izer  Alcimus  into  the  high-priesthood  (vii.  1- 
20).  Judas  resisted  the  efforts  of  this  high 
priest  (23,  24),  and  Demetrius  sent  an  ai-my 
under  Nicanor  to  support  Alcimus ;  but  Nica- 
nor  was  defeated  at  Capharsalama  and  again 
at  Adasa  near  Beth-horon  (26-J)0).  During 
the  brief  peace  which  ensued  Judas  began 
negotiations  with  the  Romans,  and  obtained 
from  them  assurances  of  friendship  and  as- 
sistance (viii.)  ;  but  probably  before  the  an- 
swer of  the  senate  was  returned,  Demetrius 
sent  another  army  under  Bacchides  into 
Juda'a  in  160  b.  c.  Judas  offered  valiant  re- 
sistance to  the  invaders  at  Elasa,  but  his 
troops  were  worsted  and  he  himself  was  slain 
(ix.  1-18).  His  body  was  recovered  by  his 
brothers,  and  buried  in  the  family  sepulcher 
at  Modin  (19).  It  was  some  time  before  the 
patriotic  party  recovered  from  the  demorali- 
zation caused  by  their  defeat  and  the  death 
of  their  leader,  but  at  length  they  offered  the 
command  to  Judas'  lirother  Jonathan  (23-31). 
4.  Son  of  ('hal|ihi  and  one  of  the  two  cap- 
tains who  stood  l)y  Jonathan  Maccaba^us  at 
Hazor  when  all  the  rest  had  fled,  and  enabled 
him  to  retrieve  the  day  (1  Mac.  xi.  70). 


Judas 


4 -2:1 


Judas 


5.  A  sou  of  Simon  Maccabaeus  il  Mac.  xvi. 
•2).  His  father  devolved  the  command  of  the 
army  upon  him  and  his  hrotlier  John,  and 
sent  tliem  against  Cendebieiis.  The  two 
brothers  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Syrian  general  near  Kidron,  not  far  from 
Ashdod  (2-10).  Judas  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  (9).  In  135  b.  c,  about  three  years 
later,  he  and  his  brother  Mattathias  "were 
treacherously  murdered  in  the  castle  of  Dok 
by  a  kinsman  by  marriage,  either  at  a  feast 
at  the  same  time  that  their  father  Simon 
was  assa.ssinated  (14-17)  or  a  little  later 
(Antiq.  xiii.  8,  1). 

6.  Judas  of  Galilee,  who,  in  the  days  of 
the  enrollment,  raised  a  revolt;  but  he  per- 
ished, and  all,  as  many  as  obeyed  him,  were 
.scattered  abroad  (Acts  v.  37 ;  cp.  Luke  ii.  2). 
Josephus  calls  him  several  times  a  Galilfeau, 
but  once  a  Gaulonite,  of  the  city  of  Gamala, 
implying  that  he  was  from  Gaulonitis,  east 
of  the  Jordan.  It  ajipears  that,  with  the 
support  of  a  Pharisee  called  Sadduc,  Judas 
imbued  his  countrymen  with  the  belief  that 
the  enrollment  under  Quiriuius  was  the  com- 
mencement of  their  reduction  to  a  state  of 
servitude.  He  founded  a  philosophic  sect 
whose  chief  tenet  was  that  their  only  ruler 
and  lord  was  God  (Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1  and  (J ; 
War  ii.  8,  1).  Josephus  states  that  Judas 
succeeded  in  making  some  of  the  Jews  re- 
volt, and  implies,  but  does  not  directly  men- 
tion, that  he  lost  his  life.  He  expressly 
states,  however,  that  his  sons  were  slain 
(Antiq.  xx.  5,  2).  The  indirect  consequence 
of  this  attempt  was  the  rise  of  the  party  of 
zealots,  who  largely  contributed  to  the  dis- 
turbances which  provoked  the  Jewish  war  of 
A.  D.  66-70. 

7.  Judas  Iscariot,  son  of  Simon  Iscariot 
(John  vi.  71.  R.  V.),  and  the  apostle  who  be- 
trayed his  divine  Lord,  and  that  by  a  kiss. 
liy  being  surnamed  Iscariot  he  is  distin- 
guished from  another  of  the  twelve  who  was 
named  Judas  (Luke  vi.  16;  John  xiv.  22). 
The  surname  probably  meant  that  he  came 
originally  from  Kerioth  (see  Iscariot),  and 
may  thus  indicate  that  he  was  not  a  Galilseau. 
Judged  by  his  character,  he  followed  Jesus 
l)robably  because  he  expected  to  derive 
earthly  advantage  from  the  establishment 
of  Christ's  kingdom.  Jesus,  without  naming 
any  person,  early  referred  to  the  future  act 
of  treason  which  one  of  the  twelve  would 
commit  (John  vi.  70).  Judas  was  appointed 
to  keep  the  bag,  but  he  yielded  to  dishon- 
esty, and  appropriated  part  of  the  money 
to  himself.  When  Mary  of  Bethany  in 
lier  afl'ection  for  Jesus  broke  the  alabaster 
box  of  precious  ointment  and  anointed 
him,  Judas  was  the  spokesman  of  himself 
and  others  in  denouncing  what  he  con- 
sidered extravagance ;  not  that  he  cared 
for  the  poor,  but  that  he  wished  the  price 
of  the  ointment  to  be  put  into  the  -bag, 
whence  he  could  help  himself  as  he  had 
done  before  (John  xii.  5,  6).     Jesus  mildly 


reproved  him;  but  the  rebuke  aroused  his 
resentment,  and  he  went  to  tlie  chief  ])riests 
and  offered  to  betray  Jesus  unto  them  for  a 
IJrice.  They  agreed  with  him  on  tliirtv 
pieces  of  silver,  about  $19..50,  an  ordinary 
price  for  a  slave.  From  that  time  Judas 
sought  an  opiiortunity  to  deliver  Jesus  unto 
them  (Mat.  xxvi.  14-16;  Mark  xiv.  10,  11; 
Ex.  xxi.  32;  Zech.  xi.  12.  13).  At  the  pass- 
over  supper  Jesus,  in  order  to  carry  out  his 
design  of  being  crucified  at  the  feast,  jiointed 
out  the  traitor.  Tlie  devil  had  already  put 
into  the  lieart  of  Judas  to  betray  his  blaster 
(John  xiii.  2).  When  Jesus  solemnly  said, 
"One  of  you  shall  betray  me,"  each  disciple 
asked,  "  Lord,  is  it  Iv  "  Peter  beckoned  to 
John  to  ask  Christ  who  it  was.  Jesus  rejilied 
enigmatically  that  it  was  one  of  those  that 
were  dipping  with  him  in  the  dish  (Mat. 
xxvi.  23;  Mark  xiv.  20),  one  to  whom  he 
would  give  the  sop  (.Tolm  xiii.  26,  R.  Y.): 
in  other  words,  his  own  familiar  friend,  one 
who  ate  bread  with  him  (18;  Ps.  xli.  9).  Jesus 
and  Judas,  it  would  seem,  were  dipping  to- 
gether in  the  dish  ;  and  Jesus  dipped  the  sop 
that  he  then  held  in  his  hand,  and  gave 
it  to  Judas  (John  xiii.  26).  After  the  sop 
Satan  entered  into  Judas  (27).  He  also 
asked  :  "  Is  it  I,  Rabbi  ?  "  Jesus  answered  : 
"Thou  hast  said,"  which  was  the  equivalent 
of  "Yes"  (Mat.  xxvi.  21-215  R.  Y.).  Lven 
yet  the  disciples  did  not  know  just  what 
Jesus  meant,  and  when  he  added,  "  That  thou 
doest,  do  quickly,"  they  supposed  that  this 
was  a  direction  to  the  treasurer  to  lose  no 
time  in  buying  some  articles  of  which  they 
had  need.  The  traitor  went  at  once  to  the 
chief  priests.  It  is  probable  that  Judas  was 
not  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament.  He 
was  present  at  the  supper,  and  partook  of  it 
with  the  twelve  (Mat.  xxvi.  20)  ;  but  he  went 
out  immediately  after  receiving  the  sop  (John 
xiii.  30),  and  the  eucharist  was  after  the 
supper  (Mat.  xxvi.  26-29  ;  Mark  xiv.  22-25  ; 
Luke  xxii.  19,  20).  Luke  in  narrating  the 
events  of  the  supper,  changes  the  actual  order 
that  he  may  place  the  spirit  of  Christ  and  the 
spirit  of  the  disciples  in  conti-ast  (xxii.  15-20 
and  21-24).  After  the  departure  of  Judas 
the  tone  of  Jesus'  conversation  changes. 
When  supper  was  ended  he  led  the  eleven  to 
the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  Thither  Judas 
came,  accompanied  by  a  great  multitude  with 
swords  and  staves,  from  the  chief  priests 
and  elders.  In  accordance  with  a  sign  which 
had  been  agreed  upon,  in  order  to  point  out 
Jesus  to  the  soldiers,  Judas  advanced  and 
saluted  Jesus  with  a  kiss,  and  Jesus  was 
seized  (Mat.  xxvi.  47-50).  The  next  morn- 
ing, when  Juda.s,  now  in  calmer  mood,  saw 
that  Jesus  was  condemned,  and  was  likely  to 
be  put  to  death,  he  awoke  to  the  enormity  of 
his  guilt,  and  went  to  the  chief  priests  with 
the  confession,  "I  have  sinned  in  that  I 
have  betrayed  the  innocent  blood,'  and 
offered  to  return  the  money.  His  conscience 
was  not  so  seared  as  the  consciences  of  the 


Jude 


424 


Jude 


chief  priests,  who,  having  seduced  the  erring 
apostle  into  his  great  sin,  tlien  turned  round 
On  him  and  said,  "Wliat  is  that  to  ns?  see 
thou  to  that."  On  wliich  he  east  down  the 
silver  pieces  in  the  temple,  and  went  and 
hanged  himself  (Mat.  xxvii.  3-5),  and  falling- 
headlong  he  burst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and 
all  Ins  bowels  gushed  out  (Acts  i.  18).  The 
l(l!)tli  Psalm,  directed  primarily  against  some 
(•ontenii)orary  of  the  writer,  i'ound  fulfillment 
in  Judas  (P's.  cix.  8;  Acts  i.  20).  But  no 
heavenly  coercion  ctunpelled  the  son  of  per- 
dition (John  xvii.  12)  to  fulfill  his  destiny. 
Nor  was  he,  a  suppliant,  refused  mercy  ;  he 
did  not  ask  it. 

8.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles,  carefully 
distinguished  from  Judas  Iscariot  (John  xiv. 
22).  He  was  son  or  perhaps  brother  of  James 
{Luke  vi.  16 ;  Acts  i.  i;5 ;  see  R.  V.  text  and 
margin).  He  was  also  called  Thaddsens.  for 
this  name  is  found  in  other  lists  in  the  place 
corresponding  to  his  (Mat.  x.  3;  Mark  iii. 
18).  •  The  received  text  of  Mat.  x.  3  has 
"Lebbieus,  whose  surname  was  Thaddseus." 
These  two  surnames  are  believed  to  mean 
the  same  thing :  the  former  coming  from 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic  leb,  heart,  and  the 
latter  from  Aramaic  thad,  a  mother's  breast, 
and  both  signifying  a  beloved  child. 

9.  One  of  the  four  brethren  of  the  Lord 
(Mat.  xiii.  55;  Mark  vi.  3,  in  A.  V.  Juda), 
and  probably  the  author  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude.,  See  Brethrkn  of  the  Lord,  Jude. 

10.  A  man  who  lived  at  Damascus,  in  the 
street  called  Straight,  and  with  whom  Paul 
lodged  just  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix. 
11). 

11.  Judas,  sumamed  Barsahbas.  He  was  a 
leading  man  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
was  chosen  with  Silas  to  accomi>any  Barnabas 
and  Paul  to  Antioch,  bearing  the  letter  from 
the  council  at  Jerusalem  to  the  churches 
of  Syria  and  Cilicia.  He  had  prophetic  gifts. 
His  subsequent  history  is  unknown  (Acts  xv. 
22, 27,  32).  He  bears  the  same  surname  as  the 
disciple  Joseph,  who  was  proposed  for  the 
apostleship,  and  was  probably  his  brother 
(i.  23). 

Jude,  in  E.  R.  V.  of  Jude  1  Judas. 

An  English  form  of  the  name  Judas,  given 
in  the  A.  V.  to  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  (ver.  1).  He  descrilies  himself  simply 
as  "brother  of  James,"  by  whom  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  of  James  and  leader  of  the 
church  in  Jerusalem  seems  to  be  meant.  In 
tliisca.se  Jude  should  be  a  brother  of  the  liOrd, 
and  not  an  apostle;  and  these  inferences 
seem  borne  out  by  the  presence  of  a  Judas  in 
the  lists  of  our  I.,()rd'sbretliren  (Mat.  xiii.  55; 
Mark  vi.  3),  andliy  the  ai(i)arent  implication 
of  verse  17  of  his  ei)istle,  that  its  writer  was 
not  an  apostle.  Those  who  identify  the 
brotliers  of  the  Lord  with  the  sons  of 
Ali)baMis,  nevertheless,  idenlify  ,hule  with 
the  aiKistle  Judas.  IOxcc])t  his  bare  name, 
nothing  is  recorded  of  him  beyond  what   we 


may  infer  from  the  facts  that  the  brethren 
of  the  Lord  did  not  believe  in  him  during 
his  life  on  earth  (John  vii.  5)  and  that  after 
his  resurrection  they  were  his  followers 
(Acts  i.  14).  An  interesting  story  told  of  his 
grandchildren  by  the  church  writer,  Hege- 
sippus,  and  preserved  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.  iii. 
20),  confirms  the  possible  inference  from  1 
Cor.  ix.  5  that  he  was  married,  and  implies 
that  he  was  dead  before  A.  d.  80. 

The  General  Epistle  of  Jude  is  a  brief 
epistle.  It  names  its  author  as  Judas,  a 
bond  servant  of  Jesus  Christ  and  bi'other  of 
James  (ver.  1,  R.  V.  margin)  ;  that  is  proba- 
bly Judas,  the  brother  oi^  the  Lord  (Mat.  xiii. 
55  ;  Mark  vi.  3).  Its  address  is  quite  general : 
"to  them  that  are  called,  beloved  in  God  the 
Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus  Christ "  (ver.  1, 
R.  v.).  Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  from  the 
character  of  the  epistle,  which  seems  intended 
for  a  special  occasion  and  is  full  of  allusions 
which  would  be  likelj^  to  be  intelligible  only 
to  Jews,  that  some  particular  body  of  Chris- 
tians was  intended,  which,  trom  the  circum- 
stances of  sending  the  letter,  did  not  need  to 
be  specified  in  the  address.  It  is  most 
natural  to  think  of  it  as  intended  for  the 
Jewish  Christians  dwelling  in  Palestine.  The 
letter  has  been  largely  used  by  2  Pet.  ii., 
[verses  4-18  with  the  exceptions  of  verses  14 
and  15  being  represented  in  2  Pet.  ii.-iii.  3]  ; 
and  must  have  been  written  before  it,  prob- 
ably not  much  before  :  it  seems  most  natural 
to  date  it  about  A.  D.  6(1  [Those  students 
who  hold  the  genuineness  of  2  Peter,  but 
contend  for  its  priority  to  Jude,  are  apt  to 
date  the  Epistle  of  Jude  between  the  death 
of  Peter  about  A.  D.  68  and  the  accession  of 
the  Roman  emperor  Domitian  in  A.  D.  81. 
The  reason  for  fixing  upon  A.  D.  81  as  the 
limit  is  found  in  an  ancient  tradition,  quoted 
by  Eusebius  from  Hegesippus,  who  wrote  as 
early  as  A.  D.  170,  from  which  it  appears  that 
Jude,  the  Lord's  brother,  had  died  before  orat 
latest  early  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.]  It  was 
called  out  by  the  outbreak  among  Jude's 
readers  of  an  alarming  heresy  with  immoral 
tendencies,  prol)ably  something  like  the  in- 
cipient gnosticism  rebuked  in  the  pastora' 
epistles  and  the  Apocalypse  (ver.  3,  4,  10, 
15,  16,  18),  and  was  designed  to  save  the 
churches  addressed  from  its  inroads.  After 
the  address  (ver.  1,  2),  it  assigns  the  reason 
for  its  writing  (ver.  3,  4)  and  then  first  an- 
nounces the  condenniatlon  in  store  for  the 
talse  teachers  (ver.  5-16),  and  afterwards 
divulges  the  duty  of  true  Christians  in  the 
circumstances  (ver.  17-23),  concluding  with 
a  rich  and  appropriate  doxology  (ver.  24,  25). 
Owing  doubtless  to  its  brevity,  there  are  no 
very  clear  traces  of  the  use  of  Jude  in  the 
very  earliest  fathers  of  the  church.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century,  however, 
it  is  found  in  full  use  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  alike  [being  included  in  the 
Old  Latin  version,  listed  in  the  Mnratorian 
fragment,  quoted  and  referred  to  as  Jude's  by 


Judge 


425 


Judges,  Book  of 


Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Tertullian  and 
later  by  Origen] ;  and  was  clearly  from  the 
beginning  a  part  of  the  Christian  canon. 
B.  B.  w.  (supplemented). 

Judge. 

1.  A  civil  magistrate  (Ex.  xxi.  22;  Deut. 
xvi.  18).  On  the  advice  of  his  father-in-law, 
and  in  order  to  relieve  himself  of  overwork, 
Moses  organized  the  judiciary  of  Israel,  act- 
ing henceforth  himself  in  matters  of  great 
importance  only  and  for  the  adjudication  of 
cases  of  less  moment  assigning  a  judge  to 
each  thousand,  to  each  hundred,  to  each  fifty, 
and  to  each  ten  (Ex.  xviii.  13-26).  For  all 
the  tribal  subdivision  heads  already  existed, 
known  as  princes  and  elders,  who  possessed 
civil  and  religious  authoritj';  and  in  the  ju- 
dicial system  which  he  organized  Moses  in- 
cluded these  otHcials  and  they  retained  under 
the  new  regulations  their  hereditary  func- 
tion of  judging  (Deut.  i.  15-17;  cp.  xxi.  2.  and 
see  Thousand).  Before  his  death  Moses  gave 
directions  that  the  Israelites,  on  settling  in 
Canaan,  appoint  judges  and  ofiicers  in  all 
their  towns,  with  instructions  to  refer  mat- 
ters too  difficult  for  these  magistrates  to  the 
priests  (xvi.  18-20;  xvii.  2-13;  xix.  15-20; 
cp.  Josh.  viii.  33;  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  1;  1  Sam. 
viii.  1).  With  the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom the  king  became  supreme  judge  in  civil 
matters  (2  Sam.  xv.  2;  1  Kin.  iii.  9,  28;  vii. 
7  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  viii.  5).  David  assigned  Levites 
to  the  judicial  office,  and  appointed  six  thou- 
sand as  officers  and  judges  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4  ; 
xxvi.  29).  Jehoshaphat  organized  the  judi- 
ciary in  Judah  still  further,  setting  judges  in 
the  fortified  cities,  with  a  supreme  court  at 
Jerusalem,  consisting  of  Levites,  priests,  and 
the  heads  of  fathers'  houses  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  high  priest  in  religious  matters 
and  of  the  prince  of  Judah  in  civil  matters 
(2  Chron.  xix.  5-8). 

2.  A  man  whom  God  raised  up  to  lead  a 
revolt  against  foreign  oppressors  and  who, 
having  freed  the  nation  and  shown  thereby 
his  call  of  God.  was  looked  to  by  the  peo- 
ple to  maintain  their  rights.  Tlie  judges 
were  saviors  like  unto  Moses.  They  num- 
bered twelve,  not  including  Abimelech,  who 
was  a  petty  king  and  not  called  of  God  (ix.). 
They  were  Othniel  of  Judah,  deliverer  of 
Israel  from  the  king  of  Mesopotamia  ;  Ehud, 
who  expelled  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites ; 
Shamgar,  sraiter  of  six  hundred  Philistines 
and  saviour  of  Israel ;  Deborah,  associated 
with  Barak,  who  led  Naphtali  and  Zebulun 
to  victory  against  the  northern  Canaanites; 
Gideon,  who  drove  the  Midianites  from  the 
territory  of  Israel ;  Tola  and  Jair ;  Jeph- 
thah,  subduer  of  the  Ammonites ;  Ibzan, 
Elon,  Abdon,  and  Samson,  the  troubler  of 
the  Philistines.  Eli  and  Samuel  also  judged 
Israel  (1  Sam.  iv.  18;  vii.  15),  but  the  former 
acted  in  his  official  capacity  as  high  priest 
and  the  latter  as  a  prophet  of  Jehovah. 
These  judges  did  not  form  an  unbroken  suc- 
cession of  rulers,  but  ajipeared  sporadically. 


They  were  often  local,  discharging  their  du- 
ties in  restricted  districts.  They  apparently 
exercised  only  such  authority  as  was  .spon- 
taneously accorded  to  them.  They  could  not 
order  the  various  tribes  to  war.  Some  of  the 
oppressions  and  not  a  few  of  the  judges  were 
evidently  contemporaneous  and  overlapped. 
Shamgar,  for  example,  was  contemiiorary 
with  Ehud,  for  the  account  of  his  exploit  is 
inserted  in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  of 
Ehud's  work  (iii.  31);  and  a  Philistine  op- 
pression of  Judah  was  coeval  witli  the  Am- 
monite domi'Jation  east  of  Jordan  and  attack 
on  Judah,  Benjamin  and  Ephraim  (x.  7). 
See  Chronology  III. 

These  facts  throw  light  on  the  distracted 
state  of  the  nation  during  the  period  of  the 
judges.  The  political  districts,  moreover, 
are  found  to  be  those  that  were  separated  by 
the  Jordan  and  by  the  heathen  barrier  be- 
tween Judah  and  the  north.  The  .song  of 
Deborah  and  the  hi.story  of  Jcphthah  show 
the  laxity  of  the  bonds  which  united  the 
tribes,  and  make  known  what  tribes  were 
able  and  willing  to  join  forces  and  fortunes. 
The  isolation  of  Judah  is  reniarkal)le ;  see 
JuD.\H.  But  there  were  centralizing  influ- 
ences at  work.  National  feeling  exi.sted,  for 
the  war  of  extermination  waged  against 
Benjamin  shows  the  sense  of  national  guilt 
and  national  responsibility.  There  was  one 
ark  for  all  the  tribes  in  the  national  taber- 
nacle at  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1  ;  Judg.  xxi. 
19;  cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  14-17).  It  was  carried  to 
Bethel,  where  the  tribes  had  gathered  for 
battle  and  would  worship  the  Lord  and  ask 
counsel  of  him  (Judg.  xx.  18-29).  txreat 
oppressions  united  the  people  in  common 
misery  and  called  for  united  action  ;  grear 
deliverers  united  the  hearts  of  the  peojjle  in 
loyalty  and  pride  about  one  head  ;  and  great 
deliverances,  obtained  by  united  action, 
bound  tribes  together  in  common  glory. 

The  period  of  the  judges  has  been  called 
Israel's  iron  age.  The  people  frequently 
lap.sed  into  idolatry,  and  worship  at  the  sanc- 
tuary was  rendered  difficult  by  the  di.stracted 
state  of  the  country.  Rudeness  of  manners 
was  displayed  in  Jael's  murder  of  Sisera,  in 
Jephthah's  sacrifice  of  his  daughter,  in  Gid- 
eon's treatment  of  the  men  of  Succoth.in  the 
sin  of  the  men  of  Gibeah.  Again.st  these 
shadows,  however,  there  stand  out  brightly 
the  trust  and  filial  piety  of  Jephthah's 
daughter,  the  fidelity  of  Euth  to  Naomi,  and 
the  kindly  and  upright  character  of  Boaz. 

Judg'es,  Book  of. 

A  historical  book  of  the  O.  T.  placed  after 
the  book  of  Joshua.  It  continues  the  nar- 
rative from  his  death,  and  consists  of  three 
parts.  1.  Introduction :  departure  of  the 
tribes  to  occupy  the  districts  allotted  to  them 
(see  Josh,  xv.-xxi.),  and  a  list  of  the  towns 
left  by  them  in  the  possession  of  the  Canaan- 
ite  idolaters  (.Judg.  i.-ii.  5).  Joshua's  wars  of 
conquest  had  notdepopulated  the  countryisee 


Judges,  Book  of 


42G 


Juniper 


Canaan).  II.  History  of  thejudgesas  saviors 
of  Israel,  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  that  of 
Samson  (ii.  (j-xvi.  '.il).  Thi.s  section  has  its 
own  introduction  in  prophetic  style,  sum- 
marizing the  events  of  the  period  and  point- 
ing out  the  religions  le.sson  (ii.  (j-iii.  (i),  fol- 
lowed bj'  more  or  less  detailed  accounts  of 
six  judges  and  brief  mention  of  other  six. 
The  assumption  of  kingship  by  Abinielech, 
son  of  (iideon,  is  recorded  as  an  integral  part 
of  the  history,  although  he  was  a  petty  king 
rather  than  a  judge,  and  was  not  a  saviour  of 
Israel.  III.  Two  appendices,  namely,  an  ac- 
count of  Micah's  image  worship  and  its  es- 
tablishment among  the  Danites  of  the  north 
(xvii.,  xviii.),  and  of  the  sin  of  the  men  of 
tiibeah  and  the  consequent  war  for  its  pun- 
ishment (xix.-xxi.). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  the  Book 
f)f  .Judges  is  difficult  to  determine.  At  any 
rate,  the  following  facts  must  be  satisfied. 
.\11  schools  of  criticism  at  present  acknowl- 
edge the  great  antiquity  of  the  song  of  Deb- 
orah, and  that  it  is  practically  contemporary 
with  the  event  wliich  it  celebrates.  This 
section,  the  second  and  main  portion  of  the 
book,  could  not  have  been  written  until  after 
the  death  of  Samson  (xvi.  30,  31).  In  the 
ai)pendices,  the  recurring  expression,  "  in 
tliiise  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel," 
]M)intsto  the  composition  of  these  cha])ters  at 
least  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom. 
The  tabernacle  was  no  longer  at  Shiloh 
(xviii.  31)  when  they  were  written.  The 
mention  of  the  "captivity  of  the  land" 
(xviii.  30)  has  been  interpreted  as  a  reference 
to  the  ravages  of  Tiglath-pileser  in  the  north 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29),  or  to  the  deportation  of  the 
ten  tribes  after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  But  this 
explanation  conflicts  with  the  parallel  state- 
ment, "all  the  time  that  the  house  of  God 
was  in  Shiloh"  (Judg.  xviii.  31).  More- 
over, historical  circumstances  in  the  reigns 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  Jeroboam  (1  Kin. 
v.-vii.;  xii.  2H-31)  make  it  highly  improb- 
able that  this  image  worship  continued 
to  be  jjracticed  until  the  time  of  Tiglath- 
l)ileser  or  the  Assyrian  exile.  Hence  from 
the  time  of  David  Kimchi  many  interjireters 
have  understood  the  cai)tivity  of  the  land  to 
refer  to  the  cajiture  of  the  ark  by  the  I'hilis- 
lincs,  when  Jehovah  forsook  Shiloh.  Several 
ex])ositors  have  adoj)ted  the  conjecture  of 
Iloubigant  that  the  last  letter  in  the  iihrase 
"ia]itivity  of  the  land"  has  boconic  corrujit, 
and  that  the  Hebrew  text  originally  had 
nun  instead  of  t/,ade,  which  would  then 
read  "(;a])tivity  of  the  ark."  Keil  thinks 
that  the  reference'  is  to  a  coii(|uest  of  tlu^  land 
of  the  northern  Danites  and  enslavement  of 
its  ]iopulation  by  the  neighboring  Syrians  of 
Danias<'iis.  Any  of  these  suppositions  is  be- 
set by  fewer  difliculties  than  the  assumi)tion 
that  Mi<'airs  image  worship  continued  until 
tlie  fall  of  Samaria.  The  exnression  "from 
Dan  even  to  I?eersheba  "  (xx.  1 )  was.  of  course, 
appropriate  in  the  times  of  tlie  judges,  for  it 


doubtless  originated  then.  For  x.  11-18  ;  cp. 
i.  31,  32,  34  ;  iii.  13,  31  ;  vi.  3,  9,  10,  33.  The 
indications  of  time,  which  are  found  in  the 
appendices,  thus  point  to  the  period  before 
David's  reign  over  all  Israel.  The  general 
introduction  to  the  book  was  written  while 
the  Jebusites  still  occupied  the  stronghold  at 
Jerusalem  (i.  21).  All  these  indications  of 
time  strongly  favor  the  inference  that  the 
book  as  a  whole  was  written  in  the  time  of 
Samuel,  if  not  actually  by  that  prophet  him- 
self, as  the  Jews  of  old  believed.  Critics 
who  deny  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  Deu- 
teronomy assume  that  a  late  revLser  worked 
over  the  material,  because  the  book  reflects 
the  same  religious  conception  as  does  Deu- 
teronomy. 

As  the  analysis  of  the  work  shows,  these 
histories  were  gathered  and  placed  in  their 
present  framework  in  order  to  exhibit  their 
religious  teaching  and  serve  as  an  admonition 
to  subsequent  ages.  This  religious  signifi- 
cance of  the  events,  which  the  compiler  de- 
sired to  exhibit,  was  not  concealed  from  the 
I  actors  themselves.  The  song  of  Deborah  and 
the  national  uprising  to  punish  the  perpetra- 
tors and  abetters  of  the  crime  of  Gibeah  re- 
veal the  consciousness  of  the  participants  that 
they  were  engaged  in  sacred  warfare  and 
that  the  history  which  was  being  enacted 
was  full  of  religious  instruction. 

Judg'ment  Hall.    See  Pk^torium. 

Ju'dith  [oliject  of  praise,  praiseworthy  ; 
also  feminine  of  Y'hudi,  a  Jew,  and  meaning 
a  Jewess] . 

1.  A  wife  of  Esau  and  daughter  of  Beeri, 
the  Hittite  ((tcu.  xxvi.  34).  She  was  also 
called  Oholibamah   (xxxvi.  2  ;  c\k  Anah). 

2.  Heroine  of  the  book  of  Judith ;  see 
Apocrypha. 

Ju'll-a  rfeminine  form  of  Latin  Juliasl. 

A  Christian  woman  at  Eome  (Rom.  xvi. 
15),  not  unlikely  the  wife  of  Philologus. 

Ju'li-us. 

A  centurion  of  the  Augustan  band,  em- 
ploj'ed  to  conduct  Paul  and  other  prisoners 
to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  1 ).  He  showed  courtesy 
to  the  apostle,  allowing  him  to  visit  his 
friends  at  Sidon  (3).  At  Crete  he  did  not 
believe  Paul's  prediction  of  the  coming  storm 
(11) ;  but  after  the  tempest  broke  he  heeded 
Paul's  advice  and  kept  the  sailors  from  for- 
saking the  ship  (31).  When  the  vessel  was 
wrecked,  the  guard  wanted  to  kill  the  pris- 
oners lest  any  should  escape  ;  but  he  forbade 
the  butchery,  desiring  to  save  Paul  (42,  43). 

Ju'ni-as,  in  A.  V.  Junia. 

A  .Jewish  Christian  at  Rome,  a  kinsman  and 
fellow-prisoner  of  Paul,  and  in  Christ  before 
him  (Rom.  xvi.  7). 

Ju'nl-per. 

Not  the  coniferous  tree  of  the  genus  Jiini- 
pcnis,  of  which  several  species  occur  in 
Lebanon,  Galilee,  and  Bashan ;  but  a  legu- 
minous plant  {Retama  rsetam),  an  almost  leaf- 


Jupiter 


427 


Kadesh 


less  broom  (1  Kin.  xix.  4,  5  ;  Job  xxx.  4;  Ps. 
cxx.  4) ;  see  Broom. 

Ju'pi-ter. 

The  siiiiienie  god  of  the  Romans.  He  cor- 
respouded  to  tlie  Zeus  of  the  Greeks,  and  in 
the  only  part  of  the  N.  T.  in  wliich  the  name 
is  introduced  (Acts  xiv.  12,  13)  the  CTreek 
text  has  Zeus.  Zeus  had  a  noted  temple  at 
Olympia  in  Elis  (Herod,  ii.  7),  from  which  he 
derived  his  designation  of  Olymjjius.  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  erected  a  temple  to  him  un- 
der that  title  at  Athens,  dedicated  the  tem- 
l)le  at  Jerusalem  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  and  at 
the  request  of  the  Samaritans,  Josephussays, 
called  the  .sanctuary  on  Uerizim  by  the  name 
of  Jujiitei-,  the  protector  of  strangers  (2 
Mac.  vi.  2 ;  Autiq.  xii.  5,  5).  The  worship 
of  Jupiter,  which  Paul  and  Barnabas  met 
with  at  Lystra,  existed  at  the  time  over  the 
whole  Greek  and  Roman  world.  He  had 
temples  and  a  priesthood ;  garlands  were 
presented  to  him,  as  were  also  offerings  of 
other  kinds,  and  oxen  and  sheep  were  sacri- 
ficed to  propitiate  his  favor. 

Ju-shab-he'sed  [loving-kindness  is  re- 
turned). 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Jus'tus  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  A  surname  of  Joseph,  the  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  apostleship  rendered  va- 
cant bv  the  fall  of  the  unworthy  Judas 
(Acts  i!  23). 

2.  A  godly  man  of  Corinth,  whose  house 
adjoined  the  synagogue,  and  with  whom 
Paul  lodged  (Acts  xviii.  7).  His  fuller  name 
was  Titus  Justus  (R.  V.). 

3.  The  surname  of  a  Jew  called  Jesus,  who 
.joined  Paul  in  sending  salutations  to  the  Co- 
lossians  (Col.  iv.  11). 

Ju'tah  and  Jut'tah  [extended,  inclined]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  men- 
tioned with  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Ziph,  and 
doubtless  in  their  vicinity  (Josh.  xv.  55). 
With  its  suburbs  it  was  assigned  to  the  priests 
(xxi.  16).  It  is  now  called  Vuttah,  and  stands 
on  a  low  eminence,  about  5^  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Hebron.  The  supposition  is  credible  that 
Jutah  was  the  city  of  Judah  in  the  hill  coun- 
try to  which  Mary  went  to  visit  Eli.sabeth 
(Luke  i.  39),  and  that  .Tiulah  (' londa)  has 
lieen  substituted  for  Jutah  Cloufa).  The 
more  common  view,  however,  is  that  Hebron 
was  the  city  of  Elisabeth. 


K. 


Kab,  in  A.  V.  Cab. 

A  Hebrew  dry  measure  (2  Kin.  vi.  25)  : 
containing,  according  to  rabbinical  tradition, 
one  sixth  of  a  seah  or  one  one  hundred  and 
eightieth  of  a  homer.     See  Measure. 

Kab'ze-el  and  once  Jekabzeel  (Neh.  xi.  25) 
[God  livings  together]. 

A   city   in   the  extreme  south   of  Judah 


(.Josh.  XV.  21).  It  was  the  home  of  David's 
heroic  supporter,  Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20  ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22).  The  town  was  inhabited 
after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  25 ;  where  it  is 
called  by  the  synonymous  name  of  Jekabzeelj. 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ka'desh,    including    Ka  -  desh  -  bar' ne-a 

[consecrated].  The  meaning  of  Barnea  is 
unknown. 

1.  A  fountain,  city  or  town,  and  wilderness 
on  the  southern  frontier  of  Judaii  and  of 
Palestine  (Num.  xx.  16  ;  xxxiv.  4 ;  Josh.  xv. 
3  ;  Ps.  xxix.  8 ;  Ezek.  xlvii.  19 ;  xlviii.  28) ; 
distinguished  as  Kadesh-barnea  from  other 
places  bearing  the  name  Kadesh  (Num.  xiii. 
26  with  xxxii.  8;  Deut.  i.  19  with  46).  At  an 
early  period  it  was  called  En-mishpat  or 
Fountain  of  Judgment  ((len.  xiv.  7).  It  was 
in  the  wilderness  of  Parau  (Num.  xiii.  3,  26), 
in  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (Num.  xx.  1  ;  xxvii. 
14),  eleven  days'  journey  from  Sinai  by  way 
of  mount  Seir  (Deut.  i.  2),  in  the  uttermost 
of  the  border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  16).  It 
appears  to  have  been  not  a  great  distance 
from  the  highway  between  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  for  Hagar's  well  was  situated  between 
Kadesh  and  Bered,  and  on  the  road  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xvi.  7,  14  ;  cp.  xx.  1).  The  place  was 
overrun  by  Chedorlaomer  (xiv.  7).  Into  the 
region  adjacent  Hagar  fled  (xvi.  7,  14),  and 
Abraham  sojourned  there  for  a  time  (xx.  1). 
The  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings, 
twice  eiicaui])((l  at  Kadesh.  They  arrived  in 
the  neighborhood  in  the  second  year  about 
the  fifth  month  (Num.  xiii.  20;  cp.  x.  11), 
sent  thence  the  spies  into  Canaan,  received 
the  discouraging  report  there  about  the  diffi- 
culties of  conquest  (xiii.  26),  refused  to  ad- 
vance, and  were  condemned  to  remain  in  the 
wilderness,  and  abode  at  Kadesh  many  days 
(Deut.  i.  46).  They  returned  to  Kadesh  in 
the  first  month  (Num.  xx.  1)  of  the  fortieth 
year  (xxxiii.  36,  38;  cp.  Deut.  ii.  7,  14).  Here 
Miriam  died  and  was  buried  (Num.  xx.  1)  ; 
and  here  Moses  smote  the  rock  that  water 
might  gush  out,  as,  in  similar  circumstances, 
it  had  done  at  Rephidim  (xx.  1-13) ;  see 
Meribah.  But  he  and  Aaron  sinned  in  act- 
ing in  their  own  name.  From  Kadesh  am- 
bassadors were  sent  to  the  king  of  Edom  to 
ask  permission  for  the  Israelites  to  pass 
through  his  territorv  (xx.  14,  16,  22  ;  Judg. 
xi.  16,  17).  In  1842,  the  Rev.  J.  Rowlands 
discovered  a  fountain  called  by  the  Arabs 
Kades  or  Kudes,  on  the  east  of  Jebel  Helal. 
In  1878,  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Holland,  and  in 
1881  the  Rev.  Dr.  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  visited 
the  spot  and  revived  the  identification.  The 
name  remains  in  wady  Kadis,  Jebel  Kadis, 
and  'Ain  Kadis;  the  site  answers  to  the  bib- 
lical description  in  every  respect;  and  con- 
firmation is  afforded  by  the  name  of  the  ad- 
jacent wady,  Abu  Retemat.  On  the  ground 
that  the  Israelites  encami)ed  twice  at  Kadesh 
(Num.  xiii.  26;  xx.  1,  22;  xxxiii.  36),  many 
interpreters  had  long  been  of  the    opinion 


Kadmiel 


428  Kanah 


that  Eitlmiah  was  practically  identical  with 
Kadesh  (xii.  16  with  xxxiii.  IH)  ;  and  now  it 
appears  that  the  wady  nearest  and  parallel  to 
that  of  Kadis  hears  the  name  corresponding 
to  Kithmah,  wady  Ahu  Ketemat.  'Ain  Kadis 
is  ahout  77  miles  to  the  south  of  Hebron  and 
51   miles  south  of  Beersheba.    The  spring, 


Kad'mon-ites  [people  of  the  east]. 

A  tribedwelling somewhere  between  Egypt 
and  the  Euphrates  (Gen.  xv.  19),  probably  in 
the  Syrian  desert. 

Kain  [possession,  creature,  smith]. 

1.  The  tribal  name  from  which  the  more 
familiar  gentile  adjective  Kenite  is  derived 


Wilderness  of  Kadesh. 


which  is  of  sweet  water,  issues  from  under  a 
rugged  spur  of  rock  belonging  to  the  north- 
eastern mountain  range  west  of  the  Arabah. 
The  stream  is  copious,  and  is  intercepted  in 
its  course  by  two  or  three  wells  built  round 
with  masonry.  Then  after  traversing  the 
oasis  which  it  has  created,  it  is  finally  lost  in 
the  desert  beyond.  This  identification  has 
been  generally  acce])ted  as  ])rol)ably  correct. 
Numerous  other  sites  liad  ])reviously  been 
suggested,  especially  'Ain  el-\Veibeh,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Arabah,  northwest  of 
Petra.  Robinson  had  failed  to  discover  any 
spring  called  Kadis,  and  settled  on  the  spring 
el-^V('illl■h  because  of  its  copiousness  and  its 
pro.ximity  to  the  borders  of  Edom.  Wetz- 
stein  identified  Kadesli  with  Kadus,  north 
of  Jebel  Madara;  but  seii  Kf.dksh  1. 

2.  The  nanu^  is  ])erliiips  contained  in  "the 
land  of  Talitim-liodsbi  "  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  (i), 
corrected  by  means  of  I>ucian's  text  to  "  the 
land  of  the  Hittites,  toward  Kadesh." 

Kad'ml-el  [f!od  is  of  old]. 

A  Lcvitc,  head  of  a  trilial  house,  who  re- 
turned from  Piabylon  witli  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  40;  Neh.  vii.  43  ;  xii.  K).  He  helped  to 
oversee  the  workmen  engaged  in  rebuilding 
the  temiile  (Ezra  iii.  0).  The  representative 
of  the  bouse  sealed  the  covenant  (\eh.  x.O), 
I)erha])s  being  the  same  j)erson  wlio  had  ]ire- 
viously  assisted  in  the  i>ublic  confession  (ix. 
4,5). 


(R.  V.  of  Num.  xxiv.  22;  Judg.  iv.  11, 
margin).     See  Kenite. 

2.  A  village  in  .Tudah,  in  A.  V.  spelled 
Cain  (Josh.  xv.  57);  perhaps  it  was  an  old 
settlement  of  the  Kenites.     See  Cain  3. 

Kal'lai  [swift]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Sallai  in  the  time  of  Joiakim,  the  high  priest 
(Neh.  xii.  20\ 

Ka'mon;  in  A.  V.  Camon. 

The  place  where  the  judge  Jair  the  Gile- 
adite  was  buried  (Judg.  x.  5).  The  site  is  un- 
known. Eusebius  and  Jerome  locate  it  in 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  between  Megiddo 
and  Acre  ;  but  presumably  it  was  in  Gilead, 
as  Josephus  states  (Antiq.  v.  7,  6).  Polybius 
mentions  a  town  Kamoun  which  was  taken 
by  Antiochus  in  his  war  with  Ftolemy  Philo- 
pator,  immediately  after  he  had  captured 
Scythojxilis  and  at  the  same  time  that  he 
took  Pi'lla,  Abila,  Gadara  and  other  places 
in  Gilead   (Hist.  v.  70,  12). 

Ka'nah  [place  of  reeds]. 

1.  A  brook  which  formed  part  of  the 
boundary  line  between  Ephraim  and  Mauas- 
seh  (Josh.  xvi.  8;  xvii.  fl).  Robinscm  identi- 
fied it  with  the  wady  Kanah,  which  rises 
south  of  Shechem,  and  joins  the  'Aujah,  the 
combined  streams  fiilling  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean 4  miles  north  of  Joppa.  This  .=eems 
too  far  south,  but  the  identily  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  names  is  in  its  favor. 


Kaph 


429 


Kenath 


2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  28).  It  was  plausibly  identified  by  Rob- 
inson with  the  modern  Kaua,  about  7i  miles 
southeast  of  Tyre.  It  is  a  village  with  no 
marks  of  antiquity,  but  lower  down  tlie  ra- 
vine which  comes  from  it  are  old  sculptures 
on  tbe  face  of  the  southern  cliffs. 

Kaph.     See  Caph. 

Ka-re'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Careah  [bald]. 

Father  of  the  captains  Johanan  and  Jona- 
than, who  came  to  Gedaliah,  tlie  Babylonian 
governor  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23  ;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

Kar'ka,  in  A.  V.  Kar'ka-a,  retaining  the 
llnal  syllable  which  denotes  direction  [rent, 
ravine]. 

A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  3).  The  name  has  the  definite 
article,  and  maybe  a  common  noun  meaning 
simply  the  ravine  (Wetzstein). 

Kar'kor  [foundation]. 

A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  where  Zebah 
and  Zalmuuna  encamped  with  their  army 
( Judg.  viii.  10).     Site  unidentified. 

Kar'tah  [city]. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  given  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  34).     Not  identified. 

Kar'tan  [perhaps an  old  dual,  twin  towns]. 

A  town  of  Naphtali,  given  to  the  CJer- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  32).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  vi.  76  Kiriathaim,  A.  V.  Kirjathaim. 
Site  unidentified. 

Kat'tath. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15)  ;  identi- 
fied sometimes  with  Kitron  of  Judg.  i.  30, 
and  sometimes  with  Kartah. 

Ke'dar  [probably,  mighty].  To  the  He- 
brews the  name  was  also  suggestive  of  the 
black  tents. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13),  children  of  the  east,  dwelling  in  black 
tents,  possessing  flocks  and  camels  (Song  i.  .5 ; 
Is.  Ix.  7;  Jer.  xlix.  28,  29),  and  having  vil- 
lages also  in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xlii.  11). 
They  were  an  Arabian  tribe  (Is.  xxi.  13,  16; 
Ezek.  xxvii.21).  They  were  ruled  by  princes 
(ibid.),  and  were  skillful  in  archery  (Is.  xxi. 
16, 17).  They  dwelt  between  Arabia  Petraea 
and  Babylonia.  The  people  of  Kedar  were 
Pliny's  Cedrai,  and  from  their  tribe  Moham- 
med ultimately  arose. 

Ked'e-mah  [toward  the  east]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
15 ;  1  t'hron.  i.  31).  Not  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Ked'e-moth  [ancient  places  or  beginnings]. 

A  city  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  the  wilder- 
ness (Deut.  ii.  26),  allotted  to  the  Reubenites 
Mosh.  xiii.  18)  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  for  residence  (xxi.  37;  1  Chron.  vi. 
79  >.     Site  unidentified. 

Ke'desh  [sacred  place,  sanctuary]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  231,  probably  different  from 
Kadesh-barnea  (ver.  3).     Its  site  is  perhaps 


Kadus,  about  6V  miles  north  of  Jebel  Madara 
near  wady  el- Yemen. 

2.  A  fortified  city  of  the  Canaanites,  whose 
king  was  slain  by  .Joshua  (.Josh.  xii.  22 ;  xi.x. 
37).  It  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
and  is  thei'efore  sometimes  called  Kedesh- 
naphtali  (Judg.  iv.  6).  It  was  given  to  the 
Gershonite  Levites  for  their  residence,  and 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx. 
7;  xxi.  32;  1  Chron.  vi.  7()).  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6).  Its  inhabitants 
were  carried  into  captivity  to  Assyria  by 
Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Demetrius 
considered  it  a  strategic  point  in  his  war 
against  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xi.  63,  73;  Antiq. 
xiii.  5,  6).  Robinson's  identification  of  it 
with  the  village  of  Kades  in  Upper  Galilee, 
about  ih  miles  northwest  from  the  waters  of 
Merom,  has  met  with  general  acceptance. 

3.  A  city  of  Issachar  given  to  the  Ger- 
shonite Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  72;  in  Josh.  xxi. 
28  Kishion,  A.  V.  Kishon).     See  Kishion. 

Ke-hel'a-thah  [an  assembly]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  22,  23).     Not  identified. 

Kei'lah. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
44;  1  Chron.  iv.  19).  The  Philistines  fought 
against  it,  but  David  attacked  them  and  de- 
livered the  town.  Nevertheless  he  did  not 
remain  in  the  town  when  Saul  approached, 
lest  the  men  of  Keilah  should  surrender  him 
to  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  1-13).  The  town  was 
inhabited  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  iii.  17,  18). 
The  identification  with  Kila,  a  ruined  vil- 
lage 8V  miles  northwest  of  Hebron,  is  scarcely 
tenable;  for  Kila  is  in  the  mountains  and 
Keilah  was  situated  in  the  lowland. 

Ke-la'iah  [perhaps,  contempt].     See  Kel- 

IT.\. 

Kel'i-ta  [dwarf]. 

A  Levite,  called  also  Kelaiah,  who  was  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  23).  He  was  employed  with  others 
by  him  to  read  and  interpret  the  law  to  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

Kem'u-el  [perhaps,  congregation  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah,  and  head  of 
a  younger  branch  of  the  Aramseans  (Gen. 
xxii.  21). 

2.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  and  a 
commissioner  for  the  allotment  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xxxiv.  24). 

3.  A  Levite,  father  of  Hashabiah  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

Ke'nan.     See  Cainan. 

Ke'nath  [possession]. 

A  town  on  the  western  slope  of  the  .Tebel 
Hauran,  on  the  extreme  northeastern  border 
of  Israelitish  territory.  It  was  the  most 
easterly  of  the  ten  cities  of  the  Decapolis 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  5, 16),  and  was  near  Bostra 
(.Terome,  Onom.).  Imposing  ruins  of  it  still 
remain,   which    bear    the    name    Kanawat. 


Kenaz 


430 


Key 


It  was  taken  by  Nobah,  probably  a  Manas- 
site,  who  called  it  after  his  own  name  (Num. 
xxxii.  4-J|.  Tlie  lu-w  nanie,  however,  fiiil 
not  i)iTniaiiently  supplant  the  old  one.  The 
town  passed  again  into  gentile  hands  (1  Chrou. 
ii.2;{).  Jlerod  the  Great  was  defeated  here  by 
the  Arabians  (War  i.  19,  2). 

Ee'naz  [perhaps,  hunting]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  through  Eliphaz 
(Cien.  xx.wi.  11).  He  became  a  chieftain  in 
mount  Seir  (15),  probably  taking  his  title 
from  the  clan  which  he  ruled  (40-43).  The 
reference  in  Josh.  xv.  17;  1  Cbron.  iv.  13  is 
probably  likewise  to  the  tribe.     See  Keniz- 

ZITK. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(1  t4iron.  iv.  15).  A  name  has  evidently 
dropped  out  of  the  text  before  it. 

Ke'nez-ite.     See  Kexizzite. 

Ke'nite. 

A  tribe  of  which  a  branch  dwelt  in  Canaan 
or  vicinity  in  the  time  of  Aljraham  (Gen.  xv. 
19),  while  another  portion  of  the  same  people 
settled  in  Jlidian,  and  by  the  time  of  Moses 
had  become  incorporated  with  the  Midianites 
(.Itidg.  i.  Ki;  iv.  11;  cp.  Num.  x. '29).  The 
Midianite  Kenites  may,  however,  have  been 
merely  a  tribal  family  descended  from  a  man 
of  Midian  named  Cain,  and  have  had  nothing 
in  common  with  the  Kenites  who  dwelt  in 
Canaan.  The  latter  occupied  rocky  fastnesses 
near  to  Amalek  (Num.  xxiv.  20-22).  It  may 
perhaiis  l>e  gathered  from  this  that  before  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  the  Kenites  dwelt  in  the 
ruL'i-'cd,  rocky  country  northeast  of  the  Ama- 
lek ites  and  totheeastandsontheast  of  Hebron. 
Hobab  the  ^Midianite,  of  the  family  of  the 
Kenites,  accompanied  the  Israelites  on  their 
march  from  mount  Sinai  to  Canaan  to  aid 
them  with  liis  knowledge  of  the  country 
(\um.  X.  29-32).  When  the  Israelites  crossed 
the  Jordan,  encamped  at  Gilgal,  and  took 
Jericho,  Hobab's  family  ])itched  their  tents 
at  Jericho  ;  but  after  the  concjuest  of  Canaan 
they  cast  in  tiieir  lot  with  the  tribe  of  Jiidah, 
aTid  settled  in  the  wilderness  of  .hidah,  south 
of  Arad  and  southeast  of  Hel)ron  (.ludg.  i. 
16).  This  choice  perhaps  indicates  that  they 
were  indeed  a  branch  of  the  old  Kenite  tribe 
of  Ciuiaan  and  sought  the  houu^  of  their  fore- 
l';itli(is.  One  Kenite.  however,  did  not  care 
to  dwell  with  his  })retliren  in  the  south,  but 
took  up  his  abode  near  Kedesh  in  Naphtali 
(Judg.  iv.  111.  The  Kenites  Mho  settled  in 
tlie  south  of  Judali  were  still  there  in  friendly 
relations  with  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of 
Saul  and  David  (1  Sam.  xv.  (>  ;  xxvii.  10; 
XXX.  29),  Thev  had  their  registrv  with 
Judah  (1  Chron.ii.  55). 

Ken'iz-zite,  in  .'\.  V.  Kenezite,  save  once 
((icn.  \v.   19). 

<»nc  of  the  tribes  in  or  near  Canaan  in  the 
time  of  .Vbraham  ((ien.  xv.  19).  Found  set- 
Ilcil  in  niou  n  t  Sei  r,  it  bocam(>  subject  to  the  vic- 
t<irious  desceiidanis  of  Ivs;ni,  when  thev  took 


possession  of  the  country  (Dent.  ii.  12),  amal- 
gamated with  the  conquerors,  and  looked  to 
one  of  Esau's  descendants  as  its  head.  This 
chieftain  was  known  as  Kenaz  from  the  tribe 
which  he  ruled  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15,  40-42). 
Individuals  of  the  tribe,  on  the  other  hand, 
united  with  the  sons  of  Jacob,  Jephunneh 
the  Kenizzite  apparently  taking  to  wife  a 
woman  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  Othniel 
the  Kenizzite  becoming  the  first  .judge  of 
Israel  after  the  conquest.     See  Caleb  2. 

Ker-en-hap'puch  [the  horn  of  paint]. 

The  youngest  of  Job's  three  daughters 
born  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Ke'ri-oth,  in  A.  V.  once  Kirioth  (Amos  ii. 
2)  [cities]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
properly  Kerioth-hezrou  (Josh.  xv.  25).  The 
same  as  Razor  2  (q.  v.).  Possibly  it  was  the 
birthi)lace  of  Judas  Iscariot,  as  the  latter 
half  of  the  name  means  man  of  Kerioth. 

2.  A  town  of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone  13  ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  24),  api)arently  fortified  (41).  It  pos- 
sessed palaces  (Amos  ii.  2).  It  is  sujijjoscd  to 
be  a  synonym  of  Ar,  the  ancient  cai)ital  of 
Moab,  because  it  seems  to  be  referred  to 
as  the  capital  (ibid.),  and  because  in  enu- 
merations of  the  towns  of  Moab  when  Kerioth 
is  cited  Ar  is  omitted  (Jer.  xlviii.  ;  Moabite 
Stone)  and  vice  versa  (Is.  xv.,  svi. ;  cp.  Josh, 
xiii.  16-21).  Unidentified  ;  not  Kureiyat,  for 
which  see  Kiriathaim. 

Ke-ri-oth-hez'ron.  See  Kerioth  1  and 
Hazor  2. 

Ke'ros  [the  reed  of  a  weaver's  loom]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  wliich  returned  from  cajitivity  (Ezra  ii. 
44  ;  Nell.  vii.  47). 

Ket'tle.     See  Pot. 

Ke-tu'rah  [incense]. 

One  of  Abraham's  wives  (Gen.  xxv.  1;  cj). 
xvi.  3).  The  narrative  is  found  at  the  close 
of  the  histiiry  of  Abraham.  It  owes  this  po- 
sition to  literary  considerations,  which  ob- 
tain throughout  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  not 
to  chronological  ones.  The  writer  is  in  the 
habit  of  giving  a  brief  account  of  the  sub- 
ordinate line  of  descendants,  and  forthwith 
dismissing  them  from  his  pages  in  order  to 
])roceed  with  the  main  history.  From  all 
that  api)ears  Abraham  may  have  taken 
Keturah  to  wife  long  before  the  death  of 
Sarah.  She  became  the  ancestress  of  the 
tribes  of  Zimran,  .lokshan,  Medan,  Midian, 
Ishbak,  and  Shuah  (Gen.  xxv.  1,  2  ;  1  Chi'on. 
i.  .32).  Her  sons  were  not  regarded  as  on  the 
same  level  with  Isaac,  and  their  father  gave 
them  gifts  and  sent  them  away  during  his 
lifetime  to  the  east  country  (Gen.  xxv.  6). 
A  tribe  Keturn  is  mentioned  in  late  Arabian 
gen<'alogies  as  dwelling  near  Mecca. 

Key. 

An  instrument  for  turning  bolts  (Judg.  iii. 
25).  .\n  oriental  key  consists  of  a  piece  of 
Wood  with  pegs  fastened  on  it  corres])onding 


Keziah 


431 


Kidron 


to  small  holes  in  a  wooden  bolt  within.  See 
Lock.  It  is  generally  carried  in  the  girdle, 
but  occasionally  it  is  fastened  to  something 
else  and  borne  over  the  shoulder  (cp.  Is.  xxii. 
22).  The  key  is  the  symbol  of  authority 
(ibid.  ;  Mat.  xvi.  19 ;  Rev.  i.  IS ;  iii.  7 ;  ix. 
1;  XX.  1).  It  is  also  the  symbol  of  acce.ss  to 
that  from  which  one  would  otherwise  be  shut 
out  (Luke  xi.  52). 

Ke-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Kezia  [cassia]. 

The  second  of  Job's  daughters  born  after 
liis  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Ke'ziz.     See  Emek-keziz. 

Kib'roth-hat-ta'a-vah  [the  graves  of  lust]. 

A  place  in  tlie  Sinaitic  peninsula,  between 
mount  Sinai  and  Hazeroth,  where  the  Israel- 
ites were  buried  who  were  slain  by  a  plague 
for  lusting  after  the  Hesh  pots  of  Egypt 
(Num.  xi.  33-3i) ;  xxxiii.  Ki,  17 ;  Deut.  ix. 
22).  In  1870  Palmer  and  Drake  l)elieved 
that  they  had  found  the  site  at  Erweis  el- 
Ebeirig,  aday's  journey  from  'Ain  el-Hudera. 
It  is  an  elevated  table-land  well  adapted  for 
the  encampment  of  a  great  multitude,  and 


Kid. 

A  young  goat.  It  was  highly  esteemed  as 
an  article  of  food  (Luke  xv.  29).  The  flesh 
was  boiled  and  eaten  (Judg.  vi.  19),  being 
sometimes  cooked  in  milk  (Ex.  xxiii.  lU). 
The  law  probably  did  not  prohibit  the  use 
of  a  sucking  kid  for  food,  but  forbade  that  it 
be  cooked  in  its  own  mother's  milk.  The 
relation  between  even  a  lower  animal  and 
its  otl'si)ring  was  sacred  and  should  not  be 
disregarded  by  man.  A  kid  might  be  used 
as  a  burnt  otlering  (Judg.  xiii.  15,  19).  The 
Hebrew  words,  Sa'h-  and  S^'irah,  rendered 
kid  of  the  goats  in  A.  V.,  are  translated  by 
goat  and  he  goat  in  K.  V.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  ;51 ; 
and  wherever  kid  occurs  in  Lev.,  Num.,  and 
Ezek.).     See  Goat. 

Kid'ron,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  and  N.  T. 
Cedron  [dark,  turbid]. 

1.  A  ravine  which  begins  about  half  an 
hour's  walk  to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem 
near  the  so-called  tomljs  of  the  judges, 
trends  for  a  mile  and  a  half  toward  the 
southeast,    turns  sharply  to  the  south  and 


with  traces  for  many  mi'o^  round  of  having 
been  so  employed.  Tradition  says  that  it 
was  the  camp  of  a  great  Hajj  caravan,  wlilch 
in  the  distant  past  sojourned  here  and  was 
never  heard  of  again. 

Kib'za-im  [two  heaps].    See  Jokmeam. 


continues  in  this  direction  past  the  citj'  as 
far  as  the  valley  of  Hinnom  and  En-rogel. 
Here  it  bends  again  to  the  southeast  and 
pursues  a  tortuous  course  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
No  stream  flows  in  it  except  during  continu- 
ous heavy  rains  in  winter,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  its  bed  was  ever  occupied  by  a 


Kinah 


432 


King 


perennial  brook.  Indeed,  the  word  brook, 
which  is  connected  with  it  in  the  English 
version,  represents  a  Hebrew  word  which 
commonly  either  means  a  ravine  occupied  by 
the  channel  of  a  torrent  dry  during  the  hot 
season  or  denotes  the  winter  torrent  itself. 
By  writers  who  use  Greek,  the  Kidron  is  ex- 
pressly called  winter  brook  (John  xviii.  1 ;  1 
Mac.  xii.  ;J7).  The  name  may  be  derived 
from  the  turbid  water  of  the  winter  torrents 
or  from  the  gloominess  of  the  valley,  espe- 
cially in  its  lower  part.  To  speakers  of  the 
Greek  language,  the  (Ji-eek  form  of  the  name 
suggested  the  word  for  cedar  and  the  rivulet 
came  to  be  frequently  called  the  brook  of  the 
cedars  (John  xviii.  1,  R.  V.  margin  ;  2  Sam. 
XV.  23,  codex  Vat.).  The  Kidron  separates 
Jerusalem  from  the  mount  of  Olives  and  had 
to  be  crossed  by  those  going  from  the  city  to 
Bethany  or  Jericho  (2  Sam.  xv.  23).  It  was 
regirded  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  ii.  37  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  40).  The  portion  of 
the  valley  lying  near  the  southern  part  of 
the  city  was  early  u.sed  as  a  common  burying 
ground  (2  Kin.  x.xiii.  6)  ;  and  godly  kings, 
who  from  time  to  time  found  it  necessary  to 
cleanse  the  temple  of  idolatrous  symbols, 
made  the  Kidron  valley  the  dumping  place 
for  the  ashes  of  these  abominations  (1  Kin. 
XV.  13;  2  Chron.  xxix.  Hi;  xxx.  14;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  4).  Athaliah  is  reported  to  have  been 
led  away  to  the  Kidron  for  execution  that 
the  temple  might  not  be  defiled  by  her  blood 
(Antiq.  ix.  7,  3). 

2.  A  town  near  Jamnia  and  Ashdod  (1 
Mac.  XV.  39 :  xvi.  9, 10),  fortified  Ijy  Cendebieus 
and  occupied  by  a  detachment  of  his  Syrian 
army  because  it  commanded  several  roads 
into  Judfea  (xv.  41).     See  Gedkroth. 

Ki'nali  [song  of  mourning,  lamentation]. 

A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  22).     Situation  unknown. 

Kine.     See  Cow. 

King. 

'J'he  head  of  that  form  of  state  which  is 
specifically  called  a  kingdom.  The  title  for- 
merly implied  autocratic  power.  Nirarod 
ruhHl  over  a  kingdom  in  Babylonia  contain- 
ing several  cities  ((Jen.  x.  10).  ("hcdorlaoiuer 
was  king  of  Ehim  and  liead  of  a  confederacy 
of  kings  (xiv.  1,  5).  Pharaoh  held  sway 
over  the  princes  of  Egypt  (xii.  15).  Nebu- 
chadnezzar of  Babylon  and  Artaxerxes  the 
Persian  were  each  a  king  over  kings  (Ezra 
vii.  12;  Dan.  ii.  37,  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  17).  In 
("anaan  in  the  time  of  Abraham  the  rule  of  a 
king  was  often  over  one  town  only  ((}en.  xiv. 
2,  IS;  XX.  2).  Some  centuries  later  Joshua 
enumerated  thirty-one  kings  wliom  he  liiid 
conquered  within  the  bounds  of  Canaan 
(Josh.  xii.  7-24).  It  was  not  until  centuries 
after  the  tribes  and  nations  adjacent  to  Pal- 
estine had  been  ruled  1)v  kings,  that  the 
Israelites  deman<le(l  a  visii)le  inonarcli.  .Al- 
though the  demand  when  luude  was  jirtunpted 
by  unbelief  and  in  so  far  was  rebellion  against 


Jehovah,  yet  it  was  not  in  itself  at  variance 
with  the  theocracy  and  the  invisible,  but  ef- 
ficient, rule  of  Jehovah  ;  for  the  theocracy  in 
its  very  institution  contemplated  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  several  offices  of  government  by 
human  agents ;  see  Theocracy.  Moses  fore- 
saw the  need  that  would  arise  for  a  visible 
king  and  he  provided  for  the  event,  ju.st  as 
provision  was  made  for  prophets  and  priests 
to  make  known  the  will  or  legislation  of 
Jehovah  and  for  judges  to  rei)resent  the 
unseen  Judge  (Deut.  xvii.  14-20).  When  the 
king  was  chosen  the  theocracy  was  not  abol- 
ished. The  nominally  uncontrolled  sovereign 
was  required  to  be  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah  ; 
and  when  Saul,  mistaking  his  position,  sought 
to  act  independently,  another  was  chose:i  to 
supersede  him  and  his  posterity  on  the 
throne.  The  same  rule  obtained  with  all 
Sanl's  successors;  when  they  gave  up  fidelity 
to  Jehovah,  they  forfeited  their  title  to  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xi.  31-36).  For  the  suc- 
cession of  kings  who  ruled  in  Judah  and 
Israel,  see  Chronology. 

A  man  became  king  of  a  nation  through 
appointment  to  the  office  by  one  higher  in 
authority  (1  Sam.  ix.  16;  xvi.  1,  13;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33,  34 ;  xxiv.  17),  by  the  choice  of  the 
peoide  (1  Sam.  xviii.  8;  2  Sam.  v.  1-3;  1 
Kin.  xii.  20;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  30),  by  usurping  a 
throne  (1  Kin.  xv.  27,  28),  or  by  inheritance 
(xi.  36).  The  ceremony  of  coronation  amtrng 
the  Israelites  consisted  regularly  in  plac- 
ing on  the  throne,  putting  the  crown 
upon  the  head,  anointing  with  oil,  and  proc- 
lamation (2  Kin.  xi.  12;  cp.  1  Sam.  x.  24;  2 
Sam.  ii.  4;  v.  3;  1  Kin.  i.  34 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii. 
30).  It  was  doubtless  regularly  accompanied 
by  sacrifice,  and  sometimes  also  by  a  solemn 
procession  (1  Sam.  xvi.  2,  5;  1  Kin.  i.  25,  43- 
46).  The  king  often  led  the  army  to  battle 
in  person  (Gen.  xiv.  5;  Num.  xxi.  23;  1  Sam. 
viii.  20 ;  xiv.  20),  made  treaties  in  behalf  of 
himself  and  his  i)eople  (Gen.  xxi.  22-32;  1 
Kin.  XV.  19),  enacted  laws  and  executed 
them  (Esth.  iii.  12,  13;  viii.  7-12;  Dan.  iii. 
4-6,  29  ;  vi.  6-9),  exercised  judicial  functions 
(2  Sam.  XV.  2;  Is.  xxxiii.  22),  and  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death  (2  Sam.  xiv.  1-11  ;  1 
Kin.  i.  51,  52  ;  ii.  24-34 ;  Esth.  iv.  11 ;  vii.  9, 
10).  The  restraints  upon  the  king  were  the 
fear  of  God  and  man.  The  popular  will 
might  not  always  be  ignored  (1  Sam.  xiv.  45 ; 
XV.  24).  The  endurance  of  the  people  might 
not  be  overtaxed  Mith  imxnmity  (1  Kin.  xii. 
4).  There  were  officers  of  religion,  both 
priests  and  proj)hets,  who  in  religious  mat- 
ters were  inde])endent  of  the  king  and  did 
not  hesitate  to  rebuke  misdemeanors  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  10-14;  xv.  10-31;  2  Sam.  xii.  1-15;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  17,  18  ;  xxi.  17-22  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
16-21).  But  a  despotic  king  sometimes  broke 
through  these  restraints  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17-19; 
1  Kin.  xii.  1.5-16;  Jer.  xxvi.  20-23.  In 
view  of  the  rctyal  duties  and  prerogatives, 
the  king  required  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  qualities  of  a  high  order  to  rule  well. 


Kingdom 


433 


Kings,  Books  of  the 


Physical  superiority  is  appreciated  the  mo- 
ment it  becomes  visible.  Thus,  when  8aul 
was  presented  to  his  future  subjects,  and  they 
saw  him  tower  head  and  shoulders  abo%'e  all 
the  multitude  present,  they  raised  the  shout, 
"God  save  the  king"  (1  Sam.  x.  23,  24;  cp. 
also  xvi.  7).  In  order  to  be  an  able 
judge  the  king  must  be  a  mau  of  pene- 
tration, able  to  disentangle  truth  from 
falsehood,  and  punish,  not  the  innocent, 
but  the  guilty.  This  is  the  reason  why 
there  was  such  emotion  among  the  Israelites 
when  Solomon,  trying  his  first  case,  that  of 
the  two  women  and  the  child,  so  signally 
detected  where  the  truth  and  where  the 
falsehood  lay  (1  Kin.  iii.  28;  cp.  Is.  xi.  1-9). 
But  peuetratiou  was  not  enough  ;  the  moral 
element  was  requisite  to  make  the  sovereign 
give,  without  fear  or  favor,  the  verdict  which 
he  considered  just.  For  the  protection  of 
his  person  and  assistance  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  the  king  had  a  bodyguard,  the 
captain  of  which  generally  acted  as  execu- 
tioner (2  Sam.  XV.  18 ;  xx.  23  with  1  Kin.'  ii. 
25,  29) ;  see  Guard.  Wealthy  kings  had 
magnificent  palaces,  surrounded  themselves 
with  luxury,  and  lived  in  state  (1  Kin.  x). 
See  also  Sepulcher. 

God  is  compared  to  a  king  possessed  of 
unlimited  power,  and  using  it  under  the  in- 
tiueuce  of  supreme  beneficence  (Ps.  v.  2 ;  x. 
16).  He  is  the  King  of  kings  (1  Tim.  vi.  15). 
Christ  is  a  king.  He  called  himself  so, 
but  explained  that  his  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world  (.John  xviii.  33-38).  He  also  is  the 
King  of  kings  (Rev.  xix.  16). 

King'dom. 

1.  The  territory  or  the  people  ruled  over 
by  a  king  (2  Kin.  xv.  19). 

2.  The  sovereign  rule  of  God  over  the  uni- 
verse (1  Chron.  xxix.  11  ;  Ps.  xxii.  28  ;  cxlv. 
13;  Mat.  vi.  13). 

3.  A  sovereignty  which  Daniel  predicted 
God  would  establish  on  earth,  and  which, 
wh;'U  once  set  uji,  should  reiuaiu  forever.  In 
distiiu-liiui  from  the  kingdoms  of  this  world, 
whicli  are  exhibited  under  thefigure  of  beasts, 
the  kingdom  of  God  has  for  its  representa- 
tive a  person  like  unto  a  son  of  man  (Dan.  vii. 
13,  14,  R.  v.).  Jolin  the  Baptist  and  our  Lord 
declared  that  it  was  at  hand  (Mat.  iii.  2;  iv. 
17).  Jesus  taught  his  disciples  to  pray  for  its 
coming  (vi.  10),  instructed  his  apostles  on 
their  first  mission  to  say  that  it  was  at  hand 
(x.  7),  spoke  of  it  afterwards  as  having  come 
(xii.  28,  and  illustrated  its  nature  by  i)ara- 
bles.  It  is  called  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
and  the  kingdom  of  God.  Matthew  prefers 
the  former  and  Mark  and  Luke  the  latter 
designation  (cp.  Mat.  xiii.  24,  31,  33,  44,  45 
with  Mark  iv.  11,  26,- 30:  Luke  xiv.  15; 
xvii.  20,  etc.).  The  kingdom  is  si)iritual  in 
character,  and  no  carnal  weapons  may  be 
used  in  its  establishment  (John  xviii.  33-37). 
Commenced  on  earth  with  the  royal  minis- 
try of  Christ,  it  shall  be  consummated  amid 

28 


the  bliss  of  the  eternal  world  (Mat.  xxv.  31- 
4(i;  Luke  xxiii.  42,  43).  The  kingdom  of 
(iod  is  thus  the  "invisible  church."  It  is  the 
whole  spiritual  coniuioinvealth  of  (iod's  chil- 
dren, tlie  true  company  of  all  faithful  people. 
It  is  representi'd  by  the  organized  or  visible 
church,  but  is  more  conii)rchensive  and 
greater  than  the  visible  church  in  any  age 
or  all  ages. 

Kings,  Books  of  the. 

The  two  Books  of  the  Kings  were  origi- 
nally one  book,  but  were  divided  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  into  two.  They  are  placed  among 
"the  prophets"  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  in  that 
group  of  Scriptures  which,  because  standing 
first  among  the  proi)hets,  were  known  as 
"  former  prophets."  The  writings  of  the  for- 
mer prophets  form  a  continuous  narrative 
which  begins  at  the  death  of  Moses  and  ends 
with  the  exile.  Joshila  is  the  lirst  book  in 
the  series  and  the  Books  of  the  Kings  are  the 
last.  These  latter  were  written  to  point  out 
the  religious  teaching  of  the  national  history 
during  the  period  of  the  kingdom  from  the 
accession  of  Solomon.  The  author  shows  the 
growth  and  decay  of  the  kingdom,  indicates 
the  causes  which  worked  to  ettect  these  re- 
sults, and  draws  attention  to  the  largo  part 
played  by  forces  of  a  moral  and  religious 
character  (cp.  2  Kin.  xvii.).  His  narrative 
covers  a  pericid  of  more  than  four  hundred 
years,  and  he  is  consequently  dependent  upon 
former  historians  for  his  facts.  He  draws 
chiefly  from  the  "  book  of  the  chronicles  of 
the  kings  of  Israel  "  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19),  down 
to  the  death  of  Pekah,  and  the  "book  of 
the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah  "  (29), 
down  to  the  death  of  Jehoiakim.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  these  chronicles  were 
originally,  as  the  titles  suggest,  two  separate 
works.  Probably  they  were  ultimately 
united  into  one  and  constituted  the  work 
quoted  by  the  chronicler  as  the  "  book  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  "  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
11).  These  two  chronicles  containi'd  more 
than  the  present  Books  of  the  Kings,  fur  the 
writer  of  Kings  refers  his  readers  to  them 
for  further  details  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19,  29),  and 
the  chronicler  quotes  portions  which  the 
writer  of  Kings  does  not  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  7  ; 
xxxiii.  18).  It  is  comnu)uly  held  that  the.se 
two  clii-ouicles  were  not  tiu' ]iul)lic  annals,  but 
a  comi)ilation  from  several  documents.  This 
opinion  is  based  on  the  fact  that  writings  of 
various  pro])liets  are  mentioned  as  having 
been  inserted  in  the  book  of  the  kings  of 
Israel  (2  Chron.  XX.  34  ;  cj).  xxxii.  .32).  which 
could  not  have  been  done  if  the  book  were 
the  state  annals  added  to  from  day  to  day  by 
the  royal  scribe.  The  doul)le  chronicles  were 
written  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  ;  for  tiie 
phrase  "  unto  this  day  "  refers,  so  far  as  can 
be  determined,  invariably  to  the  time  when 
the  city  and  temple  were  in  existence  (1  Kin. 
viii.  8) ;  and  if  it  does  not  prove  that  the 
writerof  the  present  books  of  the  Kings  lived 


Kir 


434 


Kiriath-jearim 


before  the  exile,  it  at  least  sliows  that  the 
writer  of  the  book  from  whieh  he  quotes  did. 
Whether  the  writer  of  the  ])reseut  Books 
of  the  Kings  began  the  work  before  the 
destruetion  of  Jerusalem  or  not.  he  did  not 
complete  it  until  after  the  middle  years  of 
the  Babylonian  exile  (2  Kin.  xx v.  27).  He 
l)erhaps  finished  it  before  the  close  of  the  ex- 
ile, since  the  work  contains  no  allusion  to  the 
deliverance  of  the  people  from  Babylon. 

The  author  is  chietly  concerned  with  the 
history  of  the  Davidic  monarchy.  Like  the 
author  of  Genesis,  he  disposes  of  subsidiary 
matters  before  treating  his  main  theme.  In 
following  this  method,  he  records  events  re- 
lating to  Israel  before  giving  the  contem- 
poraneous history  of  Judah.  This  leads  him 
to  sometimes  narrate  the  same  event  in  con- 
nection with  both  the  northern  and  the  south- 
ern kingdoms  (1  Kin.  xv.  Ki  with  32  ;  2  Kin. 
xvii.  5,  6  with  xviii.  9). 

The  work  is  divided  into  three  parts.  I. 
The  reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i.-si.).  II.  A 
synchronistic  account  of  tlie  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel  until  the  captivity  of  Is- 
rael (xii.-2  Kin.  xvii.).  III.  The  kingdom  of 
Judah  until  the  Babylonian  exile. 

Kir  [wall,  fortified  town]. 

1.  The  place  from  which  the  Aramaeans 
migrated  to  Syria  (Amos  ix.  7),  and  to  which 
those  of  them  living  in  Damascus  were  car- 
ried back  again  on  being  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvi.  9  ;  Amos  i.  ,")).  Its  in- 
habitants are  represented  as  arrayed  with 
JClam  against  Judah  (Is.  sxii.  6).  Not  iden- 
tified. Gesenius'  doubtful  identification  of 
it  with  a  region  called  Kur,  between  the 
Black  and  the  C'asjnan  seas,  is  groundless. 
Nor  is  Schrader's  identification  of  it  with 
Media  probable  (cp.  Is.  xxi.  2  with  xxii.  fi), 
for  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Aramjeans  came  from  ^ledifi.  Furrer's  iden- 
tification with  the  district  Gyrrhestica,  north- 
west of  Antioch,  lacks  proof. 

Kir  of  Mo'ab. 

A  fortified  city  of  southern  Moab  (Is.  xv. 
1),  thought  to  be  Kir-hareseth  and  Kir-heres 
(xvi.  7,  11  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  ."]],  .'Ui ;  iu  .\.  V. some- 
linics  Kir-harasetb  and  Kir-liaresli).  It  was 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  cond)ined  forces 
of  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom  (2  Kin.  iii.  2,^).  Its 
modern  name,  traceable  V)ack  to  the  Targum, 
is  Kerak.  It  is  11  miles  east  from  the  south- 
ern bay  of  the  Dead  Sea,  south  of  the  Lisan 
or  tongue,  and  IM  south  of  the  Arnon  river. 
It  stands  on  a  triangular  hill,  at  an  elevation 
of  3323  feet  above  the  Mediterraneim,  on  a 
rocky  ]ilat form  which  rises  at  its  southeastern 
extremity  to  .■>72(l  feet.  Kxcept  at  one  or  two 
spots,  the  hill  is  isolated  from  the  neighboring 
hills  by  iirecii)ices  falling  sheer  down  to  tlie 
deeji  valleys  below.  Its  weak  i)oint  tor  mili- 
tary purp<ises  is  that  it  is  commanded  by  adja- 
cent hills  Ki.'iO  feet  high.  Kerak  constitutes  a 
triangle  from  2100  to  :iOOO  feet  on  each  side. 
It  iscnteredby  twoarcbed  tunnels,  probably 


of  Eoman  age.  There  are  remains  of  Roman 
crusading,  and  Mohammedan  times.  There 
is  a  great  castle  which  was  built  by  king 
Fulco  about  a.  d.  1131,  and  which  from  1183 
to  1188  defied  the  efforts  of  Saladin  to  eflfect 
its  capture.  Kerak  was  also  found  impreg- 
nable by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1841.  Its  present 
population  is  believed  to  be  about  8000,  of 
whom  1600  are  Christians. 

Kir-bar'a-seth,  Kir-har'e-setli,  Kir-ha'- 
resh,  Kir-he'res  [city  of  bricks  or  city  of 
pottery].     See  KiR  or  Moab. 

Kir'i-atli,  in  A.  V.  Kirjath  [city]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  28).  some- 
times identified  with  Kirjath-jearim. 

Kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  Y.  sometimes  Kir- 
ja-tha'im  [twin  cities]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  of  the  Emim  (Gen.  xiv. 
r>),  rebuilt  by  the  Eeubenites  (Num.  xxxii. 
37  ;  Josh.  xiii.  19),  wliich  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (Moabite  Stone  10  ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  1,23;  Ezek.  xxv.  9).  It  is  be- 
lieved that  its  site  was  at  Kureiyat,  north  of 
the  Arnon,  and  2|  miles  .south  by  east  of 
Ataroth.     The  ruins  are  on  two  hills. 

2.  The  same  as  Kartan  (q.  v.)  (1  Chron.  vi. 
76). 

Kir-i-ath-ar'ba,  in  A.  V.  Kirjath-arba 
[city  of  Arba,  or])erhaps,  city  of  the  croucher]. 

An  old  name  for  the  city  of  Hebron,  point- 
ing to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  city  of  Arba, 
or  the  Arba,  father  of  Anak.  Perhaps  he 
was  its  founder  (Gen.  xxiii.  2  ;  Jo.sh.  xiv.  15; 
XV.  13,  54  ;  XX.  7  ;  xxi.  11 ;  Judg.  i.  10).  The 
old  name  was  not  obsolete  even  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xi.  25).     See  Hebron. 

Kir-i-ath-a'rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-arim. 

See  KlRI.\TH-.JKARIM. 

Kir-i-ath-ba'al,   in    A.    Y.    Kirjath-baal 

[city  of  Baal].     See  Kiriath-.jkakim. 

Kir-i-atb-hu'zotli,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjatb-hu- 
ZOth  [city  of  streets]. 

A  iMoabite  town  near  Bamoth-baal  (Num. 
xxii.  .'!!),  11).  It  may  have  been  the  same  as 
Kiriathaim. 

Kir-i-atb-je'a-rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath- 
jearim  [city  of  woods  or  forests]. 

A  town  belonging  originally  to  the  Gibeon- 
ites  (Josh.  ix.  17).  It  was  on  the  western  part 
of  the  l)oundary  line  between  the  tribes  of  Ju- 
dah and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9;  xviii.  14,  15), 
but  pertained  t()  Judah,  being  con.sidercd  a 
town  belonging  to  the  hill  country  of  the  latter 
tribe  (xv.  48,  60  :  Judg.  xviii.  12).  After  the 
ark  had  been  returned  to  the  Israelites  by 
the  Philistines,  it  remained  in  .safe  cu.stody 
in  Kiriath-jearim  for  the  next  twenty  years, 
until  the  second  battle  of  Ebenezer,  and 
longer  (1  Sam.  vi.  19-vii.  2).  Some  of  its 
poi)ulation  returned  from  captivity  (Neh.  vii. 
29  ;  in  Ezra  ii.  25  the  name  appears  as  Kiri- 
alli-arim).  It  was  called  also  Kiriath-baal 
(Jo.sh.  XV.  60;  xviii.  14),  Baalah  (xv.  9,  11), 
or  Baale  (2  Sam.  vi.  2 ;  cj).  1  Chron.  xiii.  6). 


Kiriath-sannah 


436 


Kiss 


A.  V.  Kirjath-san- 
A.   V.   Kirjath-se- 


Eusebius  states  that  it  was  situated  9  or  10 
Romau  miles  from  Jerusalem  ou  the  road 
to  Diospolis,  /.  c.  Lydda.  and  aceordiii.uly  it 
is  commonly  identified  witii  Kuriet  el-'Enah, 
7  miles  west  by  north  of  Jerusalem.  Conder 
argues  for  the  ruins  'Erma,  11  uules  west  by 
south  of  Jerusalem,  and  2J  south  by  west  of 
Ke.sla.  But  eontrary  to  his  opinion,  Josh  xv. 
10  is  surely  against  the  location  proposed  by 
him.  'Klrma  and  Jearim  are  also  radically 
different,  and  the  site  is  too  remote  from  the 
other  Gibeonite  settlements. 

Kir-i-atli-san'nah, 
nah.     See  Dkbir. 

Kir-i-ath-se'pher, 
pher.    Sec  Dkbir. 

Klr'i-oth.     See  Kerioth. 

Kir'jath.     See  Kiei.\th. 

Kir-jath-ar'ba,  etc.  See  Kiri.\th-arba, 
etc. 

Kish,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Cis,  in  imitation 
of  the  (ireek. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  (1  Chrou.  viii. 
30  ;  ix.  35,  36). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  king  Saul  and 
son  of  Abiel  (1  Sam.  ix.  1),  but  also  registered 
as  a  son  of  Ner  and  a  descendant  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  viii.  33;  ix.  36,  39).  This 
latter  genealogy  may  indeed  merely  register 
the  fact  that  Kish  was  a  descendant  of  Ner, 
without  implying  that  he  was  his  immediate 
son  ;  and  allow  of  the  insertion  of  Abiel  and 
others  between  Kish  and  Ner. 

Jeiel 


I  I  I  I  II 

Abdon.      Zur.      Kish.      Baal.         Ner.  Nadab. 

Zeror. 

Abiel. 
I 

I  I 

Ki.sh.  Ner. 

I  I 

Saul.  Abner. 

But  perhaps  only  one  Kish  and  one  Ner 
descended  from  Jeiel.  If  so.  the  explanation 
of  the  genealogy  is  that  Ner's  descendants 
became  two  tribal  houses,  those  of  Kish  and 
Ner.  The  former,  the  important  royal  family 
of  Saul,  looked  to  Ner's  son  Kish  as  its  founder; 
but  it  was  merely  a  younger  branch  of  the 
older,  but  less  distinguished,  line  of  Ner. 
Both  houses  belonged  to  the  family  of  Jeiel, 
and  hence  Kish  as  well  as  Ner  is  regis- 
tered, according  to  the  familiar  i)rinciple, 
among  Jeiel's  sons  (ix.  36).  Saul's  father, 
Kish,  and  Abner's  father,  Ner,  are  mentioned 
as  sons  of  Abiel  also  (1  Sam.  ix.  1  ;  xiv.  51), 
and  either  Ner  or  Abner  is  stated  to  have 
been  Saul's  uncle  (xiv.  50).  Abiel  may  be, 
as  some  expositors  suppose,  or  may  not  be, 
another  name  or  tlie  uncorrupted  form  of 
Jeiel. 


Al) 

Jeiel 

1 

or  Abiel. 

1 
Ion. 

1       i       1 
Zur.   ;  Baal 

1             1              ! 
Ner.      Nadab.     Gedor 

1 

Kish. 

1 
Saul. 

1 
Abner. 

3.  A  Levite,  in  David's  time,  of  the  family 
of  Merari,  house  of  Mahli  ( 1  Chron.  xxiii.  21, 
22;  xxiv.  29). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari  and  son  of 
Abdi,  who  aided  in  the  revival  under  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

5.  A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  Mordecai 
(Esth.  ii.  5). 

Kisli'i.     See  Kushaiah. 

Kish'i-on,  in  A.  V.  once  Kishon  (J<i.sh.  xxi. 
28)  [hardness]. 

A  border  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  20), 
given  to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  28).  In 
1  Chron.  vi.  72  Kedesh  appears  in  its  stead, 
l)robably  by  a  copyist's  error.  Site  unknown. 

Ki'shon,  in  A.  V.  once  Kison  (Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
9)  [bending,  curving,  tortuous]. 

1.  The  most  important  river  of  Palestine 
next  to  the  Jordan.  "That  ancient  river, 
the  river  Kishon"  swept  away  the  soldiers 
of  Sisera's  beaten  army  when  they  fled  north- 
ward from  Taanach  and  attempted  to  cross 
the  stream  (Judg.  v.  19-21  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9i. 
Tlie  prie-sts  of  Baal  who  had  the  contest  witli 
Elijah  were  slain  on  its  southern  bank  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  40).  It  is  now  called  the  Nahr  el- 
JNIukutta'.  Couderand  Kitchener  state  that 
its  real  source  is  near  Khurbet  el-Mezrah  and 
the  springs  called  el-Mujahiyah,  the  place  of 
bursting  forth  of  water.  From  this  spot, 
which  is  only  a  little  west  of  Beth-shean,  a 
series  of  pools  extends,  and  then  a  continuous 
stream.  As  the  name  Kishon  implies,  the 
river  is  tortuous,  making  great  curves  as  it 
proceeds  in  a  generally  northwesterly  direc- 
tion through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  It  looks 
an  insignificaut  stream,  of  15  or  18  feet 
across,  but  has  treacherous  banks,  and  a 
muddy  bottom,  so  miich  so  that  when  the 
Turks  and  Arabs  were  defeated  l)y  the 
French  in  the  battle  of  mount  Tabor,  on 
April  16,  1799,  the  fate  of  the  vanquished 
host  was  the  same  as  that  of  Sisera's  army. 
Toward  Harosheth  of  the  gentiles.  Jabin's 
city,  the  Kishon  runs  througli  a  narrow 
gorge  under  the  clitfs  which  constitute  the 
northern  side  of  mount  Carmel,  the  water  at 
one  place  being  nearly  hidden  by  oleander 
bushes.  Then  the  stream  enters  the  plain  of 
Acre.  Sand  dunes,  dotted  with  palm  trees, 
interfere  with  it  in  the  latter  part  of  its 
course  ;  and  it  is  only  when  full  of  water  that 
it  can  overcome  the  obstacle,  and  make  a 
proper  entrance  into  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  A  town,  so  spelled  in  A.  V.  See  KisHiox. 
Kiss. 

A  salutation,  common  in  the  Orient  from 


Kite 


4".H 


Kneading  Trough 


luitriarchal  tiiiu's  onward,  between  persons 
of  the  same  sex  and  to  a  limited  extent  be- 
tween individuals  of  dilferent  sexes.  Fathers 
and  mothers  kissed  their  children  and  de- 
scendants (Gen.,  xxxi.  -.i.s.  Tm  ;  xlviii.  10;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  'S'.i,  etc-.),  and  cbildreu  their  parents 
(Gen.  xxvii.  2(),  27;  1.  1;  1  Kin.  xix.  20). 
Brother  and  sister  kissed  each  other  (Song 
viii.  1),  and  brother  kissed  brother  ((ien.  xlv. 
1.5;  Ex.  iv.  27).  So  did  (tther  relatives  and 
kinsfolk  (Gen.  xxix.  11  ;  Ex.  xviii.  7;  Euth 
i.  9).  Comrades  kissed  each  other;  so  did 
friends  (1  Sam.  xx.  41;  2  Sam.  xix.  39;  xx. 
9  ;  Acts  XX.  :57).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a 
guest  invited  to  a  house  expected  on  entering 
to  be  kissed  by  his  entertainer  (Luke  vii.  45). 
It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  Christians 
were  enjoined  to  salute  each  other  with  a 
holy  ki.ss  (liom.  xvi.  Ki ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2 
Cor.  xiii.  12  ;  1  Thes.  v.  2()),  or  with  a  kiss  of 
love  (1  Pet.  V.  14),  symbolical  of  Christian 
brotherhood.  As  kissing  between  friends, 
guests,  and  entertainers  lapsed,  the  salutation 
enjoined  by  the  apostle  fell  also  into  desue- 
tude. In  all  the  foregoing  cases  a  kiss  was, 
or  at  least  professed  to  be,  an  expression  of 
love.  It  therefore  added  to  the  baseness  of 
Judas'  treachery  that  he  had  not  merely  be- 
trayed his  Lord,  but  did  so  by  means  of  a 
kiss  (Mat.  xxvi.  48,  49;  Luke  xxii.  47,  48; 
cp.  Frov.  xxvii.  6).  In  all  love  there  is  a 
greater  or  less  amount  of  respect.  The  feet 
of  kings  were  kissed  in  token  of  great  respect 
and  to  tender  allegiance  (Ps.  ii.  12),  and  the 
Siinie  idea  was  involved  in  the  kiss  given  to 
idols  (1  Kin.  xix.  18;  Hos.  xiii.  2).  A  kiss 
was  sometimes  tlu'own  by  the  hand  to  the 
idol  (.Job  xxxi.  27).  When  women  kissed  the 
feet  of  our  Lord,  it  indicated  the  utibounded 
respect  and  atl'ection  which  they  felt  for  his 
character  and  work  (Luke  vii.  38,  45). 


Commf)n  Kite  of  Palostme 
Kite. 

\  bird  of  jircy  of  the  falcim  family,  with 
loiiii,  |M. lilted  wings  and  usually  long,  forked 
tail.     The  word  is  used  in  K.  V.  to  render 


the  Hebrew  Da'ah  and  Dayyah  (Lev.  xi.  14  , 
Dent.  xiv.  13 ;  Is.  xxxiv.  15  ;  in  A.  V.  vul- 
ture) and  twice  in  A.  V.  to  render  'Ayynh 
(Lev.  xi.  14;  Deut.  xiv.  13;  in  R.  V.  falcon). 
Both  birds  were  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  14).  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  former 
corresponds  to  the  Arabic  hadayyeh,  vernacu- 
lar for  the  kite.  It  is  of  various  kinds  (Deut. 
xiv.  13).  The  black  kite  {MUvns  nigrnns)  is 
found  in  central  and  southern  Europe,  north- 
ern Africa,  and  western  Asia.  It  appears  in 
Palestine  in  March,  gliding  noiselessly  in  the 
air,  looking  down  for  its  food,  which  consists 
of  otfal.  for,  being  a  somewhat  cowardly 
bird,  it  does  not  molest  poultry.  It  breeds  in 
trees,  ornamenting  its  nest  with  rags  of  difler- 
ent  colors.  The  black- winged  kite  (Elanus 
cxvuleus)  also  occurs  in  Palestine,  but  is  rare. 

Kith'lisli,  in  E.  Y.  CMtMisli,. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  40).     Not  identified. 

Kit'ron. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Zebuluii,  but 
from  which  the  Canaanites  were  not  driven 
out  (Judg.  i.  30).     (tompare  Kattath. 

Kit'tim  or  CMttim,  the  latter  being  the 
more  consistent,  and  in  A.  V.  more  frequent 
spelling  [origin  and  meaning  unknown]. 

Descendants  of  Javan,  who  inhabited  Cy- 
prus and  other  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  (Gen.  x.  4  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  7;  Is.  xxiii.  1,  12;  Jer.  ii.  10;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
(\:  and  Dan.  xi.  30,  where  the  language  of 
Num.  xxiv.  24  is  used  ;  Antiq.  i.  6,  1).  The 
name  is  connected  definitely  with  Cyprus, 
chiefly  through  Kition,  an  ancient  town  on 
the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  and  through 
the  Kiti,  whom  Thothmes  III.  mentions  as 
possessing  the  island.  The  name  was  even- 
tually greatly  extended.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  said  to  have  come  out  of 
the  land  of  Chittim,  and  in  viii.  5  Perseus  is 
called  king  of  Chittim,  meaning  Macedonia. 


Egyptians  kneading  Dough  in  a  Trough. 


Knead'ing  Trough. 

A   shallow    vessel,    usuallj'    of    wood    and 


Knife 


437 


Korah 


portable,  in  which  dough  is  worked  into  a 
well-mixed  mass  preparatory  to  baking  (Ex. 
xii.  34).  The  Egyptians  kneaded  the  dough 
with  their  feet  (Herod,  ii.  36)  or  with  their 
hands. 

Knife. 

The  Hebrews  used  a  knife  which  they 
called  ma'akeleth,  eating  instrument,  for 
slaughtering  animals  for  food  or  sacrifice, 
and  for  cutting  up  the  carcass  (Gen.  xxii.  6  ; 
Judg.  xix.  2d;  cp.  Lev.  viii.  20;  ix.  13). 
Another  word,  hereb,  which  commonly  sig- 
nifies a  sword,  denotes  a  knife  made  of  flint 
(Josh.  V.  2),  and  perhaps  a  knife  for  shaving 
(Ezek.  V.  1 ;  in  R.  V.  sword) ;  see  Flint. 
The  Egyptians  also,  when  embalming  a  corpse, 
used  a  sharp  stone  knife  for  making  an  in- 
cision in  the  body  (Herod  ii.  86).  The  He- 
brew scribes  sharpened  the  stylus  with  a 
small  knife  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23).  Herod  the 
Great  was  accustomed  to  use  a  knife  for  par- 
ing fruit,  and  attempted  to  kill  himself  with 
it  (Antiq.  xvii.  7,  1). 

Knop. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kaphtor 
in  Ex.  XXV.  33-36 ;  xxxvii.  17-22,  where  it 
constitutes  a  part  of  the  candlestick  u.sed 
in  the  tabernacle.  In  other  passages  the 
Hebrew  word  apparently  denotes  the  capital 
of  a  column  (Amos  ix.  1 ;  Zeph.  ii.  14,  both 
E.  v.).  It  seems  to  have  been  some  project- 
ing support  for  the  branches  of  the  candle- 
stick, and  for  the  corollas  of  the  ornamental 
flowers  ;  but  its  precise  nature  is  unknown. 
Josejjhus  perhaps  states  that  it  represented 
a  pomegranate  (Antiq.  iii.  6,  7),  but  his  words 
are  not  clear. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P'ka'im 
(1  Kin.  vi.  18;  vii.  24),  an  ornament  cut  in 
cedar,  and  associated  with  open  flowers  in 
the  woodwork  of  Solomon's  temple.  Since 
the  feminine  form  of  the  word  denotes  wild 
gourds,  the  E.  V.  places  gourds  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  first  passage,  as  if  the  ornament 
was  shaped  like  a  gourd. 

Ko'a. 

A  people  named  between  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23),  located  by  Fried- 
rich  Delitzsch  east  of  the  Tigris,  south  of  the 
lower  Zab. 

Ko'liath  [perhaps,  assembly]. 

A  son  of  Levi  and  founder  of  the  great 
Kohathite  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11 ;  Ex.  vi.  16, 
18). 

Ko'hath-ite. 

A  member  of  the  great  Levite  family 
founded  by  Kohath.  This  was  subdivided 
into  the  families  or  houses  of  the  Amramites, 
the  Izharites,  the  Hebronites,  and  the  Uz- 
zielites  (  Ex.  vi.  18;  Num.  iii.  27).  Moses  and 
Aaron  were  of  the  Kohathite  family  (Ex.  vi. 
20).  The  Kohathites  pitched  on  the  south 
side  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  iii.  29).  When  the  priests  had  cov- 
ered the  sanctuary  and  its  vessels,  the  Ko- 
hathites carried  them,  but  were  not  to  touch 


any  holy  thing,  lest  they  should  die  (iv.  15, 
17-20;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12).  At  the  first 
census  in  the  wilderness,  the  Kohathite  males 
from  a  mouth  old  and  upward  were  8600 
(Num.  iii.  28),  and  those  from  thirty  to  fifty 
years  old  2750  (iv.  34-37).  In  the  subsequent 
allotment  of  cities  to  the  family,  the  priests, 
the  descendants  of  Aaron,  had  shares  with 
the  other  Kohathites,  the  former  obtaining 
thirteen  cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  Judah, 
Simeon,  and  Benjamin,  and  the  latter  ten 
cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  Ephraim,  Dan.  and 
Manasseh  (Josh.  xxi.  4,  5 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  61, 
66-70). 
Ko-la'iah  [voice  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Ahab  (Jer. 
xxix.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  7). 
Koph,  in  A.  E.  V.  Qoph. 

The  nineteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet. English  (.1  comes  from  the  same 
source  ;  but  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names  c  or 
k  represents  it.  as  in  Cain  and  Korali.  It 
heads  the  nineteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in 
which  section  each  verse  of  the  original  be- 
gins with  this  letter. 

Ko'rali,  in  A.  V.  once  Kore  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
19)  and  once  Core  (Jude  11)  [ice.  baldness]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah, 
born  in  Canaan  (Gen.  xxxvi.  5,  14),  who 
founded  a  tribe  which  dwelt  in  Edom  and 
was  ruled  by  a  chieftain  (18). 

2.  A  son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  16).  But  the  name  has  crept 
into  the  text  erroneously,  not  being  found  in 
ver.  11,  12  or  1  Chron.  i.  36. 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43).  See 
Mareshah  2. 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Num.  xvi.  1).  In  conjunction  with 
the  Eeubenites  Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On  he 
rebelled  against  Moses  and  Aaron.  He  was 
jealous  that  Aaron,  a  Levite  of  the  same 
family  as  he  and  only  his  equal  in  rank, 
should  have  the  oflice  of  priest  for  all  Israel. 
The  Eeubenites  were  discontented  because 
the  leadership  in  Israel,  which  belonged  to 
Eeuben  as  the  firstborn  of  Jacob,  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  tribe  of  Levi,  represented  by 
Moses  and  Aaron.  At  length  Korah  and  his 
company,  sons  of  Levi  (7),  who  formed  a 
large  portion  of  the  conspirators,  but  not 
all  of  them,  for  at  least  Dathan  and  Abi- 
ram were  absent  (12).  assembled  against 
Moses  and  Aaron,  publicly  charged  them 
with  usurping  the  supremacy  over  the 
tribes,  and  claimed  that  all  the  congrega- 
tion was  holy  and  that  any  one  might 
ofiiciate  as  a  priest  (3).  Closes  re])lied  that 
God  would  himself  decide  the  matter,  and  he 
bade  Korah  and  his  company  provide  them- 
selves with  censers  aTid  be  ready  to  ofier  in- 
cense on  the  morrow  (6-11).  Moses  sent 
word  to  Dathan  and  Abiram  to  appear  like- 
wise on  the  morrow,  but  they  refused  on  the 
ground  that  Moses  had  no  right  to  summon 


Korahite 


438 


Lachish 


them  (12-15).  Moses  theu  turned  to  Korah, 
saying:  "  Be  thou  aud  all  thy  company  pres- 
ent with  censers,  two  hundred  and  fifty  cen- 
sers besides  those  of  yoursilf  and  Aaron  "'  (IG- 
17).  They  did  so,  asx^niMiug  at  tiie  taber- 
nacle (18)."  Korah  gatiicrcd  also  the  whole 
congregation  of  Israel  there  and  incited  them 
against  Moses  and  .\aron  (19).  (lod  directed 
Moses  and  Aaron  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  multitude  that  it  might  he  destroyed,  but 
Moses  int(-rceded  for  the  i)coi>le  ('JO-'i^). 
Moses  was  then  directed  to  bid  the  congre- 
gation remove  from  the  district  in  the  camp 
occupied  by  Korah,  Dathan,  and  .\biram  ('^4). 
It  will  be  remembered  tliat  tlie  division  of 
the  Levites  to  which  Korali  lielouged  were 
accustomed  to  pitch  on  the  south  of  the 
tabernacle  in  immediate  proximity  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  ;  see  Camp.  Accordingly,  fol- 
lowed by  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  certainly 
also  by  Korah,  Mt)ses  went  to  the  locality 
where  the  tents  of  Korah,  Dathan,  aud  Abi- 
ram  were  pitched  and  warned  the  congrega- 
tion to  leave  the  district  (2Ti,2(i).  The  people 
obeyed.  Dathan  and  Abiram,  together  with 
their  families,  appeared  at  the  door  of  their 
tents  (27).  The  earth  opened  and  swallowed 
them  up  with  their  households  and  Korah 
with  his  servants  (32,  33  ;  xxvi.  10).  The 
sons  of  Korah,  however,  were  not  destroyed 
(11).  After  the  earthquake  fire  devoured 
the  two  hundred  and  fifty  men  that  ottered 
incense  (xvi.  35;  cp.  40).     See  Korhitk. 

Ko'rah-ite  and  Ko'ratli-ite.  See  Kor- 
hitk. 

Ko're  [a  jiartridge]. 

1.  The  rebellious  Levite,  founder  of  a  house 
(]  Chron.  xxvi.  19);  see  Korah  4. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  house;  of  Korah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  19;  xxvi.  1). 

'.i.  A  Levite.  sou  of  luniah,  appointed  over 
the  freewill  offerings  during  the  reign  of 
lle/.ckiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Kor'hite,  in  R.  V.  everywhere  and  in  A.  V. 
twice  Korahite,  and  in  A.  V.  oiu-e  Ko- 
rathite. 

A  descendant  of  that  Kcu'ah  v^'ho  was 
swallowed  u|)  in  the  wilderness  as  a  luinish- 
ment  for  his  rebellion.  '^Plie  Korliites  consti- 
tuted a  father's  house  among  the  Kohathites. 

Heman  the  singer  and  Samuel  the  ])ro])het 
were  Korhites  (1  Chron.  vi.  33  38).  The  de- 
scendants of  Heman  were  organized  by 
David  iis  singers  (xv.  17:  xvi.  41,  42;  xxv. 
4,  5).  Psalms  -xlii.  (which  probably  once 
included  xliii.),  xliv.-xlix.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv., 
Ixxxvii.,  Ixxxviii.,  bear  the  name  of  the 
family  in  the  title.  Korhites  w(M-e  gate- 
keepers (1  Chron.  ix.  19  ;  xxvi.  19)  and  bakers 
for  tli(!  sanctuary,  ])i'e])aring  tin;  showbread 
aud  sacrificial  cakes  (ix.  31,  32). 

Koz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Ku-sha'iah. 

A  Levilc  of  tiic  I'aniily  of  Merari,  house 
of  Miishi  il  Cliion.  XV.  17>,  in  vi.  44  called 
Kishi. 


L. 


La'a-dah  [order]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mare- 
shah  (1  Chron.  iv.  21 1. 

La'a-dan.     See  Ladan. 

La'ban  [white]. 

1.  Son  of  Bethuel,  and  grandson  of  Nahor 
Abraham's  brother.  He  lived  at  Haran  in 
Paddan-aram  (Gen.  xxiv.  10,  15;  xxviii.  5, 
10;  also  xxix.  5;  xxxi.  53).  He  was  the 
brother  of  Rebekah.  When  he  saw  the  valu- 
able i)reseiits  which  Abraham's  servant  had 
given  Rebekah,  he  readily  allowed  her  to  go 
to  Canaan  to  become  Isaac's  wife  (Gen.  xxiv. 
l-<)7).  When  Jacob  fled  from  the  vengeance 
of  Esau  he  went  to  Laban  his  uncle.  He 
found  him  the  head  of  a  household,  father 
of  several  sons  (xxx.  35;  xxxi.  1)  and  at  least 
two  daughters  (xxix.  16),  owner  of  slaves 
(24,  29),  and  the  possessor  of  a  flock  of 
sheep  aud  goats  (9,  xxx.  30  ;  xxxi.  38).  Jacob 
remaiued  with  him  at  least  twenty  years, 
serving  him  seven  for  his  daughter  Rachel, 
and  then,  having  Leah  handed  over  to 
him  in  a  fraudulent  way,  a  second  seven 
to  obtain  the  daughter  for  whom  he  really 
cared,  aud  then  six  more  for  cattle.  At 
the  end  of  the  twenty  years,  Jacob,  per- 
ceiving that  his  prosperity  had  excited 
the  enmity  of  Laban  and  his  sous,  l^ed 
with  his  wives,  his  children,  and  his  cattle, 
in  the  direction  of  Canaan.  He  was  over- 
taken by  Laban  in  mount  Gilead;  but  the 
l)ursuer,  warned  by  God  not  to  molest  Jacob, 
made  a  coveiumt  with  him,  and  the  two 
parted  to  meet  no  more  (Gen.  xxix. -xxxi.). 
Laban  worshijied  the  God  of  his  fathers,  the 
God  of  Nahor  (xxxi.  53),  Jehovah  (xxiv.  50 ; 
xxx.  27)  ;  but  he  combined  idolatry  with  his 
worship,  making  use  of  household  gods  called 
teraphim  (xxxi.  30;  ep.  xxxv.  4)  and  prac- 
ticing divination   (xxx.  27,  R.  V.). 

2.  An  unidentified  place  in  the  Siuaitic 
peninsula  (Dent.  i.  1).  It  is  mentioned  with 
Hazeroth  ;  hence  some  have  thought  that  it 
may  have  been  the  same  as  Libnah,  the  sec- 
ond station  from  Hazeroth  (Nuju.  xxxiii.  20). 

La'cMsh  [perhai)s,  tenacious,  dilticult  to 
captu  re ! . 

A  fortified  city  in  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(.Tosh.  .XV.  3;!,  39).  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
iiuest  of  Palestine,  its  king  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Joshua  (x.  3-35;  xii.  11).  Rehoboam 
strengtheiu'd  its  defenses  (2  Chrou.  xi.  9). 
.\maziah,  king  of  Judah,  having  fled  thither 
from  consi)irators  at  Jerusalem,  was  i)ursued 
and  slain  in  the  t((wn  (2  Kin.  xiv.  19;  2 
t'hrou.  xxv.  27).  Lachish  was  besieged  by 
Sennacherib,  king  of  .\ssvria  ;  and  it  was  from 
the  cam])  in  front  of  it  that  the  rab.shakeh  was 
dis])atched  to  deinand  the  surrender  of  Jerusa- 
lem !2  Kin.  xviii.  14,  17;  cp.  xix.  8,  and  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  9;  Is.  xxxvi.  2;  .xxxvii.  8). 
Lachish  is  charged  with  being  the  beginning 


Ladan 


439 


Lamb 


of  riiu  to  the  daughter  of  Zion,  for  the  trans- 
gressions of  Israel  were  found  in  her  (Mie.  i. 
i;j).  Nel)uchaduezzar  again  besieged  Lachish, 
with  other  fenced  cities  oi'.Iudali  (Jer.  xxxiv. 
7).  It  was  inliabited  after  the  captivity  (Neh. 
xi.  30).  The  site  is  found  at  Tell  el-Hesy,  1(5 
miles  east  by  north  of  Gaza  and  11  miles 
west-southwest  of  Beit  Jibrin.  Excavation 
has  laid  bare  the  wall  of  the  ancient  city,  as 
well  as  later  constructions  believed  to  belong 


La'el  [devoted  to  (iod]. 
A  Uershonite,   father   of  Eliasaph    (Num. 
iii.  24). 

La'bad  [opi)rcssed,  oppression]. 
A  son  of  Jahatli,  a  man  of  Judah  (1  t'hron. 
iv.  :ii. 
La-hal'-roi.     See  Heku-lahai-roi. 

Lah'mam,  in  R.  \'.  margin.  Labmas. 

A  village   in   the   lowland  of  .ludah  (.Josh. 


Liicliisli  a.ssaulted  by  the  Army  of  Sennacherilj. 


to  the  times  of  Reho!)oani,  Asa,  .lehoshaphat, 
Uzziah,  .Jotham.  and  Manasseh.  Ten  towns 
.seem  to  have  occupied  the  place  in  succes- 
sion. The  lowest  is  called  Amorite,  and  is 
reported  to  be  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
.sciuare.  It  was  l)uilt  on  a  bluff,  about  (iOfeet 
above  the  stream  which  flowed  on  the  east, 
and  40  feet  above  the  level  country  on  the 
north.  A  ravine  protected  it  on  the  south, 
and  another  on  the  west.  The  northern  wall 
of  the  town  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  bluff.  It 
was  about  8  feet  thick,  with  a  great  tower  at 
the  northeastern  corner,  r>(i  by  28  feet,  with 
rooms  about  10  feet  square,  enclosed  by  a  wall 
!t  or  10  feet  thick.  Other  later  walls.'at  least 
twice  as  thick,  were  ere<'ted  before  the  con- 
quest of  t'anaan  by  the  Hebrews.  Flint, 
copper,  bronze,  and  iron  implements,  with 
bro7ize  weapons  and  lai'ge  quantities  of 
pottery  have  been  unearthed.  There  were 
also  two  inscriptions  found,  one  in  old  He- 
brew characters,  the  other  in  cuneiform.  The 
latter  dates  from  about  the  fifteenth  century 
B.  c,  and  conveys  the  information  that  the 
king  then  ruling  at  Lachish  was  called  Zim- 
rida. 
La'dan,  in  A.  V.  Laadan  [well  ordered]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite  in  the  ancestry  of  .Joshua 
(1  Chron.  vii.  26). 

2.  A  Gershonite  in  whom  several  fathers' 
houses  had  their  origin  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  7-9  ; 
xxvi.  21). 


XV.  40),  thought  to  be  ])o.ssibly  marked  by 
the  ruined  village  of  el-Ijahni,  2|  miles  south 
of  Beit  Jibrin. 

Lah'mi. 

The  brother  of  Goliath  the  Gittite.  He 
was  slain  by  El  ha  nan  the  son  of  .Jair  (1 
Chron.  xx.  .5).  The  word  Lahmi.  however, 
corresponds  to  the  last  part  of  the  Hebrew 
word  for  Bethlehcmite  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19. 
One  or  other  text  is  corrn|it.    See  Elhanan. 

La'isll  [a  lion]. 

1.  A  manof  (4allim,  father  of  Palti  (1  Sam. 
x.xv.  44). 

2.  A  Canaanite  city  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Palestine,  "in  the  valley  that  lieth  by 
Beth-rehob."  The  Danites  captured  the  city, 
and  rebuilt  it,  altering  the  name  to  Dan 
(.Tudg.  xviii.  7-29).     See  Dax  3. 

3.  A  village  (Is.  x.  30).     See  Laishah. 

La'i-shali,  in  A.  V.  Laish  [a  lion]. 
A  village  in  Benjamin  between  Gallini  and 
Anathoth  (Is.  x.  30). 

Lak'kum,  in  A.  V.  La'kum  [obstruction]. 
A  town  of  Naphtali  (.Tosh.  xix.  ,33).    Site 
nnknown. 

Lamb. 

The  flesh  of  lambs  was  early  used  as  food 
(Lev.  iii.  7  with  vii.  1.") ;  2  Sam.  xii.  4:  Amos 
vi.  4)  :  and  lambs  and  kids  were  largely 
offered  in  sacrifice  even  before  the  promnlga- 


Lamecli 


440 


Lamentations 


tion  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Gen.  iv.  4 ;  xxii.  7). 
When  the  i)assover  was  instituted  iu  Egypt, 
a  lanil)  or  a  kid  of  the  first  year  was  sacri- 
ficed and  eaten  (Ex.  xii.  3,  5).  Under  the 
Mosjiic  law  a  male  lamb  of  the  first  year  was 
ottered  for  a  burnt  ottering  every  morning 
and  another  every  evening,  while  on  the 
Sabbath  there  were  two  (Ex.  xxix.  39-41 ; 
Num.  xxviii.  4).  On  the  first  day  of  each 
month  (Num.  xxviii.  11),  during  the  seven 
days  of  the  passover  (16,  19),  at  the  feast  of 
weeks  (2t),  27),  on  the  day  of  blowing  of 
trumpets  (xxix.  1,  2),  and  on  the  day  of 
atonement  (7,  b),  seven  male  lambs  of  the 
first  year  formed  part  of  the  special  burnt 
ottering;  while  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
the  lambs  numbered  fourteen  during  each 
of  the  first  seven  days  and  seven  on  the 
eighth  day  (i;}-3(J).  For  all  the  in-iudpal 
sacrifices  of  ordinary  occasions  a  lamb  might 
be  used ;  as  a  male  lamb  for  a  burnt  ottering 
(Lev.  ix.  3 ;  xxiii.  12,  18 ;  Num.  vi.  14 ;  vii. 
15),  a  ewe  lamb  for  a  sin  ottering  for  others 
than  the  nation  or  rulers  (Lev.  iv.  27,  32 ; 
Num.  vi.  14),  and  a  male  or  female  lamb  for 
a  guilt  ottering  (Lev.  v.  6;  xiv.  12,  21  ;  Num. 
vi.  12)  or  for  a  peace  ottering  (Lev.  iii.  6,  7; 
xxiii.  19;  Num.  vii.  17;.  In  every  case  the 
lamb  must  be  without  blemish.  Ail  this 
points  to  our  Lord.  He  resembled  a  lamb  in 
his  spotless  purity  (1  Pet.  i.  19).  .  He  was 
like  a  lamb  also  in  his  gentleness  and  in  his 
submission  to  unmerited  suttering  without 
murmur  or  complaint  (Is.  liii.  7  with  Luke 
xxiii.  25;  Acts  viii.  32;  1  Pet.  ii.  21-23). 
Finally,  he.  like  a  lamb,  was  sacrificed  for 
guilt  not  his  own.  Hence  he  is  called  the 
Lamb  of  (iod,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world  (.John  i.  29,  36),  the  Lamb  slain 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world  (Rev.  xiii. 
8),  or  simply  the  Lamb  (Rev.  v.  6,  8,  12 ;  vii. 
14,  17;  xiv.'l,  4).  Both  in  the  O.  T.  and  in 
the  N.  T.  the  term  lamb  is  at  times  used 
figuratively  for  child  (Is.  xl.  11 ;  John  xxi.  15). 

La'mech  [possibly,  a  strong  young  man]. 

1.  A  son  of  Mcthusael,  of  the  race  of  Cain. 
He  had  two  wives.  Adah  and  Zillah.  By 
Adah  he  was  the  father  of  .Jabal  and  .Tubal, 
and  by  Zillah  1k'  had  a  son,  Tiibal-cain,  and  a 
daugbler.  Naamah.  IIisa<ldress  to  his  wives, 
in  its  Hebrew  reproduction,  is  a  fine  specimen 
of  Hebrew  ])oetry.  There  are  two  principal 
interi»rctati(ins  of  (Jen.  iv.23.  1.  Lamech  de- 
clares himself  a  murderer,  saying:  "I  have 
slain  a  man.''  i^tung  by  remorse,  he  con- 
fesses the  rebuke  of  conscience.  He  had  slain 
another  to  his  own  wounding  and  hurt.  Or 
else  he  exc\ises  himself  for  a  murder  com- 
mit ti'd  in  self-defense,  having  slain  a  man 
for  wounding  him.  2.  La'uech  utters  a 
threat:  "I  will  slay  any  man  who  wounds 
me,"  his  words  being  a  song  of  exultation 
on  the  invention  of  the  sword  by  his  son 
Tub;il-caiu,  sung  in  anticipation  of  the  ad- 
vantage lie  would  have  in  a  Venning  wrongs 
done  to  him.     The  attcnijjt  has  been  made  to 


explain  the  poem  as  simply  an  expression  of 
Lamech's  determination  to  put  the  new 
weapon  to  its  lawful  use ;  but  expositors 
quite  generally  agree  that  Lamech  is  vaunt- 
ing himself.  If  Cain,  who  slew  a  man,  is 
under  God's  protection  and  shall  be  avenged 
sevenfold  should  one  dare  to  slay  him,  .surely 
Lamech  with  the  new  weapon,  a  visible  and 
surer  defense,  shall  be  avenged  seventy  and 
sevenfold  (Gen.  iv.  18-24). 

2.  An  antediluvian  patriarch  of  the  race 
of  Seth.  He  was  son  of  Methu,selah  and 
father  of  Noah.  He  feared  the  Lord,  rested 
in  God's  promise  for  the  removal  of  the  curse 
of  sin,  and  on  the  birth  of  his  sou  Noah  gave 
expression  to  the  hope  that  this  child  would 
lead  men  to  a  better  and  a  happier  life  under 
God's  blessing,  saying:  "This  same  shall  com- 
fort us  for  our  work  and  for  the  toil  of  our 
hands,  because  of  the  ground  which  the 
Lord  hath  cui-sed  "  (Gen.  v.  25,  28-31). 

La'med,  in  A.  R.  V.  Lamedh. 

The  twelfth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  aljdiabet. 
English  L  comes  from  the  same  source,  and 
represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names.  It 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  twelfth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Lam-en-ta'tions. 

Mournful  sjieeehes  or  compositions,  elegies 
such  as  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i    17-27). 

The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  are  an  O.  T 
book  placed  in  the  English  Bible  between 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  but  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  among  the  Hagiographa  or  Sacred 
Writings,  between  Ruth  and  Ecclesiastes. 
Let  the  English  reader  take  note  of  the  fact 
that  of  the  five  chapters  of  Lamentations, 
1.,  ii.,  iv.,  and  v.  have  each  twenty-two 
ver.ses,  and  iii.  22x3  =  66.  There  ,are 
twenty-two  distinct  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  and  in  chapters  i.,  ii.,  and  iv.  the 
verses  are  arranged  alphabetically,  verse  1 
beginning  with  aleiih,  verse  2  with  beth, 
verse  3  with  gimel,  and  verse  4  with  daleth, 
and  so  on  to  the  end.  In  chap.  iii.  the  first 
three  verses  begin  with  aleph,  the  second 
three  with  beth,  and  so  on  to  the  end. 
However,  in  chapters  ii.-iv.  the  order  of  the 
letters  ain  and  pe  is  not  the  same  as  in  clia]>. 
i.  and  Ps.  cxix.,  but  is  reversed,  pe  preceding 
ain.  The  fifth  chapter  has  not  an  alphabet- 
ical arrangtnnent.  The  theme  of  the  whole 
five  elegies  or  lame*tations  is  the  capture 
and  (U'struction  of  the  Jewish  cajiital,  with 
dreadful  suttering  to  its  defenders  by  famine, 
the  sword,  and  outrage  of  every  kind.  The 
cat:istrophe,  it  is  admitted,  was  brought  on 
by  the  sins  of  tlu^  ])eople,  not  omitting  even 
the  i)rophets  and  the  priests.  In  various 
places  the  Jewish  state  is  personified  as 
a  man,  and  bemoans  its  hard  fate  (1. 
9,  11,  12-22;  ii.  18-22),  or  the  prophet, 
Hs  representing  the  nation,  sjieaks  in  the 
first     person    (ii.     11  ;     iii.    1-51,    and    also 


Lamp 


441 


Laodicea 


52-66).  Notwithstanding  that  this  hook  is 
auonynious,  in  the  Hehrew  heinj;  named 
only  by  its  first  word  "  How,"  notwitlistand- 
iugalso  that  it  is  arranged  among  the  Hagiog- 
rapha,  critics,  even  of  rationalistic  tenden- 
cies, attribute  the  tirst  lour  chapters  to 
Jeremiah ;  the  tilth  or  non-alphabetical 
chapter  may,  they  think,  possibly  have  come 
from  another  author.  In  the  Sejituagint 
the  following  statement  is  prefixed  to  the 
book  :  "  And  it  came  to  pass  after  Israel  was 
led  into  captivity  and  Jerusalem  laid  waste, 
that  Jeremiah  sat  weeping  and  lamented 
this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and  said." 
The  ascription  of  the  book  to  the  prophet 
is  thus  ancient ;  and  it  has  been  commonly, 
though  not  without  excei)tion,  a.ssigued  to 
liim  by  both  ancient  and  modern  scholars, 
the  admission  being  general  that  the  elegies 
must  have  been  written  in  or  near  the  times 
of  Jeremiah.  The  prophet  lamented  for 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25).  If  his  elegies  on 
the  subject  were  committed  to  writing,  they 
have  been  lost,  and  are  not  our  present  book 
of  Lamentations. 

Lamp. 

A  vessel  designed  to  contain  an  inflamma- 
ble liquid,  which  it  is  proposed  to  burn  for 
illuminating  purposes,  and  a  wick  to  lift  the 
liquid  by  capillary  attraction  to  feed  the 
flame  (Herod,  ii.  62).  The  seven  lamps  of 
the  golden  candlestick  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  were  made  of  gold  (Ex.  xxxvii.  23;  1 
Kin.  vii.  49)  and  burned  olive  oil  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20).  Tongs  were  used  to  trim  the  wick,  and 
dishes  to  receive  the  snuff  (xxv.  38).  The  or- 
dinary lamp  for  doijiestic  use  was  made  of 
earthenware.     It  might  have  a  cover  which 


Ancient  Lamps. 

was  either  removable  or  made  of  one  piece 
with  the  rest  of  the  lamp.  Near  the  cen- 
ter of  the  cover  or  top  was  a  hole  for  in- 


troducing the  oil.  There  was  another  open- 
ing at  the  margin  of  the  cover,  or  else  a 
sprout,  for  tlie  wick. 

The  Hebrew  word  regularly  rendered 
lamp  is  Ner.  It  is  tran.slatcd  light  in  2  Sam. 
xxi.  17,  A.  v.,  and  caudk-  in  Jer.  xxv.  10 
and  Zeph.  i.  12.  In  the  latter  jiassage,  \l.  V. 
places  lamp  on  the  margin  ;  and  everywhere 
else  in  both  O.  and  N.  T.,  except  in  these 
two  passages,  R.  V.  substitutes  the  word 
lamp  in  the  text  where  A.  V.  has  candle. 
The  Hebrew  word  Lnjtpid  is  also  often  I'en- 
dered  lamp  in  O.  T.  ;  for  example,  Judg.  vii. 
16,  20,  A.  V.  ,and  Is.  Ixii.  1 ;  Dan.  x.  6.  But 
it  is  of  more  general  meaning.  It  is  trans- 
lated firebrand  in  Judg.  xv.  4  ;  and  torch  in 
Nah.  ii.  4;  Zecli.  xii.  6;  and  in  K.  V.  of  Gen. 
XV.  17  ;  Judg.  vii.  16,  20  ;  and  lightning  in 
Ex.  XX.  18.  The  Greek  word  rendered  lamp 
in  Mat.  xxv.  1  and  Rev.  iv.  5  is  translated 
lights  in  Acts  xx.  8,  and  torches  in  John 
xviii.  3  and  margin  of  R.  V.  of  Mat.  xxv.  1. 

The  extinction  of  the  lamp  of  anyone 
means  figuratively  the  destruction  of  his 
family  (Prov.  xiii.  9).  At  Gezer  a  lamp  en- 
closed in  a  double  bowl  takes  the  place  of  the 
infant  in  a  jar  so  frequently  buried  under 
the  high  place  during  the  Amorite  period  as 
a  sacrifice. 

Lan'cet.     See  Spear. 

Lan'guage.     See  Tongue. 

Lan'tern. 

Lanterns  were  carried  by  the  band  of 
Roman  soldiers  who  were  sent  with  Judas  to 
arrest  Jesus  (John  xviii.  3).  The  Romans 
made  the  sides  of  lanterns  out  of  bladder  or 
plates  of  translucent  horn. 

La-od-i-ce'a    [pertaining  to 
Laodice]. 

A  city  called  originally  Di- 
ospolis,  city  of  Zeus,  which 
was  enlarged  and  improved  by 
Autiochus  II.,  and  named  by 
him  Laodicea,  after  his  wife 
Laodice.  It  was  the  chief  city 
of  Fhrygia  Pacatiana,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  situated  a  little 
south  of  Uolossaiand  Hierapolis, 
on  the  river  Lycos,  a  tributary 
of  the  Meander.  It  manufac- 
tured cloth  and  garments  from 
the  black  wool  produced  by  a 
breed  of  sheep  in  its  vicinity  ; 
and  it  was  the  seat  of  a  medical 
school,  whose  i)hysiciaus  ]>ri- 
pared  the  Phrygian  powder  for 
the  cure  of  ophthalmia.  It 
numhered  many  Jews  among 
its  iuhabitants  (Antiq.  xiv.  1(», 
20).  Ejiaphras  labored  there 
(Col.  iv.  12,  13),  and  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  its  Christian 
church.  Paul  felt  greatly  de- 
sirousof  spiritually  lienefiting  the  Laodiceans 
(ii.  1).  He  sent  them  salutations;  and  he  wrote 
a  letter,  of  which  perhaps  a  copy  only  was  left 


Lappidoth 


442 


Laver 


at  Laodicoa  (iv.  15,  16).  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  letter  known  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians.  Laodicea  was  one  of  the  seven  churches 
in  Asia  addressed  in  tlie  hook  of  Revelation. 
It  is  sharply  rebuked  (Rev.  i.  11  ;  iii.  14-22), 
and  the  words  in  which  the  rel)uke  is 
couched  contain  allusions  to  the  products 
and  the  wealth  for  which  the  city  was  noted. 
About  the  year  (JS  of  the  C'hristian  era, 
Laodicea,  Colossse,  and  Hierai)olis  were  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake.  The  citizens  re- 
built Laodicea  out  of  their  own  resources, 
without  the  customary  aid  from  Rome.  Its 
ruins  still  exist  at  a  place  called  Eski  Hissar, 
near  Deni/.lu,  about  56  miles  e*,st-southeast 
of  Smyrna. 

Lap'pi-doth,  in  A.  V.  Lapidoth  [torches]. 

Husband  of  Deborah  the  prophetess  (Judg. 
iv.  4). 

Lap 'wing. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Diikiphath  in 
A.  V.  of  Lev.  si.  1!);  Dent.  xiv.  LS.  The 
lapwing  (]\nielliis  cristatun).  a  member  of  the 
sub-family  Chunulriiinr.  uv  true  ])lovers,  is 
found  in  flocks  in  winter  in  Palestine.  11.  V., 
following  the  Septuagint  and   \'ulgate,  sub- 


stitutes the  hoopoe  (I'pHjxi  epops),  the  tyi)e 
of  the  rpKpidn',  a  family  of  fissirostral  birds 
I  birds  with  deciily  cleft  bills).  Tiie  hoopoe  i.s  a 
bird  about  a  foot  long,  grayisb-brown  al)ove, 
with  the  wings  and  shoulders  black,  biurecl 
with  white,  and  a  large  crest  of  feathers  ii])on 
the  head.  It  is  found  in  cenlriti  ;in(l  southern 
iMirojie,  in  .\sia.  :in(l  in  norlliern  and  cenlnil 
.\fnca.  Tristram  says  thai  it  aii]iears  in  Pal- 
estine in  March.  s])reading  in  .small  parties 
over  the  whole  country.  On  flu'  a])])roach  of 
winter  it  makes  a  short  migration  to  lCgy])t 
and  the  Sahara. 

La-se'a. 

A  seaiKut  of  Crete,  near  the  Fair  Havens, 
]iasscd  by  the  vessel  which  carried  Paul  (Acts 
xxvii.  8).  In  IH.'O  the  Kev.  (i.  Brown  dis- 
covered ruins  which  mark  the  sn])posed  site 
on  the  southern  coast  about  f)  miles  east  of 
the  Fair  Havens. 


La'sba  [a  fissure]. 

A  ])lace  mentioned  with  the  cities  of  the 
plain  (Gen.  x.  19).  Jerome  says  it  was  at 
('allirrhoe,  a  ravine  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
notable  for  its  hot  springs,  which  were  visited 
by  Herod  the  Great  during  his  last  illness. 
The  gorge  in  which  they  rise  is  so  narrow 
that  it  may  ()uite  appropriately  be  called  a 
fissure.  There  is  not  room  enough  in  it  for 
a  village  of  ordinary  size.  The  stream  from 
Callirrhoe,  now  called  the  Zerka  Ma'in.  en- 
ters the  Dead  Sea  at  the  eastern  side,  about 
11  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan.  The  springs  are  about  3  miles 
up  the  stream. 

Las-sha'ron,  in  A.  V.  Lasharon  [probably, 
to  Sharon]. 

A  town  whose  kijig  was  one  of  those  .slain 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  18).  The  Hebrew  text 
tuay,  however,  be  read  king  over  Sharon. 
The  indications  of  the  Septuagint  are  that  the 
original  text  of  the  verse  was  "the  king  of 
Aphek  [which  belongs]  to  Sharon." 

Las'the-nes  [probablj%  very  strong]. 
A  Cretan  who  raised  an  army  of  mercenary 
soldiers  for  Demetrius  II.,  by  which  the  latter 
effected  a  landing  in  Cilicia  and  set  up  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  Balas 
(Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3).  He  was  rewarded  with 
high  office,  perhaps  the  governorship  of  Ccele- 
syria.  Demetrius  calls  him  kinsman  and 
father  (1  Mac.  xi.  31,  in  A.  V.  coMsin ;  32). 
The  latter  title  implies  that  he  was  a  man  of 
considerable  age ;  the  former  means  either 
that  he  was  related  to  Demetrius,  or  that  he 
held  a  high  po.sition  at  court.  He  was  noti- 
fied by  letter  of  the  terms  of  peace  agreed 
upon  between  Demetrius  and  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabfeus,  and  of  the  concessions  made  ta  the 
Jews  (32-37). 
Latch' et. 

The   thong    with    which    the    sandal    was 
bound  to  the   foot   (Is.  v.  27;  Mark  i.  7;  cj). 
Gen.  xiv.  23). 
Lat'in. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Eomans. 
Though  from  the  first  century  b.  c.  on  for 
some  hundred  years  the  supreme  power  in 
Palestine  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
whose  vernacular  language  was  Latin,  yet  it 
did  not  root  itself  in  that  country.  A  few 
words  only  were  adopted,  as  pnetorinm  and 
cvvtntio,  which  are  written  in  Greek  letters 
in  Mark  xv.  16,  39,  45.  But  since  Latin  was 
the  langiuige  of  the  Ivoman  oflicials,  the  in- 
scription over  the  cross  of  Christ  was  written 
in  Latin  as  well  as  in  (Jreek  and  Aramaic 
(.lolin  xix.  20). 

Lat'tice. 

A  network  formed  of  cros.scd  laths  and 
covering  a  window  (Judg.  v.  28;  Prov.  vii. 
6,  in  .\.  V.  casenu'ut ;  2  Kin.  i.  2  ;  Song  ii.  9.) 

La'ver. 

A  basin  oi-  trough  in  which  to  wash.  A 
lavrrol'  brass  or  copiur  was  used   in  conuec- 


Law 


44£ 


Law 


fidii  with  the  tabernacle  services.  It  stdod 
upon  a  base  of  brass  in  tlie  court  between 
the  altar  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
Both  laver  and  base  were  made  of  the  mir- 
rors given  by  the  women  who  a.ssembled  to 
minister  at  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  8  ;  cp.  xxxiii.  7).  Women  served 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  ii.  22. 
E.  v.),  as  did  the  Levites  (Num.  iv.  23;  viii. 
24).  They  probably  came  at  stated  intervals, 
as  did  the  Levites  and  priests  (Deut.  xviii.  6; 
Luke  i.  8, 23),  to  render  various  kinds  of  serv- 
ice, such  as  the  performance  of  sacred  dances 
and  instrumental  and  vocal  music  (Ex.  xv. 
20;  Judg.  xxi.  21 ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  2.")).  The  priests 
washed  their  bauds  and  their  feet  in  the  laver 
before  ministering  at  the  altar  or  entering  the 
sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.  17-21  ;  Lev.  viii.  11).  This 
ceremony  symbolized  the  holiness  that  is  re- 
quired in  the  service  of  God.  In  Solomon's 
temple  there  were  a  molten  sea  and  ten  lav- 
ers  instead  of  one  (1  Kiu.  vii.  23-2(i,  38-40, 
43).  Some  of  the  arrangements  were  after- 
wards altered  by  Ahaz  (2  Kiu.  xvi.  17). 

Law. 

Of  the  several  meanings  which  the  word 
law  possesses,  two  are  employed  in  Scripture. 

1.  A  uniformly  acting  force  which  deter- 
mines the  regular  sequence  of  events;  any 
uniformly  acting  influence  or  motive  which 
controls  the  will  (Rom.  vii.  23). 

2.  A  rule  of  conduct  enjoined  by  a  compe- 
tent authority  and,  if  need  be,  enforced  by 
penalties.  This  is  the  principal  meaning  of 
the  word  in  Scripture.  Many  laws  have  com- 
menced as  customs,  which,  arising  naturally 
in  the  intercourse  between  members  of  the 
.same  society,  ultimately  gained  such  accept- 
ance that  the  community  finally  resolved  to 
enforce  them  as  laws.  But  a  law  may  be  im- 
j)osed  by  a  ruler,  human  or  divine,  without 
any  reference  to  previous  custom  or  legisla- 
tion. In  the  English  version  law  is  mainly 
the  rendering  of  Hebi-ew  Torah,  instruction, 
Aramaic  Dath,  perhaps  meaning  established, 
and  Greek  No)iws,  custom,  law  ;  and  it  de- 
notes, except  as  noted  under  1,  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  conduct  whether  revealed  from 
within  or  from  without.  It  may  be  impo.sed 
by  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  state, 
which  are  ordained  of  God  (Ezra  vii.  26; 
Estli.  i.  19;  Dan.  vi.  8),  or  proceed  immedi- 
ately from  God,  being  revealed  in  a  sujjer- 
natural  manneraudibly  as  at  Sinai  or  through 
the  Si)irit  to  projiliets  (Zech.  vii.  12)  or  made 
known  in  tlie  constitution  of  our  nature 
(Rom.  ii.  14,  15).  They  who  fear  God  and 
keep  his  commandments  are  wise  ;  and  the 
godly  wisdom  which  they  have  acquired  from 
the  study  of  the  written  law,  from  observa- 
tion of  the  human  heart,  and  from  a  life  of 
holiness,  when  given  forth  in  instruction  is 
the  law  of  the  wise  which  is  a  fountain  of 
life  (Prov.  xiii.  14),  and  when  taught  by 
]iiirents  to  children  is  the  law  of  father 
and    mother    which    to   them    that    obey    is 


a  chaplet  of  grace  about  the  head  (Prov.  i. 

8,9). 

The  term  "the  law''  with  the  definite 
article,  but  without  any  other  qualifying 
word.  oc<;asioiially  refers  to  the  wliole  ().  T. 
in  general  (.John  xii.  3t  ;  1  for.  xiv.  21  ;  cp. 
.Inlui  X.  :!4  ;  XV.  2-")),  bu'l  it  is  emjiloyed  much 
moi'e  frequently  as  the  title  of  the  Pentateuch 
(.Josh,  i.8;  Neh.  viii.  2,  3,  14;  :Mat.  v.  17  ;  vii. 
12;  Luke  xvi.  16;  John  i.  17).  The  law 
of  Moses  was  given  by  God  through  Moses 
(Ex.  XX.  19-22;  Mat.  XV.  4;  John  i.  17 i.  It 
is  the  law  of  God  (Josh.  xxiv.  20;  2  Cliron. 
xxxi.  3).  It  was  written  in  a  book  (Josh.  i. 
7,  8),  included  the  legislation  contained  in 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy (Mark  xii.  2()  with  Ex.  iii.  (> ;  Mark  vii. 
10  with  Ex.  XX.  12  ;  xxi.  17;  Luke  ii.  22  and 
John  vii.  22,  23  with  Lev.  xii.  2,  3  ;  Mat.  viii.  4 
with  Lev.  xiv.  3;  Mat.  xix.Sand  xxii.24  with 
Deut.  xxiv.  1  and  xxv.  .5),  and  was  the  title 
of  the  Pentateuch,  constituting  the  first  di- 
vision of  the  canon  (Luke  xxiv.  44);  see 
Pen'iwteuch.  The  legal  portion  consists  of 
the  ten  commandments,  which  form  the  fun- 
damental law  of  the  theocracy,  and  statutes 
based  on  them.  It  was  given  at  Sinai.  The 
fundamental  law  was  uttered  audibly  in  the 
hearing  of  the  whole  congregation.  The 
body  of  statutes  controlled  the  general  form 
of  worship,  protected  human  rights,  regulated 
personal  conduct,  and  jirescribed  sacred  sea- 
sons and  sacrifice.  It  was  given  at  the  same 
time  as  the  ten  commandments,  but  through 
Moses.  See  Theock.a.cy.  When  the  taber- 
nacle was  erected,  the  legislation  was  enacted 
which  in  detail  regulated  approach  to  God. 
See  Leviticus.  Thirty  and  eight  years  later 
Moses  rehearsed  the  law  publicly  before  the 
new  generation,  placed  the  emphasis  where 
the  experience  of  a  third  of  a  century  had 
taught  him  to  be  advisable,  and  introduced 
modifications  which  the  prospective  change 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  people  rendered 
necessary.  See  Deuteronomy.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  that  when  all  that  is  local  and 
temporary  is  put  away  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  commandments,  constituting  the  es- 
sential part,  was  designed  for  the  Christian 
as  well  as  the  Jewish  dispensation,  and  will 
not  become  obsolete  at  any  future  time  (cp. 
Ex.  XX.  12  or  Deut.  v.  16  with  Ejih.  vi.  2,  3). 
The  ten  commandments,  being  the  funda- 
mental law  and  a  summary  of  the  whole 
moral  code,  endure.  They  are  founded  in 
the  immutable  nature  of  God  and  in  the  per- 
manent relations  of  men  on  earth.  Of  the 
fourth  commandment  Christ  said  :  "  The  Sab- 
bath was  made  for  man,"  hence  its  principles 
remain  in  force  while  man  continues  on  earth. 
Regarding  the  fifth  commandment,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  evidently  considers  both  the  precept 
and  the  essential  part  of  the  jn-omise  still  in 
force,  though  the  local  or  temiiorary  i>ortion, 
"the  land"  of  Canaan,  disappears,  and  "the 
earth"  takes  its  place  (Ejib.  vi.  2,  3).  The 
ceremonial  law  apparently  referred  to  in  Heb. 


Lawyer 


444 


Lazarus 


viii.  7  as  the  first  covenant,  is  there  described 
as  decaying  and  waxing  old,  and  being  ready 
to  vanish  away  {13;  cp.  also  (•hai)ters  viii. 
-X.).  Hence  tlie  apostles  declined  to  im- 
pose it  on  the  gentile  converts  (Acts  xv.  23- 
29,  etc.).  Its  function  has  been  to  point,  by 
means  of  its  priestliood,  its  sacrifices,  its  cere- 
monies, and  its  symbols  to  Christ,  our  great 
High  Priest,  and  his  atoning  sacrifice  for  sin. 
When  the  antitype  came,  the  tyjx's  were  no 
longer  needful,  though  the  memory  of  what 
they  had  been  rendered  them  objects  of  in- 
terest, and  will  do  so  through  all  future  ages. 
The  enactments  constituting  the  civil  and 
criminal  code  of  the  Israelites  were  admira- 
bly adajited  to  the  state  of  civilization  which 
the  peojile  liad  then  reached  ;  but  these  laws 
were  freely  modified  as  the  circumstances 
contemplated  by  them  changed.  Moses  him- 
self was  the  first  to  introduce  modifica- 
tions, and  David  and  others  made  addi- 
tions. 

Law'yer. 

One  versed  in  the  law  of  Moses,  of  which 
he  was  the  professional  interpreter,  a  scribe 
(Mat.  xxii.  35  with  Mark  xii.  2b)  ;  see  Scimbe. 
In  Luke  xi.  44  the  words  "  scribes  and  Phari- 
sees" are  omitted  in  K.  V.,  and  there  is  no 
contrast  between  scribes  and  lawyers  (45). 
The  lawyers  joined  the  Pharisees  in  rejecting 
the  preaching  of  John  the  Bajitist  (Luke  vii. 
30).  They  considered  themselves  above  the 
need  of  instruction  from  Jesus;  and  when 
one  of  them  did  condescend  to  hold  communi- 
cation with, him,  it  was  to  try  to  puzzle  him 
by  means  of  a  ditficult  question  (Mat.  xxii. 
35  ;  Luke  x.  25  ;  cp.  Luke  xiv.  3).  Jesus  de- 
nounced them  at  last  in  severe  language  for 
laying  heavy  burdens  on  the  people,  and 
keeping  back  from  them  the  key  of  knowl- 
edge (Luke  xi.  45-.52). 

Lay'ing  on  of  Hands. 

An  a<t  symbolizing  dedication  to  a  special 
purjH.se.  The  Israelites  ]ilaced  their  hands 
on  the  heads  of  the  Levites,  dedicating  them 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord  at  the  tabernacle 
in  the  stead  of  the  firstborn  of  all  the  tribes. 
They  pressed  down  their  hands  ujion  the 
heads  of  the  Levites,  doubtless  with  the  in- 
tention of  .signifying  thereby  that,  with 
(iod's  permission  and  by  his  authority,  they 
transferred  their  own  obligation  to  service  to 
the  Levites  (Num.  viii.  5-20).  The  Israelite, 
who  brought  an  animal  to  the  sacrificial  altar, 
])hiced  his  hands  upon  the  victim's  head', 
tliereby  dedicating  it  to  (hid  and  making  it 
his  own  representative  and  substitute  (Lev. 
i.  4  ;  xvi.  21).  The  aged  Jacol)  hiid  his  haiuls 
on  the  heads  of  Joseph's  sons,  giving  them  a 
I>lace  among  his  own  .sons,  and  bestowing 
upon  them  the  covenant  blessing,  transfer- 
ring it  from  him.self  as  its  ]iast  possessor  to 
them  (Cen.  xl  viii.  .5-20).  The  hands  of  ])re.s- 
bytery  were  laid  ujiou  the  held  of  Timothy. 
The  young  man  was  thereby  sctajiart  to  of- 
ficial servii-c  and  grace  was  bestowed  (1  Tim. 


iv.  14).  Imposition  of  the  hands  of  presbj-- 
tery  denoted  not  only  commission,  but  also 
the  bestowal,  by  those  divinely  authorized, 
of  official  spiritual  grace ;  or  at  least  it  signi- 
fied the  authoritative  recommendation  of  the 
candidate  to  God  as  a  recipient  of  grace. 

Laz'a-rus  '  [from  Hebrew  'EVasqr,  Cxod 
hath  helped]. 

1.  The  name  of  the  beggar  in  the  parable  of 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus.  He  was  laid  at  the 
gate  of  the  rich  man  desiring  to  be  fed  with 
the  crumbs  which  fell  from  the  sumptuously 
furnished  table.  He  was  also  afilicted  with 
ulcers.  Yea,  even  the  dogs  licked  his  sores. 
Nothing  is  .said  of  his  and  nothing  of  the  ricli 
man's  character  ;  but  when  they  died  Laz- 
arus was  carried  by  angels  into  Abraham's 
bo.som,  while  the  rich  man  went  to  the  place 
of  woe.  At  first  .sight  it  might  appear  that 
the  one  was  rewarded  simply  for  being  poor, 
and  the  other  punished  for  being  rich  ;  but 
the  hint  that  the  rich  man's  brothers,  who 
evidently  lived  exactly  as  he  had  done,  did 
not  believe  Moses  and  the  prophets,  and 
as  to  their  life  needed  repentance,  shows  that 
a  moral  element  entered  into  the  case,  and 
that  conduct,  not  position,  decided  their  ul- 
timate destiny  (Luke  xvi.  19-31). 

2.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Bethany, 
and  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary.  He  was 
an  object  of  deep  aflTection  not  only  to  his 
sisters,  but  to  Jesus,  which  speaks  well  for 
his  character.  He  was  chosen  for  the  signal 
honor  of  being  raised  from  the  dead,  and 
when  he  fell  .sick  with  a  grievous  disease 
the  sisters  sent  word  to  Jesus,  who  was  be- 
yond the  Jordan,  but  he  did  not  respond  at 
once.  Two  days  later,  when  Lazarus  was 
dead,  Jesus  went  to  Bethany.  Being  met  by 
Martha  outside  the  village,  he  had  an  im- 
portant conversation  with  her  in  which  he 
called  forth  an  expression  of  her  faith  in  the 
resurrection  and  in  his  power  to  do  all 
things,  and  declared  himself  to  be  the  resur- 
rection and  the  life.  When  Mary  had  come, 
Jesus  went  with  the  sisters  and  their  friends 
to  the  sepulcher,  which  was  of  the  usual  kind 
then  in  use  among  the  Jews,  namely,  a  cave 
either  natural  or  artificial  in  the  face  of  a  rock. 
After  the  stone  had  been  rolled  away,  Jesus 
prayed  to  the  Father.  He  did  this  "for  the 
sake  of  the  people  that  stood  by,  that  in  the 
miracle  they  might  discern  proof  that  the 
I''ather  had  .sent  him.  Then  he  said  in  the 
hearing  of  all  present:  "Lazarus,  come 
forth  !  "  and  the  dead  awoke  to  life  and  came 
forth  (John  xi.  1-44).  The  eflect  of  this 
nuracle  was  profound.  It  was  the  cause  of 
the  enthusiastic  reception  of  Jesus  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  also  brought  the  sanhedrin  to  their 
decision  to  \nit  him  to  death  ;  for  the  people 
were  hailing  him  as  king,  and  if  they  should 
acce])t  him  and  his  undisguised  doctrine  of 
the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom,  all 
hope  of  their  rising  against  the  Romans 
and    endeavoring   to   restore    the   theocracy 


Lead 


445 


Lebanon 


wouhl  v;inisli.  The  rulers  decided  that  it 
was  better  tor  one  man  to  peiish,  wliether 
he  were  guilty  or  not,  rather  than  lor  the 
whole  nation  to  be  lost  (xi.  45-53  ;  xii.  9-19). 
Lazarus  was  jiresent  at  a  siipjier  given  in 
honor  of  his  great  benefactor  ]).v  Simon  the 
leper  at  Bethany  ?ix  days  before  tlie  pass- 
over  (xii.  1,  2).  The  extent  to  which  his 
restoration  to  life  tended  to  bring  new  fol- 
lowers to  Jesus  so  irritated  the  Jewish 
authorities  that  thev  X'lotted  to  jiut  him 
also  to  deatli  (10,  11).  This  is  the  last 
mention  of  Lazarus  in  Scri])ture.  The  ])!ot 
to  take  his  life  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
carried  out,  and  in  due  time  hedoul)tlessdied 
a  second  death,  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
circumstances  of  which  are  all  unknown. 

Lead. 

(hie  of  the  metals  known  to  the  ancients, 
in  Hebrew  'OpJiPreth.  It  was  taken  as  spoil 
from  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxxi.  22),  was  used 
by  the  Egyptians  (con.  Apion.  i.  34),  was  ob- 
tained in  large  quantities  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  was  found  in  Egypt,  and  was  im- 
ported from  Tarshish  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  It 
was  used  for  weights  (Zech.  v.  7),  for  sinkers 
on  fish  Hues  (Iliad  xxiv.  80),  and  for  tablets 
on  which  inscriptions  were  written  (Tacitus, 
Annal.  ii.  69;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xiii.  21 ;  Pau- 
sanias  ix.  31,  4).  Job  xix.  24  has  been  under- 
stood to  refer  to  such  tablets  ;  but  the  words 
probably  mean  that,  since  a  book  (23)  is  liable 
to  perish,  .Job  desires  the  letters  to  be  cut  in 
the  rock  and  then,  to  render  them  more  dis- 
tinct and  durable,  to  be  filled  with  molten  lead. 
It  is  questionable  whether  it  was  consciously 
employed  for  cupellation  (Ezek.  xxii.  20). 

Leaf. 

1.  Foliage  of  a  tree  (Gen.  iii.  7  ;  viii.  11). 

2.  Part  of  the  wing  of  a  folding  door,  when 
each  of  the  two  wings  was  divided  either 
lengthwise  or  crosswise  (1  Kin.  vi.  34;  Ezek. 
xii.  24).  The  leaf  as  well  as  the  entire  door 
is  called  deleth,  because  it  turns  on  hinges  or 
pivots.  In  the  former  passage,  the  door  of 
the  holy  place  in  Solomon's  temple  is  re- 
ferred to.  It  was  the  fourth  part  of  the  wall 
(1  Kin.  vi.  33) ;  and  was  probably  oblong  like 
the  wall  itself  and  measured  5  cubits  in 
width  by  "i  iu  height  (cp.  2).  The  measure- 
ment presumably  includes  the  two  doorposts 
and  the  lintel,  leaving  an  opening  at  least  4 
cubits  wide  by  7  high.  This  was  closed  l)y  two 
doors,  each  of  which  was  divided  perpendicu- 
larly or  horizontally  into  halves.  If  divided 
horizontally  through  the  middle,  the  leaf 
measured  2  by  3V  cubits,  or  3  by  5|  feet,  and 
was  quite  ample  to  afford  ingress  and  egress 
to  the  priests  iu  their  daily  ministrations, 
without  requiring  the  entire  door  to  be  opened. 

3.  The  page  or  column  of  a  roll  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  23  ;  cp.  2). 

Le'ah  [wild  cow]. 

The  elder  daughter  of  Laban.  She  was 
less  attractive  than  her  younger  sister, 
Kachel,  one  chief  defect  being  that  her  eyes 


were  (tender.  By  a  trick  she  was  passed  off 
on  .Tacob  as  his  bride,  when  he  had  served 
seven  years  for  Rachel.  Leah  became  the 
mother  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  L(^vi.  Judah, 
Ksachar,  Zebulun,  and  their  sister  Dinali 
(Gen.  xxix.  KJ-:!.") ;  xxx.  17-21). 

Leas'ing. 

Lying,  falsehood  (Ps.  iv.  2;  v.  G,  A.  V.). 
As  the  word  is  now  obsolete  ^,  V.  substitutes 
falsehood  and  lies. 

Leath'er. 

The  art  of  tanning  and  dying  skins  was 
nnderst<iod  by  the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xxv.  5; 
Acts  ix.  43).  Leather  was  used  by  them  and 
other  nations  of  antifiuity  for  numerous  pur- 
poses :  for  articles  of  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  4>*; 
Num.  xxxi.  20),  coverings  of  tents  (Ex. 
xxvi.  14),  bottles  (Judith  x.  5),  shields.  The 
leather  of  the  shield  was  oiled  to  keep  it  soft 
and  shining  (2  Sam.  i.  21  ;  Is.  xxi.  5).  Seal 
or  porpoise  skin  was  used  for  making  a  su- 
perior kind  of  sandal  (Ezek.  xvi.  10;  in  .\. 
V.  badgers'  skin).  Elijah  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist wore  leathern  girdles  (2  Kin.  i.  8;  Mat. 
iii.  4;. 

Leav'en. 

A  substance  used  to  produce  fermentation 
in  dough  and  make  it  rise  (E.\.  xii.  15,  19; 
xiii.  7).  In  Scripture  times  leaven  generally 
consisted  of  a  little  old  dough  in  a  high  state 
of  fermentation.  Its  disadvantages  were  that 
the  bread  thus  produced  had  a  disagree- 
ably sour  taste  and  smell.  To  obviate  these 
detects  yeast  or  barm  is  now  employed  as 
leaven.  The  use  of  leaven  was  forbidden  in 
all  offerings  made  by  fire  to  the  Lord  (Lev. 
ii.  11).  But  when  the  ottering  was  to  be  con- 
sumed by  man,  leaven  might  be  used  (vii.  13  ; 
-xxiii.  17).  The  principal  reason  for  the  pro- 
hibition was  that  fermentation  is  incipient 
corruption,  and  was  emblematic  of  corrup- 
tion. It  is  used  for  corrupt  doctrine  (Mat. 
xvi.  11  ;  Mark  viii.  15)  and  for  wickedness  iu 
the  heart  (1  Cor.  v.  6-8)  ;  and  it  symbolized 
moral  intlueuce  generally,  whether  good  or 
bad,  as  when  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  com- 
pared to  leaven  which  a  woman  hid  iu  three 
measures  of  meal  till  the  whole  was  leavened 
(Mat.  xiii.  33).  The  Israelites  were  forbidden 
to  eat  leavened  bread  or  to  have  any  leaven 
in  their  houses  during  the  passover  festival. 
The  absence  of  leaven  symbolized  the  incor- 
rui)tne.ss  of  life  which  God's  service  reciuires, 
reminded  them  of  the  haste  in  which  they 
had  fled  out  of  Egy])t,  their  dough  in  their 
troughs,  and  suggested  the  affliction  (jf  Kgypt 
by  the  insipidity  of  the  bread  (Ex.  xii.  39  ; 
Deut.  xvi.  3  ;  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8). 

Leb'an-a  and  Lebanah  [white  (this  being 
a  jioetic  th-sigiiatiou  for  the  moon)]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  captivitv  (Ezra  ii.  45;  Nch. 
vii.  48). 

Leb'a-non  [white]. 

A    snow-clad    mountain  ransre  (Jer.  xviii. 


Lebaoth 


44  G 


Legion 


14),  with  hills  of  less  eievatioii  riiniiiiigfrom 
it  in  fvery  direction  (Hos.  xiv.  5).  Itssfreains 
reiiikTod   the    ricli   soil    of    the   valleys  ex- 
tremely  productive.      The    lower   zone    was 
covered  with  vines  ((J,  7),  hut  the  mountains 
were  most  noted  for  their  forests  of  gigantic 
cedars.     Fir  trees  or  cypres.ses  also  ahounded 
(1  Kiu.  V.  (>-10:  2  Kin.  xix.  2.i :  Ls.  xl.  Ifi; 
Ix.    1:5 :  Zech.    xi.    1).      Lions   and    leopards 
roamed  in  the  woods  C-^  Kin.  xiv.  9  :  Song i v. 
>i).     The  trees  were  felled,  anrl   the  timber 
was  used  not  only  in  the  construction  of  pal- 
aces and  temi)le.s.  hut  ahso  by  the  IMuenicians 
for  the  masts  of   ships   (Ezra   iii.  7:    Ezek. 
xxvii.  5).     Lebanon    was   the   northwestern 
boundary  of  the  promised  land  (Deut.  i.  7  ; 
xi.  -Jl  :  Josh.  i.  4  :  xi.  17  :  xii.  7  :  xiii.  n).  It  is 
of  liniestone  formation.    The  mountains  con- 
sist of  two  ranges,  running  north  and  south, 
separated   by  the   valley  of  the  Litany  and 
the  Orontes.  In  the  Grecian  period  the  name 
Lcl)anon   liecame   restricted   to  the  western 
range,  while  the  eastern  received  the  name 
Anti-Lebanon.     This  distinction  still  exists. 
The  intervening  valley  is  called  Ceelesyria, 
that    is    hollow  Syria,    or  the   Bekaa.      The 
chain  inay  be  considered  to  commence  about 
1.)  miles  southeast  of  Sidon,  and    to  run  to 
about  1-J  miles  northeast  by  north  of  Tripoli, 
a  distance  of  al)out  lUO  miles.     The  greatest 
elevation  of  Lebanon  is  at  its  northern  eud  ; 
of    Anti-Lebanon,    at    its    .southern    end    in 
mount  llermon.     "  For  10  miles  the  north- 
ern eud  of  this  ridge  [of  Lebanon]   is  over 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea.     For  another  10 
miles  it  is  between  7500  and  SOOO  feet.    Then 
for  20  miles  it  .sinks  to  an  average  of  from 
6500  to  7000  feet.     Theu  it  rises  iii  the  grand 
truncated  cone  of  Jebel  Sunnin  to  over  jSoOO 
feet.     Again  it  sinks  to  the  plateau  between 
Sunnin  and  Keniseh,  to  about  (iOOO  feet.    The 
higliest  peak  of  Keniseh  rises  again  to  nearly 
7000  feet.     Theu  comes  the   i)a.ss  of  the   Da- 
mascus  road    at   Khan    j\Iuzhir,    5022    feet. 
Then   the   ridge  of  Jebel   Raruk  and  Jebel 
Niha,  over  40  miles  long,  about  ti.")00  feet,  the 
latter    ending    in    the     iuctures<iue     Twins 
(Ttmiat  Niha).     Finally,  Jebel  Kihan,  which 
sinks  gradually  to  the  level  of  the  plateau 
of  Merj    'Ayun.     Jebel   Keni.seh,  and    Jebel 
Sunnin,  at  the  center  of  the  chain,  although 
not  the  highest,  are  f'nim  their  isohition    far 
the  most  impo.sing  peaks  "  i  IVst,  (Jimr.  State. 
E.rp.    Fund,   lisy2).      The  highest   pi-aks  are 
Jebel   .Makmal  and   Kuniat   es-Sauda,    each 
about   10,200   feet.     The   present    popnlati(m 
of  Lebanon  i.s  estimated  by  Dr.  I'ost  at  200.- 
0(M».     The  peojde  live  mostly  in  villages  ro- 
mantically   situated    on  rocky  i>latforuis  or 
on   the  mountain  slopes. 

Leb'a-otli  [lionesses]. 

A    town    in   the  extreme  south   ol'  Judah 
(.losli.  XV,  :!2).     See  Beth-lkh.xotii. 

Leb-bse'us.     See  Judas  8. 
Leb'ka-mai. 

An  artificial    name   (.Fer.   li.  1,  A.   li.   \". 


which,  when  the  consonants  are  exchanged 
according  to  the  system  called  Athbash. 
yields  KSDIM,  that  is,  Chaldeans.  The 
method  is  explained,  and  another  instance 
is  cited,  in  the  article  Shkshach. 
Le-bo'nah  [incense,  frankincense], 
A  town  north  of  Shiloh  (Judg.  xxi.  19). 
It  has  long  l)een  identified  with  Lubban,  on 
the  road  between  Shechem  and  Jeru.salem,  3 
miles  west  by  north  of  Shiloh. 

Le'cah  [jierhajis,  going,  a  journey] 

A  village  of  .Judah  (1  t'hron.  iv.  21),  to 
judge  from  the  context.     Site  unknown. 

Leek. 

The  rendering  in  Num.  xi.  5,  of  the 
Hebrew  Hamr,  which  commonly  denotes 
grass.  The  leek  {Allinm  pornm))  is  probably 
intended  in  this  passage  :  for  it  is  mentioned, 
along  with  onions  and  garlic,  as  eaten  in 
Egy])t :  the  word  is  so  rendered  by  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos,  Septuagint.  Vulgate,  and 
Svriac :  and  h"sir  is  used  in  Aramaic  for  the 
leek. 

Lees. 

Dregs  or  sediment  deposited  from  wine  or 
other  liquor  (Is.  xxv.  6).  The  liquor  was 
allowed  to  stand  on  the  lees  that  its  color 
and  body  might  be  better  preserved  (Is. 
xxv.  H). 

To  settle  on  their  lees  is  to  settle  down  in 
Contentment  with  one's  character  and  cir- 
cumstances (Jer.  xlviii.  11;  Zeph.  i.  12).  To 
drink  the  lees  of  the  cup  of  wrath  means  to 
drain  the  cup,  endnring  the  punishment  to 
the  utmost  (Ps.  Ixxv.  S.  rendered  dregs). 

Le'gion. 

The  chief  subdivision  of  the  Eoman  army 
(War  iii.  4,  2).  It  originally  contained  3000 
foot  soldiers  with  a  contingent  of  cavalry. 
From  1.00  B.  c.  to  the  fall  of  tht>  emiiire^the 
nTimber  varied  from  5000  to  ()200,  while  from 
Augustus  to  Hadrian  or  during  the  N.  T. 
period  6000  seems  to  have  been  the  regular 
complement  and  the  cavalry  was  not  con- 
sidered as  forming  a  constituent  jiart  of  the 
legion.  At  this  time  the  legion  consisted  of 
ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  of  three  maniples, 
and  each  maniple  of  two  ceuturie.'?  (cp.  Mat. 
xxvii.  27,  R.  V.  margin) ;  and  was  officered 
by  tribunes  and  centurions  (War  iii.  5,  3; 
Acts  xxi.  31,  32,  E.  Y.  margin  ;  xxiii.  23), 
numbering  ten  and  sixty  I'espectively.  In 
Scripture  legion  is  used  to  denote  any  large 
host  (Mat.  xxvi.  .53;  Mark  v.  9). 

The  military  standard  of  the  Romans  was 
at  first  a  bunch  of  straw  attached  to  a  pole. 
Later  an  eagle  and  four  other  animals  formed 
the  standards  of  a  legion,  but  after  104  R.  i'. 
the  eagle  alone  was  emi)loyed  (I'liny,  Hist. 
Nat.  x.  4).  It  was  committed  to  the  custody  of 
the  chief  centurion.  In  addition  to  the  eagle, 
the  staiulard  al.so  commonly  bore  a  small  im- 
age of  the  enii)eror,  and  the  introduction  of 
these  images  into  Jerusalem  by  Pontius  Pilate 
caused  an  insurrection  of  the  Jews  (Antiq. 
xviii,  3,  1  ;  War  ii.  9,  2).    But  while  the  great 


Lehabim 


447 


Lentil 


standard  ( 
each  colior 


)f  the  whole  legion  was  the  eagle, 
t  and  century  had  its  own  standard, 


Soldiers  of  the  Roman  Legion. 

From  the  Arcli  of  Coiistantiiie. 

and  these  minor  ensigns  assumed  a  variety 
of  forms. 

Le'ha-bim. 

A  tribe  sprung  from  or  incorporated  with 
the  Egyptians  (Gen.  x.  13 ;  1  Chron.  i.  11), 
probably  the  same  as  the  Lubim  (q.  v.). 

Le'M  [cheek,  jawbone]. 

A  place  in  Judah  (.Tudg.  xv.  9),  elevated 
(11,  13),  where  the  Philistines  spread  them- 
selves when  they  advanced  into  Judah  to 
seize   Samson.     It  may  have  been  a   ridge. 


It  received  its  name  either  from  a  series  of 
Jagged  crags  resenil)ling  a  jawbone,  or  from 
Samson's  t'xi)loit  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass. 
At  any  rate,  that  part  of  it  where  Samson 
beat  down  the  Philistines,  who  seem  to  have 
been  flecking, and  cast  aside  the  jawbone  which 
had  served  him  as  a  wea])(in,  wa^-i  ifiiienibercd. 
and  it  was  pointed  out  as  Kamalh-lehi,  heighl 
of  the  jawbone  (17).  (Juerin  locates  Jx'hi  at 
'Ain  el-Lehi,  northwest  of  Bethlehem,  about 
2  miles  west-sou tUwest  of  Malhali,  and  hence 
not  far  from  Etam  (cp.  11),  on  t!ie  high 
plateau.  But  the  existence  of  '.\in  el-Lelii 
appears  dcmbtful.  The  survey  map  does  not 
indicate  it.  Moreover,  Lehi'is  best  sought 
near  some  other  Etam,  for  Samson  went  from 
Timnah  down,  not  up,  to  the  rock  at  Etam. 

Lem'u-el  [devoted  to  God]. 

The  royal  autlior  of  Prov.  xxxi.,  who  re- 
produces what  was  taught  him  bv  his  mother 
(vcr.  1). 

Len'til. 

A  ])lant  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11),  boiled  as  pottage 
(Gen.  XXV.  2!),  34)  and  in  times  of  scarcity 
made  into  bread  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  The  modern 
Arabi(!  name  is  identical  with  its  Hebrew 
designation  ""(hifihim.  The  lentil  (ErviuH 
Ifvs)  is  a  papilionaceous  plant,  allied  to  the 
vetches.  It  has  compound  leaves,  with  five 
to  six  pairs  of  oblong  leaflets,  white  flowers 
striped  with  violet,  and  small  broad  legumes. 
Pottage  made  from  it  is  red.  It  was  this  which 
was  given  to  Esau  when  he  was  famishing,  and 
it  was  from  it  that  his  second  name  Edom  was 


Lentils. 


derived.  The  plant  is  wild  in  Moab,  and  is 
cultivated  in  all  parts  of  Palestine.  The  seeds 
when  boiled  are  thoroughly  wholesome.  It 
is  from  them  that  Benileittn  urohirn  is  made, 
and  the,y  are  of  late  quite  familiar  at  most 
vegetarian  restaurants  and  in  many  house 
holds. 


Leopard 


448 


Leprosy 


Leop'ard. 

A  wild  animal  :  in  Hebrew  Namer,  spotted 
beast,  in  Greek  Pnrdnl'ix.  It  was,  as  its  name 
implied,  a  spotted  animal  (Jer.  xiii.  23).  It 
was  very  swift  (Hab.  i.  8).  Its  appropriate 
food  was  the  kid  (Is.  si.  (i),  but  it  sometimes 
attacked  man  (Hos.  xiii.  7,  8);  lurking  for 
the  purpose  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  or  vil- 
lages (Jer.  V.  (J),  though  its  ordinary  habita- 
tion was  among  the  mountains  (Song  iv.  8). 
The  leopard  {Fells  pardiis  or  Lpopardns)  was 
believed  by  the  ancients  and  some  moderns 
to  be  a  hybrid  between  tbe  lion  and  the 
lianther;  hence  its  name,  which  is  com- 
])()unded  of  len  and  parflns.  lion  and  panther. 
X<nv  it  is  generally  held  that  these  are 
merely  varieties  of  the  same  species.  The 
appropriate  habitat  of  the  leopard  or  panther 
is  Africa  and  southern  Asia.  In  Palestine  it 
now  occurs  chiefly  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  ;  l)Mt  it  was  evidently  more  common 
in  Scripture  times  than  at  present,  in  the 
country  west  of  the  river. 

In  Dan.  vii.  (5  it  s^-mbolizes  a  fierce  nation 
and  its  king,  doubtless  Greece  (viii.  21) ;  and 
i;)  Rev.  xiii.  2  the  composite  creature,  which 
combines  the  four  beasts  of  Daniel  and 
typifies  the  united  powers  of  this  world,  has 
the  body  of  a  leopard. 

Leper. 

A  person  afl'ected  with  the  disease  of  lep- 
rosy (2  Kin.  vii.  8 ;  Mat.  x.  8).  The  leper  was 
excluded  from  intercourse  with  his  fellow- 
men  and  from  the  sanctuarj',  was  required  to 
exhibit  the  usual  signs  of  mourning  and  to 
give  the  warning  cry  to  all  that  approached, 
"Unclean!  unclean!"  (Lev.  xiii.  45;  Luke 
xvii.  12,  1.3),  and  he  was  regarded  as  a  dead 
man  (Num.  xii.  12).  Strangely  enough,  if 
the  lepro.sy  was  spreading,  the  sufierer  was 
unclean ;  but  if  it  overspread  the  whole 
man,  he  was  adjudged  clean  (Lev.  xiii.  (i, 
12,  13).  Some  expositors  understand  this  to 
mean  that,  while  the  disease  manifested 
activity,  the  law  imputed  pollution;  but 
when  it  might  be  regarded  as  having  run 
its  course,  it  lost  its  character  as  a  curse 
from  God.  Others  understand  the  mean- 
ing tf)  be  that  only  when  the  leper  was 
acknowledged  to  be  defiled  in  every  part  by 
this  disease,  which  typified  sin,  coukl  he  be 
admitted  to  the  ]iiivileges  of  atonement. 
Yet  other  inter]ireters  believe  that  the  rapid 
eruption  over  the  whole  body  was  a  sign 
that  the  crisis  had  been  ])assed  and  recovery 
had  set  in.    See  Purification. 

Lep'ro-sy. 

1.  A  dreadful  disease,  in  Hebrew  Sara'ath, 
scourge.  The  symjitoms  are  described  in 
Lev.  xiii.  1  4t).  There  were  skin  diseases 
from  which  it  re(|uired  to  be  carefully 
distinguished.  It  was  not  a  sujierficiai, 
but  was  a  dee])-seated  malady.  It  often 
began  as  a  rising,  or  a  scab,  or  a  bright 
sjiot,  which  tended  to  spread,  turning  white 
the  hair  covering  the  parts  atfected  (xiii.  2,  3, 


7,  8,  10,  24,  25,  27,  35,  36).  Eaw  flesh  tended 
to  appear  (10,  14-16,  24).  Among  the  parts 
of  the  body  specially  liable  to  attack  were 
the  scalp  of  the  head,  the  beard,  the  top  of 
the  head,  or  the  forehead,  after  these  had 
become  bald  ;  also  any  spot  which  had  been 
accidentally  injured  by  fire  (24,  29,  30,  42). 
A  leper  was  to  be  excluded  from  the  cam]> ; 
was  required  to  let  the  hair  of  his  head  go 
loose  and  his  clothes  be  rent ;  while  he  was 
to  cover  his  ujjper  lip.  and  cry,  "  LInclean  ! 
unclean!"  (45,  46).  He  bad  to  appear  re- 
peatedly before  the  priest,  who  was  to  pro- 
nounce on  the  character  of  the  disease  (1-44) ; 
and  in  the  event  of  the  malady  departing,  he 
was  to  go  through  an  elaborate  process  of 
cleansing  and  sacrifice  (xiv.  1-32).  In  the 
description  of  the  disease  given  in  Lev.  xiii. 
there  is  no  mention  of  the  leper's  hue  chang- 
ing to  a  snowy  white,  as  was  the  case  with 
Miriam  (Num.  xii.  10)  and  Gehazi  (2  Kin.  v. 
27),  and  momentarily  with  Moses  (Ex.  iv.  6). 
Not  even  those  whose  circumstances  were 
comfortable  were  exempt  from  this  disease. 
Thus,  it  aflected  Naaman.when  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  Syria  (2  Kin.  v.  1-14). 
and  Uzziah  during  the  later  years  of  his 
reign  over  Judah  (xv.  5  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  21). 
The  regulations  about  excluding  the  leper 
from  society  were  carried  out  among  the  He- 
brews (Num.  V.  1-4  ;  xii.  10, 15  ;  2  Kin.  vii.  3,  8, 
10;xv.  5;2C;hron.  xxvi.  21 ;  cp.  also  Luke  xvii. 
12) ;  but  the  fact  that  the  king  of  Syria  seems 
to  have  leaned  on  Naaman's  hand,  even  when 
he  was  a  le]ier,  and  that  Naaman  dwelt  with 
his  family  and  was  accompanied  by  servants, 
shows  that  leprosy,  though  loathsome,  was 
not  actually  contagious  (2  Kin.  v.  18).  The 
disease  to  which  the  English  word  leprosy  is 
now  confined  is  a  formidable  malady,  techni- 
cally called  Elephantiasis  Grwcorvm,  elephant 
disease  of  the  Greeks.  It  appears  under'two 
forms.  The  tuberculated  or  black  leprosy  is 
at  present  the  more  common,  and  the  name 
is  restricted  to  it  by  some  authorities.  It 
afl"ects  primarily  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes. The  anaesthetic  or  white  leprosy 
afl'ects  the  nerves  principally,  and  produces 
numbness.  The  symptoms  of  the  two  forms 
are  often  united,  and  one  form  frequently 
])asses  into  the  other.  The  coming  of  the 
disease  is  preceded  by  lassitude  for  months 
or  years.  Then  circular  spots  or  blotches  of 
irregular  form  and  varying  extent  appear 
on  the  forehead,  the  limbs,  and  the  body. 
After  a  time,  the  central  portion  of  the  spots 
and  blotches  becomes  white,  and  the  parts 
aflVcfed  contract  a  certain  numbness.  In  the 
worst  cases  the  joints  of  the  fingers  and  toes 
fall  ofl'  (juc  by  one,  and  injuries  to  the  other 
])arts  produce  mutilation  and  deformity. 
Thomson  says:  "The  'scab'  comes  on  by 
degrees  in  diflercnt  parts  of  the  body;  the 
hair  falls  from  the  head  and  eyebrows;  the 
nails  loo.'-en,  decay,  and  drop  otT;  joint  after 
joint  of  the  thigers  and  toes  shrink  up  and 
slowly   fall  away.     The  gums   are  absorbed, 


Leshem 


449 


Leviathan 


and  the  teetli  disappear.  The  nose,  tJie  eyes, 
the  tongue,  and  n.c  palate  arc  slowly  con- 
sumed." Again,  he  says,  that  when  approach- 
ing the  Jafl'a  gate  of  Jerusalem  he  was  start- 
led by  the  sudden  apparition  ef  a  crowd  of 
heggars,  without  eyes,  nose,  or  hair.  They 
held  u])  handless  arms,  and  unearthly  sounds 
gui-gled  through  throats  without  palates.  This 
loathsome  and  fatal  disease  is  jjopularly  be- 
lieved to  be  identical  with  that  of  I>eviticus 
and  the  other  books  of  the  Bible  (cp.  Num. 
xii.  12),  But  the  disease  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture seems  to  have  been  curable  (Lev.  xiv.  3), 
whereas  Elepliontiasis  Grsecorvm  is  not,  except 
in  the  early  stages.  If  not  elephantiasis, 
what  was  it?  Sir  Risdon  Bennett  {Diseases 
of  the  Bible,  15-52)  and  others  believe  prob- 
ably Lepra  rvUjaris,  now  merged  in  the  genus 
Pxoriasi.i,  and  called  Psoriasis  mlgaris,  the 
dry  tetter.  It  is  a  non-contagious,  scaly  dis- 
ea.se,  generally  commencing  about  the  elbows 
and  knees,  as  small  circular  patches  of  silvery- 
white  scales,  which  spread  till  they  become 
the  size  of  a  quarter  or  a  half  dollar,  by 
which  time  the  scales  have  fallen  from  the 
central  portion  of  the  circle,  leaving  it  red  ; 
other  circles  arising  coalesce.  Afterwards 
the  abdomen,  the  chest,  and  the  back  become 
affected,  and  in  rare  cases  the  disease  extends 
at  last  also  to  the  head,  face,  and  hands.  The 
constitutional  disturbance  is  trifling,  and  the 
disease  is  curable,  though  it  is  liable  to  recur. 
It  is  simply  a  skin  disease,  in  no  way  endan- 
gering life.  Or  the  white  lepi'osy  of  the  O. 
T.  may  have  been  Psoriasis  guttata,  in  which 
the  scattered  patches  are  said  to  give  an  ap- 
pearance to  the  skin  as  if  it  had  been  splashed 
with  mortar.  Perhaps  the  Hebrew  term 
mra'ath  was  a  generic  one,  and  the  eleijhaii- 
tiasis  and  the  psoriasis  two  of  its  species ; 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  difl'ereut  varieties 
have  prevailed  at  diflereut  times.  If  the 
leprosy  of  the  Old  and  that  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament were  identical,  then  confirmation  is 
given  to  the  ojnnicm  that  the  former  was 
psoriasis,  for  Luke  (v.  12,  13),  himself  a  phy- 
sician, employs  the  Greek  word  lepra,  which 
was  technically  used  of  psoriasis.  With  this 
Josephus'  description  of  leprosy  agrees,  for 
(Autiq.  iii.  11,  4)  he  defines  a  leper  to  be  a 
man  who  has  a  misfortune  in  the  color  of  his 
skin,  and  makes  no  allusion  to  graver  symp- 
toms. He  mentions  also  that  among  tlie 
gentiles  lepers  were  not  excluded  from  so- 
ciety, but  were  competent  to  discharge  im- 
portant functions  in  the  body  politic. 

2.  The  .same  word  sara'ath  was  applied  to 
a  greenish  or  reddish  appearance  in  a  gar- 
ment and  to  hollow  greenish  or  reddisli 
strakes  in  the  wall  of  a  house  (Lev.  xiii.  47- 
59;  xiv.  33-37).  It  may  be  some  minute 
cryptogamous  plant,  an  algal  or  a  fungal, 
wliich  has  grown  upon  the  garment  or 
wall  after  it  has  become  wet  in  the  rainy 
season. 

Le'shem.     See  D.\n  3. 

29 


Le-tu'sMm. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Dedan  Klen.  xxv. 
3).     They  doubtless  settled  in  Arabia. 

Le-urn'mim  [peoples,  nations]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Dedan  ((Jen.  xxv. 
3).     They  doubtless  .settled  in  Arabia. 

Le'vi  [adhesion,  associate]. 

1.  Third  scm  of  Jacob  and  Leah  (Ocn.  xxix. 
34).  He  took  part  with  Simeon,  Leah's  .sec- 
ond .son,  in  massacring  Hamor,  Sliechem,  and 
the  men  of  their  city,  in  revenge  for  the  in- 
jury done  by  Shechem  to  their  si.ster  Dinah 
(xxxiv.  25-31).  Jacob  on  his  deathbed  re- 
membered with  fresh  al)horrence  this  deed 
of  blood,  and,  referring  to  Simeon  and  Levi, 
said,  "  Cursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce  ; 
and  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel :  I  will  di- 
vide them  in  Jacob,  and  scatter  them  in  Is- 
rael" (xlix.  7).  Levi  had  three  sons  :  Oer- 
shon  or  Gershom,  Kohath,  and  Merari  (den. 
xlvi.  11),  and  died  in  Egypt  at  the  age  of  137 
(Ex.  vi.  Ifi).     See  Levitk.s. 

2  and  3.  Two  ancestors  of  Christ,  one  the  son 
of  Symeon,  and  the  other  a  son  of  Melchi 
(Luke  iii.  24,  29,  30). 

4.  Another  name  for  the  apostle  Matthew 
(cp.  Mat.  ix.  9  13;  Mark  ii.  14-17;  Luke  v. 
27-32). 

Le-vi'a-tlian  [one  spirally  wound]. 

A  great  aquatic  animal  mentioned  only  in 
poetic  i)assages.  He  was  formed  by  God  t« 
play  in  the  sea  (Ps.  civ.  26).  He  has  limbs, 
head,  neck,  eyes,  nose,  jaw,  mouth,  teeth, 
and  tongue  (Job  xli.  1,  2,  7,  12,  14,  18,  19,  22), 
and  is  covered  with  scales  and  an  impenetra- 
ble hide  (7,  15-17,  26-29).  He  lieth  upon  the 
mire  or  maketh  the  sea  to  boil  like  a  pot  (30, 
31).  He  is  too  large  to  be  taken  by  lish  hook 
or  harpoon  (1,  26),  is  terrible  of  aspect  (9), 
and  mighty  in  strength,  but  comely  of  pro- 
portion (12).  He  is  i)oetically  described  as 
breathing  tire  and  smoke  (19-21),  as  is  God 
in  Ps.  xviii.  8  and  as  are  the  horses  in  Rev. 
ix.  17.  When  God  worked  salvation  by  di- 
viding the  sea,  he  destroyed  the  sea  monsters 
which  inha})ited  it,  broke  the  heads  of  levia- 
than and  left  his  carcass  to  be  eaten  by  the 
people  of  the  desert  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  14).  As  the 
sea  is  the  type  of  the  restless,  surging  nations 
of  the  earth,  so  leviathan  which  dwells  there- 
in, leviathan  the  flying  serpent,  leviathan 
the  swift  serpent,  leviathan  the  crooked  .ser- 
pent, and  the  dragon  symbolize  the  fierce 
and  terrible  powers  of  the  world  which  have 
afilicted  the  peoi)le  of  God,  but  whom  God 
will  ultimately  destroy  (Is.  xxvii.  1).  Le- 
viathan is  commonly  regarded  as  the  croco- 
dile (Job  xli.  1,  R.  V.  margin).  As  .such  the 
imagery  is  apt.  Egyjjt,  its  habitat,  is  the 
tyincal  oppressor  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  Egypt's  power  was  broken  and  its  king 
thwarted  when  God  divided  the  Red  Sea  for 
the  deliverance  of  his  people.  Leviathan 
may,  however,  be  merely  a  creation  of  the 
popular  fancy,  an  imaginary  .sea  monster; 
the  inspired  poets  and  prophets  of  Israel  sub- 


Levites 


450 


Levites 


sidiziiij;  fabk-  to  serve  in  tlie  illustration  of 
truth.  In  Job  iii.  8  leviathan  maybe  a  fabu- 
lous drajjon  which  caused  eclipses  by  swal- 
lowing; sun  and  moon,  and  the  cursers  of  the 
(lay  may  be  conjurers  who  claimed  the  power 
to'nroduce  eclipses  by  his  aid.  Or  in  this 
jiassa^e  leviathan  may  be  the  untamable,  ter- 
ril)le  crocodile  which  only  conjurers  of  high- 
est skill  claimed  abilitv  to  summon  to  their 
aid. 

Le'vites. 

1.  The  descendants  of  Levi,  the  son  of 
Jacob.  He  had  three  sons  :  Gershon  or  Ger- 
shoni,  Kohath,  and  Merari,  each  of  whom 
founded  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11;  Ex. 
vi.  It) ;  Num.  iii.  17:  1  Chron.  vi.  16-48). 
Moses  and  Aaron  were  Levites  of  the  house 
of  Amram  and  fiimily  of  Kohath  (Ex.  vi.  W, 
18,  20,  26). 

2.  The  men  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  charjrcd 
n  ith  the  care  of  the  sanctuary.  Aaron  and 
bis  sons  were  set  apart  for  the]iriesthood  and 
the  office  was  made  hereditary.  But  the 
taberuaclcfand  its  service  had  been  projected 
on  a  noble  scale.  The  care  and  transjiorfa- 
tion  of  the  costly  sanctuary  and  thepre|iava- 
tion  of  materials  for  the  elaborate  service  en- 
tailed labors  which  no  one  man  and  no  one 
family  was  equal  to.  Hcl]iers  were  needed. 
The  charge  of  the  tabernacle  was  an  honor- 
able work.  Who  should  undertake  it  V  The 
firstborn  belonged  to  God.  This  conviction 
was  deejjened  bj'  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  deliverance  from  Egypt.  When  the 
firstborn  of  the  Egyptians  were  slain,  blood 
on  the  lintel  and  side  door  j)osts  was  needed 
to  protect  the  Israelite  firstborn  males  from  a 
similar  fate.  They  had  then  become  the 
special  projierty  of  Jehovah,  and  hence- 
forth were  consecrated  to  him  as  a  memorial 
(E.\-.  xiii.  ll-Ki).  But  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  all  the  tribes,  the  Levites  were  chosen 
for  service?  in  connection  with  the  sanctuary  ; 
and  the  choice  was  made  because,  when  the 
I)eoi)le  had  broken  tlu'  covenant  with  Jehovah 
by  making  the  goklen  calf,  the  Levites  alone 
had  voluntarily  returned  to  their  allegiance 
and  shown  zeal  for  (iod's  honor  ( xxxii.  26-29  ; 
Num.  iii.  9,  ll-i:5,  40,  41,  4.")  seq.,;  viii.  16-18). 
The  firstborn  males  of  Israel,  exclusive  of 
the  Levites,  numbered  22,27:5  in  the  census 
taken  at  Sinai  (Num.  iii.  43,  46).  There  were 
22,000  Levites  (39) ;  i)ut  the  items  given  in 
verses  22,  28,  and  34  foot  up  22,300.  Either 
an  error  lias  occurred  soiiu'wheri!  in  the 
tran.scription,  or  else  300  of  these  Levites 
were  themselves  firstborn  and  therefore  could 
not  .serve  as  substitutes  for  the  firstborn  of 
the  other  tribes.  The  22,000  were  substi- 
tuted. The,  reiuainiug  273  firstborn  of  Israel 
were  redeemed  by  the  payment  of  five  shek- 
els apiece  (16-.")1 ). 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  Levites  to  trans- 
p>)rt  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture  when 
the  camp  moved  ;  and  when  the  camp  rested 
to  erect  the  tent,  Iiave  ciirc  of  it,  and  a.ssist 


^ 


the  priests  in  their  varied  work  (Num.  i.  50 
.")3;  iii.  6-9,  25-37;  iv.  1-33;  1  Sam.  vi.  15; 
2  Sam.  XV.  24).  As  the  sons  of  Aaron  were 
I^evites  as  well  as  priests,  they  are  frequently 
included  under  the  designation  Levite  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8-10;  Josh.  xiv.  3;  xxi.  1,  4;  Mai. 
iii.  3]  ;  and  also,  either  as  higher  otficials  or 
as  Levites,  they  might,  if  they  saw  fit,  dis- 
charge any  service  that  pertained  to  the 
Levites. 

The  age  at  which  the  obligation  of  service 
began  was  thirty  years  (Num.  iv.  3 ;  1  t'hron. 
xxiii.  3-5),  and  twentj'-five  years  (Num.  viii. 
24 1,  and  twenty  years  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  24,  27). 
The  divergent  jiractice  at  different  periods 
of  the  history  explains  the  peculiarity  in 
jiart.  It  is  even  conceivable  that  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  age  for  entrance  and  a  lengthen- 
ing of  the  term  of  service  W'as  made  by 
Moses  himself  some  time  during  the  course 
of  forty  years,  and  such  a  change  is  expressly 
stated  to  have  been  made  by  David.  But  it 
is  noticeable  that  both  in  the  book  of  Num- 
bers and  in  the  book  of  Chronicles  the  age 
of  thirty  years  is  forthwith  followed  by  an 
earlier  age.  Also  in  Numbers  iv.  the  service 
of  the  Levites  who  were  thirty  years  old  is 
defined  by  an  explanatory  clause :  "  every 
one  that  entered  in  to  do  the  work  of  ser- 
vice, and  [even]  the  work  of  bearing  bur- 
dens" (47.  49);  and,  in  fact,  the  particular 
service  is  defined  by  the  specifications  of  the 
ejitire  chapter.  It  is,  therefore,  not  at  all 
-Tiiiprobable  that  at  thirty  years  of  age  the 
Levites  became  eligible  to  full  service  of 
every  sort  that  pertained  to  Levites  at  the 
sanctuary,  including  the  high  and  honorable 
offices  of  bearing  the  tabernacle  and  its 
sacred  furniture  in  public  procession  and,  at 
a  later  jieriod,  of  serving  in  positions  that 
brought  distinction  and  called  for  wisdom 
and  discretion  (Num.  iv.  1-33 ;  1  Chron. 
xxiii.  3-5) ;  l)ut  the  Levites  began  general 
service  at  first  at  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
and  performed  the  various  duties  belonging 
to  their  calling  with  the  exceptions  that 
have  been  noted  ;  at  least  the  higher  duties 
arc  not  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
more  youthful  age  (Num.  viii.  24-26;  1 
Chron.  xxiii,  25-32).  David,  however,  saw 
fit  to  make  a  further  reduction  in  the  age  at 
which  the  simjiler  duties  should  be  nnder- 
t;ikeii,  and  he  directed  that  the  Levites 
should  enter  upon  service  at  the  same  time 
of  life  as  that  at  which  the  other  Israelites 
became  liable  to  military  service,  namely,  at 
twenty  years  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  24,  27),  seeing 
that  the  need  of  transporting  the  ark  no 
longer  existed  (25,  26)  and  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  had  become  a  routine,  and  a  sort 
of  apprenticeship  was  a  useful  preparation 
for  the  regular  ecclesiastical  duties.  Twenty 
years  was  henceforth  the  legal  age  for  the 
Levites  to  enter  upon  service  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
17;  Ezra  iii.  8).  At  this  age  they  commenced 
as  assistants  to  the  priests  and  chief  Levites 
(1   Chron.   xxiii.  28-31  ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxix. 


Leviticus 


4-,l 


Leviticus 


34;  XXXV.  Ill,  hut  probably  not  until  they 
reached  thirty  years  were  they  regarded  a.s 
experts  or  elij;ible  for  tlie  higher  offices  of 
doorkee]ier  or  member  of  the  temple  orches- 
tra or  administrator  or  judge  (1  Chroii.  xxiii. 
;j-5).  They  retired  from  active  service  at 
fifty,  but  were  free  to  render  iissistauce  to 
the  Levites  who  succeeded  thejii  in  the  work 
at  the  sanctuary  (Num.  viii.  2."),  •2()). 

An  official  dress  was  not  prescribed  for  the 
Levites,  but  ou  great  occasions  they  drew  on 
festal  raiment  (1  Chron.  xv.  27  ;  2  Chron.  v. 
12).  It  was  an  innovation  when  the  I^cvitical 
singers  in  the  first  century  A.  i).  obtained  ])er- 
mission  from  king  Agrijipa,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  sanhedrin  to  wear  linen  garments 
as  constantly  as  did  the  pri(>sts  (Antiq. 
XX.  9,  6).  They  were  not  required  to  de- 
vote their  entire  time  to  the  sanctuary 
nor  to  dwell  continually  near  it ;  but  on  the 
allotment  of  Canaan  they  were  distributed  to 
various  towns  (Josh.  xxi.  20-40).  Exclusive 
of  the  towns  allotted  to  the  Levites  who  were 
priests,  all  of  which  were  in  Judah,  Simeon 
and  Benjamin,  the  Levitical  towns  numbered 
thirty-five  and  were  situated  among  the  re- 
maining tribes  on  the  north  and  east  (.Josh. 
xxi.  .5-7).  Since  the  Levites  as  a  tribe  were 
"  wholly  given  unto  the  Lord  in  behalf  of 
the  children  of  Israel,"  and  were  ap]>ointed 
to  service  at  the  tabernacle,  it  was  natural 
that  in  the  northern  districts,  where  no  Le- 
vitical priests  dwelt,  the  lower  order  of  the 
Levites  should  be  drawn  upon  by  the  idol- 
ater Micah  and  after  him  by  the  idolatrous 
migrating  Danites  to  furnish  a  man  for 
priestly  services  (Judg.  xvii.  8-1.3  ;  xviii.  18- 
20,  30;  31).  In  David's  reign  the  Levites 
were  divided  into  four  classes  :  1.  Assistants 
to  the  priests  in  the  work  of  the  sanctuary ; 
2.  Judges  and  scribes  ;  3.  Gate  keepers  ;  4. 
Musicians.  Each  of  these  classes,  with  the 
possible  excei)tion  of  the  second,  was  subdi- 
vided into  twenty-four  courses  or  families  to 
serve  in  rotation  (1  Chron.  xxiv.-xxvi.  ;  cp. 
XV.  16-24  ;  2  Chron.  xix.  8-11  ;  xxx.  16,  17 ; 
Ezra  vi.  18  ;  Neh.  xiii.  5).  On  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  monarchy,  many  Levites  and 
priests  (out  of  Benjamin)  (juitted  the  north- 
ern kingdom  and  came  to  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Chron.  xi.  13-15). 

Le-vit'i-cus  [relating  to  the  Levites]. 

'i'he  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  When 
the  tabernacle  had  been  erected  and  a  priest 
appointed  to  minister  at  the  altar,  the  next 
step  was  to  regulate  access  to  God.  This  is 
the  object  of  the  ordinances  contained  in 
Leviticus.  In  approach  to  .Jehovah  sacrifices 
and  a  priesthood  were  needed,  and  intei-- 
course  with  God  requires  the  attainment  and 
maintenance  of  purity,  both  ceremonial  and 
moral.  To  exercise  a  proper  control  over 
these  matters  several  manuals  were  pre- 
pared, which  were  placed  together  and  form 
the  liook  of  Leviticus.  1.  A  directory  of 
procedure  to  be  followed   by  the  worshiper 


and  the  priest  at  the  offering  of  the  various 
kinds  of  sacrifice  (Lev.  i.  1-vi.  7),  and  a 
book  on  the  disposal  of  the  sacrifice  (vi.  8- 
vii.  36).  The  directory  of  procedure  was 
drawn  up  at  Sinai  after  the  tabernacle  had 
been  erected,  and  the  Ixjok  on  the  disposal 
of  the  sacrifice  was  written  at  the  same  gen- 
eral time,  when  "he  comnuinded  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  to  offer  their  oblations  unto 
Jehovah  "  (i.  1 ;  and  cp.  vii.  38  witli  i.  2).  2. 
A  record  of  the  consecration  of  Aaron  .and 
his  sons  to  the  priestly  office  ( viii.-ix.),  an 
official  act  prescribed  during  Moses'  first  so- 
journ in  Sinai  (Ex.  xxix.),  which  established 
the  priesthood  and  was  the  i)recedent  for 
future  ordinations.  To  this  record  an  ac- 
count of  the  punishment  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu  for  illegal  approach  was  appended, 
together  with  legislation  which  was  enacted 
to  meet  deficiencies  revealed  in  the  laws  on 
this  occasion  (Lev.  x.).  3.  A  directory  of 
ceremonial  purity  (xi.-xvi.),  containing  laws 
concerning  foods  that  defile,  diseases  or  nat- 
ural functions  that  render  unclean,  and  the 
ceremonial  national  purification  (already 
prescribed,  Ex.  xxx.  10).  This  directory  is 
ascribed  to  Moses  as  the  representative  of 
.Jehovah  (Lev.  xi.  1,  etc.),  when  Israel  was 
in  the  wilderness  (xiv.  34;  xvi.  1).  4.  The 
law  of  holiness  (xvii.-xxvi.),  statutes  con- 
cerning holiness  of  life,  given  by  Moses 
(xvii.  1,  etc.),  at  Sinai  (xxv.  1;  xxvi.  46;  cp. 
xxiv.  10).  These  several  collections  are  fol- 
lowed by  an  appendix  on  vows,  tithes,  and 
things  devoted  Ixxvii. ).  Occasionally  a  law 
is  repeated  in  a  new  connection  and  for  a 
different  purpose.  At  times  also  the  legisla- 
tion is  interrupted  b.y  the  narrative  of  events 
that  led  to  enactments  (x.  1-7,  12-20;  xxi. 
24;  xxiv.  10-23).  Possibly  some  laws,  but 
ceruainly  not  all,  that  were  framed  after  the 
departure  from  Sinai  were  inserted  for  the 
sake  of  convenience  in  their  proper  place 
among  the  laws  relating  to  the  same  sub- 
ject. 

Throughout  the  book  but  one  sanctuary 
(xix.  21  et  passim)  and  one  altar  for  all  Israel 
are  recognized  (i.  3  ;  viii.  3  :  xvii.  8,  9),  and 
the  sons  of  Aaron  are  the  sole  priests  (i.  5). 
The  Levites  are  only  incidentally  mentioned 
(xxv.  32,  .33).  Variations  in  the  laws  or 
their  statement  as  found  in  Leviticus  and 
Deuteronomy  are  intelligible  when  it  is 
remembered  that  1.  Leviticus  is  a  man- 
ual for  the  priests,  to  guide  them  through  the 
technicalities  of  the  ritiuil  ;  while  Deuteron- 
omy is  primarily  not  a  law  book  at  all,  but  a 
pojHilar  address  to  instruct  the  jieoplein  their 
own  duties  and  to  exhort  them  to  fidelity. 
Deuteronomy  omits  matters  of  detail  which 
concern  itriests  only.  2.  The  laws  of  l^e- 
viticus  are  dated  at  Sinai  an  entire  generation 
before  the  addresses  contained  in  Deuteron- 
omy were  delivered  at  Shittim.  Accordingly 
the  legislation  of  Leviticus  is  presupposed  in 
Deuteronomy.  This  is  the  standpoint  of  the 
Bible. 


Libertines 


452 


Lily 


The  essentials  of  the  h'jiishition  of  Leviti- 
cus are  reflected  iu  the  history  in  the  early 
recognition  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood.  So  tar 
as  the  evidence  reaches,  the  priests  were  sons 
of  Aaron  exclusively  (Deut.  x.  6;  Josh.  xiv. 
1  ;  xxi.  4  and  18  with  1  Kin.  ii.  2() ;  Judg. 
XX.  27,  28;  1  Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  27,  28;  xiv.  :{; 
xxi.  6  with  1  Chron.  xxiv.  3 ;  1  Sam^  x.xii. 
10,  11,  20  ;  xxiii.  <) ;  and  2  Sam.  viii.  17  with 
Ezra  vii.  3  and  1  Chron.  xxiv.  3).  The  Le- 
vites  are  sojourners  and  subordinate  (Judg. 
xvii.  7-9;  xix.  1  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  13  ;  2  Sam.  xv. 
21).  Compare  also  the  one  house  of  the 
Lord  (Judg.  xviii.  31  ;  xix.  18 ;  1  Sam.  i.  7, 
24 ;  iii.  3 ;  iv.  3),  and  the  feast  of  the  Lord, 
at  the  tabernacle  visited  by  all  Israel  (Judg. 
xxi.  19  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3  :  ii.  14,  22,  29) ;  see  fur- 
ther the  articles  Priest,  High  Priest,  Le- 
viTE.H,  Altar,  Deuteroxomy. 

Lib'er-tines  [freedraen]. 

A  section  of  the  Jewish  community  who 
had  a  synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  and  were 
among  the  foes  of  the  flr.st  martyr.  Stephen 
(Acts  vi.  9).  They  were  probably  Jews, 
who,  having  been  taken  prisoners  in  bat- 
tle by  Pompey  and  other  Roman  generals, 
had  been  bondsmen  at  Rome,  but  were  after- 
wards restored  to  liberty. 

Lib'nah  [whiteness,  pellucidness]. 

1.  An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  20).  Situation  un- 
known. 

2.  A  city  in  the  lowland  between  Mak- 
kedah  and  Lachish  (Josh.  x.  29-31),  captured 
by  Joshua  (30,  39 ;  xii.  !'■>).  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  territory  allotted  to  Judah  (xv. 
42),  and  was  subsequently  assigned  to  the 
descendants  of  Aaron  (xxi.  13;  1  Chron.  vi. 
.')7).  When  Jeh(jram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat, 
was  king,  Libuah  revolted  against  Judah  (2 
Kin.  viii.  22  ;  2  (Jliron.  xxi.  10).  Sennach- 
erib, king  of  Assyria,  warred  against  it  (2 
Kin.  xix.  8;  Is.  xxxvii.  8).  The  father  of 
Hamutal,  tlie  mother  of  Jehoahaz  and  Zede- 
kiah,  was  from  this  place  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  ; 
xxiv.  18  ;  Jer.  Iii.  1).  Exact  situation  is  un- 
known. 

Lib'ni  [white,  pure]. 

1.  Son  of  (rershon,  and  grandson  of  Levi. 
He  was  founder  of  a  minor  tribal  family  or 
father's  house  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  18,  21  ; 
xxvi.  .W). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli  (1  Ciiron.  vi.  29). 

Lib'y-a  and  Libyans. 

A  rendering  of  /'((/  (.Ter.  xlvi.  9 ;  E/,ek. 
XXX.  n;  xxxviii.  5  in  A.  V.)  and  Lnbim  (Dan. 
xi.  43).  A  country  and  its  inhabitants  in  the 
western  jiart  of  I.,ower  Egypt  or  on  its  bor- 
ders. The  iieoi)le  are  said  to  be  distinguished 
by  the  Egyi)tiansas  Tehcnu  ;  later  I'it,  Phaiait, 
])robably  e(|uivah'nt  to  the  Hebrew  ]'ut ;  and 
Jifhit  or  Lchn,  tiiat  is  in  Hebrew  Lnliim,  and 
others.  Tlie  Libya  of  the  Jiomans  was  an 
immense  and  vaguely  defined  tract  ex  lend- 
ing from  the  Nile  delta  and  valley  westward 


across  the  entire  African  continent.  It  com- 
prised all  north  Africa  west  of  Egypt,  ex- 
cept the  small  Greek  settlements  of  Cyrene 
and  Barca,  and  the  Phoenician  colonies  of 
Carthage,  Utica,  and  Hippo.  It  was  nearly 
all  a  sandy  desert,  studded  here  and  there 
with  oases!  on  which  palms  grew.  Its  tribes 
were  brave,  but  were  not  very  formidable, 
owing  to  their  being  scattered  and  unable  to 
unite.  The  Romans  divided  the  African  re- 
gion bordering  the  Mediterranean  as  far  west 
as  the  Syrtis  Major,  or  the  country  between 
Egypt  and  the  province  of  Africa,  into  Libya 
Marmarica  in  the  east  and  Libya  Cyrenaica 
or  Pentapolis  in  the  west.  The  latter  was 
formed  with  Crete  into  a  province  in  67  B.  c. 
Its  capital  was  Cyrene,  and  it  was  from  this 
western  province  that  representatives  were 
present  at  Jerusalem  on  Pentecost  (Acts  ii. 
10;  cp.  Antiq.  xvi.  6,  1). 

Lice. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kinnam  or 
Khniim  { Ex.  viii.  16-18  ;  Ps.  cv.  31),  referring 
to  some  small  insect  noxious  to  man. 
Josephus  understood  the  word  to  mean  lice 
(Antiq.  ii.  14,  3).  The  Septuagint  renders  it 
by  sknips,  an  aphis  or  otlier  small  insect  that 
sucks  or  gnaws.  R.  V.  margin  translates  it 
sandflies  or  fleas. 

Lie 'tor.     See  Praetor. 

Lieu-ten'ant.     See  Satrap. 

Lign-al'oes  [wood  or  tree  aloes].  See 
Aloes. 

Lig'ure. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Leshem,  a 
gem,  the  first  stone  in  the  third  row  of  the 
high  priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  19). 
This  translation  is  derived  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint, Vulgate  and  Josephus  (War  v.  5,  7)  ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  identify  the  ligurlum 
of  the  ancients  with  any  known  gem.  The 
R.  V.  renders  the  Hebrew  word  by. jacinth  or 
anibfr. 

Lik'hi  [characterized  by  knowledge]. 
A  Manassite,  family  of  Shemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19). 

Lil'y. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
Shoshnn,  Shonhannah,  and  Slnishaii.  The  plant 
so  designated  is  found  in  pastures  where 
sheep  and  gazelles  feed  (Song  ii.  16;  iv.  5; 
vi.  3),  and  among  thorns  (ii.  2),  besides  being 
cultivated  in  gardens  (vi.2).  It  was  so  much 
at  home  in  valleys  that  it  was  designated  the 
lily  of  the  valleys  (Song  ii.  1).  It  was  a 
sweet-scented  plant,  dropping  a  myrrh-like 
jierfunie  (v.  13).  The  Hebrew  w'ord  was  ren- 
dered kriiion  by  the  Greek  translators.  The 
kr'ninn  is  a  plant  which  grows  beside  the 
water  (Ecclus.  1.  8)  and  among  the  grass  of 
the  field  (Mat.  vi.  28).  It  is  often  mentioned 
in  ouinection  with  frankincense  and  the  rose 
(Ecclus.  xxxix.  13,  14).  It  is  the  type  of  a  life 
of  ])cautiful  deeds.  The  high  priest,  coming 
forth  from  the  sanctuary  is  compared  with 


LUy 


453 


Linen 


it  (1.  8).     It  excels  Solomon  in  his  glorious 
array  (Mat.  vi.  29). 

The  words  shunhan  and  Icrinon  were  not 
always  used  with  reference  to  the  lily  in  its 
modern  scientitic  sense;  but  included  with 


Scarlet  Turk's  Cap  [Lilium  chalcedonicum). 

the  true  lily  various  plants  that  resemble  the 
lily.  The  lotus  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians  by  the  name  of  seshnin,  and  is 
called  by  Herodotus  krinon  (ii.  92).  The 
ordinary  word  for  a  lily  in  Arabic  is  still 
susan ;  but  it  is  used  generically  rather  than 


Red  Anemone  (Anemone  cnronaria). 

specifically,  including  the  tulip  and  even  the 
anemone  and  ranunculus.  What  varieties 
of  lily  were  anciently  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  Palestine  is  not  known.  In  tlie 
fields  the  scarlet  Turk's  cap  {Liliitm  chnlce- 
donicnm)  grows  sparingly,  besides  the  true 
lily,   other  genera  of  the  order  Liliacex,  as 


hyacinths  and  tulips,  grow  in  profusion  in 
the  spring.  A  fine,  dark  violet  flower, 
known  as  susan,  is  found  far  and  wide 
in  the  Hauraii.  Thom.son  describes  a 
splendid  iris,  which  he  calls  the  Iluleli  lily, 
growing  among  the  oak  woods  around  the 
northern  base  of  Tabor  and  on  the  liills  of 
Nazareth.  The  flower  is  dark  ]iur])le  and 
white.  He  believes  that  it  is  the  lily  re- 
ferred to  by  Jesus.  Red  anemones  arc  so 
marked  a  feature  of  the  valleys  of  Palestine 
in  the  spring  that  various. travelers,  Tristram 
included,  have  suggested  that  Anemone  coro- 
naria,  the  red  variety  of  which  is  very  com- 
mon, was  probably  the  lily  of  the  N.  T., 
while  others  would  identify  the  anemone 
with  the  rose  of  Sharon.     See  EosE. 

Lime. 

A  material  prepared  by  burning  limestone, 
shells,  and  other  calcareous  substances  (Is. 
xxxiii.  12  ;  Amos  ii.  1),  and  used  for  making 
mortar  and  plaster,  and  for  whitewashing 
walls  (Dent,  xxvii.  2,  in  E.  Y.  plaister ;  Mat. 
xxiii.  27  ;  Acts  xxiii.  3).     See  Mortar. 

Lin'en. 

1.  Fine  linen  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shesh,  white,  applied  to  a  stutF  of 
which  vestments  were  made.  It  was  in  it 
that  Joseph  was  arrayed  by  Pharaoh's  order 
(Gen.  xli.  42).  Of  this  material  also  were 
made  the  curtains,  vail,  and  door  hang- 
ings of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1,  31,  36), 
and  the  hangings  for  the  gate  of  the  court 
and  for  the  court  itself  (xxvii.  9,  16,  18). 
The  distinguishing  attire  of  the  high  priest 
consisted  of  the  ephod,  breastplate,  robe  of 
blue,  and  the  gold  jilate  on  the  miter;  and 
of  these  the  ephod  and  breastplate  contained 
fine  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.  6,  l."j).  Other  official 
garments  were  common  to  the  high  jjriest 
and  the  ordinary  priest,  the  tunic,  girdle, 
breeches,  and  headdress  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42  ; 
xxxix.  27-29  ;  cp.  Lev.  xvi.  4).  The  head- 
dress, however,  of  the  high  priest  was  a 
miter  or  turban,  while  a  simple  caji  appears 
to  have  been  worn  by  the  ordinary  priest. 
Of  these  four  articles  of  priestly  dress,  the 
girdle  was  embroidered,  consisting  largely 
of  linen  (Ex.  xxxix.  29).  The  three  other 
garments  were  made  of  fine  white  linen  ex- 
clusively (xxviii.  39;  xxxix.  27,  28).  On 
the  margin  of  Gen.  xli.  42  and  of  Ex.  xxv.  4 
the  R.  V.  substitutes  cotton.  On  the  nnirgin 
of  Ex.  x.xviii.  39  the  R.  V..  referring  to  the 
coat  and  miter  of  the  high  priest,  substitutes 
silk.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  translated 
marble  in  Esth.  i.  6  and  Song  v.  1.")  (where 
the  reference  is  to  pillars),  and  silk  in  Prov. 
xxxi.  22. 

2.  The  Hebrew  word  Bnd  is  a  synonym  for 
^ihefih,  but  is  more  general  in  its  meaning, 
hence  it  is  rendered  merelvliTien  (Ex.  xxviii. 
42  with  xxxix.  28).  It  sufficiently  described 
the  material  of  the  priest's  raiment,  when 
there  wns  no  need  to  explicitly  state  the 
quality  of  the  stuff  (ibid.;  Lev.  vi.  10;  xvi. 


Linen 


454 


Lizard 


4).  Of  it  was  made  the  plain  epliod  worn  by 
the  hoy  Samuel,  by  the  priests  at  Nob,  and 
by  David  on  the  occasion  of  removing  the 
ark  (1  Sum.  ii.  18;  xxii.  l.s;  2  Sam.  vi.  14). 
In  it  thv  iium  witli  tlie  inlcstaud  in  Ezekiel's 
vision,  and  Daniel's  heavenly  comforter  were 
clothed  (Ezek.  ix.  2;  Dan.  x.  5). 

:>.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Pi.shteh, 
flax,  the  material  of  which  the  goods  are 
made  being  thought  of  (Jcr.  xiii.  Ij.  It  is 
used  in  contrast  to  woolen  clothing  (Lev.  xiii. 
47  ;  Deut.  xxii.  11).  It  describes  the  material 
of  the  priestly  garments,  the  headtires, 
bnH'clies,  and  girdles  (Ezek.  xliv.  17,  IH). 

4.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bus,  which 
occurs  only  in  the  later  books,  and  of  the 
(xreek  Bassos.  Of  this  material  were  made 
the  robe,  not  the  ephod,  which  David  wore 
at  the  removal  of  the  ark  (1  Chron.  xv.  27), 
the  vail  of  the  temple  in  part,  the  other 
stuffs  emploj-ed  being  blue,  purple,  and  crim- 
son (2  Chron.  iii.  14),  the  clothing  of  the  Le- 
vites  who  were  musicians  at  the  dedication 
of  the  temple  (v.  12),  the  cords  which  fas- 
tened the  hangings  in  Ahasuerus'  palace 
(Esth.  i.  6),  the  state  dress  of  Mordecai 
(viii.  15),  the  garments  of  the  rich  man  at 
whose  gate  Lazarus  sat  (Luke  xvi.  39),  and 
of  the  luxurious  city  of  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii. 
16),  and  the  bright  and  pure  raiment  of  the 
Lamb's  wife  (xix.  8). 

Shetih  is  originally  an  Egyptian  word,  in 
old  Egj'ptian  shenti ;  bus  is  the  Aramaic  equiv- 
alent (cp.  Targ.  Onk.  Gen.  xli.  42),  and  hussos 
is  etymologically  the  .same  word  as  bus.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  Ezekiel  uses  shesh 
for  goods  imported  from  Egypt,  and  bus  for 
stuffs  that  came  from  Syria.  Whether  the 
words  denote  linen  or  fine  cotton  cloth,  or 
coiiiprchcnd  both,  is  much  debated.  Linen 
and  ci>tton  were  employed  in  Egypt  from  the 
earliest  times  for  mummy  cloths. 

5.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Etiin, 
from '({/«/(,  to  bind  (Prov.  vii.  1(5;  in  E.V.  yarn). 
It  was  imported  from  I^gyjit,  where  the  most 
skillful  manufacturers  of  lin(!n  lived. 

(i.  Linen  yarn  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
lirew  word  .Uikrch  in  A.  V.  of  1  Kin.  x.  28; 
2  Chron.  i.  l(i.  R.  V.  renders  it  a  drove. 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  regarded  the  Hebrew 
word  as  composite,  and  rendered  it  "and 
out  of  Koe,"  which  was  a  place  near  Egypt, 
according  to  Eusehius. 

7, 8.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  word 
!^'ni<Ion,  a  fine  Indian  cloth,  muslin,  later 
linen.  A  tunic  or  ]>erha]is  a  sheet  might  be 
made  of  it  (^lark  xiv.  51),  ;ui<l  in  this  ma- 
terial th(!  body  of  .lesus  w:is  wrap])ed  for 
Iturial  (Mat.  xxvii.  5!)).  It  is  a  syncmym  of 
othotihii.  tliough  nuire  sjx'cial  in  meaning 
(Luke  xxiii.  5;}  with  xxiv.  12;  .Tohn  xix.  40; 
XX.  5,  7).  In  classical  (ireek  tlu'  latter  word 
means  either  genuine  linen  or  sail  cloth. 

9.  The  rendering  of  the  (Jreek  7yn(«i),  linen 
(Rev".  XV.  fi,  A.  y.  aiid  margin  of  R.  V.).  The 
text  of  R.  y.  has  ]>re(ious  stones,  from  another 
reading  IHIidh. 


Lin'tel. 

The  transverse  piece  of  wood  or  other 
material  constituting  the  upper  part  of  a 
doorway  or  casement  (Ex.  xii,  22),  called  in 
Hebrew  Mashkuph. 

1.  Lintel  is  also  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew 'AyU,  a  ram,  in  1  Kin,  vi,  31.  It  may 
denote  a  projecting  lintel  or  post.  The  He- 
brew word  occurs  eighteen  times  in  an  archi- 
tectural sense  in  Ezek.  xl.  and  xli.,  where  it 
is  rendered  post  (ver,  9,  etc),  with  jamb  on 
the  margin  of  E.  V. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kaphtor, 
in  A.  Y.  of  Amos  ix.  1  and  Zeph.  ii.  14,  which 
is  translated  chapiter  in  E.'\^  In  Ex.  xxv, 
and  xxxvii.,  where  it  occurs  sixteen  times,  it 
is  rendered  kuop  in  both  versions. 

Li'nus. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  According  to  Irenseus  and  Eusebius,  he 
was  the  first  bishop  of  Eonie.  See  Bishop. 
No  lofty  preeminence  was  attached  to  the 
office,  for  he  is  mentioned  without  distinction 
between  two  other  members  of  the  church  at 
Eome. 

Li'on. 

The  Felis  leo  of  naturalists.  The  lion  is 
diffused  over  the  whole  of  Africa  and  portions 
of  southern  Asia,  as  far  east  as  the  province 
of  Guzerat  in  India.  It  was  formerly  found 
in  Greece,  but  does  not  now  occur  wild  in 
that  country  or  anywhere  in  Euro]>e.  In 
Scripture  times  it  was  common  in  Palestine. 
The  Hebrews  had  no  fewer  than  six  words 
to  designate  it  in  different  states  or  at  suc- 
cessive stages  of  growth.  The  ordinary  words 
were  ^iri/eh  and  '")•/,  which  occur  eighty  times 
in  the  O.  T.  Allusion  is  made  to  the  lion's 
strength  (2  Sam.  i.  23;  Prov.  xxx.  30)  and 
courage  (2  Sam.  xvii.  10;  Prov,  xxviii.  1),  to 
his  teeth  (Joel  i,  6),  to  his  tendency  to  crouch 
before  s])riiiging  on  his  victim  (Gen,  xlix,  9), 
to  his  tendency  to  prey  on  sheep,  calves,  and 
other  l)easts  (1  Sam,  xvii,  34 ;  Is.  xi.  6,  7),  or 
upon  man  (I  Kin.  xiii.  24 ;  Jer.  ii.  30),  and  to 
his  roaring  (Job  iv.  10;  Prov.  xx.  2;  1  Pet. 
V.  8).  He  is  represented  as  lurking  in  thick- 
ets (Jer.  iv.  7),  forests  (v.  6),  or  other  coverts 
(xxv,  38).  A  special  haunt  of  his  ai)])cars  to 
have  been  among  the  trees  and  bushes  fring- 
ing the  Jordan"^  (xlix,  19),  Of  the  living 
creatures  seen  bv  Ezekiel  in  vision  one  had 
the  face  of  a  Hon  (Ezek,  i,  10;  x,  14).  The 
first  of  the  four  living  creatures  seen  by  John 
was  like  a  lion  (Rev.  iv.  7).  Our  Lord  is 
called  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (v.  5 ; 
cp.  Gen.  xlix.  9). 

Liz'ard. 

Any  small  lacertilian  reptile.  It  was  called 
I'pi'iih  I)y  the  llel)rews,  and  was  regarded  as 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  30).  The  E.  Y.  undei-stands 
the  four  animals  associated  with  it  to  be  the 
gecko,  the  land  crocodile,  the  sand  lizard,  and 
the  chameleon  ;  but  states  on  the  margin  that 
the   words  are    of   uncertain   meaning,    but 


Loaf 


455 


Lock 


probably  deuote  four  kinds  of  lizards.  Liz- 
ards abound  iu  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
countries.  The  number  of  species  is  very 
great.  In  the  woods  and  on  cultivated  ground 
the  green  lizards  are  the  most  l)eautiful,  es- 
pecially Lacerta  viridis  and  L.  Iwcis.  Of  the 
same  family  {Lacertidx),  but  of  a  ditlereut 
genus  iZootica),  are  the  wall  lizards,  which 
appear  in  warm  weather  in  multitudes,  crawl- 
ing over  walls,  rocks,  and  stony  ground. 
Other  families  of  eriglossate  lacertilians  are 
represented  iu  Palestine,  as  the  Kcincidse, 
Zunuridie,  Agamidie,  and  MouHoiidve.  The 
tirst  of  these  contains  the  skiuks  or  sand 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30 ;  iu  A.  V.  snail).  They 
chiefly  inhabit  desert  districts,  are  generally 
small  and  of  the  jellowisli  color  of  the  desert, 
are  as  common  as  the  true  lizard,  but  unlike 
it  do  not  climb,  and  hide  themselves  under 
stones  or  by  burrowing  rapidly  in  the  ground. 
The  family  of  Zonuridn'  is  represented  by 
the  glass  snake  {Fseitdopus  pallusi).  Its  hind 
legs  are  rudimentary,  so  that  it  looks  much 
like  a  snake.  It  is  black,  and  attains  a 
length  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet,  of 
which  the  tail  forms  two-thirds.  Closely  re- 
lated to  this  family  are  the  Atjamidie,  con- 
taining Uromasfix  spinipes.  This  reptile  in- 
habits the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  is  common  iu  the  wilderness  of  Judsea. 
It  attains  a  length  of  two  feet.  Its  body  is 
green  in  color,  spotted  with  brown.  It  has  a 
powerful  tail,  encircled  with  rows  of  .strong 
spines,  which  it  uses  as  a  weapon  of  defense. 
The  Hebrew  name  was  sab,  rendered  great 
lizard  (Lev.  xi.  29;  in  A.  V.  tortoise).  The 
Arabs  still  call  it  dabb.  The  family  of  Moni- 
toridx  or  Vantuidie  contains  the  monitors,  of 
which  the  land  crocodile  of  the  ancients 
(Lev.  xi.  30  ;  in  A.  V.  chameleon),  commonly 
known  as  the  land  monitor,  the  waran  el-'ard 
of  the  Arabs  (Psammoscmrus  scincus),  is  com- 
mon in  southern  Judfea,  the  peninsula  of 
Siuai,  and  the  saudy  x)arts  of  Egypt.  It 
attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  has 
a  long  snout,  sharp,  pointed  teeth,  and  a  long, 
tapering  tail.  The  water  monitor,  waraii  el- 
bahr  (Hjidrosaurus  nUoticns),  is  slightly  larger 
than  its  congener  of  the  land,  and  is  readily 
distinguished  from  it  by  the  liigh  keel  along 
the  whole  length  of  its  tail.  Both  reptiles 
are  extremely  rapid  in  their  movements,  and 
are  strong,  fully  justifying  their  su)ii)osed 
Hebrew  name  koah,  strength.  They  feed  on 
small  lizards  and  jerboas,  and  devour  the 
eggs  and  young  of  the  crocodile  with  avidity. 
They  are  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Loaf. 

A  mass  of  bread.  It  was  made  of  the  flour 
of  barley  (2  Kin.  iv.  42;  John  vi.  i»)  or  wheat 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17  with  Ex.  xxxiv.  22),  round  in 
shape  (Ex.  xxix.  23  ;  Judg.  viii.  5,  iu  Hebrew 
likl-ar,  disc),  and  of  a  size  convenient  for 
baking  and  carrying  with  one  (1  Sam.  x.  3; 
Mat.  xiv.  17;  John  vi.  9i.  See  Bkead  and 
Showbre.\d. 


Lo-ain'mi  [not  my  ix'ojiie]. 

The  symbolic  name  of  tlie  prophet  Hosea's 
second  son  by  his  wife  (ionier  (Hos.  i.  8,  9). 

Loan. 

Anything,  especially  money,  that  is  lent. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  Hebrew  nation  loans 
were  not  .sought  for  the  ])nrpose  of  obtaining 
capital,  but  tor  the  ni-cessaries  of  life.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  ojien  their 
heart  to  their  brother,  wlio  had  fallen  into 
poverty,  aud  to  lend  him  sulhcieut  for  liis 
need  (Deut.  xv.  7-11).  They  were  forbidden 
to  charge  interest  for  any  loan  to  a  jioor  Isra- 
elite (Ex.  xxii.  25;  Lev.  xxv.  35-37).  But 
unto  a  foreigner  they  might  lend  on  interest 
(Deut.  xxiii.  20),  and  the  poor  Israelite  might 
sell  himself  as  a  servant  (Lev.  xxv.  39;  2 
Kin.  iv.  1).  If  a  jiledge  was  asked  from  a 
poor  Israelite  lor  a  loan,  the  creditor  was  not 
to  go  into  the  debtor's  house  to  obtain  it,  but 
to  remain  outside  and  allow  it  to  be  brought 
out  to  him.  If  the  pledge  was  a  garment,  it 
was  to  be  returned  to  the  owner  before  the 
evening,  as  probal)ly  it  might  be  part  of 
his  sleeping  attire  (Ex.  xxii.  26,  27).  Ko  one 
was  to  take  the  u])iier  or  nether  millstone  as  a 
Jiledge,  thus  jireventing  the  debtor  and  his 
family  from  griirding  corn  for  their  daily 
food  (Deut.  xxiv.  (i).  Nor  could  anyone  take 
a  widow's  garment  (17).  Finally,  when  the 
seventh  year,  called  the  year  of  release,  came, 
the  debt  was  to  be  forgiven  (xv.  1-11).  The 
jiractice  of  suretyshij),  however,  unfortu- 
nately grew  u])  (Prov.  vi.  1),  and  in  later 
times  interest  was  sometimes  exacted  for 
loans,  although  the  practice  was  condennied 
by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xv.  10  ;  Ezek.  xviii.  13). 
The  beneficent  regulations  of  the  law  were 
systematically  ignored  after  the  exile,  aud 
Xehcmiah  took  vigorous  measures  to  termi- 
nate the  abuse  (Nell.  V.  1-13).  The  Eoman  law- 
was  a  marked  contrast  in  its  severity  to  that 
of  Moses.  By  a  law  of  the  twelve  tables  a 
creditor  could  ]int  his  insolvent  debtor  in 
fetters  and  cords.  Doubtless  with  allusion 
to  the  ordinary  ])rocedure  Jesus  describes  the 
lord  of  a  debtor  as  commanding  that  he.  his 
wife,  his  children,  and  all  tliat  be  had.  be 
sold  in  liquidation  of  the  debt  (Mat.  xviii. 
25),  and,  when  he  had  abused  leniency 
which  Avas  shown  him  on  his  a]ii;eal  for 
mercy,  be  delivered  to  the  torturers  till 
he  should  pay  all  that  was  due  (34).  In 
the  time  of  Christ  banking  was  a  regular  in- 
stitution (Mat.  xxv.  27:  I-uke  xix.  23).  A 
public  building  was  jtrovided  in  Jerusalem, 
where  documents  relating  to  loans,  whether 
iuterest-bearing  or  not,  misiht  be  deposited 
(War  ii.  17,  fi).     See  Bank. 

Lock. 

A  fastening  for  a  door  (Judg.  iii.  23),  evi- 
dently in  ancient  as  in  modern  times,  con- 
sisting of  a  short  bolt  of  wood,  wliich  slides 
through  a  groove  in  an  upright  ])iece  attached 
to  the  door  and  enters  a  socket  in  the  door- 
post.    Above  the  groove  in  the  upright  are 


Locust 


456 


Lord's  Day 


holes  containing  small  iron  or  wooden  pins. 
When  the  bolt  is  thrust  into  the  socket,  these 
l)ins  drop  into  corresponding  lioles  in  the  bolt 
and  hold  itin  place.  The  key  is  liirniNlied  with 
a  like  number  of  projections,  anil,  when  intro- 
duced into  a  hollow*  in  the  bolt  underneath  the 
pins,  raises  them  and  allows  the  bolt  to  be 
shoved  back.  When  the  lock  is  inside,  a  hole 
through  the  door  admits  the  hand  with  the 
key,  and  even  the  hollow  in  the  bolt  is  often 
large  enough  to  admit  the  hand  (Song  v.  5). 

Lo'cust. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  '  Arheh 
and  the  Greek  Akris.  The  insect  referred  to 
is  evidently  tlie  migratory  locust  ((Edipoda 
miyratoriu),  or  in  some  cases  possibly  an  allied 
insect,  (Edipoda  ci iieresceits,  Aciidiuiii  peiegri- 
num,  or  other  species.  The  locust  is  two  inches 
or  more  in  length.  It  is  a  winged,  creep- 
ing thing.  Like  other  insects  of  the  order 
Orthoptera.  it  has  four  wings.  Those  of  the 
anterior  pair  are  narrow,  while  those  of  the 
posterior  pair  are  broader,  folded  up  when 
not  in  use,  and  transparent.  It  has  six  legs, 
on  fonr  of  which  it  walks,  while  the  hind- 
most pair,  which  are  much  longer  than  the 
others  and  equal  to  the  body  in  length,  it  uses 


for  springing  (Lev.  xi.  21,  22).  The  mouth 
is  furnished  with  cutting  jaws,  by  means  of 
which  it  nips  oflF  leaves  and  blades  of  grass. 
They  were  clean  insects  (ibid.),  and  John 
the  Baptist  ate  them,  as  nuuiy  Orientals  did 
before  him  and  still  do  (Mat.  iii.  4).  They 
are  prepared  by  being  slightly  roasted,  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  sailed.  When  u.sed  the  head, 
wings,  legs,  and  intestines  are  commonly  re- 
moved, and  only  the  Heshy  portion  is  eaten. 
The  locust  is  exceedingly  destructive  to  veg- 
etation, and  locusts  blown  into  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  by  the  east  wind,  (!oiistituted  the 
eighth  Hgyptian  plague  (Ex.  x.  4,  5,  12,  15, 
19).  In  some  pas.sages,  as  .Tudg.  vii.  12  and 
Jer.  xlvi.  23,  the  A.  V.  rcTiders  'nrheh  gras.s- 
hopper ;  the  U.  V.  uniformly  translates  it 
locust.  The  locust  is  (listingnish(;(l  from  the 
grasshopper  by  the  shortness  of  its  antennse. 
It  must  not  be  coTifounded  with  the  liarvest 
fly,  which  is  commonly  called  locust  in  the 
United  States. 

i\[;iiiy  other  words  refer  to  different  species 
of  locusts  diflieult  to  identify,  or  sonic  of 
them  may  mean  tlie  migratory  locust  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  develoimient  (Lev.  xi.  22; 
Joel  i.  4).  The  eggs  of  the  various  species  of 
locust  are  dc))ositi(l  in  A|)ril  or  May,  in  a  cy- 
lindrical hole  excavated  in  the  ground  liy  the 
female.  They  are  hatched  in  .lunc.  'flic  \(iuii" 


insect  emerges  from  the  egg  a  wingless  larva. 
It  enters  the  pupa  state,  when  it  has  rudi- 
mentary wings  enclo.sed  in  cases.  It  is  moie 
voracious  in  this  stage  of  its  development 
than  at  any  other  period.  In  another  month 
it  ca.sts  the  pupa  or  nymph  skin,  and  has  be- 
come the  imago  or  perfect  insect. 

Led  [perhaps,  sti-ife,  contest]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  built  by  the  sons  of 
Elpaal,  a  man  of  Benjamin  (1  Cliron.  viii. 
12),  and  generally  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Ouo  (Neh.  xi.  35).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
33  ;  Neh.  vii.  37),  and  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  Lydda  of  the  Greek  period  (1  Mac. 
xi.  34) ;  see  Lydda.  It  still  exists  as  Ludd, 
about  11  miles  southeast  of  Joppa.  In  it  are 
the  remains  of  the  church  of  St.  George,  the 
Christian  martyr  of  Nicomedia  and  adopted 
in  the  fourteenth  century  as  the  patron  saint 
of  England,  who  was  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  the  place. 

Lo-de'bar  [perhaps,  without  pasture] . 

A  place  in  Gilead  (2  Sam.  ix.  4,  5 ;  xvii. 
27),  probably  the  same  as  Lidebir  (Josh.  xiii. 
2(j,  E.  V.  margin).     See  Debir  4. 

Lodge. 

A  shelter  erected  for  the  watchman  of  a 
garden  for  occupation  during  the  time  of 
ripe  fruit  (Is.  i.  b;  in  xxiv.  20,  A.  V.  cottage, 
E.  V.  hut).  Not  improbably  the  structure 
intended  is  the  kind  built  among  the  branches 
of  a  tree  or,  where  trees  are  lacking,  upon 
posts,  and  consisting  of  a  rude  floor,  a  roof 
of  mats  or  branches,  and  sides  of  branches. 

Log  [depth], 

A  Jewish  measure  of  capacitv  used  spe- 
cially for  oil  (Lev.  xiv.  10,  12, 'l5,  21,  24). 
The  rabbins  believe  it  to  have  contained 
twelve  hins,  so  that  it  equaled  the  720th 
part  of  an  homer  or  about  three  gills. 

Lo'is. 

Timothy's  grandmother,  a  woman  of  un- 
feigned faith  (2  Tim.  i.  5). 

Look'ing-glass.    See  Mireoe. 

Lord. 

When  used  of  God  and  printed  in  small 
letters  with  only  the  initial  a  capital,  it 
is  usually  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Adov,  master  (Ex.  xxiii.  17;  Ps.  cxiv.  7), 
much  more  frequently  of  '"donai/,  properly 
my  master  (Ex.  iv.  10;  Is.  xl.  10),  or  of  the 
Greek  Knrios,  master,  sir  (Mat.  i.  20).  When 
printed  in  sm.all  capitals,  it  represents  the 
Hebrew  YHVii,  Jehovah,  the  most  sacred 
and  incommunicable  name  of  God,  used  of 
himself  alone  (GeTi.  ii.  4)     See  Jehovah. 

Lord  of  Hosts.     See  Host. 

Lord's  Day. 

The  day  s]M>cially  associated  with  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  The  ex])ression  occurs  but  once 
in  the  N.  T.,  where  John  says,  "  I  was  in  the 
Si)irit  on  the  Lord's  day"  (Rev.  i.  10).  Vari- 
ous   interpretations    have   been    offered.     1. 


Lord's  Day 


457 


Lord's  Supper 


John,  it  is  said,  is  speaking  of  the  Sabbath 
or  seventh  day  of  the  week,  which  God  him- 
self has  called  "My  holy  day"  (Is.  Iviii. 
13).  But  if  he  intended  the  seventh  day,  it 
is  strange  that  he  did  not  use  the  customary 
designation.  2.  It  is  held  to  be  the  day  of 
Christ's  birth.  But  that  day  is  unknown, 
and  it  was  not  known  or  observed  by  the 
primitive  church.  3.  It  is  contended  that 
the  expression  Lord's  day  is  the  siime  as 
the  day  of  the  Lord  in  2  Pet.  iii.  10,  where 
it  undoubtedly  means  the  day  of  the  second 
advent,  and  John  would  state  that  he  was 
rapt,  in  vision,  to  the  day  of  judgment.  But 
John  is  apparently  dating  his  vision.  In  the 
preceding  sentence  he  mentions  the  place 
where  he  was  at  the  time  he  received  the 
revelation,  the  isle  of  Patmos ;  and  declares 
the  cause  of  his  being  on  that  island.  In 
this  sentence  he  states  the  day  when  he  had 
the  vision.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  he 
does  not  speak  of  the  day  of  the  Lord,  which 
is  the  constant  designation  of  the  daj'  of  the 
second  advent,  but  uses  the  adjective 
kuriak? ;  a  distinction  which  was  observed 
ever  afterwards  between  the  day  of  the 
second  advent  and  the  first  day  of  the  week 
when  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  4.  It  has 
been  thought  possible  that  John  means  the 
anniversary  of  the  resurrection.  But  none 
of  the  early  fathers  can  be  quoted  either  for 
this  interpretation  or  for  this  use  of  the 
designation  Lord's  day.  5.  F'riday  or  cruci- 
fixion day,  which,  however,  seems  to  have 
had  no  special  honor  from  the  apostles, 
this  being  reserved  for  6.  Sunday  or  resurrec- 
tion day.  On  the  resurrection  day  itself 
our  Lord  appeared  to  his  disciples  (Luke 
xxiv.  13-49;  John  xx.  1-25).  After  eight 
days,  which  in  ordinary  usage  meant  a  week, 
Jesus  a  second  time  honored  the  first  day  of 
the  week  (John  xs.  26).  Since  Pentecost  oc- 
curred fifty  days  after  the  second  day  of 
unleavened  bread  (Lev.  xxiii.  11,  15;  see 
Weeks,  Feast  of),  it  probably  fell  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week  in  the  year  of  Christ's 
crucifixion;  and  so  the  eff'usion  of  the  Holy 
Stiirit  took  x^'ace  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week  (Acts  ii.  1).  The  Christians  at  Troas  in 
Paul's  time  seem  to  have  regarded  that  day 
as  the  stated  one  on  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  assemble  to  break  bread  'Acts  xx. 
7).  On  the  same  day  of  the  week  the  Chris- 
tians were  to  lay  by  them  in  store  the  money 
which  they  designed  to  give  in  charity  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  2).  These  passages,  aided  by  reason- 
ings on  more  general  principles,  have  led  the 
great  majority  of  Christians  to  consider  the 
Lord's  day  a  "day  set  apart  by  the  example 
of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  for  sacred  pur- 
poses, and  standing  in  a  certain  relation  to 
the  Sabbath  of  the  ten  commandments ;  see 
Sabbath.  It  may  be  added  that  some  mem- 
bers of  the  primitive  church  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  days,  including  Jewish 
festivals  and  Sabbaths  and  possibly  the 
first    day,    rightly    or    wrongly    esteeming 


every  day  alike.  They  were  not  to  be 
harshly  judged,  they  were  acting  out  of  the 
fear  of  tied  (Kom.  xiv.  5).  Some  of  the 
Jewish  converts  continued  to  keep  the  sev- 
enth day  and  the  Jewish  festivals.  It  was  a 
matter  of  liberty  (Col.  ii.  l(j),  so  long  as  the 
convert  did  not  regard  the  observance  as 
necessary  to  salvation  (Gal.  iv.  10). 

Lord's  Sup'per. 

The  name  given  by  Paul  to  the  com- 
memorative ordinance  instituted  by  our  Lord 
on  the  evening  preceding  his  crucifixion  (1 
Cor.  xi.  20).  Paul's  account  is  the  earliest 
record  of  the  institution  of  the  supper  by  at 
least  two  or  three  years.  It  was  written 
probably  early  in  A.  D.  57,  just  twenty-seven 
years  after  the  supper  was  instituted.  The 
ajKJstle  had  introduced  it  five  yeans  earlier, 
when  he  organized  the  Corinthian  church 
and  "  delivered  unto  them  "  the  ordinance 
(23).  He  pledges  his  own  truthfulness  and 
authority  for  the  correctness  of  his  account 
by  saying,  "I  received  and  I  delivered"; 
and  he  refers  to  the  source  of  his  information  : 
he  had  not  been  an  eyewitness  of  the  event, 
he  had  not  been  present  at  the  institutitm  of 
the  su]>per,  but  he  had  received  from  the  Lord 
what  he  had  delivered  unto  them.  These 
words  are  capable  of  two  interpretations : 
either  Paul  had  been  granted  a  special  com- 
munication direct  from  the  risen  Lord,  or 
else  he  had  received  the  account  from  the 
Lord  through  the  Lord's  apostles,  participants 
in  the  first  supper.  Matthew  an  eyewitness 
and  Mark,  the  companion  of  Peter  who  was 
present  at  the  institution  of  the  supper,  also 
record  the  circumstances ;  and  so  does  Paul's 
companion,  Luke.  Wishing  to  fulfill  all  right- 
eousness and  to  honor  the  ceremonial  law 
whilst  yet  it  continued.  Jesus  made  arrange- 
ments to  eat  the  passover  with  his  disciples 
(Mat.  xxvi.  17-19).  As  the  paschal  lamb  was 
killed  in  the  evening,  and  its  flesh  eaten  the 
same  evening,  the  paschal  feast  necessarily 
took  place  in  the  evening  (Mat.  xxvi.  20). 
Wine  mixed  with  water  had  come  into  use  on 
such  occasions,  because  that  was  regarded  as 
the  best  way  of  using  the  best  wine  (cp.  2  Mac. 
XV.  39).  When,  therefore,  our  Lord  was 
about  to  follow  up  the  su])per  by  the  com- 
munion, there  was  wine  mixed  with  water 
on  the  table.  So  also  was  there  unleavened 
bread.  He  and  his  disciples  were  sitting 
(Mat.  xxvi.  20),  by  which  is  meant  tliat. 
after  the  custom  of  that  time,  they  half  sat, 
half  reclined  on  coucbes  (Mark  xiv.  If^.  R.  A'. 
margin).  When  the  paschal  feast  was  fin- 
ished, Jesus  took  bread  and  blessed  it.  at  the 
same  time  rendering  thanks  for  it,  and, 
giving  it  to  the  disciples,  said  :  "This  is  my 
body  which  is  given  for  you  :  this  do  in  re- 
membrance of  me."  And  the  cup  in  like  man- 
ner after  supper,  saying  :  "  This  cu])  is  the  new 
covenant  in  my  blood,  even  that  which  is 
poured  out  for  you "  (Luke  xxii.  19,  20, 
E.  v.),  "  which  is  shed  for  many  unto  rcmis- 


Lo-ruhamah 


458 


Lowland 


sion  of  sins"  (Mat.  xxvi.  28,  R.  V.).  The 
object  for  which  the  Lord's  Supper  was  in- 
stituted was  to  keep  him  in  remembrance 
(Luke  sxii.  19).  It  was  to  sliow  forth  the 
Lord's  death  till  he  come  (1  Cor.  xi.  25,  26). 
The  feast  was  not  confined  to  the  apostles 
nor  to  the  Jewish  Christians,  but  was  cele- 
brated in  the  churches  of  the  gentiles  also, 
for  instance  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  x.  15-21).  It 
was  understood  to  be  the  ])rivilege  of  the 
church  for  all  time.  The  table  on  which  the 
bread  was  placed  was  known  as  the  Lord's 
table  (x.  21)  ;  the  cup  of  wine  retained  the 
old  name  which  it  bore  at  the  Jewish  pass- 
over,  cup  of  bles.sing  (x.  IG),  and  was  also 
called  the  cup  of  the  Lord  (21;  xi.  27). 

Lo-ru'ha-mah  [not  having  obtained 
mercy].  " 

The  symbolic  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea's 
daughter  by  his  wife  Gomer  (Hos.  i.  6,  8). 

Lot,  I. 

The  use  of  the  lot  to  determine  doubtful 
,  questions  was  much  in  vogue  among  the  na- 
tions of  antiquity  (Esth.  iii.  7;  Jon.  i.  7; 
Mat.  xxvii.  35).  Stones  or  inscribed  tablets 
or  the  like  were  put  into  a  vessel  and,  having 
been  shaken,  were  drawn  out  or  cast  forth. 
The  act  was  commonly  i)receded  by  prayer, 
and  was  an  appeal  to  God  to  decide  the  mat- 
ter (Acts  i.  23-26;  Iliad  iii.  3Ki-325 ;  vii. 
174-181).  In  the  early  history  of  the  Jewish 
people  God  was  pleased  to  use  the  lot  as  a 
method  of  making  known  his  will,  so  that 
the  weighty  statement  was  made  in  Prov. 
xvi.  .33,  "  The  lot  is  cast  into  the  lap  ;  but  the 
whole  disposing  thereof  is  of  the  Lord." 
The  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  among  the 
twelve  tribes  by  lot  (Josh.  xiv.  2 ;  xviii.  6) ; 
for  the  method,  see  Canaan.  On  one  occa- 
sion Saul  and  Jonathan  stood  on  one 
side  and  Jonathan  cast  lots  against  the 
people.  The  king  and  his  son  being  thus 
singled  out,  they  cast  lots  with  each  other, 
Jonathan  being  finally  pointed  out  by  this 
method  of  iiKjuiry  (1  Sam.  xiv.  40-45).  The 
courses  of  tlu;  priests,  etc.,  were  settled  by 
lot  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  5,  seq.).  By  casting  lots 
after  prayer  the  (|U(>stion  was  decided 
whether  Jo.seph  Harsabbas  or  Matthias  should 
be  .Judas  Iscariot's  successor  in  the  a])ostle- 
sbi)!  (Acts  i.  15-26).  This  metliod  of  selec- 
ti(ni  was  not  repeated  by  the  apostles  after  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Lot,  II.  [covering,  or  myrrh]. 

Son  of  Haran,  Abraham's  brother,  and 
consetiuently  nephew  to  the  jiatriarch  him- 
self, whom  he  accompanied  from  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Canaan  (Gen.  xi.  31  ;  xii.  5).  and  to 
and  from  Egypt  (xiii.  1).  lake  his  uncl(\  he 
ac(|uired  much  cattle ;  and  his  herdsmen 
and  those  of  Al)raham  (|uarreled  over  the 
pasturage.  Abraiiani  proposed  that  he  and 
Lot  separate,  and  generously  invited  Lot  to 
('boose  first.  Lot,  seeing  thiit  the  hills  were 
less  fertile  than   the  valley   of   the  Jordan, 


chose  the  latter,  and  became  a  resident  in 
Sodom.  He  did  not  take  into  account  the 
character  of  the  people  among  whom  he  was 
going  to  settle,  and  the  probable  etfect  of 
their  evil  example  on  his  family,  though  he 
maintained  his  own  integrity  among  them 
and  was  distressed  from  day  to  day  by  the 
sight  and  the  story  of  lawless  deeds  (2  Pet. 
ii.  8).  During  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer 
and  his  confederate  kings,  Lot  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  owed  his  release  to  the  courage 
and  skill  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii.  2-xiv.  16). 
When  two  angels  were  sent  to  Sodom  to  warn 
him  of  its  approaching  destruction,  the  con- 
duct of  the  mob  toward  these  strangers 
showed  how  ripe  the  city  was  for  destruc- 
tion. Lot  was  saved  from  its  overthrow; 
but  his  wife,  looking  back,  was  killed,  being 
overwhelmed  by  a  shower  of  falling  salt. 
His  sons-in-law,  probably  prospective  ones 
(xix.  14,  R.  V.  margin;  cp.  8),  remained 
behind,  and  perished  (xix.  1-29;  Wisd.  x. 
6-9).  Soon  afterwards,  under  the  influence 
of  wine.  Lot  unconsciouslj^  became  a  partic- 
ipant in  abhorrent  deeds.  The  Moabites  and 
Ammonites  were  his  descendants  (.30-38). 

Lo'tan. 

A  tribe  of  Horites,  dwelling  in  mount  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  20)  and  governed  by  a  chieftain 

(29). 

Love'  Feasts. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Aqapai  in  2 
Pet.  ii.  13,  R.  V.  (on  margin  and  in  A.  V. 
deceivings).  In  Jude  12  the  rendering  is 
feasts  of  charity.  They  were  entertainments 
held  in  churches  in  connection  with  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Chrysostom  states  that  after 
the  early  community  of  goods  had  ceased,  the 
wealthier  members  brought  contributions  of 
food  and  drink  to  the  church,  of  which,  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  services  and  after- the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  all  partook, 
the  poorest  not  excepted,  by  this  means  help- 
ing to  promote  the  principle  of  love  among 
Christians.  As  the  purity  of  the  church  de- 
clined and  ceremony  increased,  scandals 
arose  in  connection  with  these  feasts.  The 
council  of  Laodicea.  A.  D.  320,  and  that  of 
Carthage,  A.  d.  397,  forbade  them  to  be  held 
in  churches;  so  did  the  council  of  Orleans, 
A.  T>.  541,  that  of  Trullo  a.  d.  692,  and  that 
of  Aix-la-chapelle  a.  d.  816 ;  but  all  these 
councils  together  did  not  quite  succeed  in 
extinguishing  the  love  feasts'  excessive 
tenacity  of  life  in  the  western  church, 
while  in  the  Greek  church  they  still 
continue  to  exist.  Of  more  modern  reli- 
gious denominations,  love  feasts  were  revived 
by  the  Moravians.  John  Wesley  introduced 
them  into  the  great  organization  which  he 
founded.  They  exist  also  among  the  San- 
demanians. 

Low'land  or  Sheph'e-lah  ;  variously  rend- 
ered in  A.  V.  by  the  vale,  the  valley,  the  low 
country,  the  plain. 

The  region  of  low  hills  between  the  plain 


Lubim 


459 


Luke 


of  Philistia  and  the  high  central  range  of 
Palestine.  It  is  descnued  by  Eusebius  (in 
his  Onomasthon  under  Heplichij  as  "all  the  low 
country  about  Eleutheropolis  [the  modern 
Beit  JibriuJ  toward  the  north  and  west :  " 
but  in  O.  T.  times  the  term  comijreheuded 
the  low,  hilly  country  lying  to  the  east  and 
south  as  well.  The  hills  rise  to  a  height  of 
from  5U()  to  bUO  feet,  with  a  few  higher  sum- 
mits. On  their  slopes  the  olive  flourishes. 
The  district  is  separated  from  the  central 
Judffian  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  which 
run  north  and  south  from  Aijalon  to  near 
Beer-sheba  ;  and  it  is  itself  cut  by  several 
wide,  fertile  valleys  which  lead  from  the 
Judaian  ridge  to  the  sea.  It  was  assigned,  as 
l)art  of  their  inheritance,  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah  ;  and  when  they  found  that  they  had 
too  nuuh  territory,  a  .small  portion  of  it  in 
the  north  was  allotted  to  Dan  (Josh.  xv.  33 
seq.  ;  six.  40  seq. ).  It  included  such  notable 
places  as  Adullam,  Beth-shemesh,  Gezcr,  Eg- 
lon,  Lachish,  and  part  of  the  valleys  of 
Aijalon,  Sorek,  and  Elah  (33  seq. ;  1  Sam. 
xvii.  1,2;  2  Chrou.  xxviii.  18). 

Lu'bim. 

An  African  people  from  whom  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  drew  part  of  his  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Palestine  (2  Chron.  xii.  3 ;  xvi. 
8;  c]).  Dan.  xi.  43;  Nah.  iii.  9),  doubtless  the 
primitive  Libj'ans. 

Lu'cas.     See  Luke. 

Lu'ei-fer  [the  light  bearer  or  bringer]. 

Tlic  jilanet  Venus,  as  the  morning  star. 
With  the  exception  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
Venus  is  the  brightest  object  in  the  sky. 
It  ai)pears  as  a  morning  or  an  evening 
star  according  as  it  is  west  or  east  of  the 
sun,  returning  to  the  same  position  about 
every  nineteen  months.  As  the  former, 
Venus  is  the  harbinger  of  daylight.  The 
prophet  likened  the  splendor  of  the  king  of 
Babyliin  to  I>ncifer.  son  of  the  mnniing  /  ^c; 
xiv.  12 ;  in  E.  V.  day-star),  and  Jesus  calls 
himself  the  bright,  the  morning  star  (Rev. 
xxii.  16;  cp.  2  Pet.  i.  19).  The  application 
of  the  name  Lucifer  to  Satan,  the  rebel  angel 
hurled  from  lieaven.  has  existed  since  the 
third  century,  especially  among  poets.  It  is 
based  on  the  erroneous  supposition  that 
Luke  X.  18  is  an  explanation  of  Is.  xiv.  12. 

Lu'ci-a3. 

1.  A  Roman  official  who  in  the  year  174  of 
the  Seleucidan  era,  139-8  B.  c,  issued  letters 
in  favor  of  tlie  Jews  to  various  kings  subject 
to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  16).  He  is  entitled  a 
consul,  which  identifies  him  with  Lucius 
Calpurnins  Piso,  one  of  tlie  consuls  for  the 
year  139  b.  c.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
iie  was  the  prjetor  Lucius  Valerius  who  con- 
ducted the  proceedings  in  the  Roman  senate 
which  led  to  tlieir  making  a  league  of 
friendship  with  the  Jews,  to  the  issuance  of 
the  aforementioned  letters,  and  in  the  days 
of  Hyrcauus  II.  to  action  favorable  to  the 
Jews  (Antiq.  xiv.  8,  ii). 


2.  A  Cliristian  from  Cyrene,  who  was  a 
teacher  in  the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii. 
1).  He  is  commonly  su])])osed  to  have  been 
the  kinsman  of  Paul,  ^^lloat  Corinth  joined 
with  the  ai)osile  in  sending  salutations  to  the 
brethren  at  Rome  (Rom.  xvi.  21). 

Lud. 

1.  A  peo])le  classed  among  the  Semites 
(Gen.  X.  22)  ;  believed  to  be  the  Lydians 
(Antiq.  i.  (j,  4  ;  comjiareorder  of  enumeration 
in  Gen.),  occupying,  however,  a  wider  terri- 
tory than  Lydia  in  western  Asia  Minor.  It 
is  not  clear  in  what  manner  the  Lydians 
were  related  to  the  Semites,  wlietlier  by 
blood  or  by  conquest.  According  to  Herocl- 
otus  (i.  7),  their  first  king  was  a  son  of 
Niuus  and  grandson  of  Belus,  that  is,  he  was 
descended  from  the  Assyrians. 

2.  A  peo]de  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  13),  also  the  country  which  they  inhabited. 
They  are  mentioned  as  bowmen  in  the 
armies  of  Egypt  and  Tyre  (Jer.  xlvi.  9  , 
Ezek.  xxvii.  10  ;  xxx.  5).  Libyans  is  too 
broad  a  translation  (Jer.  xlvi.  9,  A.  V.)  ; 
though  the  Ludim  are  doubtless  to  be  sought 
in  northern  Africa,  we.st  of  the  Nile. 

Lu'dim  [plural  of  Lud] ;  see  Lud  2. 

Lu'Mth  [perhai)S,  made  of  planks]. 

A  ]\Ioabite  town  approached  by  an  ascent 
(Is.  XV.  5 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  5) :  according  to  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome,  Loueitha,  between  Are- 
oi)olis,  that  is  Rabbath  Moab,  and  Zoar. 

Luke,  in  A.  V.  once  Lucas  (Philem.  24) 
[N.  T.  Greek  Xo?(/.«.y,  probably  an  abbrevi- 
ation of  Latin  Lncmiun  or  perhaps  LnciUuf^]. 

A  friend  and  companion  of  St.  Paul,  who 
joined  liim  in  sending  fnmi  Rome  salutations 
to  the  t'olossian  church  (Col.  iv.  14)  and  to 
Philemon  (Philem.  24).  In  the  former  ])lace 
he  is  described  as  "the  beloved  physician" 
and  in  the  latter  place  as  one  of  the  apos- 
tle's fellow-laborers.  He  was  also  with 
Paul  in  Rome  at  a  later  time  when  2  Timothy 
was  written  (2  Tim.  iv.  11),  and  then  the 
apostle  gives  a  touching  tribute  to  his  friend's 
fidelity  in  the  words  "Only  Luke  is  with 
me."  These  are  all  the  notices  of  Luke  by 
name  in  the  N.  T..  for  he  u'.ust  not  be  iden- 
tified with  the  Lucius  of  Acts  xiii.  I  nor 
with  the  one  mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  21 ; 
see  Lucius.  We  find,  however,  in  the  sec- 
ond century  the  tradition  already  estab- 
lished that  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Third 
Gospel  and  of  The  Acts,  both  of  which  were 
certainly  written  by  the  same  hand  (Acts  i. 
1).  Accordingly  we  may  learn  more  of  him 
from  The  Acts!  in  which  he  intimates  his 
presence  vdth  Paul  during  certain  portions 
of  the  latter's  missionary  journeys  by  the 
use  of  "we"  or  "us"  in  the  narrative  (Acts 
xvi.  10-17;  XX.  5-xxi.  IH ;  xxvii.  1-xxviii 
16).  From  these  passages  it  appears  that 
Luke  joined  Paul  on  the  second  missionary 
journey  at  Troas  and  went  with  him  to 
Philippi.  Again  on  tlie  third  journey  Luke 
rejoined   the  apostle  at  Philippi   and   went 


Luke 


460 


Luke 


with  him  to  Jerusalem.  He  appears  to  have 
remained  in  Palestine  durin.i,'  the  two  years 
in  wliich  Paul  was  imprisoutd  at  Ctesarea, 
for  he  sailed  with  theajiostle  truiu  Ca'sarea  to 
Konie ;  see  Acts.  In  Col.  iv.  14  Luke  is 
plainly  distiiiguished  from  Paul's  Jewish 
con.])anions  (c-p.  ver.  11).  He  was  therefore 
a  gentile.  Early  tradition  made  him  a 
native  of  Antiocli  in  Syria,  and  this  is  quite 
probable.  At  any  rate,  his  interest  in  and 
familiarity  with  the  church  of  Antioch  is 
evident  (Acts  vi.  5  ;  xi.  19-27  ;  siii.  1-3  ;  xiv. 
26-28 ;  XV.  1,  2,  30-40  ;  xviii.  22,  2.3).  Ramsay, 
however,  considers  him  a  Philippian  {St. 
Paid  the  Tnirein;  p.  202).  The  time  and 
maniun'  of  his  death  are  unknown. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Luke  is  the 
Third  Gospel  according  to  the  order  of  the 
books  of  the  N.  T.  as  usually  arranged.  It 
is  addressed  to  a  certain  Theopliilus,  pn(l)ably 
a  gentile  Christian  ;  claims  to  be  Ijased  upon 
careful  investigation  of  the  apostolic  testi- 
mony ;  and  was  intended  to  furnish  The- 
ophiius,  as  well  as  other  readers,  with  assured 
knowledge  of  the  truth  in  which  he  had 
been  instructed.  Its  material  is  doubtless 
derived  both  from  earlier  documents  and 
from  information  obtained  by  Luke  person- 
ally from  the  actors  in  the  history.  The 
narrative  may  be  divided  as  follows:  1.  In- 
troductory verses  (i.  1-4).  2.  The  immediate 
preparation  for  the  appearance  of  Jesus,  con- 
sisting of  the  annunciations  and  births  of 
Job II  the  Ba])tist  and  Jesus,  with  some  sig- 
niticaut  events  from  the  hitter's  infancy  and 
boyhood  (i.o-ii.  52).  3.  The  inauguration  of 
Christ's  ministry,  including  («)  the  ministry 
of  John  the  Baptist,  (b)  the  baptism  of  Jesus, 
to  which  is  aiiiiended  his  genealogy,  and  (c) 
tlie  temi.tationof  Jesus(iii.  1-iv.  13)".  4.  The 
Lord's  ministry  in  Galilee  (iv.  14-ix.  50).  In 
this  part  of  his  Gospel  Luke  often  follows 
the  same  order  as  Mark,  but  not  always.  He 
also  introduces  more  of  tlie  teaching  of  Jesus 
tlian  Mark  does,  iu  this  often  corresponding, 
witli  Matthew.  He  is,  however,  independent 
of  both  Mark  and  Matthew  even  where  he 
covers  the  same  ground.  [Many  students  of 
this  (Josiu'l,  while  agreeing  that  he  made  no 
use  of  Mattliew's  (;os])il,  Init  that  each  of 
these  evangelists  drew  independently  from 
a  common  source  for  the  teachings  of  Jesus, 
yet  believe  that  he  used  Mark's  Gospel, 
or  a  luirrative  underlying  Mark's  Gospel 
and  recounting  the  events  of  Jesus'  min- 
istry, and  made  its  order  of  incidents  his 
standard,  altliough  occasionally  seeing  fit 
to  dejiart  from  it  (J.  D.  D.).]  Luke,  more- 
over, lias  some  material  peculiar  to  him- 
self in  these  chapters.  The  foUoYiing 
analysis  will  bring  out  the  i)rogress  of  this 
j)ortion  of  his  narrative:  (« I  Introductory 
(lescri])tion  (iv.  14,  15).  (b)  Opening  of  the 
Galihean  work,  including  the  first  visit  to 
N;iznreth,  miracles  in  Caiiernaum  and  tour 
througli  Galilee,  the  call  of  four  disciples 
and  the  healing  of  the  leper  (iv.  l(j-v.  Ki). 


Ic)  Ei.se  of  opposition,  in  the  face  of  which 
Christ  vindicated  his  teaching,  including  the 
cure  of  the  paralytic.  Levi's  call  and  feast, 
discourse  about  fasting,  and  the  Sabbath  con- 
troversy (v.  17-vi.  12).  (d)  Organization  of 
the  disciples,  including  the  aijpointment  of 
the  twelve  and  Christ's  discourse  on  the 
characteristics  of  true  discipleshij)  (sermon 
on  the  mount)  (vi.  13-49).  (e)  Incidents 
illustrative  of  the  gracious  ministry  of  Jesus, 
including  the  healing  of  the  centurion's  ser- 
vant, the  raising  of  the  widow  of  Nain's  son, 
the  inquiry  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  Christ's 
reply  and  discourse  concerning  John,  the 
anointing  of  Je^us  by  a  sinful  woman  ( vii.  1- 
50).  (/)  The  extension  of  Christ's  work,  in- 
cluding his  tours  through  Galilee  with  a  com- 
pany of  disciples;  his  teaching  by  parables; 
the  visit  of  his  mother  and  brethren  ;  the  four 
great  miracles  of  stilling  the  tempest,  healing 
the  Gadarene  demoniac,  and  the  wtauan  with 
I  the  issue  of  blood,  and  raising  Jairus'  daugh- 
I  ter;  the  sending  out  of  the  a]iost!es;  Herod's 
I  desire  to  see  Jesus  and  the  hitter's  siibsecjuent 
I  retirement,  followed  by  the  feeding  of  the 
!  5000(viii.  1-ix.  17).  (f/)  Christ's  instructions 
to  his  disciples  in  view  of  the  close  of  the 
Galilffian  ministry  and  his  coming  denth,  in- 
cluding Peter's  confession,  Christ's  prediction 
of  his  death  and  resurrection,  the  transtigu- 
ration  and  the  cui'e  of  the  demoniac  bo.A',  warn- 
ings against  pride  (ix.  18-50).  5.  The  jour- 
neyiugs  of  Jesus  to  Jerusalem  (ix.  51-xix. 
48).  This  part  of  Luke  contains  a  large 
amount  of  material  peculiar  to  him.  It  is 
probably  not  arranged  in  exact  chronological 
order,  but  rather  in  accordance  with  certain 
topics.  Some  of  the  material  given  here 
really  belongs  in  the  Galilisan  ministry  (ix. 
57-60;  xiii.  18-21;  i)robably  xi.  14-xiii.  5). 
But  the  section  describes  in  the  main  a  series 
of  journeys  toward  Jerusalem,  ending  in  the 
final  ascent,  with  discourses  appropriate  to 
the  situation.  It  may  be  subdivided  as  fol- 
lows: (<i)  The  departure  from  Galilee  and  in- 
structions concerning  the  true  spirit  of  dis- 
ciples, including  Christ's  rejection  by  a  Sa- 
maritan village,  his  replies  to  three  inquirers, 
the  mission  of  the  seventy,  and  their  return, 
the  lawyer's  question  and  the  parable  of  the 
good  Samaritan,  Christ  in  the  house  of 
Martha  and  Mary,  instructions  about  ju-ayer 
(ix.  51-xi.  13).  (6)  Denunciation  of  "the 
Pharisees  and  instructions  concerning  the 
duty  of  confessing  him,  against  covetousness, 
and  concerning  watchfulness,  etc.  (xi.  14- 
xiii.  5).  ((■)  Discour.ses  illustrative  of  the 
true  Israel  and  of  the  true  service ;  the 
former  including  the  parable  of  the  barren 
fig  tree,  the  woman  with  the  spirit  of  in- 
firmity, the  parables  of  the  mustiird  seed 
and  leaven,  the  WMrning  against  self-decep- 
tion and  the  lamentation  over  .Jerusalem  ; 
the  latter  including  the  healing  of  the  drop- 
sical man,  and  the  beautiful  parables  of  the 
wedding  feast,  the  great  supper,  the  lost 
shee]),  the  lo.st,  coin,  the  lost  son,  the  unjust 


Luke 


461 


Lunatic 


steward,  the  rich  iiiaD  and  Lazarus,  the  im- 
portunate widow,  interspersed  with  incidents 
and  teachings  on  the  same  general  subject 
(xiii.  6-xviii.  30).  id)  The  final  ascent  to 
Jerusalem,  including  a  renewed  prediction 
of  death  and  resurrection,  the  healing  of 
BartimiEUs,  the  conversion  of  Zacch?eus,  the 
parable  of  the  pounds,  and  the  trium])hal 
entry  (xviii.  31-xix.  4S).  6.  The  last  week 
in  Jerusalem,  including  the  final  teachings 
of  Jesus  in  the  temple  and  to  his  disciples, 
his  arrest,  trials,  crucifixion,  and  burial 
(xx.-sxiii.  5(i).  7.  Appearances  of  Jesus 
after  his  resurrection,  his  last  directions  to 
his  disciples  to  preach  his  gosi)el,  and  his 
final  departure  (ascension)  from  them  (xxiv.)- 
St.  Luke  states  (i.  3)  that  his  narrative  is 
written  "in  order."  This  use  of  this  phrase 
elsewhere  (Acts  xi.  4  ;  xviii.  23  ;  and  Greek 
text  of  Luke  viii.  1  and  Acts  iii.  24) 
shows  that  he  does  not  necessarily  mean 
exact  chronological  order.  While  chrono- 
logical in  general  outline,  his  arrangement  is 
often  topical.  The  book,  however,  is,  like  The 
Acts,  a  careful  and  systematic  presentation 
of  the  life  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity. 
Luke  also  expressly  disclaims  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  Jesus,  and  bases  his  work 
on  the  testimony  of  eyewitnesses  (apostles) 
whose  reports  he  had  accurately  studied. 
His  Gos])el  shows  a  truly  historical  spirit. 
This  appears  e.  g.  in  the  personal  account  of  the 
origin  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus,  in 
his  dating  by  secular  events  the  birth  of 
Jesus  and  the  public  appearance  of  John 
(ii.  1,  2 ;  iii.  1,  2),  and  his  presentation  of  the 
ministry  of  Christ  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
bring  out  its  leading  religious  ideas,  its  tri- 
umph over  opposition,  and  the  historical 
foundation  which  it  laid  for  Christianity  (see 
the  analysis  above).  It  shows  also  the  evan- 
gelist's fondness  for  those  asi)ects  of  the 
Lord's  teaching  and  Avork,  whereby  he  re- 
vealed himself  as  the  divine-lunnan  Saviour 
of  men.  Christ's  gospel  is  here  described 
as  universal  in  its  mission  (ii.  32  ;  iii.  (i ;  iv. 
24-27;  xxiv.  47,  etc.),  a  gospel  for  the  lost 
and  the  lowly  (vii.  36-50;  xv. ;  xix.  1-9,  etc.), 
a  message  of  salvation  to  the  poor  and  dis- 
tressed (vi.  20-26;  vii.  11-18;  ix.  ,56;  xii.  32, 
etc. ).  It  delineates  the  graciousness  of  Christ's 
personal  character — his  piety,  com])assion, 
charity,  prayerfulness,  holiness,  tenderness. 
In  recording  the  Lord's  utterances  about  the 
rich,  Luke  uses  more  unciualified  language 
than  the  other  evangelists  do  (i.  52,  53;  vi. 
24,  25;  xvi.  25,  etc.),  though  he  also  makes  it 
clear  that  he  did  not  understand  Christ  to 
denounce  rich  men  as  such,  but  only  so  far 
as  they  put  trust  in  riches  and  were  not  rich 
toward  God  (xii.  21).  In  what  he  reports 
about  Samaritans  also  (x.  33  ;  xvii.  16)  he 
doubtless  wished  to  illustrate  the  destruction 
of  national  prejudices  by  the  gospel.  In 
short  this  Gospel  presents  Christ  as  establish- 
ing a  religion  whfch  seeks  to  uplift  and  save 
suffering  and  sinful  humanity.    The  writer's 


medical  vocabulary  also  occasionally  appears 
and  confirms  tiie  belief  that  he  was  Luke. 
See  iv.  35,  "  when  the  devil  had  fhroirii  him  ;  " 
iv.  38,  "holden  with  a  (ireiit  fever;"  v.  18, 
"  taken  wifh  a  palsy  ; "  vi.  19,  "  Iieiiled  them  ;  " 
viii.  44,  "  the  issue  of  her  blood  sianclied ;  " 
X.  34,  '^bomid  vp  his  wounds,  jionrimi  hi  oil 
and  wine  "  (see  Hobart,  Medical  Lanqnuiie  of 
St.  lAile). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  this  Gospel 
depends  on  that  of  The  Acts.  1  Tim.  v.  18, 
however,  seems  to  contain  a  quf>tatioii  triiiu 
it.  If  so,  it  was  certainly  written  before 
A.  D.  66.  At  any  rate,  I^uke's  report  of 
Christ's  prediction  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  is 
not,  as  some  hold,  a  sufficimit  ground  for 
dating  this  Gospel  after  that  event ;  since 
Luke's  language  is  only  an  interpretation  ol' 
Christ's  words,  designed  to  make  their  mean- 
ing plain  to  gentile  readers  (Luke  xxi.  20; 
cp.  Mat.  xxiv.  15 ;  Mark  xiii.  14),  and  since  the 
Christians,  on  the  basis  of  Christ's  prophecy, 
M^ere  looking  forward  to  the  destruction  of  the 
city,  as  is  proven  by  Mark's  report  andotlier 
evidence.  It  may  have  been  composed  during 
the  two  years  (58-60)  during  which  Lnke  was 
in  Palestine  while  Paul  was  imprisoned  in 
Cajsarea.  Or  the  materials  .may  then  have 
been  gathered  and  the  book  written  after- 
wards in  Kome.  It  is  best  to  assign  it,  some- 
what vaguely,  to  the  years  58-65.  The  author 
apparently  intended  it  to  be  the  fir.'rt  of  a 
series  of  works  on  the  origin  of  Christianity, 
for  the  preface  evidently  contemi)lated  the 
work  of  the  apostles  as  well  as  the  life  of 
Christ  (i.  1,  2),  and  the  brevity  of  the  reiiort 
of  Christ's  jiarting  instructions  in  the  last 
chapter  was  probably  due  to  the  author's  in- 
tention to  resume  the  subject  as  he  does  in 
the  first  chapter  of  The  Acts.  There  is  abun- 
dant evidence  for  its  use  in  the  churches  of 
the  second  century  as  an  authoritative  gospel ; 
see  Gospel.  It  was  mutilated  and  then 
used  by  the  Gnostic  Marcion,  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  second  century,  as  the  (Jiily 
true  gospel,  which  at  least  shows  its  authority 
before  that  time.  The  first  formal  mention 
of  Luke  as  its  author,  so  far  as  our  extant 
literature  shows,  occurs  about  A.  D.  170  (in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment),  but  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  tradition  had  been  long  es- 
tablished and  rested  on  good  grounds. 

G.  T.  P.  (edited). 

Lu'na-tic  [insane,  with  lucid  intervals]. 

The  Greek  word  is  derived  from  ael'nie, 
moon,  as  the  English  word  is  from  the  Latin 
lunu,  moon,  for  it  was  believed  that  the  dis- 
ease is  affected  by  the  light  or  by  the  periodic 
changes  of  the  moon.  I^unacy  is  distinguished 
from  demoniacal  possession  (Mat.  iv.  24),  for 
it  was  often  due  to  other  causes.  Yet  posses- 
sion by  a  demon  might  give  rise  to  lunacy 
(Mat.  xvii.  15  with  Mark  ix.  17).  A  com- 
parison of  these  tMo  ]>assages  has  led  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Greek  word  denotes  epilep.sy. 
Hence  K.  V.  uses  epileptic  instead  of  lunatic. 


Lute 


46'J 


Lysanias 


Lute.     See  Psaltery. 
Luz  [aljiiond  tree]. 

1.  A  Ciuiaanite  town,  aftorwards  Bethel 
(Gen.  xxviii.  19;  xsxv.  6;  xlviii.  3;  Josh, 
xviii.  1.3;  Judg.  i.  23).  In  Josh.  xvi.  2  it  is 
distinjjiiished  from  Bethel  and  located  to  the 
west.     See  Bethel. 

2.  A  town  in  the  Hittite  country,  built  by 
an  inliabitant  of  Luz  in  mount  Ephraim,  who 
betrayed  that  town  to  the  Israelites  and  was 
aUowed  liy  them  to  depart  with  his  family 
uninjured  (Judg.  i.  22-26).  Site  unknown. 
About  12  miles  southeast  by  east  of  Sidon  is 
the  town  Luezeh,  and  4h  miles  west  by  north 
of  Banias  is  the  ruin  Luweiziych. 

Lyc-a-o'ni-a  [popularly  interpreted  as  per- 
taining to  king  Lycaon  or  abounding  in  were- 
wolves]. 

An  elevated,  rugged,  inland  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Gala- 
tia,  on  the  south  by  Cilicia  and  Isauria,  on 
the  ea.st  by  Cappadooia,  and  on  the  west  by 
Phrygia.  It  was  mainly  suitable  for  pastur- 
age only.  Its  peculiar  dialect,  probably 
mingled  Greek  and  Syriac,  was  still  spoken 
when  Paul  visited  the  district  aud  preached 
in  three  of  its  cities,  Icouium,  Derbe,  and 
Ly.stra  (Acts  xiii.  51-xiv.  23,  especially  11). 

Ly'ci-a  [explained  as  pertaining  to  Lycus, 
son  of  Pandion  (Herod  i.  173)]. 

A  province  of  Asia  Minor,  jutting  south- 
ward into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  aud 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Garia,  Phrygia, 
Pisidia,  and  Pamphylia.  Paul  on  his  last 
voyage  to  Jerusalem  passed  Ehodes,  an  island 
ofl'  its  western  coast,  aud  landed  at  Patara, 
within  its  limits,  where  he  took  ship  for 
Plicenicia  (Acts  xxi.  1,  2).  On  his  voyage  to 
Rome  he  landed  at  Myra,  another  city  of 
Lycia,  whence  he  sailed  in  an  Alexandrian 
vessel  bound  for  Italy  (xxvii.  5,  6). 

Lyd'da. 

A  village  of  considerable  size  near  Joppa 
(Acts  ix.  38  ;  Antiq.  xx.  6,  2),  probably  the 
town  called  Lod  in  the  O.  T.  The  gospel 
early  took  root  in  it  (Acts  ix.  32).  Shortly 
before  ir)3  B.  c.  the  town  with  the  district 
about  it  formed  a  distinct  government  in 
connection  with  Samaria,  but  in  143  B.  c.  it 
was  transferred  to  Judaea  (1  Mac.  xi.  34  ;  cp. 
2rf;  X.  30,  38).  Peter  visited  it,  and  his  cure 
of  .Eneas  through  the  name  of  Jesus  re- 
sulted in  a  large  increase  of  disciples  (Actsix. 
33-.T>).  It  was  buimt  by  Gestins  in  the  time 
of  Xero,  but  was  soon  rebuilt  (War  ii.  19,  1). 
See  Lf)i). 

Lyd'i-a  [nominally  from  Ludos,  its  reputed 
foiiudcr  (  Herod  i.  7)]. 

I.  A  region  on  (he  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  with  Sardis  for  its  capital.  Tliyatira 
and  Philadelphia  were  within  its  limits.  It 
was  very  fertile  and  had  a  mild  climate,  aiul 
conse(iiU!ntly  it  was  densely  ])oiMilated.  The 
customs  of  its  iiihal)il:ints  were  Semitic  in 
character,  and   their  religion  was  ai)parently 


a  mingling  of  Syrian  and  Phrygian  worship 
(Dunc.ver).  The  state  rose  to  power  about 
689  B.  c,  under  Gyges,  when  the  (Jreeks  on 
the  coast  and  the  tribes  of  Asia  Minor  were 
subdued.  In  549  B.  c.  Grcesus,  the  last  king, 
was  defeated  by  Gyrus,  and  Lydia  became  a 
Persian  provin(;e.  It  never  regained  inde- 
pendence. Antiochus  III.,  of  Syria,  was 
forced  to  cede  it  to  the  Romans  (cp.  1  Mac. 
viii.  8).  Many  Jews  dwelt  there  (Antiq.  xii. 
3,  4),  and  Ghristian  churches  were  founded 
(Rev.  i.  11). 

2.  A  woman  of  Thyatira,  a  town  of  Lydia, 
though  it  is  not  known  whether  this  was  the 
origin  of  her  name.  Thyatira  was  noted  for 
its  dyeing,  and  Lydia  made  her  living  in 
Philippi,  to  which  she  had  removed,  by  sell- 
ing purple  dyes  or  dyed  goods.  She  was  a 
worshiper  of  God  before  Paul  arrived  at 
Philippi.  She  received  the  gospel  of  Christ 
gladly,  and,  though  by  birth  an  Asiatic,  be- 
came Paul's  first  convert  in  Macedonia  and 
Europe.  At  her  urgent  invitation  Paul  and 
his  missionary  associates  took  up  their  abode 
with  her  ;  and  when  Paul  aud  Silas  were 
released  from  prison,  to  which  they  had  been 
C(msigned  after  a  riot  of  which  they  were  the 
innocent  cause,  they  returned  to  her  house 
(Acts  xvi.  14,  1.5,  40). 

Ly-sa'ni-as  [ending  sadness]. 

A  tetrarch  of  Abilene  in  the  fifteenth  year 
of  Tiberius  (Luke  iii.  1).  Some  caitics  have 
thought  that  Lysanias,  son  of  Ptolemy,  who 
ruled  Ghalcis  in  Gcelesyria  during  the  years 
40  to  34  B.  c.  (Antiq.  'xiv.  13,  3 ;  xv.  4,  1), 
gave  name  to  this  tetrarchy,  aud  that  Luke 
is  in  error.  But  the  highest  authorities  ex- 
plain the  facts  in  a  very  ditFerent  manner. 
Lysanias  who  ruled  Ghalcis  is  never  called 
tetrarch,  and  Abila  nowhere  appears  in  his 
dominions.  From  Antiq.  xv.  10,  1-3,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  house  or  territory  of  Lysanias 
was  liired  by  Zenodorus  about  25  b.  c,  be- 
cauie  known  as  the  country  of  Zenodorus, 
lay  between  Trachonitis  and  Galilee,  chiefly 
about  Paneas  and  Ulatha,  and  hence  appar- 
ently did  not  include  Ghalcis  in  Gcelesyria, 
and  strictly  speaking  was  distinct  from  Ba- 
tanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis.  These 
districts  were  bestowed  on  Herod  the  Great 
and  passed  to  his  sou  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
Augustus  confirming  to  him  Batanea,  Tra- 
chonitis, Auranitis,  and  part  of  the  house  of 
Zenodorus  (xvii.  11,  '1]  which  included  Paneas 
(8, 1).  In  A.  D.  37  the  emi>eror  Galigula  made 
Herod  Agrippa  king  of  the  tetrarchy  of 
Philip  aud  added  the  tetrarchv  of  Lysanias 
(xviii.  6,  10).  This  latter  tetrarchy  had  its 
cai)ital  at  Abila,  some  eighteen  miles  north- 
west of  Damascus,  and  was  distinct  from  the 
kingdom  of  Ghalcis  (xix.  .5.  1  ;  xx.  7,  1 ;  War 
ii.  11,  5).  In  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Tibe- 
rius the  region  about  Abila  was  ruled  by  a 
tetrarch  named  Lysanias  (see  Abilene),  in 
exact  agreement  with  Luke's  statement. 
Altlmugh  far  north,  it  may  have  been  the  re- 


Lysias 


463 


Maasai 


mainiiig  part  of  the  country  of  Zenodorus, 
which  after  his  deatli  aiul  the  division  of  his 
hmd,  as  before  mentioned,  liad  been  formed 
into  a  tetrarchy  or  kingdom  under  a  younger 
Lysanias,  perhaps  of  the  same  line  as  the 
former  ruler  of  Chalcis. 

Ly'si-as. 

1.  A  general  of  the  army  of  Syria  during 
the  reigns  of  Antiochus  Ei)ii)hanes  and  An- 
tiochus  Eupator.  When  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
went  to  Persia  about  165  B.  c,  he  appointed 
Lysias,  who  was  of  royal  blood,  viceroy  dur- 
ing his  absence,  with  the  duty  of  quelling 
the  Jewish  insurrection  under  the  Maccabees 
(1  Mac.  iii.  32-37).  After  operating  through 
others,  Lysias  found  it  necessary  to  take  the 
field  himself ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  Judas 
with  great  loss  (38-40  ;  iv.  1-22. 28-.35).  Wlien 
the  news  of  Antiochus'  death  arrived  in  163 
B.  c,  Lysias  seized  the  reins  of  government 
and  ruled  in  the  name  of  the  young  Antio- 
chus, although  the  late  king  had  named 
Philip  for  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
heir  to  the  throne  (vi.  14-17).  In  this  capacity 
Lysias  undertook  another  campaign  against 
the  Jews.  He  gained  a  victory  over  Judas 
and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem ;  but  the  news 
that  Philip  was  on  his  way  from  Persia  to 
claim  the  regency,  compelled  him  to  make 
terms  of  peace  with  the  Jews  and  return  to 
Antioch  (vi.  28-63).  He  maintained  himself 
successfully  against  Philip,  but  was  put  to 
death  in  162  B.  c.  by  Demetrius  I.  (vii.  1-4). 

2.  Roman  commandant  at  Jerusalem,  who 
rescued  Paul  from  the  mob  of  Jews  (Acts 
xxii.  24).    See  Claudius  Lysias. 

Lys'tra. 

A  city  of  Lycaouia  and  a  Roman  colony, 
where  Paul  cured  a  man  crippled  from  l)irth, 
and  would  have  been  worshiped  as  a  god  had 
he  not  refused.  It  was  there  also  that  he 
was  stoned  and  left  for  dead  (Acts  xiv.  6-21 ; 
2  Tim.  iii.  11 ).  Either  at  Lystra  or  Derbe  he 
first  met  Timothy  (Acts  xv'i.  1,  2).  The  site 
is  Zoldera,  one  mile  north  of  Khatyn  Serai 
and  twenty-two  miles  south-southwest  oi' 
Icouium. 


M. 


Ma'a-cah,  in  A.  V.  often  Maachah,  and  in 
R.  V.  of  Josh.  xiii.  13  Maacath,  the  archaic 
(Canaanite)  spelling  [compression,  oppres- 
sion]. 

1.  A  place  in  Syria  (2  Sam.  x.  6,  8),  some- 
times called  Aram-maacah  or  Syria-maachah 
(1  Chron.  xix.  6,  7)  ;  see  Aram  2  (4).  Its 
inhabitants  were  descended  from  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxii.  24). 

2.  Wife  of  Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh  (1 
Chron.  vii.  15.  KJ). 

3.  A  concubine  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron 
(1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

4.  Wife  of  Jehiel  and  ancestress  of  king 
Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  20  ;  ix.  3.5). 


5.  Dausrhter  of  Talmai.  king  of  Oeshur. 
She  became  one  of  David's  wives  and  motiier 
of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  iii.  3). 

6.  Father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

7.  Father  of  the  ruler  of  the  Simeonites  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  16). 

8.  Father  of  Solomon's  royal  contemporary 
Achish  of  Gath   (1   Kin.  ii.  39)  ;  see  AcHlsH. 

9.  Wife  of  Rehoboam,  aTul  daughter,  or  in 
view  of  2  Chron.  xiii.  2  perhaps,  the  grand- 
daughter, of  Absalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2  ;  2  Chron. 
xi.  20-22),  and  mother  of  king  Abijah.  After 
the  death  of  the  latter,  she  remained  queen- 
mother  {(I'birah)  ;  but  her  grandson  Asa  took 
this  position  from  her  because  she  had  made 
an  abominable  image  for  an  Asherah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  16  R.  v.).  She  is  called  Michaiah  in  2 
Chron.  xiii.  2  ;  but  this  is  probably  a  textual 
corruption,  for  in  the  seven  other  places 
where  her  name  occurs  it  is  Maacah. 

Ma-ac'a-thite  in  A.  Y.  Maachathite,  but 
in  Dent.  iii.  14  Maachathi,  the  Hebrew  form 
instead  of  the  English. 

A  descendant  of  a  person  named  Maacah, 
or  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  the  Syrian  king- 
dom of  Maacah  or  of  the  town  of  Beth-maa- 
cah  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xii.  5  ;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34). 

Ma'a-chah.    See  Maacah. 

Ma-ach'a-tM.     See  Maacathite. 

Ma'a-dai  [jjcrhaps,  wavering]. 

A  sou  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Ma-a-di'ah  [ornament  of  Jehovah]. 

A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  5,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occupies  the  same  position 
in  the  corresponding  catalogue,  bears  the 
name  Moadiah  (ver.  17).  The  reason  for  this 
traditional  variation  is  not  yet  clear.  Per- 
haps the  name  should  always  be  pronounced 
Moadiah. 

Ma'ai. 

A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  second  temple  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Ma'a-leh-a-crab'bim.    See  Akrabbim. 

Ma'a-ratb  [a  place  bare  of  trees]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  59),  doubtless  north  of  Hebron  and  near 
Halhul. 

Ma'a-reh-ge'ba  [place  destitute  of  trees 
at  Geba]. 

A  place  adjacent  to  Geba  (Judg.  xx.  33, 
E.  v.).  On  the  margin  it  is  translated  the 
meadow  of  Geba  or  Gibeah  ;  in  the  text  of 
A.  v.,  the  meadows  of  (libeah. 

Ma'a-sai,  in  A.  V.  Ma-as'i-ai  [lerhaji-s. 
work  of  Jehovah]. 

A  priest  of  the  family  of  Immer  (1  Chron. 
ix.  12).  The  name  may  be  an  abbreviation  of 
Maaseiah  by  curtailment  or  possibly  another 
form  of  that  word  ;  or  perhaps  it  is  an  acci- 
dental transposition  of  the  letters  of  Amasai. 


Maaseiah 


464 


Maccabee 


Ma-a-sp'iah  [work  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
acted  as  porter  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18),  and  played  a  psaltery  (ver.  20). 

2.  One  of  the  captains  of  hundreds,  who 
co6]icrated  with  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  in 
overthrowing  Athaliah  and  placing  Joash  on 
the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

.'{.  An  officer  who  seems  to  have  acted  with 
Jciel  the  Levite  in  keeping  a  list  of  the  mili- 
tnrv  men  in   Uzziah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 

id: 

4.  A  prince  of  the  royal  house,  a  son  of 
Jotham  more  probablj'  than  of  Ahaz,  since 
the  latter  was  too  young  to  have  adult  chil- 
dren. He  was  slain  during  Pekah's  invasion 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

5.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

6.  Ancestor  of  Seraiah  and  Baruch  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  li.  59,  A.  V.).  The  name  is  radi- 
cally different  from  that  which  is  elsewhere 
represented  by  Maaseiah.     See  Mahseiah. 

7.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
(Jer.  xxix.  21). 

8.  A  priest,  father  of  the  temple  official 
Zephaniah  (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxix.  25). 

9.  Son  of  Shallum  and  doorkeeper  of  the 
tcmjile  (Jer.  xxxv.  4).  He  was  doubtless  a 
Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1).     See  Shallum. 

10.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah. 
He  lived  at  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  5). 

11.  A  Benjamite,  whose  descendants  lived 
at  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  7). 

12-15.  A  man  of  the  house  of  Pahath- 
moab  and  three  priests,  one  a  member  of  the 
hou.se  of  the  high  priest  Jeshua,  one  of  the 
house  of  Harim,  and  the  third  of  the  house 
of  Pashhur,  each  of  whom  i)ut  away  his  for- 
eign wife  (Ezra  x.  18,  21,  22,  30). 

1().  Father  of  that  Azariah  who  repaired 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  beside  his  house  (Neh. 
iii.  23J. 


17.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  signed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  25). 

18.  A  priest  who  marched  in  the  pro- 
cession at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  xii.  41),  perhaps  one  of  the  six 
who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law  to 
the  people  (viii.  4). 

19.  A  Levite,  probably,  who  marched  in 
the  procession  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
(Neh.  xii.  42),  perhaps  one  of  the  thirteen 
who  expounded  the  law  as  it  was  read  to  the 
peojile  (viii.  7). 

Mn,-as'i-ai.     See  Maasai. 
Ma'ath. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Ma'az  [anger]. 

A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

Ma-a-zi'ah  [consolation  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time 
of  David  and  was  made  the  last  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  the  priests 
were  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  18). 

2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  b). 

Mac'ca-toee.* 

A  family,  also  called  Asmonajan  from  one 
of  its  ancestors,  which  ruled  Judaea  from 
1()6  B.  c.  to  37  B.  c. ;  see  Asmon^an.  The 
title  Maccabseus,  in  A.  V.  Maccabeus,  was 
first  given  to  Judas,  third  son  of  Matta- 
thias  (1  Mac.  ii.  4),  but  at  an  early  date  it 
was  transferred  to  the  entire  family  and  to 
others  who  had  a  part  in  the  same  events. 
The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  term  have 
eluded  research.  It  is  usually  derived  from 
wajckubith,  a  hammer,  either  in  allusion  to" the 
cru.shing  blows  inflicted  by  Judas  and  his 
successors   upon    their  enemies,    or  perhaps 


*The  Maccab^an  Family. 
Mattathias. 


John. 


Simon, 
143-135. 


Judas, 
166-160. 


Eleazar. 


Jonathan, 
160-143. 


Judas. 


John  Hyrcanus, 
135-105. 


I 
Mattathias. 


Daughter. 


Aristobulus, 
104. 


Antigonus. 


Alexander  .Taunseus  married  Alexandra.       Son         Son 
104-78.  I  78-69. 


Hvvcnnus, 
(i:i-io. 


Aristobulus, 
69  6;^,. 


Alexandra  married  Alexander. 


Miinaniiu',  wiCr  of  \U-r<n]  the  Grea 


Antigonus, 
40-37. 


Aristobulus. 


Maccabee 


465 


Macedonia 


because  a  cap  worn  by  Judas  was  shaped  like 
a  haruiuer  at  its  top  point.  It  has  also 
been  explained  as  composed  of  the  initials 
of  the  Hebrew  words  in  the  sentence,  "Who 
is  like  to  thee  among  the  gods,  Jeh()vah  ?", 
or  in  the  sentence,  "  What  is  like  my 
father?",  or  as  being  the  Hebrew  word 
viakbi,  extinguisher.  None  of  these  inter- 
pretations is,  however,  more  than  a  ct.n- 
jecture.  The  first  of  the  family  nientionid 
is  Mattathias,  an  aged  priest,  who,  driven 
to  desperation  by  the  outrages  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  raised  a  revolt  against  him 
and  fled  to  the  mountains,  followed  by  those 
who  were  zealous  for  the  faith  of  Israel. 
Mattathias  died  about  two  years  afterwards, 
but  the  revolt  was  carried  on  by  his  five 
sons.  Judas,  the  third  son,  was  the  first 
military  leader,  166  B.  C.  By  avoiding 
pitched  battles,  and  harassing  the  Syrians  by 
vigorous  and  persistent  guerilla  warfare,  he 
and  his  devoted  band  defeated  and  routed 
evei'y  detachment  of  the  Syrian  army  sent 
against  them.  He  retook  Jerusalem,  purified 
the  temple,  and  restored  the  daily  sacrifice. 
A  feast  to  celebrate  this  restoration  was  in- 
stituted and  was  kept  annually  thereafter. 
This  was  the  winter  feast  of  dedication  al- 
luded to  in  John  x.  22.  Judas  fell  in  battle 
160  B.  c,  whereupon  his  younger  brother 
Jonathan,  who  was  already  high  priest,  as- 
sumed command  of  the  army.  About  this  time 
John  the  eldest  brother  was  captured  and 
killed  by  the  children  of  Jambri  (1  Mac.  xi. 
'M)  ;  and  shortly  before  this  another  brother, 
Eleazar,  had  been  crushed  to  death  under- 
neath an  elephant  which  he  had  wounded  in 
battle.  During  the  leadership  of  Jonathan 
the  Syrians  were  occupied  with  civil  war,  so 
that  not  only  was  JudsBa  left  in  peace,  but  the 
favor  of  the  Jews  was  sued  for,  and  Jonathan 
was  able  to  strengthen  his  position.  He 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Romans  and  also 
witli  the  Spartans.  He  was  treacherously 
slain  by  Tryphon,  a  Syrian  general,  in  143 
B.  c.  On  his  death  the  leadership  fell  to 
Simon,  the  last  remaining  son  of  Mattathias. 
The  most  important  event  that  fell  under 
his  rule  was  the  granting  of  Jewish  in- 
dependence by  the  Syrian  king  Demetrius 
II.  Coins  were  struck  bearing  the  name  of 
Simon,  and  contracts  were  dated  "  in  the 
first  year  of  Simon  high  priest  and  gover- 
nor." Simon  and  two  of  his  sous  were 
treacherously  slain  by  his  son-in-law  Ptol- 
emy, in  Dok  near  Jericho  135  b.  c.  The 
one  son  who  escaped,  John,  assumed  the 
power  and  was  known  as  John  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  a  shrewd  and  vigorous  ruler  and 
enlarged  his  province.  He  conquered  the 
Edomites  and  merged  them  in  the  Jewish 
people.  After  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  he 
died  a  natural  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Aristobulus,  a  cruel  and  unprincipled 
man  who  killed  his  mother  and  brother. 
He  changed  the  theocracy  into  a  kingdom, 
calling  himself  king,  but  retained  at  the 
30 


same  time  the  high-priesthood.  After  a 
reign  of  one  year  he  was  succeeded  by  a 
brother,  Alexander  Jannsens,  during  whose 
reign  the  country  was  torn  by  tin;  dissen- 
sions of  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees.  He 
had  a  troubled  reign  of  27  years,  and  was 
followed  by  his  widow  Alexandra,  who 
reigned  for  9  years.  She  left  two  sons,  Hyr- 
canus and  Aristobulus,  who  quarreled  about 
the  succession.  Hyrcanus  was  established  as 
high  priest  while  Aristobulus  seized  the  civil 
authority.  Civil  war  broke  out.  The  Romans 
interfered,  and  at  fir.st  upheld  Aristobulus,  but 
later  deposed  him  and  carried  him  to  Rome. 
Hyrcanus  was  nominally  king,  but  the  real 
ruler  was  Antipas,  or  Anti pater,  an  Iduma'an, 
who  had  been  appointed  procurator  of  Judaea 
under  Hyrcanus  by  the  Romans.  A  period 
of  quarrels  and  dissensions  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  reigning  family  followed,  during 
which  time  Antipater  steadily  grew  in  infiu- 
ence  and  jiower  with  the  Romans,  until,  the 
Maccabfeans  falling  into  disfavor,  the  crown 
of  Judfea  was  given  to  Antipater's  son,  Herod. 
For  1, 2. 3,  and  4  Maccabees,  see  Apocrypha. 

Mac-e-do'ni-a. 

A  country  lying  immediately  to  the  north 
of  Greece.  Little  is  known  of  it  prior  to  560 
B.  c,  and  for  more  than  200  years  afterwards 
it  possessed  no  special  interest.  But  under 
Philip  of  Macedon  (359-336  B.  c.)  and  his 
yet  more  celebrated  son  Alexander  the  Great 
(336-323  B.  c),  it  rose  to  world-wide  power 
and  imperial  importance  ;  see  Philip  1  and 
Alexander  1.  Under  his  successors  the  em- 
pire was  divided,  and  the  country  declined, 
till  in  168  B.  c.  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  and  in  142  B.  C.  became  a  Roman 
province.  Macedonia  is  not  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  O.  T.  ;  but  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire is  referred  to  in  Dan.  ii.  39  ;  vii.  0  ;  viii. 
5,  8.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Chittim  is  Macedonia. 
Paul,  summoned  in  a  vision  by  a  man  of 
Macedonia,  on  his  second  journey,  passed 
from  Asia  into  Eurojie,  and  preached  the 
gospel  in  that  continent  first  on  jMacedoiiian 
soil.  At  this  time  he  passed  through  the 
Macedonian  towns  of  Neapolis,  Philippi, 
Amphipoli.s,  Apollonia,  Thessalonica,  and 
Bercea  (Acts  xvi.  9-xvii.  14).  When  Paul  de- 
parted, Silas  and  Timothy  continued  the  work 
(xlvii.  14,  15  ;  xviii.  5).  Paul  revisited  the 
region  (xix.  21,22;  xx.  1-3;  cp.  2  Cor.  ii. 
13 ;  vii.  5 ;  1  Tim.  i.  3).  Gains  and  Aris- 
tarchus,  Macedonians,  were  Paul's  com- 
panions in  travel,  and  were  in  danger  on 
his  account  during  the  riot  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  29).  Secundus,  also  a  Mace- 
donian, was  one  of  those  who  waited  for 
him  at  Troas.  when  for  the  last  time  he 
was  to  leave  Philippi  on  his  way  to  Jcru.sa- 
lem  (xx.  4).  Paul's  converts  in  Macedonia 
made  a  collection  for  the  i)oor  Cliristians  of 
the  Jewish  capital  (Rom.  xv.  26).  They  also 
ministered  to  the  wants  of  the  a])ostlc  him- 
self (2  Cor.  viii.  1-5),  the  Philijjpians  being 


Machbaunai 


466 


Madon 


the  most  jjromiiient  in  the  work  of  charity 
(Phil.  iv.  15). 

Mach-ban'nai,  in  A.  V.  Mach'toa-nai  [per- 
hajis.  clothed  with  a  cloak]. 

One  of  the  Gadite  heroes  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.   VA). 

Macli'be-na,  in  A.  V.  Macbbenali  [a  bond 
or  cloak]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  to  judge  from  the  con- 
text (1  Chron.  ii.  49).     See  Cabbon. 

Ma'chi. 

Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ma'chir  [sold]. 

1.  The  firstborn  and  only  son  of  Manasseh 
(Gen.  1.  23;  Josh.  xvii.  1).  His  mother  was 
an  x\ramitess  (1  Chron.  vii.  14).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Machirites, 
which  would  have  been  the  sole  family  of 
Manasseh.  But  as  posterity  increased,  new 
families  were  set  apart  from  the  main  line 
through  the  firstborn  ;  and  thus  Machir  be- 
came one  among  the  families  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  xxvi.  29).  The  family,  called  col- 
lectively Machir,  was  a  man  of  war,  and 
subjugated  Gilead.  This  district  was  ac- 
cordingly assigned  to  the  family  for  its  in- 
heritance (Num.  xxxii.  39,  40  ;  Josh.  xvii.  1). 
and  was  given  by  Moses.  The  name  of 
Machir  was  once  used  poetically  for  the 
whole  tribe  of  Manasseh,  west  as  well  as  east 
of  the  Jordan  (Judg.  v.  14). 

2.  A  son  of  Ammiel,  in  Lo-debar,  east  of 
the  Jordan  (2  Sam.  ix.  4,  5),  who  brought  pro- 
visions to  David  during  the  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom (xvii.  27). 

Mach'mas.     See  Michmash. 

Mach-na-de'bai. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
dway  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Mach-pe'lali  [duplication,  doubling]. 

A  j)lace  before  Mamre,  where  was  a  field 
with  trees  and  a  cave  belonging  to  Ephron, 
a  Hittite  (Gen.  xxiii.  9.  17,  19).  The  place 
was  purchased  by  Abraham  for  400  shekels 
of  silver  in  order  to  use  the  cave  as  a  sepul- 
cher  for  Sarah,  his  wife.  He  himself  was 
buried  there  by  his  sons,  Isaac  and  Ishmael 
(xxv.  9,  10).  There  also  Isaac  and  Rebekah 
were  buried,  so  likewise  were  Leah  and 
Jacob  (xxxv.  29;  xlvii.  28-31  ;  xlix.  29-33; 
1. 12, 13),  and  perhaps  others  of  whom  we  have 
no  record.  Tliere  were  mouuments  to  the 
patriarchs  at  IIe))ron  in  the  time  of  Christ 
(War  iv.  9,  7).  The  cave  is  ])rol)ably  cor- 
rectly identified  as  the  one  which  undoubt- 
edly lies  beneath  tiic  great  mosque  at  Hebron. 
Chri.stians  have  all  along  been  excluded  from 
the  mos(iue  and  the  cavern  beneath  ;  but  the 
Prince  of  Wales  on  April  7tli,  1802,  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  in  November,  18()9, 
and  the  two  sons  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  one 
of  whom  is  now  King  George,  on  April  5th, 
1882,  were  permitted  to  make  an  imperfect 
examination.    On  the  slope  of  the  hill  look- 


ing towards  the  west  stands  the  Haram,  a 
sacred  enclosure,  in  form  an  oblong  lying 
northwest  and  southeast,  surrounded  by  walls 
of  similar  masonry  to  those  of  early  date 
around  the  temple  area  at  Jerusalem,  and 
measuring  externally  about  197  feet  in  length 
and  111  feet  in  breadth.  The  ancient  Chris- 
tian church,  which  completely  filled  the 
southeastern  end  of  the  enclosure,  has  been 
converted  into  a  mosque.  In  the  mosque,  close 
to  its  northwestern  wall  and  about  ten  feet 
southwest  of  the  main  entrance,  is  a  round 
opening,  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  through 
the  stone  flooring.  Through  this  hole  a 
glimpse  is  had  into  a  shaft  about  twelve  feet 
squaj-e  and  fifteen  feet  deep,  with  a  door  in 
the  southeastern  wall.  This  chamber  is 
suppo.sed  to  be  an  anteroom  to  the  double 
cave  situated  immediately  to  the  southeast 
under  the  floor  of  the  mosque.  Two  en- 
trances to  the  cave  are  marked  in  the  flag- 
ging of  the  mosque,  but  they  cannot  be 
opened  without  tearing  up  the  pavement. 
Their  position  would  indicate  that  they  af- 
forded access  to  the  cave  through  its  roof  of 
rock.  The  floor  of  the  mosque  and  the 
courtyard  in  front  are  fifteen  feet  higher 
than  the  street  which  skirts  the  Haram  on 
the  long  southwestern  side.  In  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  enclosure  is  a  shrine 
sacred  to  Joseph,  but  he  was  buried  at  She- 
chem  (Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

Ma'dai. 

A  people  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2;  1  Chron.  i.  5),  doubtless  the  inhabitants 
of  Media. 

Ma'di-an.     See  Midian. 

Mad-man'nah  [dunghill]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  49) ;  perhaps  iden- 
tical with  Beth-marcaboth  (q.  v.). 

Mad'men  [dunghill]. 

A  town  in  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  2). 

Mad-me'nah  [dunghill]. 

A  town  near  Jerusalem  and  on  the  north 
(Is.  X.  31).     Not  identified. 

Mad'ness. 

1.  Weakness  or  disorder  of  the  intellect, 
rendering  a  person  void  of  right  reason 
(Deut.  xxviii.  28).  David,  when  feigning  to  be 
mad,  made  marks  on  the  doors  of  the  gate 
and  let  the  spittle  fall  down  upon  his  beard 
(1  Sam.  XXI.  13,  14,  where  the  two  principal 
Hebrew  sj'nonyms  are  used).  It  may  mani- 
fest itself  in  hallucinations  (Acts  xii.  15),  or 
in  wild  raving  (1  Cor.  xiv.  23),  or  even  in 
violence,  such  as  hurling  about  firebrands 
and  arrows  (Prov.  xxvi.  18).  Its  symptoms 
are  temporarily  produced  by  drink  (Jer.  xxv. 
16;  Ii.  7). 

2.  A  state  of  uncontrollable  emotion,  as  in- 
fatuation (Jer.  1.  38)  or  fury  (Ps.  cii.  8  ;  Luke 
vi.  11  ;  Acts  xxvi.  11), 

Ma'don  [contention,  strife]. 

A  town  of  northern  Canaan,  whose  king 


Magadan 

was  in  coufecleracy  with  tlie  king  of  Hazor 
(Josh.  xi.  1-12;  xii.  19).  Site  unknown.  On 
the  survey  map  it  stands  with  a  query  at 
Mad  in,  5  miles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias. 

Mag'a-dan. 

A  locality  into  the  borders  of  which  Jesus 
went  after  crossing  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat. 
XV.  39,  in  A.  V.  Magdala).  It  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake 
and  may  have  included  Magdala  (cp.  Mark 
viii.  10). 

Mag'bisli  [congregating]. 

A  person  or  town,  it  is  uncertain  which 
(Ezra  ii.  30).     If  a  place,  its  site  is  unknown. 

Mag'da-la  [probably,  a  towerj. 
A  town  which,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
stood  on  the  western   shore  of  the    sea    of 


467 


Magi 


from  the  east  to  worship  the  infant  Jesu.s 
(Mat.  ii.  1,  R.  V.  margin).  The  Magi  were  a 
priestly  caste,  numerous  enough  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  six  tribes  of  Media 
(Herod,  i.  101).  When  the  Persians  con- 
quered the  Medes,  the  Magi  retained  their 
influence  in  the  new  emi>irc.  An  attempt 
on  their  part  to  seize  the  crown  led  to  a 
dreadful  slaughter  of  them,  notwithstanding 
which  their  power  soon  revived  (iii.  79). 
They  worshiped  the  elements,  fire,  air,  earth, 
and  water,  especially  the  first.  The  only 
temples  they  had  were  fire  temples,  generally 
on  house  tops,  where  they  kept  the  sacred 
element  burning  night  andday.  What  to  do 
with  the  dead  was  a  question  which,  with 
their  views,  involved  much  perplexity.  The 
corpse  could  not  be  burned,  buried,  ciist  inta 


Mejdel  and  the  Plain  of  Gennesaret,  looking  North. 


Galilee,  near  Tiberias  and  Hammath,  and 
within  less  than  a  Sabbath  day's  journey  of 
the  water.  It  exists  in  the  wretched  village 
el-Mejdel,  scarcely  3  miles  north  of  Tiberias. 
In  Mat.  XV.  39  the  E.  V.,  following  the  best 
manuscripts,  substitutes  Magadan  (q.  v.).  See 
also  Magdalene. 

Mag-da-le'ne  [of  Magdala].  Mag-da-le'ne 
is  the  Greek  pronunciation,  like  Abilene; 
Mag'da-leue  is  the  English  pronunciation, 
like  Damascene,  Gadarene,  Nazarene. 

A  designation  of  one  of  the  Marys,  imply- 
ing that  she  came  from  some  Magdala,  prob- 
ably from  the  village  now  called  el-Mejdel, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
about  3  miles  north-northwest  of  Tiberias. 
The  word  Magdalene  makes  no  such  imputa- 
tion on  the  moral  characterof  Mary  asisnow 
conveyed  by  the  term  IMagdalen. 

Mag'di-el  [honor  of  God]. 

A  duke  descended  from  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
43  ;  1  Chron.  i.  54). 

Ma'gi  [Greek  Magoi,  the  plural  of  Magos ; 
in  Behistun  inscription  Magmhti]. 

The  religious  caste  to  which  the  wise  men 
belonged,  as  their  title  indicates,  who  came 


water,  or  left  to  decay  in  the  air  without  de- 
filing an  element.  It  was  therefore  exposed 
to  be  devoured  by  carrion-loviug  birds  or 
beasts  (Herod,  i.  140,  who  jn-oliably  errs  in 
speaking  of  its  after-burial ;  Strabo  xv.  3,  20). 
To  do  this  in  the  least  oifensive  manner  they 
erected  towers  called  towers  of  silence,  with 
transverse  bars  at  the  top,  on  which  vultures 
and  ravens  might  stand  while  they  did  their 
melancholy  work.  The  Magi  wore  as  .sacer- 
dotal vestments  a  white  robe,  with  a  head- 
dress consisting  of  a  tall  felt  cap,  with  lap- 
pets at  the  side  which  concealed  the  jaws. 
They  claimed  to  be  mediators  between  God 
and  man,  intervening  in  all  sacrifices  (Herod, 
i.  132;  vii.  43).  They  interpreted  dreams 
and  omens  and  claimed  the  gift  of  jirophecy 
(i.  107,  120;  vii.  19,  37,  113).  They  were 
diligent  in  killing  such  animals  as  were  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  ))ad  creation  (i. 
140).  The  foreigner  was  apt  to  observe  the 
religious  doctrine  and  priestly  functions  of 
the  Magi  less  attentively  than  their  incanta- 
tions ;  and  in  process  of  time  the  (4reeks  be- 
stowed the  epithet  Magos  on  any  sorcerer 
who  employed  the  methods  and  enchant- 
ments of  the  East.    The  Jew  Bar-jesus  was 


Magician 


468 


Maher-shalal-hash-baz 


a  Matrus  (Acts  xiii,  6,  Greek  text  and  E.  V. 
margin),  and  so  was  Simon,  often  called 
Magus,  of  Samaria  (viii.  9). 

Ma-gi'cian  [remotely  from  Greek  Magoi, 
Magi]. 

A  man  who  pretends  to  liave])reternatural 
powers,  which  he  has  obtained  by  the  study 
of  an  occult  science  or  the  practice  of  a  black 
art  in  connivance  with  evil  spirits,  and  which 
he  calls  magic  (cp.  Acts  xix.  19) ;  see  SoR- 
CKKEK.  In  the  Bible  magician  is  the  render- 
ing of  hartom.  one  of  the  class  of  sacred 
scribes,  who  were  skilled  in  writing  and  ac- 
quired vast  information  (Dan.  i.  20),  and  who 
often  claimed  occult  knowledge,  practiced 
magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  and  undertook  to  inter- 
])ret  dreams  (Gen.  xli.  8;  Dan.  ii.  10).  The 
Egy])tian  magicians  who  withstood  Moses 
were  two  in  num))er,  and  their  names  were 
Jannes  and  Jambres  (2  Tim.  iii.  8). 

Ma'gog. 

A  people  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2),  at  one  period  inhabiting  a  northern  land 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  15).  Josephus  identified 
them  with  the  Scythians  (Antiq.  i.  fi,  1),  and 
his  identification  is  commonly  accepted.  The 
final  struggle  of  heathenism  with  the  king- 
dom of  God  is  i)rophetically  portrayed  by 
Ezekiel  under  the  figure  of  an  invasion  of 
the  land  of  Israel  by  the  hordes  of  the  king 
of  Magog  and  their  overthrow.  Ezekiel's 
description  is  referred  to  and  its  imagery  is 
borrowed  by  .John  (Rev.  xx.  8,  9).     See  Gog. 

Ma-gor-mis'sa-bib  [fear  round  about]. 

A  pr(j]ihetic  name  given  to  Pashhur,  a 
priest  and  governor  of  the  temple  who  ill- 
treated  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xx.  3). 

Mag'pi-ash  rajiparently  moth  slayer]. 

One  (if  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Nehcniiali  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Ma'ha-lah.     See  Mahlah  2. 

Ma-ba'la-lel,  in  A.  V.  and  in  N.  T.  of  R. 
V.  Ma-ha-la'le-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ma-le'- 
le-el  [praise  of  (4od]. 

1.  An  antediluvian  patriarch  in  the  line  of 
Seth  (Gen.  v.  12-17;  Luke  iii.  37). 

2.  One  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  family  of 
Perez,  who  lived  in  Jerusalem  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi.  4). 

Ma'ba-lath  [sickness,  anxiety,  grief]. 

1.  A  musical  term  (P.s.  liii. ;  Ixxxviii. 
titles)  ;  which,  .judged  by  Helirew  etymology, 
refers  to  .sadness.  The  words  al'  maJflath 
I'aviiofh  {Vs.  l.\xxviii.  (itle)  then  mean 
"mournfully  to  chant." 

2.  Daughter  of  Islmiael  and  a  wife  of 
Esau  ((Sen.  xxviii.  9).  Called  also  Bashe- 
math  ((|.  v.).  ^ 

;{.  Daughter  of  Jerijuoth  and  one  of  Re- 
b(il)(iaiirs  wives  (2  Cliron.   xi.  18). 

Ma'na-li.     See  Mahm. 
Ma-ha-na'im  [two  camiis]. 
Tlu'   n.iuie  given   l)y  Jacob  to  a  i)lace  east 
of  Jordan  wlicre  tlu"  angels  of  (iod  met  liini. 


apparently  in  two  detachments,  just  after  lie 
had  finally  parted  from  Laban  and  before  he 
crossed  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii.  2j.  It  was 
on  the  boundary  line  between  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Manasseb  (Josh.  xiii.  26,  30).  It 
was  afterwards  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (xxi.  38;  1  Chron.  vi.  80).  Com- 
mencing as  a  sacred  spot,  it  ultimately  be- 
came a  fortified  city.  It  was  Ish-bosheth's 
capital  (2  Sam.  ii.  8,  12,  29).  David  retired 
thither  while  his  rebellious  son  Absalom  was 
in  possession  of  Jerusalem  (xvii.  24,  27 ; 
xviii.  24,  33;  xix.  32;  1  Kin.  ii.  8).  Ahin- 
adab  the  son  of  Iddo  was  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  region  (iv.  14).  The  site  has  not  been 
identified.  Robinson  and  long  before  him 
the  Jewish  traveler  Moses  hap-Parchl,  about 
1315,  suggested  Mahneh,  about  4  miles  east 
of  ed-Deir.  Tristram  prefers  Birket  Mahneh, 
which  he  locates  about  21  miles  southeast  of 
Gadara  and  22  southwest  of  Edrei. 

Ma'ha-neb-dan  [camp  of  Dan]. 

A  place  behind,  that  is  west  of,  Kirjath- 
jearim  (Judg.  xviii.  12),  between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol  (xiii.  25),  so  named  when  the  Danite 
spies  encamped  at  the  spot. 

Ma'ha-rai  [impetuous]. 

A  Netophathite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28;  1  Chron.  xi.  30).  He 
was  David's  captain  for  the  tenth  month 
(xxvii.  13). 

Ma'hath  [seizing  or  instrument  of  seizing]. 

1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  descended  by  the 
line  of  Zephauiah,  Tahath,  and  Abiasaph  ( 1 
Chron.  vi.  35).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  Samuel 
(33). 

2.  Another  Levite,  one  of  the  overseers 
who  looked  after  the  tithes  and  freewill  of- 
ferings in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
13).  Probably  he  was  the  son  of  Amasai,  a 
descendant  of  Koliath  (xxix.  12). 

Ma'ha-vitie. 

A  designation  of  unknown  meaning  ap- 
pended to  the  name  of  Eliel,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  46).  The  jmssage 
is  probably  corrupt,  for  the  word  is  plural 
and  yet  joined  to  the  singular. 

Ma-ha'zi-oth  [perhaps,  vision  of  signifi- 
cance]. 

A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Heman  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4).  He  obtained  the  twenty- 
third  lot  among  the  singers  (30). 

Ma'her-slial'al-liash'baz  [spoil  speedeth, 
prey  hasteth]. 

The  words  which  Isaiah  was  directed  to 
display  on  a  public  tablet  and  have  duly 
witnessed,  and  a  year  later  was  told  to  give 
as  a  name  to  his  second  son.  They  predicted 
the  speedy  conquest  of  Damascus  and 
Samaria  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  viii. 
1-4).  The  preliminary  formality  drew  pub- 
lic attention  to  the  enigmatical  words  and 
attested  that  God  was  i)reparing  and  reveal- 
ing the  event  a  year  before  its  occurrence. 


Mahlah 


469 


Malchiah 


Mah'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Mahalah  (1  Chron, 
vii.  18)  [diseasel. 

1.  Daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33;  xxvii.  1). 

2.  Another  Manassite,  whose  mother  was 
Hammoleketh  (1  Chron.  vii.  18). 

Mah'li,  in  A.  V.  once  Mahali  (Ex.  vi.  19) 
[.sick,  weak]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Merari  and  brother  of 
Mushi.  He  founded  a  tribal  family  or 
house  (Ex.  vi.  19;  Num.  iii.  20,  33;  xxvi. 
58).  His  grandsons  married  their  cousins 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  22). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  I\rerari.  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  vi.  47;  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

Mah'lon  [sickly]  . 

Elder  son  of  Elimelech  and  Naomi,  and 
the  first  husband  of  Euth  (Ruth  i.  2;  iv. 
10). 

Ma'hol  [dancing,  joy]. 

Father  of  Heman,  Chalcol,  and  Darda, 
three  noted  wise  men  (1  Kin.  iv.  31). 

Mah-se'iah,  in  A.  V.  Maaseiah  [Jehovah 
is  a  refuge] . 

An  ancestor  of  Jeremiah's  friend,  Baruch, 
and  of  the  chief  chamberlain,  Seraiah  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  li.  59). 

Ma'kaz  [an  end]. 

A  town  whence  one  of  Solomon's  purvey- 
ors drew  suj)plies  (1  Kin.  iv.  9).  Site  un- 
known. 

Ma'ked,  in  A.  V.  once  Maged. 

A  town  of  Gilead,  in  which  Jews  were 
shut  up  by  the  heathen  (1  Mac.  v.  26).  It 
was  captured  by  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  the 
Jews  were  released  (36).  Hitzig  identifies  it 
with  Makad,  a  town  which  he  locates  on  the 
border  of  the  Hauran,  near  Edrei. 

Ilak-he'loth  [assemblies,  especially  for  the 
worship  of  God]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  25,  26).  Site  un- 
known. 

Mak-ke'dah  [perhaps,  a  place  of  shep- 
herds]. 

A  Canaanite  town  in  the  lowland,  taken 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  xv.  41).  Near  it  was  a  cave 
(x.  16).  The  site  has  not  been  identified.  Eu- 
sebius  located  it  8  Roman  miles  east  of  Eleu- 
theropolis.  But  as  this  location  would  be  in 
the  mountains,  his  statement,  if  correct,  must 
be  interpreted  as  meaning  northeast  or  south- 
east. 

Mak'tesh  [a  mortar,  a  trough,  a  hollow]. 

A  locality  at  Jerusalem  (Ze]>h.  i.  11).  The 
Targum  identifies  it  with  the  Kidron  valley  ; 
another  supposition  is  that  it  was  the  valley 
separating  the  temple  from  the  city. 

Mal'a-chi  [my  messenger,  or  messenger 
(of  Jehovah)]. 

A  prophet,  the  writer  of  the  last  book  of 
the  O.  T.  (Mai.  i.  1).  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  history  except  what  may  be  learned  from 
his  book.     As  the  name  means  my  messen- 


ger (.so  in  iii.  1),  some  have  supposed  it  to 
be,  not  the  proper  name,  but  the  title  of  a 
prophet,  perhaps  of  Ezra.  But  as  each  of  the 
eleven  preceding  minor  i)rophecies  has  its 
author's  name  prefixed,  there  is  a  strong 
I)resumption  that  it  is  so  in  the  present  ca.se 
also,  and  that  Malachi  was  the  actual  name 
of  the  prophet  who  jienned  the  book.  It  may 
bedividedintothefollowingsections:  1.  (iod's 
.special  love  for  Israel,  shown  in  his  choice  of 
Jacob  instead  of  Esau  (i.  2-5),  was  not  re- 
quited: a.  The  priests  and  people  (6,14)  dis- 
honored God  by  jn-esentiiig  blemished  offer- 
ings (6-14)  ;  punisluiuiit  tlnralened  for  this 
dei)arture  from  the  norm  estaljlished  by  God 
for  the  priesthood  and  once  realized  (ii.  1-9)  ; 
b.  The  people  dealt  treacherously  against 
their  brethren,  intermarrying  with  the 
heathen  (11)  and  putting  away  their  own 
wives  (14,  16)  and  doing  deeds  of  violence 
(ii.  10-17).  2.  Judgment  imminent.  God's 
messenger  is  about  to  prepare  the  way,  the 
Lord  himself  will  suddenly  come  to  his  tem- 
ple, the  messenger  of  the  covenant  shall  come 
as  judge  and  purify  Levi  from  dross  and 
visit  evil  doers  (iii.  1-6;  cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  20- 
23;  Mat.  xi.  10).  3.  Call  to  repentance;  for 
then  the  Lord  will  come  in  blessing  and 
judgment,  putting  to  nought  the  ctmiplaint 
that  he  make«  no  distinction  between  the 
good  and  the  evil.  Those  who  have  turned 
from  sin  to  God  will  be  his  peculiar  trea.sure, 
but  the  wicked  shall  be  burned  as  stubble 
(iii.  7~iv.  3).  Exhortation  to  remember  the 
law  of  Moses,  and  announcement  of  the 
mission  of  Elijah  to  prepare  for  the  terrible 
dav  of  the  Lord  (iv.  4-6 ;  Mat.  xvii.  10-13  ; 
Luke  i.  17). 

When  the  prophecy  was  delivered  the  Jew- 
ish people  were  not  under  a  king,  but 
under  a  governor  (Mai.  i.  8),  doubtless  one 
appointed  by  the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  v. 
14).  Zerubbabel's  temple  was  standing,  as 
was  the  altar,  and  sacrifices  were  being  of- 
fered as  in  the  olden  time  (i.  7-10) ;  hence 
Malachi  is  later  than  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
But  the  outburst  of  religious  life  wliich  had 
immediately  followed  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, and  had  resulted  in  the  rebuildiTig  first 
of  the  sanctuary  and  then  of  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Jerusalem,  had  had  time  to  expend 
its  force.  Priests  and  people  were  corrupt. 
This  condition  suits  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  xiii.).  The  generally  accepted  date, 
which  originated  with  Vitringa,  is  420  B.  c. 
Davidson  prefers  460  to  450  B.  c. 


A.   V.  Malcham    [regnant, 
Shaharaim    and 


Mal'cam,  in 

rule]. 

1.  A    Benjamite,    son    of 
Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

2.  The  chief  deity  of  the  Ammonites  (Jer. 
xlix.  1,  3.  in  A.  V.  their  king ;  Zeph.  i.  5 ; 
perhaps  Amos  i.  15.  where  it  is  rendered  their 
king).     See  Molech. 

Mal-cM'ali,  in  A.  V.  once  Melchiah  (Jer. 
xxi.  1)  [Jehovah  is  king]. 


Malchiel 


470 


Manaen 


A  royal  prince,  into  whose  dungeon  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  was  cast  (Jer.  xxxviii.  6). 
It  is  iiattnal  to  identify  him  with  the  father 
of  tlie  official  Pashhur  mentioned  in  ver.  1  and 
sxi.  1. 

For  others,  see  Malchijah. 

Marchi-el  [God  is  king] . 

A  son  of  Beriah  and  grandson  of  Asher, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi. 
17;  Num.  xxvi.  45). 

Mal-cM'jab,  in  A.  V.  often  Malchlah 
[Jehovah  is  king]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom,  house  of 
Shimei  (1  Chron.  vi.  40). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  fifth  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  9).  Apparently  mem- 
bers of  a  subdivision  of  his  family,  viz.,  the 
house  of  Pashhur,  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  3y).  He  is  also  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12  and  Neh. 
xi.  12,  where  a  priestly  line  is  traced  back 
through  Pashhur  to  one  of  this  name.  The 
royal  prince  Malchiah  of  Jeremiah  xxxviii. 
6  (and  hence  probably  of  ver.  1)  is  a  ditferent 
person. 

3.  A  royal  prince  (Jer.  xxxviii,  6).  See 
Malchiah. 

4.  5.  Two  sons  of  Parosh,  both  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  25). 

6.  A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  'x.  31).  He 
joined  with  another  Hebrew'  in  repairing 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
tower  of  the  furnaces  (Neh.  iii.  11). 

7.  A  son  of  Ecchab.  He  also  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  14). 

8.  A  goldsmith  who  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  31). 

9.  A  priest  who  with  others  officiated  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  42);  perhaps,  one  of  those  who 
assisted  Ezra  when  the  law  was  explained 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

10.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  liouse,  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.3). 

Mal-chi'ram  [the  king,  i.  e.  God,  is  ex- 
alted]. 

A  s(m  of  king  Jehoiachin  (1  Chron.  iii.  18). 

Mal-cM-shu'a,  in  A.  V.  Melchi-shua  in 
1  Sauuiel   [tlie  king,  i.  c.  God,  is  salvation]. 

A  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49;  1 
Chron.  viii.  .33;  ix.  .39).  He  was  killed 'at 
the  battle  of  (iilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

Mal'chus   [Greek  of  Semitic  malkii,  king]. 

The  high  i)riest's  servant  whose  ear  Peter 
cut  off  i.Iohn  xviii.  10). 

Ma-le'le-el.    See  Maiialalel. 

Mal'lo-thi. 

A  sou  dl'  HcMiian  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  He 
obtained  l)y  lol  the  leadership  of  the  nine- 
teenth course  of  singers  (26). 


Mallows. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Mallnah, 
salt  plant  (Job  xxx.  4,  A.  V.).  Since  genuine 
mallows  are  mucilaginous  and  not  saline,  the 
E.  V.  alters  the  name  of  the  plant  to  salt- 
wort; see  Saltwort. 

Mal'luch  [reigning  or  counselor]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mu-shi  (1  Chron.  vi.  44). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  2,  7).  A 
father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the  next  gen- 
eration (ver.  14,  E.  V.).  In  the  latter  passage 
the  form  Malluchi,  in  itself  an  unessential  va- 
riation, is  probably  due  to  dittography.  The 
final  letter  of  Malluchi  is  the  initial  letter  of 
the  following  word,  and  moreover  is  not  found 
in  the  Septuagint.  The  consonants  of  Mal- 
luchi are  written  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  were 
read  Melicu  (A.  V.  and  margin  of  E.  V.). 

3.  4.  A  son  of  Bani  and  a  son  of  Harim, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29,  32). 

5,  6.  A  priest  and  a  chief  of  the  people 
who  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  4,  27). 

Mal'lu-cM.     See  Malluch  2. 

Mam'mon  [Greek  from  Aramaic  mamon, 
mamoua,  wealth,  riches]. 

A  personification  of  wealth  (Matt.  vi.  24; 
Luke  xvi.  9,  11,  13). 

Mam're  [fatness,  strength]. 

1.  The  town  or  more  probably  district  of 
Hebron  (Gen.  xxiii.  19;  xsxv.  27),  to  the 
west  of  Macli])('lah  (xxiii.  17).  A  grove  was 
there,  near  Hebron,  where  Abraham  several 
times  resided  (xiii.  18;  xiv.  13;  xviii.  1, 
etc.).  In  Josephus'  time  an  aged  terebinth 
was  pointed  out  as  Abraham's  tree,  6  stades 
or  f  of  a  mile  from  Hebron  (War  iv.  9,  7)  ;  in 
the  fourth  century,  one  at  Eamet  el-Khulil, 
2  Eoman  miles  north  of  Hebron,  which  Con- 
stantine  enclosed  within  the  walls  of  a  basilica. 
The  remains  of  this  building  are  called  the 
house  of  Abraham.  The  tree  which  now 
claims  the  honor  of  being  Abraham's  oak, 
and  which  was  already  celebrated  as  such 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  is  a  genuine  oak 
(Querc.ns  pseitdococcifera).  Its  trunk  has  a 
girth  of  26  feet  at  the  ground,  and  its  branches 
extend  over  an  area  of  93  feet  in  diameter 
(Thomson).  It  stands  a  little  more  than  a 
mile  northwest  of  Hebron,  near  the  head  of 
the  wady  Sebta. 

2.  ,\n  Amorite  chieftain  who  dwelt  at 
Mamre  and  who  with  his  brothers,  Eshcol 
and  Aner,  helped  Abraham  to  retake  the 
captives  and  the  spoil  carried  oif  by  Chedor- 
laomer  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24).  He  was  probably 
designated  by  the  name  of  the  district  over 
which  he  ruled. 
Man.     See  Adam. 

Man'a-en  [Greek  form  of  Menahem,  con- 
soler, comforter].  Manahem  is  another  Greek 
form  of  the  Helirew  name. 

A  Christian  jirophct  or  teacher  in  the 
church  at  Antioch.     He  had  been  brought 


Manahatli 


471 


Manasseh 


up  with  Herod  the  tetrarch  as  his  companion 
(Acts  xiii.  1,  A.  V.),  or  was  his  foster  brother, 
brought  up  at  the  same  mother's  breast  (E. 
v.).  He  may  have  been  a  descendant,  or  at 
least  a  relative  of  Manahem,  the  Essene,  who 
predicted  to  Herod  the  Great,  when  yet  a 
schoolboy,  that  he  would  obtain  the  king- 
dom. When  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled, 
Herod  held  him  and  his  sect  in  high  esteem 
(Antiq.  xv.  10,  5). 

Man'a-hath  [rest]. 

1.  A  son  of  the  Horite,  Shobal  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  23) ;  perhaps  even  a  place  inhabited  by 
a  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Shobal  (1  C'hron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  place  to  which  Beujamites  of  Geba 
were  carried  captive  by  their  fcllow-tribes- 
meu  (1  Chron.  viii.  6).  Descendants  of  Sal- 
ma,  of  the  family  of  Caleb,  tribe  of  Judah, 
probably  formed  half  the  population  of  it  or 
of  another  place  of  the  name  (ii.  54)  ;  see 
Manaiiathites. 

Ma-na'hath-ites,  in  A.  V.  Manahethites. 

The  inhabitants  of  a  place  or  the  descend- 
ants of  a  man  Manahath  (1  Chron.  ii.  54).  To 
j  udge  by  the  context,  a  place  is  intended.  For 
Mauahethites  in  ver.  52,  A.V.,  see  Mknuhoth. 

Ma-nas'seh,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Manasses, 
the  Greek  form  [making  to  forget]. 

1.  The  elder  son  of  Joseph.  He  was  born 
in  Egyjit,  his  mother  being  Asenath,  daugh- 
ter of  Poti-phera,  priest  of  On.  In  race, 
therefore,  he,  like  his  brother  Ephraim,  was 
half  Hebrew,  half  Egyptian  (Gen.  xli.  50,  51). 
When  Jacob  desired  to  bless  the  two  boys, 
Joseph  took  Ephraim  in  his  right  hand,  to- 
ward Jacob's  left,  and  Manasseh  in  his  left, 
toward  Jacob's  right ;  but  the  dying  ]»atriarch 
crossed  his  arms,  so  as  to  lay  liis  right  hand 
on  Ephraim's  head  and  his  left  on  that  of 
Manasseh,  intimating  prophetically  that  while 
both  sons  should  become  ancestors  of  great 
j)eoples,  Ephraim  should  excel  (xlviii.  8-21). 

2.  The  tribe  which  descended  from  Ma- 
nasseh. It  consisted  of  seven  tribal  families, 
of  which  one  was  founded  by  his  son  Machir 
and  the  remaining  six  sprang  from  his  grand- 
son Gilead  (Gen.  1.  23  ;  Num.  xxvi.  28-34 ; 
Josh.  xvii.  1,  2).  At  the  first  census  in  the 
wilderness  the  tribe  numbered  32,200  fighting 
men  (Num.  i.  34,  35) ;  at  the  second,  which  was 
taken  thirty-eight  years  later,  52,700  (xxvi. 
34).  After  Moses  had  defeated  Sihon  king 
of  Heshbon,  and  Og  king  of  Bashan,  one- 
half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  joined  with  the 
tribes  of  Eeuben  and  Gad  in  requesting  per- 
mission to  settle  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  ob- 
tained the  leave  they  sought,  on  condition 
of  going  armed  before  their  brethren,  who 
had  not  yet  obtained  settlements,  and  aiding 
in  the  war  west  of  the  Jordan  (xxxii.  33-42; 
cp.  1-32  ;  xxxiv.  14, 15 ;  Deut.  iii.  12.  13 ;  xxix. 
8 ;  Josh.  xii.  4-6 ;  xviii.  7).  They  observed  the 
conditions  laid  down  (Josh.  i.  12-18  ;  iv.  12) ; 
and  when  the  war  had  been  successfully 
fought  out,  were  honorably  dismissed  to  the 
territory  they  had  chosen.    A  temporary  mis- 


understanding about  the  building  of  an  altar 
at  one  time  threatened  unpleasant  conse- 
quences; but  on  explanation  being  given, 
matters  were  aniicablj-  arranged  (xxii.  1-34). 
The  region  given  to  tlie  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh east  of  the  Jordan  comjirehended  part  of 
Gilead  and  all  Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  13-15),  Ma- 
hanaim  in  one  direction  being  on  its  bound- 
ary line  (Josh.  xiii.  29-33).  It  is  between  65 
and  70  miles  from  east  to  west,  by  40  or  more 
from  north  to  south.  It  is  mostly  a  table-land 
of  2500  feet  elevation,  one  of  the  richest 
parts  of  Palestine,  and  to  this  day  the  gran- 
ary of  a  large  part  of  Syria.  It  is  studded 
with  ruined  towns.  The  other  half  of  the 
tribe  crossed  the  Jordan  and  had  their  in- 
heritance in  central  Palestine,  west  of  the 
river.  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Ephra- 
im, on  the  northwest  by  Asher,  and  on  the 
northeast  by  Issachar.  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  by  Janoah  and  Taanath-shiloh,  near 
Shechem,  and  along  the  northern  bank  of  the 
brook  Kanah  to  its  entrance  into  the  Medi- 
terranean (Josh.  xvii.  5-10).  But  the  children 
of  Ephraim  had  cities  in  the  midst  of  the  in- 
heritance of  the  children  of  Manasseh  (xvi. 
9),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  Manasseh  had 
various  towns,  viz.,  Beth-shean,  Ibleam,  Dor, 
En-dor,  Taanach,  and  Megiddo,  within  the 
territories  of  Issachar  and  Asher  (xvii.  11  ; 
cp.  1  Chron.  vii.  29).  The  Manassites,  how- 
ever, failed  to  expel  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants of  the  cities  just  named,  but  eventually 
put  them  to  tribute  (Josh.  xvii.  12,  13  ;  Judg. 
i.  27,  28).  Levitical  cities  were  allotted  from 
Manasseh  as  from  the  other  tribes,  including 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan,  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8  ;  xxi.  27).  The  hero  and  judge  Gideon 
was  a  Manassite,  and  the  most  eminent  man 
the  tribe  produced  (Judg.  vi.  15  ;  cp.  35  ;  vii. 
23).  Some  Manassites  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  19.  20).  No  fewer  than 
18,000  offered  him  their  services  during  his 
reign  at  Hebron  (31  ;  cp.  37).  The  eastern 
Manassites,  in  conjunction  with  the  two 
tribes  east  of  the  Jordan,  waged  war  with 
the  Hagarites  and  took  possession  of  their 
country.  They  were  themselves  carried  into 
exile  by  Tiglath-pileser  (v.  18-26).  Some 
Manassites  came  to  Asa  when  they  saw  that 
the  Lord  was  with  him  (2  Chron.  xv.  9)  ;  men 
of  the  same  tribe  also  attended  the  great  pass- 
over  in  Hezekiah's  reign  and  also  in  Josiah's 
reign  (xxx.  1, 10, 11,  18  ;  xxxi.  1 ;  xxxiv.  6,  9). 

3.  An  intentional  modification  of  the  name 
Moses  (Judg.  xviii.  30,  A.  V.);  see  Jona- 
TH.^N   1. 

4.  Son  and  successor  of  good  king  Heze- 
kiah.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  the 
year  698  B.  c,  when  lie  was  only  twelve  years 
of  age.  He  undid  the  work  of  reformation 
which  had  been  carried  out  in  the  former 
reign.  He  established  the  high  places,  built 
an  "altar  to  Baal,  and  reared  an  Asherah  ; 
made  altars  for  the  worship  of  the  host  of 
heaven  within  the  two  courts  of  the  temple, 


Mandrake 


472 


Manna 


and  caused  one  of  his  sons  to  pass  through 
the  tire.  Propliets  warned  him,  but  he  paid 
no  attention  to  their  threatenings.  Instead 
of  listening,  he  shed  much  innocent  blood 
throughout  every  part  of  Jerusalem.  The 
victims  were  doubtless  chiefly  those  who,  re- 
taining their  fidelity  to  Jehovah,  opposed 
Manasseh's  reactionary  religious  measures  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  1-16).  Tradition  makes  Isaiah  one  of 
these,  which  is  possible  but  doubtful.  As  a  pen- 
alty for  his  wickedness,  God  left  him  to  his  ene- 
mies. Two  kings  of  Assyria,  Esarhaddon  and 
Ashurbanipal,  report  receiving  tribute  from 
him.  The  As.syrian  king  by  whom  he  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
11)  was  probably  Ashurlianijial,  who  crushed 
his  rebellious  brother  Shaniash-shumukin, 
king  of  Babylon,  about  647  B.  c.  and  placed 
the  forfeited  crown  on  his  own  head.  Ma- 
nasseh  repented,  and  was  after  a  time  re- 
stored to  his  kingdom.  He  put  away  the 
idols  which  had  been  his  ruin,  and  restored 
the  worship  of  Jehovah.  He  also  added  to 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  12-19).  After  a  reign  of  fifty-five 
years,  a  longer  one  than  any  other  king  of 
Judah  had  enjoyed,  he  died  about  the  year 
642  B.  c,  leaving  his  son  Amon  to  ascend  the 
throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  17,  18;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
20).  For  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  see  Apoc- 
rypha 12. 

5  and  6.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab  and  a  son 
of  Hashum,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
bv  Ezra  to  put  awaj'  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  30,  3.3). 


Maiiilrake  {Mandragnra  officinalis). 

Man 'drake. 

The   rendering   of   the    Hebrew    Duda'im, 


amatory  plants.  They  were  supposed  to  act 
as  a  love  philter  (Gen.  xxx.  14-16;  on  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  love  apples).  They  are  odorif- 
erous (Song  vii.  13).  The  mandrake  {Mandra- 
gora  oJficJwdis)  is  a  handsome  plant  of  the 
Solanaceous  (night  shade)  order.  It  has  wavy 
leaves  and  pale  violet,  white,  or  deep  blue 
flowers.  Its  fruit  is  small  and  yellow.  The 
forked  root. bears  a  slight  resemblance  to  the 
human  body.  It  is  found  in  the  Jordan 
valley  and  along  the  rivers  running  into  it, 
in  the  plains  of  Moab  and  Gilead,  and  in 
Galilee. 

Ma'neh.     See  Weights. 

Man'ger. 

A  feeding  place  for  cattle,  a  crib  or  trough, 
in  Greek  Phatne  (Luke  ii.  7,  12;  in  xiii.  15 
rendered  stall;  cp.  Is.  i.  3).  Mangers  are 
ancient  (Iliad  x.  568  ;  xxiv.  280  ;  Herod,  ix. 
70).  In  Palestine  the  stable  is  usually  in 
the  owner's  house,  a  portion  of  the  interior 
being  set  apart  for  the  cattle  and  furnished 
with  mangers  built  of  small  stones  and  mor- 
tar in  the  shape  of  a  box. 

Man'na  [what  is  it?  or  rather,  it  is  manna, 
since  an  article  called  mannu  was  already 
known  to  the  Egyptians  and  was  imported 
from  the  peninsula  of  Sinai]. 

A  food  on  M'hich  the  Israelites  mainly  sub- 
sisted during  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness.  It  was  first  bestowed  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
second  month,  when  the  people  murmured, 
owing  to  the  deficiency  of  food.  The  descent 
of  manna  was  described  as  a  raining  of  bread 
from  heaven  (Ex.  xvi.  1-4,  12  ;  Ps.  Ixxviii. 
24  ;  cv.  40).  In  the  morning,  when  the  dew 
was  gone  up,  there  lay  upon  the  face  of  the 
wilderness  a  small  round  flake,  small  as  the 
hoarfrost  on  the  ground.  When  the  children 
of  Israel  saw  it  for  the  first  time  they  said  one 
to  another:  "It  is  manna,"  for  tliey  wist  not 
what  it  really  was.  And  Moses  said  unto 
them  :  "  It  is  the  bread  which  the  Lord  hath 
given"  (Ex.  xvi.  13-15;  Num.  xi.  9).  It  was 
white  like  coriander  seed,  with  a  yellowish 
tinge  and  resinous  appearance  like  bdellium, 
and  tasted  like  wafers  made  with  honey  or 
like  fresh  oil  (Ex.  xvi.  31 ;  Num.  xi.  8).  It 
was  ground  in  mills,  beaten  in  mortars, 
boiled  in  pots,  and  made  into  cakes  (Num. 
xi.  8).  The  people  were  directed  to  gather 
an  omer  a  day  (about  5.8  pints)  for  each 
member  of  their  households,  and  not  to  at- 
tempt to  keep  any  till  the  morrow.  Some 
of  the  people  disobeyed  this  injunction,  but 
the  hoarded  mainia  decayed  aiid  stank.  On 
the  sixth  day  two  omers  were  gathered  for 
each  person,  as  none  descended  on  the  Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  22-30).  An  omerful,  which 
evidently  was  iireserved  from  decay,  was 
kept  by  Aaron  and  his  successors  to  show 
future  generations  the  nature  of  the  food  on 
which  the  I.sraelites  had  subsisted  in  the 
wilderness  (.32-34) ;  see  High  Priest.  A  year 
after  it  was  first  given,  at  the  same  season,  the 


Manaoh 


473 


Marble 


people  are  mentioned  as  having  it,  and  again 
toward  the  end  of  the  forty  years.  It  is  re- 
ferred to  because  the  people  were  murmuring 
against  the  food  (Num.  xi.  4-!» ;  xxi.  5),  but 
the  l)oon  which  tiiey  failed  to  ajjpreciate  was 
not  withdrawn.  It  was  cantinued  during  the 
wiiole  of  the  forty  years'  desert  wanderings 
{Ex.  xvi.  35;  Dent.  viii.  3,  1(5;  Neh.  ix.  20; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  24),  and  did  not  cease  till  the 
day  after  the  Israelites  had  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, eucaniped  at  Gilgiil,  and  begun  to  eat 
of  the  produce  of  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  10- 
12).  The  question  has  been  mooted,  Was 
manna  a  substance  for  the  lirst  time  created 
in  tlie  wilderness,  or  was  it  a  natural  product 
miraculously  multiplied?  Various  plants  ex- 
ude a  manna-like  substance,  either  emana- 
ting spontaneously  from  the  plant  itself  or 
l)roduced  by  the  puncture  of  an  insect.  The 
Tamarix  mannifera,  a  variety  of  the  Tamarix 
gaUica,  does  so,  and  grows  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai.  The  exudation  is  dirty  yellow  in 
color,  but  white  when  it  falls  on  stones.  It 
melts  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  is  produced 
during  a  period  of  from  six  to  ten  weeks,  the 
height  of  the  season  being  June.  Alhaqi 
manrorum  and  A.  desertorum,  two  species  of 
camel's  thorn,  also  exude  a  manna-like  sub- 
stance, and  there  are  other  manna-bearing 
l)lants.  The  Arabs  use  plant  manna  of 
different  kinds  as  butter  and  honey.  But 
the  present  yield  of  the  entire  peninsula 
is  less  than  half  a  ton  in  the  best  years.  It 
is  never  made  into  bread.  Moreover,  if 
taken  in  more  than  the  most  limited  quanti- 
ties it  is  i)urgative.  So  that  even  if  it  were 
])roduced  abundantly,  there  would  be  great 
dilficulty  in  identifjang  it  with  the  manna 
of  Scripture. 

Ma-no'ah  [rest,  quiet]. 
A  Danite  belonging  to  the  village  of  Zorah, 
and  father  of  Samson  (Judg.  xiii.  1-25). 

Man'slay-er.     See  Murder. 

Man'tle. 

The  large,  sleeveless,  outer  garment  or,  as 
a  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  l\[''il.  an  occa- 
sional garment  worn  between  the  tunic  and 
the  outer  garment.     See  Clothing. 

Ma'och  [oppression]. 

Father  of  Achish,  king  of  Gath  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  2).     See  Achish. 

Ma'on  [dwelling,  halntation,  abode]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  55),  the  residence  of  Nabal  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  2).  now  Ma'in,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
south  from  Carmel  of  Judah,  and  8^  south 
of  Hebron.  In  the  wilderness  in  the  vicinity 
of  Maon  David  and  his  men  for  a  time  took 
refuge  (1  Sam.   xxiii.  24,  25). 

2.  Son  of  Shammai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Beth-zur 
(1  Chron.  ii.  45).  Maon  may  indeed  in  this 
passage  possibly  be  used  collectively  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  this  name  (cp. 
Bethlehem,  ver.  54),  and  that  Maon  is  immedi- 


ately called  the  father  of  Beth-zur  may  bo 
paralleled  by  1  Chron.  i.  H.  !).  11,  13. 

3.  A  })eople  that  oppressed  Israel  (Judg.  x. 
12).  The  English  versions  translate  Maon- 
ites.     See  Mkunim. 

Ma'o-nites.     See  Maon  3  and  Meunim. 

Ma'ra  [hitter,  sad  of  spirit]. 

The  name  chosen  by  Naomi  to  express  her 
bereavements  (Ruth  i.  20). 

Ma'rah  [bitter,  bitterness]. 

A  fountain  of  bitter  water  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sliur  on  the  route  to  Sinai,  at  wiiicli 
the  Israelites  halted  when  threedays  ora  little 
more  had  elapsed  after  their  i)assag(' oft  he  Red 
Sea.  The  badness  (jf  the  water,  and  jierliaps  its 
scantiness,  opened  their  eyes  to  the  hardships 
which  they  might  expect ;  and  they  mur- 
mured. Moses  was  directed  by  God  to  casta 
certain  tree  into  the  waters,  whereby  they 
were  rendered  palatable,  either  miraculously 
or  through  the  chemical  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  tree  (Exod.  xv.  23-20; 
Num.  xxxiii.  8,  9).  Since  the  days  of  Burck- 
hardt,  Marah  has  been  generally  located  at 
'Ain  Hawarah,  about  47  miles  from  Suez, 
and  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  Red  Sea, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  range  of 
hills.  The  well  measures  about  20  feet 
across,  but  is  much  wider  at  the  bottom. 
Its  depth  is  perhaps  25  feet.  The  .soil  of  the 
region  abounds  in  soda,  and  the  water  of  the 
well  is  consequently  salty  and  bitter.  The 
principal  rival  claimant  to  Hawarah  has  been 
wady  txhurundel,  which,  however,  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  Elim.  The  recent  identi- 
iieation  of  the  site  of  Pithom  with  Tell  el- 
Maskhuta  leads  to  the  inference  that  Marah 
may  be  'Ayun  Musa,  the  wells  of  Moses,  a 
group  of  springs  7|  miles  south-southeast  of 
Suez  and  52  south-southeast  of  Pithom.  The 
w-ater  of  some  of  these  springs  is  drinkable, 
but  of  others  very  bitter  and  nauseous.  The 
Arabs  do  not  like  their  camels  to  partake 
of  it. 

Mar'a-lah  [trembling,  reeling]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Zehuhin  toward  the 
sea  (Josh.  xix.  11).     Not  identified. 

Mar-an  ath'a,  in  A.  V.  Maran-atha.  See 
Anathema  ]\Iaran-ath.\. 

Mar'ble. 

Limestone,  especially  in  a  crystalline  con- 
dition, which  is  capable  of  taking  jiolish.  It 
was  called  in  Hebrew  shai/i.sh  and  shexh, 
from  its  brightness,  and  in  Greek  iiiarmaros. 
It  was  used  for  colunms  and  costly  pave- 
ments (Esth.  i.  6;  Song  v.  15),  and  was  em- 
ployed in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
2).  '  Josei)hus,  in  describing  the  walls  of  this 
edifice,  mentions  that  they  were  built  of 
white  stone,  hut  does  not  specify  the  kind 
of  stone  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  2).  White,  yellow, 
and  red  marble  is  obtained  in  Lebanon,  but 
a  choicer  variety  came  from  Arabia.  Red 
and  white  marble  was  emploj-ed  in  the 
Greco-Roman  period  for  palatial  buildings  in 


Marcus 


474 


Mark 


Palestine,  both  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan. 
In  Herod's  temple  the  pillars  of  the  cloisters 
were  monoliths  of  white  marble,  twenty-five 
cubits  high  (War  v.  5,  2). 
Mar'cus.     See  Mark. 

Ma-re 'shah  [at  the  head]. 

1.  A  town  iu  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  44;  cp.  1  Chron.  iv.  21).  Eehoboam 
strengthened  its  fortifications  (2  Chron.  xi. 
!-i).  The  great  battle  between  king  Asa  and 
Zerah  the  Ethiopian  was  fought  in  its  vicinity 
(xiv.  9,  10).  In  the  Grecian  period  it  was 
an  important  town,  inhabited  by  Edomites, 
and  known  as  Marissa  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1 ;  xiv. 
1,  .3,  9).  It  was  plundered  by  Judas  Maccabseus 
(1  Mac.  V.  66;  2  Mac.  xii'.  35  ;  Antiq.  xii.  8, 
6).  John  Hyrcauus  planted  a  Jewish  colony 
there  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1 ;  10,  2)  ;  but  Pompey 
made  the  town  free  in  63  (xiv.  4,  4).  CTabinius 
fortified  it  (xiv.  5,  3).  It  was  finally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Parthians  in  40  B.  c.  (xiv.  13, 
9).  According  to  Eusebius,  its  ruins  ex- 
isted 2  Roman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis  ;  and 
Kobinson  located  them  at  Mer'ash,  on  a  hill 
about  a  mile  southwest  of  Beit  Jibrin. 

2.  The  fothcr  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  42). 
The  form  of  expression,  in  the  light  of  its 
context,  suggests  that  Mareshah  was  the 
progenitor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Hebron; 
but  the  mention  of  Hebi-on's  sons  in  the  fol- 
lowing verse  makes  it  probable  that  Hebron 
was  a  man.  If  so,  he  is  not  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Mark,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  thrice  Marcus 
(Col.  iv.  10 ;  Philem.  24 ;  1  Pet.  v.  13)  [Latin 
iitnrcHS,  a  large  hammer]. 

The  evangelist  to  whom  is  traditionally 
assigned  the  Second  Gospel.  Mark  was  his 
surname  (Acts  xii.  12,  25;  xv.  37);  his  first 
name  was  John,  by  which  alone  he  is  desig- 
nated in  Acts  xiii.  5,  1.3.  His  mother,  Mary, 
was  in  comfortaljle  circumstances,  and  her 
house  in  Jerusalem  was  one  of  the  meeting 
l)laces  of  the  Christians  (Acts  xii.  12-17) ; 
see  Mary.  There  are  several  instances  in 
the  N.  T.  of  Jews  with  Latin  surnames  (Acts 
i.  23  ;  xiii.  9),  so  that  the  addition  of  Marcus 
to  John  does  not  imi>ly  a  mixed  Jewish  and 
gentile  descent.  Mark  was  also  the  cousin 
of  Barnabas  (Col.  iv.  10,  R.  V.,  in  A.  V.  sis- 
ter's son).  He  accom])auied  Barnabas  and 
Paul  from  Jerusalem  lo  Antioch  of  Syria 
(Acts  xii.  25)  and  afterwards  on  their 
missionary  journey  (xiii.  5) ;  but,  for  some 
unstated  reason,  he  left  them  at  Perga 
(13)  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Whatever 
was  the  reason  of  .Mark's  conduct  on  that 
occasion,  Paul  disapproved  of  it  so  much 
that  he  refused  to  take  him  with  them  when 
a  second  .journey  was  proposed  (xv.  38). 
This  caused  a  contention  between  the  two 
missionaries,  so  that  llicy  sejiarated  and 
Barnabas,  with  Mark,  sailed  to  Cyjirus  to 
resume  Iiis  evangelistic  work.  After  this 
Mark  disapjiears  from  the  history  for  about 
ten  years.     We  next  find  him  in  Rcnne  with 


Paul  and  joining  with  the  apostle  iu  sending 
salutations  (Col.  iv.  10;  Philem.  24).  It  thus 
appears  that  the  former  cause  of  variance  be- 
tween the  two  men  had  been  removed  ;  and. 
at  a  still  later  period,  Paul  speaks  of  Mark  in 
highly  commendatory  terms  :  "Take  Mark, 
and  bring  him  with  thee :  for  he  is  useful  to 
me  for  ministering"  (2  Tim.  iv.  11,  R.  V.). 
This  last  reference  further  implies  that  Tlark 
had  been  in  the  east,  certainly  iu  Asia  Minor 
and  perhaps  still  further  east.  With  this 
corresponds  1  Pet.  v.  13,  according  to  which 
he  was  with  Peter  in  Babylon,  provided 
that  Babylon  is  there  to  be  understood  lit- 
erally. Peter  calls  Mark  his  son,  which, 
if  not  a  mere  term  of  endearment,  may  mean 
that  Mark  had  been  one  of  Peter's  converts. 
The  fact  that  Peter,  when  released  by  the 
angel  from  prison,  went  to  the  house  of 
Mark's  mother  (Acts  xii.  12)  may  indicate 
his  intimacy  with  the  family.  Tradition 
varies  on  the  point  whether  Mark  had  been 
an  immediate  follower  of  Jesus.  Many 
think,  however,  that  the  young  man  who 
was  present  at  the  time  of  Christ's  arrest 
(Mark  xiv.  51,  52)  was  Mark  himself.  The 
incident  is  mentioned  by  no  other  evangelist, 
and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  motive  for 
recording  it  except  the  wish  to  give  a  per- 
sonal reminiscence.  The  time  and  place  of 
Mark's  death  are  unknown.  Early  tradition 
represents  him  as  the  interpreter  of  Peter. 
Among  others,  Papias  of  Hierapolis,  who 
wrote  about  A.  D.  140,  quoting  "the  elder" 
as  his  authority,  says:  "Mark,  having  be- 
come Peter's  interpreter,  wrote  down  accu- 
rately, though  not  in  order,  as  many  as  he 
remembered  of  the  things  said  or  done  by 
the  Lord.  For  he  neither  heard  the  Loi'd 
nor  followed  him,  but  at  a  later  time,  as  I 
said,  [he  followed]  Peter,  who  delivered  his 
instructions  according  to  the  needs  [of  the 
occasion],  but  not  with  a  view  to  giving  a 
systematic  account  of  the  Lord's  sayings. 
So  that  Mark  made  no  mistake,  thus  writing 
down  such  things  as  he  remembered  ;  for  of 
one  thing  he  took  forethought,  [namely] 
not  to  leave  out  any  one  of  the  things 
he  had  heard  or  to  state  falsely  anything 
in  them"  (Eusebius,  hist,  eccles.  iii.  39). 
This  reference  to  Mark  as  the  interpreter 
of  Peter  may  either  mean  that  he  accom- 
panied Peter,  in  the  later  years  of  the  apos- 
tle's life,  on  his  missionary  journeys  and 
acted  as  his  spokesman  when  addressing 
gentile  audiences;  or  the  phrase  may  merely 
descril)e  Mark's  work  iu  writing  down  the 
preaching  of  Peter  in  the  Gospel  which  goes 
by  his  name.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
Mark  was  in  Rome  with  both  Paul  and 
Peter.  Tradition  also  made  him  the  founder 
of  the  church  in  Alexandria,  but  the  value 
of  the  tradition  is  uncertain.  The  main 
point  to  be  observed  is  that  Mark's  early  his- 
tory and  his  later  association  with  the  chief 
apostles  fitted  him  to  become  the  writer  of  a 
gospel. 


Mark 


475 


Mark 


The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark  is  the 
■second  of  our  four  gospels,  though  not  neces- 
sarily the  second  in  order  of  coni)iositiou.  It 
is  the  shortest  of  the  four,  hut  this  brevity, 
is  not  usually  due  to  condensation  of  the 
material.  What  Mark  does  give  he  gener- 
ality describes  with  much  detail.  The  story 
moves  forward  rapidly,  with  ])ictorial  power  ; 
and  consists  of  a  succession  of  descriptive 
scenes.  These  proceed  in  a  more  chrono^ 
logical  order  than  in  Matthew  or  Luke. 
Especial  stress  is  laid  on  the  deeds  of  Christ 
rather  than  on  his  formal  instruction  by 
word  of  mouth  ;  only  four  parables  being  re- 
lated as  compared  with  eighteen  miracles, 
and  but  one  of  Christ's  longer  discourses 
being  given  at  any  length  (xiii.).  Christ  is 
depicted  as  the  mighty  Son  of  God  (i.  11; 
V.  7 ;  ix.  7 ;  xiv.  61  ;  also  viii.  38  ;  xii.  1-11 ; 
xiii.  32;  xiv.  361,  the  conquering  Saviour. 
The  narrative  deals  mainly  with  two  themes : 
the  ministry  in  Galilee  (i.  14-ix.  .5(1),  and  the 
last  week  at  Jerusalem  (xi.  1-xvi.  8).  These 
sections  ai-e  connected  by  a  somewhat  brief 
survey  of  the  intervening  period  (x.  1-52). 
In  its  entirety,  it  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
1.  Beginning  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ, 
including  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist 
and  the  baptism  and  temptation  of  Jesus 
(i.  1-13).  2.  The  opening  of  the  Galilaean 
ministry;  giving  the  place  and  the  message, 
the  call  of  the  first  four  apostles,  miracles  in 
Capernaum  and  Galilee  (i.  14-45).  3.  Christ's 
triumph  over  rising  opposition,  including  the 
curing  of  the  paralytic,  Levi's  feast  and  the 
•discourse  on  fasting,  and  the  Sabbath  contro- 
versy (ii.  1-iii.  6).  4.  Extension  of  Christ's 
work  amid  increasing  opposition,  including 
the  description  of  the  multitudes  who  fol- 
lowed him  ;  the  appointment  of  the  twelve  ; 
replies  to  the  Pharisees;  the  visit  of  his 
mother  and  brethren  ;  the  parables  of  the 
sower,  the  seed  growing  secretly,  and  the 
mustard  seed,  with  remarks ;  the  great  mira- 
cles of  stilling  the  waves,  the  Gadarene  de- 
moniacs, the  woman  with  a  bloody  issue, 
and  the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter;  the 
(second)  rejection  at  Nazareth  ;  the  sending 
out  of  the  twelve;  Herod's  inquiry  about 
Jesus  together  with  an  account  of  the  death 
of  John  the  Baptist;  the  feeding  of  the 
5000 ;  the  walking  on  the  sea ;  and  Christ's 
denunciation  of  Pharasaic  traditionalism  (iii. 
7-vii.  23).  5.  A  period  of  com])arative  re- 
tirement, embracing  the  later  Galiliean  min- 
istry (see  Gospel)  :  including  the  healing 
of  the  Syrophceuician's  daughter  in  the  bor- 
ders of  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  of  a  deaf-mute 
in  Decapolis ;  the  feeding  of  the  4000 ;  the 
refusal  to  give  the  Pharisees  a  sign  and  the 
warning  of  the  disciples  against  them  ;  heal- 
ing of  a  blind  man  near  Bethsaida,  followed 
by  incidents  near  Cfesarea  P]iili])]ii,  in- 
cluding the  prediction  by  Christ  of  his  death, 
Peter's  confession,  etc.,  the  transfiguration, 
the  cure  of  the  demoniac  boy,  a  renewed 
predictigu  of  Christ's  death  and,  on  return- 


ing to  Capernaum,  special  instriictions  to  the 
disciples  (vii.  24-ix.  .50).  This  jK-riod  is 
specially  complete  in  Mark.  6.  Christ's 
closing  ministry  in  Penea :  including  the 
question  of  the  Pharisees  about  divorce  ;  the 
blessing  of  the  children ;  the  rich  young 
ruler;  and  ex]ilanations  to  the  discijile^;  the 
ascent  to  Jerusalem,  including  a  third  ]ire- 
diction  of  liis  death,  the  request  of  James  and 
John,  the  healing  of  I'artimjeus  (x.).  7. 
The  last  week,  including  the  triumidial 
entry;  the  blasting  of  the  barren  lig  tree; 
the  (second)  cleansing  of  thc^  tem]ile  ;  the 
visit  of  the  deputation  from  the  sanhedrin  ; 
the  i)arable  of  the  wicked  husbandmen  ;  the 
questions  of  the  Pharisees  and  llerodians, 
of  the  Sadducees,  and  of  the  scribe  (law>-er) ; 
Christ's  question  about  the  son  of  David  :  a 
brief  report  of  his  denunciations  of  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  (cp.  Mat.  xxiii)  ;  the 
widow's  gift:  the  discourse  on  the  mount  of 
Olives;  Judas' treachery  and.  in  connecti<m 
with  it,  the  su]iper  at  Bethany ;  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  last  evening  with  the  discijiles 
and  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper; 
the  agony  in  Gethsemane  ;  the  arrest :  the 
trial  of  Jesus  at  night  bel'ore  the  sanhedrin  ; 
Peter's  denials ;  the  trial  ))efore  Pilate,  and 
the  crucifixion  ;  the  burial  ;  the  announce- 
ment of  Christ's  resurrection  to  certain 
women  by  an  angel  seated  in  his  empty 
tomb  (xi.  1-xvi.  8). 

The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark's  Gospel,  as 
found  in  A.  V.,  are  believed  by  most  scholars 
not  to  have  formed  the  original  close  of  the 
book.  Hence  in  E.  V.  they  are  separated 
by  a  space  from  the  preceding  verses.  They 
were  certainly  added  at  a  very  early  time, 
perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. They  seem  to  have  been  formea  in 
part  out  of  the  other  gospels  and  they  truth- 
fully describe  the  beliefs  of  the  apostolic 
churches  on  the  subjects  with  which  they 
deal.  Chap.  xvi.  8,  however,  is  too  abrujit  an 
ending.  The  original  close  must  have  been 
lost  at  a  very  early  time,  soon  after  the  book 
was  finished.  Some  have  su])i)Osed  that  Mark 
was  prevented  from  tinishing.  The  last 
twelve  verses  of  our  Mark,  when  regarded 
as  an  ancient  addition  to  and  completion  of 
the  book,  are  powerful  evidence  for  the  ex- 
istence and  circulation  of  the  other  gospels 
as  well  as  for  the  reception  of  Mark's  own 
narrative. 

This  Gospel  was  in  general  circulation 
among  the  Christians  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  was  included  by 
Tatian  in  his  Diatessarou,  or  Harmony  of 
the  Four  Gospels.  IrensBUs,  writing  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  second  century,  repeat- 
edly quotes  it,  and  quotes  it  as  Mark's  ;  and, 
as  "others  before  him  (such  as  Papias),  de- 
clares Mark  to  have  been  Peter's  disciple 
and  interpreter.  Thus  ancient  and  trust- 
worthy tradition  represents  the  Gospel  of 
Mark  as  in  some  degree  connected  with 
Peter's  preaching  about  Christ.     This  rela- 


Market  of  Appius 


47(5 


Marriage 


tion  to  Peter  is  confirmed  by  the  many  vivid 
particulars  which  it  contains,  which  seem  to 
be  due  to  the  reminiscences  of  an  eyewit- 
ness (e.  g.  i.  40 ;  ii.  1-4  ;  iii.  5  ;  v.  4-6  ;  vi.  39, 
40;  vii.  34;  viii.  33;  x.  21;  xi.  20);  by  its 
superiority  to  the  other  Gospels  in  those  sec- 
tions where  Peter  alone  was  an  eyewitness 
or  competent  to  give  a  full  account  (cp.  the 
account  of  Peter's  denials)  ;  and,  as  Euse- 
bius  noticed,  by  its  silence  regarding  matters 
which  reflect  credit  on  Peter  (Mat.  xvi.  17- 
19;  Luke  v.  3-10).  This  reported  depend- 
ence on  Peter  must  not  be  pressed,  however, 
to  the  exclusion  of  other  sources  of  informa- 
tion; for  Mark  had  abundant  opportunities 
to  learn  from  other  eyewitnesses  besides 
Peter,  and  from  other  members  of  the  prim- 
itive Christian  community,  such  as  his  kins- 
man Barnabas  and  Paul  and  the  disciples 
who  frequented  his  mother's  house  (Acts  xii. 
12,  17).  In  the  ancient  church  Mark  was 
supposed  by  some,  as,  for  example,  Augustine, 
to  have  abbreviated  Matthew;  but  this  is 
impossible,  since  he  adds  many  details  which 
are  net  in  Matthew.  Others  believe  that 
Mattiiew  and  Luke  drew  from  Mark.  How- 
ever that  may  be,  the  opinion  now  gener- 
ally held  is  that  Mark  itself  is  quite  inde- 
jx'ndent  of  the  other  gospels.  The  most 
probable  view  is  that  all  three  of  the 
synoptic  gospels  were  independent  of  one 
another.  The  verbal  agreement  between 
tiiem  rarely  extends  to  an  entire  verse,  and 
these  agreements  are  to  be  explained  by  the 
writers  all  using  very  largely  the  language 
in  which  the  apostolic  reports  of  t!hrist's 
words  and  deeds  were  circulated  among  the 
clnir(-hes.  Tradition  states  that  Mark  wrote 
his  tlospel  at  Rome  either  shortly  before  or 
sliortly  after  Peter's  death.  If  so,  it  must 
b(^  dated  A.  D.  6.5-68.  On  other  grounds  also 
scliolars  now  generally  assign  it  to  about 
that  period,  shortly  before  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Mark's  Gospel  was  evidently  written  pri- 
marily for  gentiles.  This  appears,  e.  g.,  in 
his  explanations  of  places  and  customs  and 
terms  (i.  9;  iii.  17;  v.  41;  vii.  3,  4,  11,  34; 
xii.  42;  xiv.  12;  xv.  22,  42,  etc.).  He  uses 
also  a  good  many  I^atin  words  in  Greek 
form,  which  may  indicate  that  his  book  was 
originally  published,  as  tradition  states,  at 
Rome.  ITnlike  Mattiiew,  he  says  nothing 
of  Christ's  relation  to  the  Mosaic  law,  but 
few  allusions  to  tlie  fulfillment  of  proplieey 
are  noted,  and  there  is  an  almost  total  ab- 
.sence  of  quotation  from  the  Old  Testament. 
G.  T.  p.  (edited). 

Mar'ket  of  Ap'pi-us.     See  Api>ii  Forum. 

Ma'roth  [bitterness,  bitter  fountains]. 
.\   town  of  .ludah   (Mic.   i.   12).     Site   un- 
known. 

Mar'riage. 

-Marriage  is  a  divine  institution,  consfiluled 
at  the  beginning  Ixforc  tiie  origin  of  Ininian 
society.     The  Creator  made  man    male   and 


female,  and  ordained  marriage  as  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  the  continuance  of  the 
race  (Gen.  i.  27,  2b).  He  implanted  social 
aflections  and  desires  in  man's  nature.  He 
made  marriage  an  ennobling  influence,  pow- 
erfully contributing  to  the  development  of  a 
comi)lete  life  in  man  and  woman.  He  de- 
clared it  to  be  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone 
and  i)rovidcd  a  help  meet  for  him  (Gen.  ii. 
18).  Abstinence  from  marriage  is  commend- 
able at  the  call  of  duty  (Mat.  xix.  12  ;  1  Cor. 
vii.  8,  26),  but  its  ascetic  prohibition  is  a  sign 
of  departure  from  the  faith  (1  Tim.  iv.  3). 

Monogamy  is  the  divine  ideal.  The  Crea- 
tor constituted  marriage  as  a  union  between 
one  man  and  one  woman  (Gen.  ii  18-24 ; 
Mat.  xix.  5;  1  Cor.  vi.  16).  He  preserves 
the  number  of  males  practically  equal  to  the 
number  of  females  in  a  nation. 

Marriage  is  a  permanent  relation  (Mat.  xix. 
6).  The  Creator  has  indicated  the  perma- 
nence of  the  relation  by  making  the  growth 
of  affection  between  husband  and  wife,  as 
the  years  pass,  to  be  a  natural  process,  in- 
variable under  normal  conditions.  Moral 
ends  require  that  the  relation  be  permanent : 
the  disciplining  of  husband  and  wife  in 
obedience  to  the  obligations  Avhich  spring 
from  their  relations  to  each  other,  and  the 
adequate  training  of  children  to  obedience 
and  virtue.  It  cannot  be  dissolved  by  any 
legitimate  act  of  man.  It  is  dissolved  by 
death  (Rom.  vii.  2,  3).  It  may  be  dissolved 
on  account  of  adultery  (Mat.  xix.  3-9).  Prot- 
estants, following  Paul,  teach  that  it  may 
be  dissolved  by  willful,  deliberate,  final  de- 
sertion (1  Cor.  vii.  15).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  in  those  times  desertion  was 
accompanied  by  adulterous  or  marital  con- 
sorting with  another  person.  The  marriage 
of  ])er,sons  divorced  on  improper  grounds  is 
forbidden  (Mat.  v.  32;  xix.  9;  1  Cor.  vii.  10, 
11).  In  the  sight  of  God,  a  civil  tribunal 
cannot  annul  a  marriage  ;  it  declares  whether 
the  marriage  has  been  .sinfully  annulled  by 
one  or  both  of  the  jiersons  concerned. 

Among  the  antediluvians,  Adam,  Cain, 
Noah,  and  his  three  sons  appear  each  as  the 
husband  of  one  wife.  But  polygamy  was 
already  practiced.  Lamech  having  two  wives 
(Gen.  iv.  19) ;  and  the  purity  of  marriages 
was  impaired  by  men  allowing  themselves  to 
be  governed  by  low  motives  in  the  choice  of 
wives  (vi.  2).  Polvgamy  was  unwisely  adopted 
by  Abraham,  when  he  thought  that  he  must 
needs  help  God  to  fulfill  his  promise  (Gen. 
xvi.  4).  Isaac  had  one  wife,  .lacob  took 
two  wives  and  their  maids.  Moses,  who  was 
correcting  abu.ses,  not  suddenly  abolishing 
them,  permitted  the  Israelites,  on  account  of 
theirduUness  of  spirituiil  perception  and  their 
enslavement  to  the  customs  of  the  age,  to 
put  away  their  wives  for  a  less  fault  than 
the  gravest  breach  of  marital  fidelity ;  and 
he  did  not  forbid  polygamy,  but  discouraged 
it.  He  regulated  what  he  found ;  but  the 
record  of  the  primitive  period  showed  that 


Marriage 

the  state  of  tilings  among  the  Israelites  was 
not  the  ordination  of  the  Creator.  Moses' 
service  to  the  cause  of  matrimony  consisted 
in  setting  a  higher  ideal  by  cstalilishing  the 
degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affinity  within 
which  marriage  is  i)roi>er  (Lev.  xviii.),  dis- 
couraging polygamy  (Lev.  xviii.  18;  Deut. 
xvii.  17),  securing  the  rights  of  inferior 
wives  (Ex.  xxi.  2-11  ;  Deut.  xxi.  10-17),  re- 
stricting divorce  (Deut.  xxii.  19,  29 ;  xxiv. 
1),  and  requiring  purity  in  the  married  life 
(Ex.  XX.  14,  17  ;  Lev.  xx.  10;  Deut.  xxii.  22). 
Polygamy  continued  to  be  practiced  more  or 
less  by  wealthy  individuals  after  the  time  of 
Moses,  as  by  Gideon,  Elkanah,  Saul,  David, 
Solomon,  Rehoboam,  and  others  (Judg.  viii. 
30  ;  1  Sara.  i.  2  ;  2  Sam.  v.  l.S  ;  xii.  8 ;  xxi.  8 ; 
1  Kin.  xi.  3).  The  evils  of  polygamy  are 
exhibited  in  Scripture  by  the  record  of  the 
jealousies  of  the  wives  of  Abraham  and 
Elkanah  (Gen.  xvi.  6  ;  1  Sam.  i.  6),  and  beau- 
tiful pictures  are  presented  of  the  felicity  of 
marriage  between  one  man  and  one  woman 
(Ps.  cxxviii.  3;  Prov.  v.  18;  xxxi.  10-29; 
Ecc.  ix.  9 ;    cp.    Ecclus.   xxvi.   1-27). 

In  the  family  to  which  Abraham  belonged 
marriage  was  permitted  with  a  half-sister 
and  with  two  sisters  (Gen.  xx.  12  ;  xxix.  26). 
Marriage  with  a  full  sister  was  not  rare  in 
Egypt,  and  was  allowed  in  Persia  (Herod. 
iii.  31).  Marriage  with  a  half-sister  by  the 
same  father  was  permitted  at  Athens,  and 
with  a  half-.sister  by  the  same  mother  at 
Sparta.  The  Mosaic  law  prohibited  alliance 
with  persons  so  closely  related  by  blood  as 
these  and  with  others  less  near  of  kin  (Lev. 
xviii.  (i-18)  ;  but  in  case  a  man  died  childless, 
his  brother  took  the  widow  (Deut.  xxv.  5). 
Such  marriage  was  ordained,  but  it  was  not 
compulsory.  The  Roman  law  was  not  unlike 
the  Hebrew.  It  declared  marriages  to  be 
incestuous,  "when  the  parties  were  too  nearly 
related  by  consanguinity — that  is,  by  being 
of  the  same  blood,  as  brother  and  sister ;  or 
by  affinity — that  is,  by  being  connected 
through  marriage,  as  father-in-law  and  daugh- 
ter-in-law." 

The  selection  of  a  wife  for  a  young  man 
devolved  on  his  relations,  especially  on  his 
father  (Gen.  xxi.  21  ;  xxiv.  ;  xxxviii.  6  ;  2 
Esd.  ix.  47),  though  sometimes  the  son  made 
known  his  preference  and  the  father  merely 
(Conducted  the  negotiations  (Gen.  xxxiv.  4,8; 
Judg.  xiv.  1-10).  Only  under  extraordinary 
circumstances  did  the  young  man  make  the 
arrangements  (Gen.  xxix.  IH).  likewise  it 
was  the  consent  of  the  maid's  father  and 
eldest  brother  that  was  sought,  it  not  being 
necessary  to  consult  her  (Gen.  xxiv.  51  ; 
xxxiv.  11).  Occasionally  a  parent  looked 
out  an  eligible  husband  for  a  daughter  or 
offered  her  to  a  suitable  person  in  marriage 
(Ex.  ii.  21;  Josh.  xv.  17;  Ruth  iii.  1,  2 ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  27).  Presents  were  given  to  the 
parents,  and  sometimes  to  the  maiden  (Gen. 
xxiv.  22,  53;  xxix.  18,27;  xxxiv.  12;  1  Sam. 
xviii.  25).     Between  betrothal  and  marriage 


477 


Marriage 


all  communication  between  the  affianced  par- 
ties was  carried  on  through  a  friend  dejiuted 
for  the  purjiose  and  termed  the  friend  of  the 
bridegnxim  (.lohn  iii.  29). 

The  marriage  itself  was  a  purely  domestic 
affair,  without  definite  religious  services, 
though  probably  the  espousal  was  ratified  by 
an  oath  (Prov.  ii.  17;  Ezek.  xvi.  8;  Mai.  ii. 
14).  After  the  exile  it  became  customary  to 
draw  up  and  seal  a  written  contract  (Tob. 
vii.  14).  When  the  day  appointed  for  the 
wedding  arrived,  the  bride  bathed  (cp.  Judith 
X.  3;  Eph.  v.  2<J,  27),  put  on  white  robes, 
often  richly  embroidered  (Rev.  xix.  8 ;  Ps. 
xlv.  13,  14),  decked  herself  with  jewels  (Is. 
Ixi.  10  ;  Rev.  xxi.  2),  fa.steued  the  indispen- 
sable bridal  girdle  about  her  waist  (Is.  iii.  24  ; 
xlix.  18 ;  Jer.  ii.  32),  covered  herself  with  a 
veil  (Gen.  xxiv.  65),  and  placed  a  garland  on 
her  head.  The  bridegroom,  arrayed  in  his 
best  attire,  with  a  handsome  headdress  and  a 
garland  on  his  head  (Song  iii.  11  ;  Is.  Ixi.  10), 
set  out  from  his  home  for  the  house  of  the 
bride's  parents,  attended  by  his  friends  (Judg. 
xiv.  11  ;  Mat.  ix.  15),  accompanied  by  musi- 
cians and  singers  and,  if  the  procession  moved 
at  night,  by  persons  bearing  torches  (1  Mac. 
ix.  39;  Mat.  xxv.  7;  cp.  Gen.  xxxi.  27;  Jer. 
vii.  34).  Having  received  his  bride,  deeply 
veiled,  from  her  parents  with  their  blessing 
and  the  good  wishes  of  friends  (Gen.  xxiv. 
59;  Ruth  iv.  11;  Tob.  vii.  13),  he  conducted 
the  whole  party  back  to  his  own  or  his 
father's  house  with  song,  music,  and  dancing 
(Ps.  xlv.  15;  Song  iii.  6-11;  1  Mac.  ix.  37). 
On  the  way  back  they  were  joined  by  maid- 
ens, friends  of  the  bride  and  groom  (Mat. 
xxv.  6).  A  feast  was  served  at  the  house  of 
the  groom  or  of  his  parents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-10; 
John  ii.  1,  9)  ;  but  if  he  lived  at  a  great  dis- 
tance the  feast  was  spread  in  the  house  of 
the  bride's  parents  (Mat.  xxv.  1),  either  at 
their  expense  or  the  groom's  (Gen.  xxix.  22; 
Judg.  xiv.  10;  Tob.  viii.  19).  The  groom 
now  associated  with  his  bride  for  the  first 
time  (John  iii.  29).  In  the  evening  the  bride 
was  escorted  to  the  nuptial  chamber  by  her 
parents  (Gen.  xxix.  23;  Judg.  xv.  1;  Tob. 
vii.  16,  17),  and  the  groom  by  his  companions 
or  the  bride's  parents  (Tob.  viii.  1).  On  the 
morrow  the  festivities  wore  resumed,  and 
continued  for  one  or  two  weeks  (Gen.  xxix. 
27 ;  Judg.  xiv.  12 :  Tob.  viii.  19,  20). 

The  spiritual  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  his  people  is  figuratively  spoken  of  as  a 
marriage  or  betrothal  (Is.  Ixii.  4,  5;  Hos.  ii. 
19).  The  apostasy  of  (rod's  people  through 
idolatry  or  other  form  of  sin  is  accordingly 
likened  to  infidelity  on  the  part  of  a  wife 
(Is.  i.  21;  Jer.  iii.  1-20;  Ezek.  xvi.;  xxiii. ; 
Hos.  ii.),  and  leads  to  divorce  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  27; 
Jer.  ii.  20;  Hos.  iv.  12).  The  figure  is  con- 
tinued in  the  N.  T. ;  Christ  is  the  bridegroom 
(Mat.  ix.  15  ;  John  iii.  29),  and  the  church  is 
the  bride  (2  Cor.  xi.  2;  Rev.  xix.  7;  xxi.  2, 
9 ;  xxii.  17).  The  love  of  Christ  for  the 
church,  his  solicitude  for  her  perfection,  and 


Marsena 


478 


Mary 


his  headship  are  held  up  as  the  standard  for 
imitatiou  by  husbands  and  wives  (Eph.  v. 
23'32). 

Mar'se-na. 

One  of  tlie  seven  princes  of  Persia  who 
were  permitted  to  see  the  king's  face  (Esth. 
i.  14).  He  was  perhaps  the  ceh-brated  Mar- 
donius,  tlie  cousin  of  Xerxes  and  one  of  his 
chief  advisers  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
(Herod,  vii.  5,  9).  The  third  consonant  iu 
the  Hebrew  form  of  his  name  is  saraech, 
which  represents  a  sound  not  always  distin- 
guished from  a  dental.     See  Prince. 

Mars'  Hill.    See  Areopagus. 

Mar'tha  [lady,  mistress]. 

Sister  of  Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(John  xi.  1,  2).  The  three  were  tenderly  at- 
tached to  Jesus.  Martha  loved  him  and  de- 
sired to  make  him  comfortable  and  show  him 
respect  in  her  house.  Mary  gave  evidence 
of  a  deeper  appreciation  by  her  hunger  for 
the  words  of  truth  that  fell  from  his  lips; 
and  when  Martha  would  have  him  rebuke 
Mary  for  not  assisting  her  to  attend  to  his 
external  wants,  Jesus  taught  that  he  himself 
regarded  tlie  inward  craving  of  his  followers 
for  sjdritual  fellowship  with  him  as  more 
essential  than  their  concern  for  his  external 
honor  (Luke  x.  38-42).  Both  sisters  were 
sincere  believers  (John  xi.  21-32).  The  house 
where  Jesus  was  received  is  called  Martha's 
(I^uke  X.  38) ;  and  the  supper  which  was  given 
to  him  at  Bethany,  at  which  I^azarus  was 
I)resent  and  Martha  again  served,  where 
Mary  anointed  his  ieet  (John  xii.  1-3)  was  at 
the  house  of  Simon  the  leper  (Mat.  xxvi.  6 ; 
Mark  xiv.  3).  From  these  facts  it  has  been 
inferred  that  Martha  was  probably  the  wife 
or  widow  of  Simon. 

Ma'ry  [N.  T.  Greek  Mor'ia  and  Moriom, 
from  Hebrew  Minjohi,  Miriam.  Also  I^atin 
Miirin]. 

Six  women  of  the  name  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament. 

1.  Mary  the  (  wife)  of  Clopas  or  Cleophas,  a 
Mary  so  designated  in  John  xix.  2.^.  "  Wife," 
according  to  a  method  of  Greek  speech,  is  not 
found  in  the  original  Greek,  but  is  properly 
su]Pi>lie(l  t)oth  by  A.  V.  and  K.  Y.  (lojias  of 
tlie  K.  v.,  Ch'ojihas  of  the  A.  v.,  isa]>ii:nently 
to  be  identified  with  Aliilueus  (^hit.  x.  .3; 
Mark  iii.  IH;  Luke  vi.  If)),  the  two  names 
being  variant  forms  of  the  same  Aramaic 
original.  He  and  Mary  were  thus  the  parents 
of  the  ajiostle  James  the  Less,  who  had  also 
a  lirotlicr  Joses  (Mat.  xxvii.  ."(i ;  Mark  xv. 
40;  Luke  xxiv.  10).  Those  who  understand 
the  Lord's  "brethren"  to  have  been  his 
cousins  on  his  mother's  side,  suppose  tliat 
this  Mary  was  a  sister  of  the  Virgin,  and  that 
John  (xix.  25)  mentions  only  three  women 
at  tlie  cross.  But  it  is  unlikely  that  two 
sisters  should  have  had  the  same  name,  and 
other  consideratioTis  make  the  cousin  theory 
imi)robable ;  see  Brethren  of  the  Lord. 
In  that  case  John  mentions  four  women  at 


the  cro.ss.  One  of  them  was  Mary  the  wife 
of  Glopas ;  but,  beyond  the  fact  that  her 
husband  and  sons  were,  like  herself,  disciples 
of  Jesus  and  that  probably  one  of  her  sons- 
was  an  apostle,  we  know  nothing  more  of 
her.  Besides  being  at  the  cross,  Mary  was 
one  of  the  women  who  followed  the  body  of 
Jesus  to  the  tomb  (Mat.  xxvii.  01),  and  on 
the  third  day  took  spices  to  the  sepulcher, 
and  to  whom  the  risen  Saviour  ajipeared 
(Mat.  xxviii.  1 ;  Mark  xv.  47  ;  xvi.  1  ;  Luke 
xxiv.  10).  See  No.  2  of  this  article;  also 
Alph^us,  James. 

2.  Mary  the  Virgin  ;  the  Virgin  Mary.  All 
the  authentic  information  about  her  comes 
from  Scripture.  We  are  told  that,  in  the 
sixth  month  after  the  conception  of  John 
the  Baptist,  the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  from 
God  to  Nazareth,  a  city  or  village  of  Gali- 
lee, to  a  virgin  named  Mary,  who  was  resid- 
ing there  and  who  was  betrothed  to  a  car- 
penter named  Joseph  (Luke  i.  26,  27).  Joseph 
is  ex]>licitly  declared  to  have  been  a  de- 
scendant of  David.  Mary  is  not  so  described  ; 
but  many  believe  that  she  too  was  of  Davidic 
lineage,  because  she  was  told  that  her  child 
should  receive  "  the  throne  of  his  father 
David,"  also  because  our  Lord  is  said  to  have 
been  of  "the  seed  of  David  according  to  the 
flesh  "  (Rom.  i.  3 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  8 ;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
30),  and  again  because,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  scholars,  the  genealogy  of  Christ  given 
by  Luke  (iii.  23-38)  is  through  his  mother, 
in  which  case  Mary's  father  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Heli.  However  this  may  be, 
Gabriel  hailed  Mary  as  a  highly  favored 
one,  and  announced  to  her  that  she  should 
have  a  son  whose  name  she  should  call  Jesus. 
"He,"  said  the  angel,  "shall  be  great,  and 
shall  he  called  the  Son  of  the  Most  High : 
and  the  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the 
throne  of  his  father  David  :  and  lie  shall 
reign  over  the  house  of  Jacob  forever ;  and 
of  liis  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end  "  (Luke 
i.  32,  33,  Ii.  v.).  When  Mary  asked  how  this 
could  be,  since  she  was  a  virgin,  she  Avas  told 
that  it  would  be  wrought  by  the  ]iower  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  "wherefore  also  that  which 
is  to  be  born  shall  be  called  holy,  the  Son  of 
God  "  (Luke  i.  35,  ]{.  V.).  These  expressicms 
revealed  to  Mary  that  she  was  chosen  to  be 
the  mother  of  Messiah,  and  with  bumble 
piety  she  acce]ited  the  honor  which  God  was 
mysteriously  to  confer  upon  her.  For  her 
comfort  she  was  informed  by  the  angel  that 
her  kinswoman  Elisabeth  was  also  to  become 
a  mother,  wbereu])on  ]\Iary  hastened  to  the 
village  of  Judah  where  Zacharias  and  Elisa- 
beth lived.  At  her  coming  Elisabeth  was 
made  aware  of  the  honor  intended  for  Mary, 
and  broke  out  into  an  inspired  song  of  praise. 
Thereupon  Mary  also  gave  voice  to  a  liymn 
of  thanksgiving  ("  The  Magnificat,"  Luke  1. 
46-55).  We  learn  from  all  this  the  profound 
piety  and  solemn  joy  with  which  these  holy 
women  (contemplated  the  power  and  grace  of 
God   which  was  through  their   offspring  to 


Mary 

fulfill  the  ancient  jiromises  to  Israel  and 
bring  salvation  to  the  world.  Mary  remained 
under  the  protection  of  Elisal)eth  until  Just 
before  the  birth  of  John,  when  she  returned 
to  Nazareth.  Soon  after  the  cause  of  her 
condition  was  revealed  in  a  dream  to  Joseph, 
who  at  first  had  thought  of  ((uietly  putting 
her  away  from  him  (Mat.  i.  1«-21).  He  was 
directed  to  marry  her  and  to  call  the  name 
of  the  child  Jesus,  "  for  it  is  he  that  shall 
save  his  people  from  their  sins."  It  was 
pointed  out  also  to  him  that  Isaiah  had  pre- 
dicted that  Messiah  would  be  born  of  a  vir- 
gin. Joseph  reverently  obeyed.  He  "took 
unto  him  his  wife  ;  and  knew  her  not  till  she 
had  brought  forth  a  sou :  and  he  called  his 
name  Jesus"  (Mat.  i.  24,  2."),  R.  V.).  By  this 
marriage  Mary  was  protected,  her  mysterious 
secret  was  guarded,  and  her  child  was  l)orn 
as  the  legal  son  of  Joseph,  and  therefore 
through  him  heir  of  David.  Tlic  birth,  how- 
ever, took  place  at  Bethlehem.  A  decree  of 
Augustus  that  all  the  world  should  be  en- 
rolled was  being  carried  out  in  Palestine, 
and  compelled  Jo.seph,  being  of  Davidic  de- 
scent, to  repair  to  David's  city  to  be  enrolled. 
Mary  accompanied  him.  Finding  no  room 
in  the  inn,  or  khan,  they  were  compelled  to 
lodge  in  a  stable,  perhaps,  however,  one  that 
was  then  not  being  used  by  cattle.  There 
Jesus  was  boru,  and  his  mother  "  wrapped 
him  in  swaddling  clothes,  and  laid  him  in  a 
manger"  (Luke  ii.  7).  With  reverent,  trust- 
ful awe  Mary  heard  the  shepherds  relate  the 
vision  of  angels  which  they  had  seen  and  the 
song  of  peace  which  they  had  heard  herald- 
ing the  Saviour's  birth.  Of  course,  she  did 
not  know  that  her  child  was  God  made  fiesh. 
She  only  knew  that  he  was  to  be  Messiah, 
and  with  true  piety  she  waited  for  God  to 
make  his  mission  clear.  On  the  fortieth  day 
after  the  birth  Mary  went,  with  Joseph  and 
Jesus,  to  Jerusalem  to  present  the  child  to 
the  Lord  and  to  otter  in  the  temple  the  otter- 
ing required  by  the  law  (Lev.  xi.  2,  fi,  8) 
from  women  after  childbirth.  The  fact  that 
her  otferiug  is  said  to  have  been  that  required 
of  poor  people — a  pair  of  turtle  doves  or  two 
young  pigeons — indicates  the  humble  cir- 
cumstances of  the  family.  When,  liowever, 
the  parents  brought  in  the  child,  they  wei'e 
met  by  the  aged  Simeon  who  rejoiced  over 
the  birth  of  Messiah,  but  foretold  to  Mary 
that  she  should  have  great  sorrow  because  of 
what  would  happen  to  him  (Luke  ii.  35). 
After  this  Joseph  and  Mary  appear  to  have 
returned  to  Bethlehem  and  to  have  lived  in 
a  house  (Mat.  ii.  11).  There  Mary  received 
the  wise  men  from  the  east  who  came  to 
worship  .Tesus  (Mat.  ii.  1-11).  Soon  after  she 
fled  with  Joseph  and  the  child  to  Egypt,  and 
aftervvards  by  divine  direction  they  returned 
to  Nazareth.  There  she  must  have  devoted 
herself  especially  to  the  rearing  of  the  child 
of  promise  who  had  been  committed  to  her 
care  and  of  whose  future  she  must  have 
thought  continually.    One  glimpse  of  Mary's 


479 


Mary 


character  is  given  us  when  Jesus  was  twelve 
years  old.  She  was  in  the  habit  piously  of 
attending  with  Joseph  the  y(^arly  passover 
(Luke  ii.  41),  though  this  was  not  specifically 
required  of  Jewish  women  (E.\.  .\.\iii.  17). 
With  like  piety  Joseph  and  Mary  took  Jesus 
with  them,  as  .soon  as  he  re;iclied  the  age 
when  it  was  customary  for  childri'ii  to  attend, 
and  his  delay  in  the  temple  and  his  words 
when  his  parents  found  him  with  the  doctors, 
were  the  occasion  of  increased  awe  to  his 
parents.  "  His  mother  k(;pt  all  these  sayings 
in  her  heart"  (Luke  ii.  51).  Mary  did  not 
understand  how  great  her  child  really  was 
nor  how  he  was  to  fulfill  his  nussiou.  It  was 
hers  reverently  and  trustfully  to  rear  him 
for  God's  service,  and  this  she  did  so  long  as 
he  was  under  her.  If  the  "  brethren  of  the 
Lord  "  (see  Brethren  of  the  Lord)  were,  as 
is  probable,  the  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
born  after  Jesus,  Mary  was  the  mother  of  a 
large  family.  We  read  also  of  t'hrist's  sisters 
(Mark  vi.  3).  But  nothing  further  is  re- 
corded of  Mary  until  the  licfiiuniug  of  Christ's 
public  ministry.  She  then  appears  at  the 
marriage  in  ('ana  (.John  ii.  1-10).  She  evi- 
dently rejoiced  in  her  son's  assumption  of 
Messianic  office  and  fully  believed  in  him. 
But  she  ventured  improperly  to  direct  his 
actions,  and  thus  elicited  from  him  a  re- 
spectful but  firm  rebuke.  Mary  nuist  under- 
stand that  in  his  work  she  could  share  only 
as  a  follower.  While  as  her  son  he  gave  her 
reverence,  as  the  Messiah  and  Saviour  he 
could  only  regard  her  as  a  disciple,  needing 
as  much  as  others  the  salvation  he  came  to 
bring.  A  similar  truth  was  brought  out  on 
the  next  occasion  on  which  she  appears  (Mat. 
xii.  46-50;  Mark  iii.  31-35;  Luke  viii.  19- 
21).  While  .Tesus  was  teaching  on  the  great 
day  of  parables,  Mary  with  his  brethren  de- 
sired to  see  him.  Perhaps  they  wished  to 
restrain  him  from  a  course  which  seemed  to 
be  bringing  ujion  him  o|ipositiou  and  jieril. 
His  reply  again  declared  that  the  spiritual 
bond  between  him  and  his  disciples  was  more 
important  than  any  human  tie.  "  For  whoso- 
ever shall  do  the  will  of  my  Father  which  is 
in  heaven,  he  is  my  brother,  and  sister,  and 
mother"  (Mat.  xii.  50,  R.  V.).  While  Christ 
pursued  his  ministry,  Mary  and  his  l)rethreu 
appear  to  have  still  lived  in  Nazareth.  As 
no  mention  is  made  of  Josejdi,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  he  had  died.  But  at  the 
crucifixion  Mary  appears  with  other  women 
at  the  cross.  Unlike  his  brethren  (John  vii. 
5)  she  had  always  believed  in  her  son's  Mes- 
siahship,  and  therefore  it  is  not  strange  to 
find  that  she  followed  him  on  the  last  fatal 
journey  to  Jerusalem.  With  a  mother's  love, 
as  well  as  with  a  disciple's  sorrow,  she  beheld 
his  crucifixion,  and  to  her  Jesus  spoke  in  the 
hour  of  his  su fleering.  He  gave  her  to  the 
care  of  his  beloved  disciple  .Tohn,  and  "  from 
that  hour  tluit  disciple  took  her  unto  his  own 
home"  (John  xix.  25-27).  After  the  ascen- 
sion she  was  with  the  apostles  in  the  upper 


Mary 


480 


Maschil 


mom  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  14),  and  this  is  the 
last  notice  of  her  in  Scripture.  We  do  not 
know  the  time  or  manner  of  her  death.  The 
tomb  of  llie  Virgin  is  shown  in  the  valley 
of  the  Kidron,  hut  there  is  no  reiison  to  be- 
lieve in  its  genuineness.  Later  legends  were 
busy  with  her  name,  but  none  contain  trust- 
worthy information.  As  presented  in  Scrip- 
ture, she  is  simply  a  beautiful  example  of  a 
devoted  and  pious  mother. 

'.i.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  designation  given 
to  this  Mary  (Mat.  xxvii.  5(>,  61 ;  xxviii.  1 ; 
Mark  xv.  40,  47;  xvi.  1,  9;  Luke  viii.  2; 
xxiv.  10;  .Tohn  xix.  '25;  xx.  1,  18)  doubtless 
indicates  that  she  was  a  resident  of  Magdala, 
on  the  southwestern  coast  of  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee. Out  of  her  .Tesus  had  cast  seven  devils 
(Mark  xvi.  9;  Luke  viii.  2),  and  she  became 
one  of  his  most  devoted  disciples.  The  old 
belief  tliat  she  had  been  a  woman  of  had 
character,  from  which  the  current  use  of  the 
word  Magdalen  has  arisen,  rests  merely 
on  the  fact  that  the  first  mention  of  her 
(Luke  viii.  2]  follows  closely  uj)on  the  account 
of  tlie  sinful  woman  who  anointed  the  Sav- 
iour's feet  in  a  city  of  Galilee  (Luke  vii.  3H- 
50).  This,  however,  is  hardly  sufficient  proof. 
What  form  her  terrible  malady  had  taken 
we  do  not  kTiow.  She  became  a  disciple 
during  the  early  Galiltean  ministry,  and  was 
one  of  those  who  Joined  the  little  company 
of  Christ's  immediate  followers,  and  minis- 
tered to  him  of  her  substance  (Luke  viii.  1-3). 
She  was  one  of  the  women  at  the  cross  (Mat. 
xxvii.  5(j ;  Mark  xv.  40;  John  xix.  25)  and 
observed  the  Lord's  burial  (Mat.  xxvii.  til). 
Early  on  the  third  day  she,  with  Mary 
the  wife  of  Clopas  and  Salome,  went  to 
the  s(!pulcher  to  anoint  the  body  of  Jesus 
(Mark  xvi.  1).  Finding  the  stone  rolled 
away  she  ([uickly  returned  to  the  city  and 
told  Peter  and  .loiin  that  the  body  of  Jesus 
had  been  t;iken  away  (John  xx.  1,  2).  Then, 
following  the  apostles,  she  returned  again  to 
tiie  garden  and  lingered  there  after  they  had 
gone.  To  her  first  Jesus  api)eared  (Mark 
xvi.  9;  John  xx.  11-17),  and  she  reported 
his  rc-surr(H!tion  to  the  other  disciples  (xx. 
IH).  Nothing  further  is  known  of  her  his- 
tory. 

4.  Mary  of  Bethany.  A  woman  who,  with 
lier  sister  Martha,  lived  in  "a  certain  vil- 
lage" (Luke  X.  :W)  which  Joliii  reveals  to 
have  been  Bethany  (John  xi.  1;  xii.  1),  about 
a  mile  east  of  tiie  summit  of  the  moutit  of 
Olives.  On  the  first  occasion  when  Jesus  is 
recorded  to  have  visited  th(^ir  liouse  (Luke 
X.  :iS-42),  Mary  api)ears  as  eager  to  receive 
his  instruction.  JIartha  requested  Jesus  to 
bid  Mary  help  her  in  serving  the  entertain- 
ment, hut  he  replied:  "But  one  thing  is 
needful  :  for  I\Iary  hath  cliosen  the  good 
j)art,  wiiit^h  shall  not  he  taken  away  from 
her"  (Luke  x.  42,  R.  V.).  John  (xi.)  furtiier 
relates  that  Mary  had  a  brother  named  Laza- 
rus whom  the  Lord  raised  from  the  dead. 
Wlicn  Jesus  reached  the  house,  after  Lazarus 


had  been  four  days  dead,  Mary  at  first  "still 
sat  in  the  house  "  (John  xi.  20,  E.  V.),  but 
afterwards  was  summoned  by  Martha  to  meet 
the  Lord  who  had  called  for  her  (ver.  28). 
As  Martha  had  done,  Mary  exclaimed,  "  Lord, 
if  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brotln^r  had  not 
died,"  and  the  grief  of  the  sisters  deeply 
moved  the  symj)athetic  Saviour.  Afterwards, 
six  days  before  his  last  passover  (John  xii.  1), 
Jesus  came  to  Bethany,  and  a  supper  was 
made  in  his  honor  in  the  house  of  Simon  the 
leper  (Mark  xiv.  3).  While  it  was  in  progress 
Mary  brought  an  alabaster  box  of  pure  oint- 
ment, very  costly,  and,  breaking  the  box, 
poured  the  ointment  on  the  head  of  Jesus 
(ibid.),  and  anointed  liis  feet,  wiping  them 
with  her  hair  (John  xii.  3).  It  was  an  act 
of  rare  devotion,  testifying  both  to  her 
gratitude  and  to  her  sense  of  the  high  dig- 
nity of  him  whom  she  honored.  Judas,  and 
some  other  of  the  disciples,  were  disposed  to 
find  fault  with  the  waste ;  but  Jesus  com- 
mended the  act  and  declared  that  "  whereso- 
ever the  gospel  shall  be  preached  through- 
out the  whole  world,  that  also  which  this 
woman  hath  done  shall  be  spoken  of  for  a 
memorial  of  her"  (Mat.  xxvi.  6-13;  Mark 
xiv.  3-9).  He  looked  upon  her  act  also  as  a 
loving,  though  doubtless  unintentional,  con- 
secration of  him  to  his  approaching  sacrifice 
(John  xii.  7,  8). 

5.  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark.  The  Chris- 
tian woman  in  whose  house  the  disciples  liad 
met  to  pray  for  the  release  of  Peter,  when 
he  was  imprisoned  by  Herod  Agrijipa,  and  to 
which  Peter  at  (mce  went  when  delivered  by 
tlie  angel  (Acts  xii.  12).  Her  son  was  the 
author  of  our  Second  Gospel ;  see  Mark.  She 
was  evidently  in  comfortable  circumstances 
(13),  and  her  house  is  supposed  to  liave  been 
one  of  the  principal  meeting  places  of  the  early 
Jerusalem  Christians.  According  to  A.\.  in 
Col.  iv.  10  she  was  the  sister  of  Barnabas; 
but  R.  V.  correctly  translates  "cousin"  in- 
stead of  "  sister's  son,"  and  it  does  not  apjiear 
whether  Mark's  relationship  to  Barnabas  was 
on  his  father's  or  his  mother's  side.  Nothing 
is  told  us  of  Mary's  husband. 

6.  Mary  of  Rome.  A  Christian  woman  at 
Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation  (Rom. 
xvi.  6).  The  A.  V.  reads  "who  bestowed 
much  labor  on  ?'.s,"  implying  that  Mary  at  one 
time  had  greatly  assisted  the  ajjostle.  The 
R.  v.,  however,  properly  reads  "  who  be- 
stowed much  labor  on  you."  Mary  had  thus 
been  an  active  worker  in  the  Christian  cause 
at  Rimie.  Beyond  this  reference  we  know 
nothing  of  her. 

G.  T.  p. 

Mas'a-loth.    See  Mesa  loth. 

Mas'chil  [attentive,  intelligent,  or  render- 
ing int(dligent]. 

A  ne))rew  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  xxxii.,  xlii.,  xliv.,  xiv..  lii.,  liii.,  liv.,  Iv., 
Ixxiv..  jxxviii,,  Ixxxviii.,  Ixxxix.,  and  (^xlii. 
It  doubtless  means  either  a  didactic  poem 


Masli 


481 


Mattaniah 


(cp.  Ps.   xxxii.   8,   "  I  will   instruct,"    same 
word  radically),  or  else  a  reflective  poem. 

Mash. 

A  branch  of  the  Aramaeans  (Gen.  x.  23). 
Called  in  1  Chron.  i.  17  Meshech,  and  essen- 
tially so  in  the  Septuagint  of  Gen.  x.  23.  This 
is  due  to  its  confusion  by  copyists  with  the 
more  familiar  name  ;  or  else,  if  the  original 
text,  it  points  to  an  intermingling  of  Japhetic 
and  Semitic  people  in  Meshech. 

Ma'shal.     See  Mishal. 

Ma'son. 

A  workman  skilled  to  hew  and  saw  stones 
into  shape  for  building  purposes  and  erect 
walls  (2  Sam.  v.  11  ;  1  Kin.  vii.  9  ;  1  Chron. 
xxii.  2 ;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  12).  The  art  made 
great  progress  among  the  ancient  Egyptians ; 
as  the  pyramids,   built    under    the    fourth 


Masons  at  Work  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

dynasty,  and  numerous  temples  show.  The 
Hebrews  served  in  brick  and  mortar  while 
they  were  in  bondage  in  Egypt  (Ex.  i.  11, 
14)  ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  their  being 
employed  in  shaping  and  laying  stones.  In 
Solomon's  time  the  Phojnicians  had  more 
skill  in  the  art  than  the  Hebrews,  who  as 
yet  had  not  had  occasion  to  erect  great  struc- 
tures of  stone,  and  Phcenician  masons  were 
accordingly  hired  to  build  the  temple  and 
Solomon's  palace.  They  managed  blocks  of 
stone  12  and  1.5  feet  in  length  and  even 
longer,  and  proportionately  broad  and  high 
(1  Kin.  vii.  10).  But  they  were  doubtless 
Hebrew  workmen  who  afterwards  erected 
walls  and  fortresses,  built  aqueducts  and 
reservoirs,  arches  and  bridges,  and  fashioned 
columns  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  14 ;  Ezra  iii,  10  ; 
Song  V.  1.5  ;  Antiq.  xv.  11,  2).  They  also  un- 
derstood the  use  of  the  plummet  (Amos  vii. 
7;  Zech.  iv.  10;  Is.  xxviii.  17). 

Mas'o-retes  and  Masorites.   See  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

Mas'pha.     See  Mizpeh  2  and  5. 
31 


Mas're-kah  [a  vineyard]. 

An  Edomite  city  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  47).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Mas'sa  [carrying,  a  load,  a  burden]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  30  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxx.  1  and  xxxi. 
1,  II.  V.  margin)  ;  generally  identified  with 
the  Masani,  a  tribe  of  the  Arabian  desert 
near  the  Persian  Gulf  (Ptol.  v.  19,  2),  north- 
east of  Dumah.  The  Assyrian  inscriptions 
mention  Mas'u,  as  the  name  may  be  read, 
with  Tem'u  and  Niba'atu,  cp.  Gen.  xxv.  13, 
15. 

Mas'sah  [testing,  temptation]. 

A  name  given  by  Moses  to  the  place  at 
Horeb  where  the  smitten  rock  yielded  water, 
because  the  Israelites  there  in  unbelief  put 
Jehovah  to  a  test  (Ex.  xvii.  7;  Ps.  xcv.  8,  9, 
R.  V,  ;  and  also  Dent,  xxxiii.  8,  where  the 
thought  is  expressed  tliat  Jeliovah  tested 
the  fidelity  of  the  Levites  in  the  person  of 
Moses).  In  Ex.  xvii.  7  the  place  is  called 
Meribah  also;  possibly  so  in  the  two  other 
passages  already  cited,  where,  however,  two 
distinct  events  and  places  may  be  in  the 
writer's  mind.  The  name  Massah  alone  is 
used  in  Deut.  vi.  16  ;  ix.  22 ;  and  used  of 
this  event,  it  would  seem,  since  Israel's  re- 
belliousness against  Jehovah  soon  after  leav- 
ing Egypt  (ix.  7),  and  apparentlj^  before 
reaching  Horeb  (8),  is  dwelt  upon,  and  the 
event  at  Massah  is  mentioned  in  the  same 
breath  with  similar  events  that  occurred  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Horeb  (22).  See 
Meribah. 

Ma-thu'sa-la.    See  Methuselah. 

Ma'tred  [driving  forward]. 

The  mother-in-law  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  39  ;  1  Chron.  i.  50). 

Ma'tri  [rainy]. 

A  Benjaniite  family,  from  which  sprang 
Kish  and  liis  son  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  x.  21). 

Mat 'tan  [a  gift]. 

1.  A  i)riest  of  Baal  slain  before  the  altar 
of  that  god  during  the  revolution  which  led 
to  the  death  of  Athaliah  and  the  elevation  of 
Joash  to  the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xi.  18  ; 
2  Chron.  xxiii.  17). 

2.  Father  of  Shejihatiah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 
Mat'ta-nah  [a  gift]. 

One  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  or 
near  the  Moabite  territory  (Num.  xxi.  18, 19). 
The  Greek  texts  differ  variously  from  the 
Hebrew;  hence  possibly  the  word  Mattanah 
was  not  in  ver.  19  originally,  and  in  ver.  18 
is  a  common  noun  and  part  of  the  last  line 
of  the  song,  thus:  And  from  a  wilderness  a 
gift. 

Mat-ta-ni'ah  [gift  t)f  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  singer,  son  of  Heman,  in  David's  time 
(1  Clinm.  xxv.  4,  16). 

2.  A  Levite,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  and 
founder  of  a  branch  of  the  family  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14).  Probably  he  himself  is  mentioned 
in  1  Chron.  ix.  15,  and  Neh.  xiii.  13 ;  and  the 


Mattatha 


482 


Matthew 


representative  of  the  house  in  Neh.  xii.  8 ; 
cp.  Ezra  ii.  41 ;  Nch.  xi.  17,  22  ;  xii.  25. 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph.  He 
was  one  of  tliose  who  aided  king  Hezekiah 
in  Ids  work  of  religious  reformation  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  i;5). 

4.  A  son  of  king  Josiah.  He  was  placed 
on  the  throne  and  his  name  was  altered  to 
Zcdekiali  hy  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17)  ;  see  Zedekiah. 

5-8.  Four  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Elam,  a  son  of 
Zattu,  a  son  of  Pahath-moab,  and  a  son  of 
Bani,  wlio  were  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  26,  27,  30,  37). 

Mat'ta-tha  [gift]. 

A  sun  of  Nathan  and  grandson  of  king 
David  I  Luke  iii.  31). 

Mat'ta-thah.     See  Mattattah. 

Mat-ta-tM'as  [(4reik  form  of  Mattithiah, 
gift  of  .lehovah  (see  Septuagiut,  1  Chron. 
ix.  31  ;  XXV.  3)]. 

1  and  2.  A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of 
Christ,  separated  from  each  other  by  five 
generations,  who  lived  after  the  time  of 
Zerubluibel  (Luke  iii.  25,  26). 

3.  A  priest,  founder  of  the  Maecabee  family 
(1  Mac.  ii.  1-70).     See  Maccabee. 

4.  Son  of  Absalom,  and  a  captain  in  the 
army  of  Jonathan  Maccabteus.  He  distin- 
guished him.self  at  the  battle  of  Hazor  by  re- 
maining at  tlie  side  of  .bjnathan  when  all  the 
other  captains  save  one  liad  fled  (1  Mac.  xi. 
70).  He  was  perhaps  a  brother  of  Jonathan, 
son  of  Absalom  (xiii.  11). 

5.  Son  of  Simon  Maccabseus.  His  father, 
his  brother,  and  he  were  treacherously  m.ur- 
dered  bv  his  l)rother-in-law  in  tlie  castle  of 
Dok  (1  Mac.  xvi.  14).     See  Judas. 

Mat-tat'tah,  in  A.  V.  Mat'ta-thah  [gift]. 

A  sou  (if  JIaslunu,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 

Mat'te-nai  [bestowment]. 

1.  A  priest,  liead  of  the  father's  house 
Joiarib  in  the  time  of  Joiiikim  (Neh.  xii.  19). 

2  and  3.  Two  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Hashum 
and  a  son  of  Lani,  each  of  wliom  was  in- 
duced to  iiut  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
33,  37). 

Mat'than  [gift]. 

A  near  ancestor  of  Jo.seph.  and  in  law  of 
Clirist  (Mat.  i.  15). 

Mat 'that  [gift]. 

Two  ancestors  of  Christ ;  the  one  near,  the 
otlnr  (|uite  remote  (Luke  iii.  24,  29). 

Mat'thew  [N.  T.  Greek  MaUdhaios  or 
NiUllidids,  from  Hebrew  MattUhynh,  gift  of 
Jeliovah]. 

A  publican  or  taxgatliercr,  in  the  service 
either  of  the  IJoman  or  Herodian  govern- 
ment, stationed  at  Ca]>ernaum.  Wliile  sitting 
at  "the  i>lace  of  toll  "  (R.  V.)  lie  was  called 
))y  Jesus  to  become  his  follower  and,  leaving 
liis  business,  he  immedialely  ol)eyed  (Mat. 
ix.  9;  :\Iark  ii.  14;  Luke  v.  27).'  He  was 
afterwards  ai)pointcd  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 


tles (Mat.  X.  3;  Mark  iii.  IS;  Luke  vi.  15). 
Mark  and  Luke  give  his  name  as  Levi  and 
state  that  his  father  was  named  Alphfeus. 
Either  he  had  originally  two  names,  as  was 
not  uncommon  among  the  Jews,  or  he  re- 
ceived the  name  Matthew  when  he  became  a 
Christian,  as  Simon  did  that  of  Peter.  He  is 
always  called  Matthew  in  the  lists  of  apostles 
and  as  the  author  of  our  First  Gospel.  The 
acceptance  by  Jesus  of  a  jjublican  as  a  dis- 
cii)le  evidently  led  others  of  the  outcast 
classes  to  follow  him  and  increased  the  ojipo- 
sition  of  the  Pharisees.  This  appeai-s  at  the 
feast  which  Matthew  gave  to  Jesus  soon  after 
his  conversion,  when  many  "publicans  and 
sinners"  were  present,  and  when,  in  aiiswer 
to  the  criticism  of  the  Pharisees,  the  I.i0rd 
made  the  famous  rejdy,  "  I  am  not  come  to  call 
the  righteous  but  sinners  to  repentance" 
(Mat.  ix.  10-13:  :\Iark  ii.  1.5-17;  Luke  v.  29- 
32'>.  Matthew  himself  does  not  say  that  the 
feast  was  in  his  house  (Mat.  ix.  10),  but  Mark 
(ii.  15)  and  Luke  (v.  29)  do,  and  Luke  adds 
that  it  was  a  great  feast.  Some  have  identi- 
fied Matthew's  father  Aliihai-us  with  the 
father  of  James  the  less;  but  Matthew  and 
James  are  not  joined  together  in  the  lists 
of  apostles  as  other  pairs  of  brothers  are. 
The  identification  is  therefore  to  be  rejected. 
Matthew  linally  ajipears  among  the  apostles 
after  Christ's  resurrection  (Acts  i.  13),  but  the 
N.  T.  gives  no  further  information  about 
him.  Tradition  states  that  he  first  preached 
among  the  Jews,  and  from  the  character  of 
his  Gospel,  tliis  is  not  improbable. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew  is  the 
first  of  our  four  gospels.  It  was  from  the 
beginning  of  the  post-apostolic  age  univer- 
sally ascribed  to  this  apostle.  Its  contents 
may  be  arranged  as  follows: 

1.  The  descent,  birth,  and  infancy  of  the 
royal  Messiah  (i.  and  ii.).  The  special  object 
of  this  section  is  to  set  forth  Jesus  as  the  son 
of  David  and  the  Christ  of  prophecy. 

2.  Introduction  to  the  public  ministry  of 
Christ  (iii.  1-iv.  17),  relating  the  preparatory 
W(u-k  of  the  r5a]itist,  the  baptism  and  temp- 
tati(m  of  .Tesns,  and  the  latter's  settlement  in 
Cai)ernaum  in  accordance  with  prophecy. 

3.  TheGaliliean  ministry  of  Christ  (iv.  18- 
ix.  35).  This  important  section  begins  with 
Christ's  call  of  the  four  leading  discijjles  (iv. 
18-22),  and  a  summary  description  of  his 
teaching  and  healing,  and  of  his  fame 
throughout  Palestine  (iv.  19-25).  Then  fol- 
lows, as  an  example  of  his  teaching,  the  ser- 
mon on  the  mount  (v.-vii.),  to  which  is  ap- 
pended a  collection  of  incidents,  mostly 
miracles,  which  illustrated  his  teaching  (viii. 
1-ix.  .34). 

4.  The  mission  of  the  ai)ostles  (ix.  36-x.  42")  ; 
beginning  with  an  account  of  Christ's  com- 
])assion  on  llie  sli<]dKrdless  people,  his  ap- 
pointment of  the  twelve,  and  his  instructions 
to  them. 

5.  Christ  in  conrtict  Avith  increasing  oppo- 
siti<m  (xi.  1-xv.  20),  comjjrising  the  inquiry 


Matthew 


483 


Matthew 


of  the  Baptist  and  Christ's  discoiii-se  concern- 
ing John,  tofrether  with  other  remarks  occa- 
sioned by  pojinlar  imhelief:  the  opposition 
of  the  Pharisees.  Ijeiriiininjjr  with  the  Sahbath 
controversy  and  cnlniinating  in  tlie  charge 
tliat  Jesus  was  in  league  with  Keelze])ub.  to- 
getlier  with  Chrisfs  rejily  and  Iiis  refusal  to 
give  them  a  sign  ;  the  visit  of  his  mother  and 
brethren ;  a  collection  of  the  parables  of 
Jesus  spoken  at  this  time:  his  (second)  rejec- 
tion at  Nazareth  ;  Herod's  inquiry  and  the 
death  of  the  Baptist ;  the  feeding  of  the  5000 
and  walking  on  the  water:  Christ's  final  rup- 
ture with  the  Pharisees  in  (ialileeaud  hisde- 
nunciation  of  their  formalism. 

(i.  Christ's  reti rement  from  Capci'naum  and 
instruction  of  his  disciples  (xv.  'Jl-xviii.  35) ; 
comprising  the  healing  of  the  daughter  of 
tlie  woman  of  Canaan,  the  feeding  of 
4000,  refusal  of  a  sign  and  warning  against 
the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees. 
the  confession  and  rebuke  of  Peter,  Christ's 
first  pi'edictiou  of  his  death,  the  transfigura- 
tion and  the  cure  of  the  demouiac  boy  ;  the 
return  to  Capernaum,  the  provision  of  tribute 
money,  and  instruction  of  the  disciples  con- 
cerning the  humble,  self-denying,  loviug, 
uud  forgiving  spirit  of  true  discipleship. 

7.  The  closing  ministry  of  Christ  in 
Persea  and  Judtea  (xix.,  xx.) ;  comprising  in- 
.structions  about  divorce,  blessing  the  chil- 
dren, the  rich  young  ruler,  the  parable  of 
the  laborers  in  the  vineyard,  the  ascent  to  Je- 
rusalem, with  another  prediction  of  his  death, 
the  request  of  .James  and  .John,  aud  the  heal- 
ing of  Bartim»us  at  Jericho. 

8.  The  last  week  of  Christ's  ministry  (xxi. 
-xxviii.),  comprising  the  triumphal  entry 
and  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  ;  the  wither- 
ing of  the  barren  fig  tree  ;  the  deputation 
from  the  sanhedrin;  the  parables  of  the  two 
sons,  the  wicked  husbandmen,  aud  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son  ;  the  questions  of  the 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  aud  a  lawyer,  with 
Christ's  question  in  reply  concerning  the  son 
of  David ;  woes  against  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees :  the  eschatological  discourse  on 
Olivet,  followed  by  the  parables  of  the  vir- 
gins and  of  the  talents  and  a  description  of 
the  last  .judgment.  Then  follow  the  treach- 
ery of  Judas,  the  last  passover,  the  agony  in 
Gethsemane,  the  arrest  and  trial  of  Jesus  be- 
fore the  sanhedrin,  Peter's  denials,  the  re- 
morse of  .Judas,  the  trial  l)efore  Pilate,  and 
the  crucifixion  and  burial.  The  last  chapter 
relates  the  apjiearauce  of  .Jesus  to  the 
women,  the  report  of  the  Roman  watch,  and 
the  gathering  of  Christ  with  his  disciples  on  a 
mountain  in  Galilee,  when  he  gave  them  the 
commission  to  preach  his  gospel  to  the  world 
and  promised  to  be  always  with  them. 

The  arrangement  of  this  Gospel  is  chrono- 
logica-1  only  in  general  outline.  In  the  sec- 
ond half,  indeed,  beginning  with  xiv.  6,  it 
follows  with  seldom  a  deviation  what  is 
probably  the  true  order  of  events,  but  tiiis  is 
because    that   order   naturallv   agreed    with 


the  evangelist's  object.  His  primary  nujtiv& 
was  to  arrange  his  matter  topically.  Ho 
wished  especially  to  lueseiit  the  teaching  of 
Christcoucerniug  the  nature  of  the  kingdom 
of  hea\'eu  and  the  character  of  its  discii)les, 
the  miracles  by  which  he  illustrated  his 
teachingaud  revealed  his  authority,  aud  the 
fruitless  opposition  to  him  of  the  Pharisees, 
representing  current  Judaism.  Hence  the 
large  place  which  he  gives  to  the  teaching 
of  Jesus.  Hence,  too,  his  habit  of  groui)iug 
together  both  instructions  upon  c(M-taiu  sub- 
.jects  and  incidents  which  illustrated  the 
teaching  ;  thus  the  sermon  on  the  mount  (v. 
1-vii.  -29)  is  followed  by  the  record  of  works 
of  healing  which  were  wrought  at  ditren-ut 
times  and  places  (viii.  1-ix.  34),  the  luualiles 
of  chap.  xiii.  are  followed  presently  by  a 
series  of  mighty  deeds  (xiv.  1-3(5),  and  the 
discourse  rebuking  Pharisaic  traditions  (xv. 
1--M)  is  followed  by  a  tour  of  mercy  through 
a  gentile  region  (21-39).  He  .sets  forth 
Jesus  as  the  royal  Messiah,  who  brought 
about  the  fulfillment  of  law  and  prophecy, 
and  established  in  the  church,  by  bis  re- 
deeming work  and  sjiiritual  teaching,  the 
true  kingdom  of  God,  which  is  meant  to 
embrace  all  nations.  The  fulfillment  of 
prophecy  is  frequently  noted  d.  22,  23;  ii.  .5, 
ti,  15.  17,  18.23;  iii. '3  ;  iv.  ll-Ki;  viii.  17; 
xi.  10;  xii.  17-21 ;  xiii.  14,  15,  35;  xxi.  4,  5; 
xxvi.  24,  31,  56  ;  xxvii.  9,  35),  and  there  are 
about  a  hundred  quotations,  more  or  less  for- 
mal, from  the  O.  T.  While  Matthew  wrote 
from  the  Hebrew  jioint  of  view,  he  brings 
out  the  destination  of  the  gospel  for  the  gen- 
tiles (e.  (I.  viii.  10-12  ;  x.  18  ;  xxi.  43  ;  xxii. 
9  ;  xxiv.  14  ;  xxviii.  19),  represents  the  op- 
positiou  to  Christ  of  current  Judaism  (e.  g. 
V.  20-48;  vi.  .5-18;  ix.  10-17;  xii.  1-13,  34; 
xv.  1-20  ;  xvi.  1-12 ;  xix.  3-9  :  xxi.  12-16  ; 
xxiii.,  etc.),  and  shows  by  his  explanations 
of  terms  (i.  23  ;  xxvii.  33),  places  (ii.  23  ;  iv. 
13),  Jewish  beliefs  (xxii.  23)  and  customs 
(xxvii.  15  ;  see  also  xxviii.  15),  that  he  wrote 
uot  merely  for  Jews,  but  for  all  believers. 

That  the  author  of  this  Gospel  was  really 
the  apostle  Matthew  is  attested  by  the  unan- 
imous tradition  of  the  ancient  church.  The 
tradition  is  confirmed  (1 )  by  the  conclusive 
evidence,  furnished  by  the  contents,  that  the 
writer  of  this  (iospel  was  a  Jewish  Christian 
emancipated  from  Judaism;  (2)  by  the  im- 
probability that  so  important  a  book  would 
have  been  attributed  to  so  obscure  an  apostle 
without  good  reason;  (3)  by  the  likelihood 
that  a  publican  would  keep  records;  (4iby 
the  modest  way  in  which  the  writer  speaks 
of  the  feast  given  by  ^Matthew  to  Jesus  . ix. 
10:  cp.  Luke  v.  29 1. " 

Ancient  tradition  also  aflSrmed  that  ^Jat- 
thew  wrote  his  Gosjiel  originally  in  Hebrew. 
Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrvgia. 
writing  about  A.  D.  140,  says  :  '"  ^latthew 
composed  the  lofila  in  the  llebrew  dialect, 
and  each  one  interpreted  them  as  he  was 
able"    (Eusebius,    hist.    eccl.    iii.    39,    16). 


Matthias 


484 


Mazzaroth 


Papias  probably  means  that  in  former  days, 
before  liis  time,  each  oue  iuterjjreted  these 
Aramaic  logia  in  his  private  reading  as  best 
he  could.  It  may  be  fairly  inferred  also 
from  Papias'  words  that  he  had  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  in  (Jreek  ;  and  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  lie  had  ever  seen  a  copy  of  Mat- 
thew in  Aramaic.  Some  scholars  reject  the 
tradition  of  an  original  Hebrew;  others 
suppose  that  the  Greek  is  a  translation,  or 
that  Matthew  issued  two  gospels,  one  edition 
in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  the  other  in  Greek. 
Maiij-  modern  scholars  think  that  Matthew 
wrote  in  Hebrew  merely  a  collection  of  the 
sayings  of  Jesus,  which  are  incorporated  in 
our  Greek  Gospel  together  with  historical 
matter  taken  from  Mark.  On  this  the(jry 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  by  whomsoever  the 
narrative  and  the  discourses  were  combined, 
is  history  of  the  tirst  rank,  since  it  com- 
prises a  report  of  Jesus'  sayings  by  one  wlio 
heard  them  and  a  record  of  Jesus'  acts  as  they 
were  narrated  by  an  eyewitness.  The  the- 
ory is,  however,  confronted  (1)  by  the  tes- 
timony of  antiquity  that  our  Greek  Gospel 
is  by  Matthew;  (2)  by  the  use  made  of  the 
term  {ofiia  in  the  New  Testament,  by  Philo, 
and  by  the  early  fathers  (Acts  vii.  38  ;  1  Pet. 
iv.  11,  R.  v.),  and  its  constant  application  to 
inspired  books,  either  in  whole  or  in  their 
parts  (Kom.  iii.2;  Heb.  v.  12) ;  (3)  by  the 
fact  that  the  dependetice  of  our  Matthew  on 
Mark  is  an  unproven  hypothesis  (see  Maek 
and  Gospel)  ;  and  (4)  by  the  utter  improba- 
bility that  an  original  gospel  contained  dis- 
courses only,  and  not  other  historical  matter, 
words  of  Jesus  and  no  acts,  and  especially 
that  it  did  not  contain  an  account  of  the 
passion  of  Christ.  Whatever,  therefore,  may 
be  thought  of  the  tradition  that  Matthew 
wrote  in  Hebrew,  our  Gospel  in  Greek  must 
certainly  be  attributed  to  him.  He  was 
quite  competent  to  write  it  as  it  is,  since 
most  of  the  recorded  words  and  deeds  I'ell 
under  his  own  observation. 

The  date  of  comjxisition  is  prohalily  to  be 
assigned  to  A.  u.  6()-70.  The  baptismal  for- 
mula (Mat.  xxviii.  19),  which  has  been  re- 
garded as  evidence  of  a  late  date,  is  matched 
by  a  similar  formula  in  a  benediction  (2  Cor. 
xiii.  14)  ;  and  th(!  word  church  for  an  organ- 
ized body  (.Mat.  xviii.  17)  was  early  used, 
being  so  em})loyed  b^-  .Stephen,  Paul,  and 
James  (Acts  vii.  38;  xx.  28;  Jas.  v.  14). 
The  fall  of  .Jerusalem  seems  not  to  hav(^  oc- 
curred (Matt.  V.  35;  xxiv.  16).  The  most 
ancient  tradition,  that  of  Irena'us  (about 
A.  n.  17.5),  assigns  it  to  the  jieriod  when  Peter 
and  Paul  were  jii-caching  the  gosj)el  in  Eome 
(Hier.  iii.  1, 1 ).  The  place  of  its  com])osition 
is  unknown.  Tiie  ac(|uaintance  with  it 
shown  by  i)ost-apostolio  writers  in  widely 
scattered  localities  proves  that  it  obtained, 
as  soon  as  it  was  published,  general  circula- 
tion. G.  T.  P.  (sui)i)lenu'nted). 

Mat-tM'as   [i)r()ba1)ly  a   variant     form  of 


Mattathias,  gift  of  Jehovah  (see  Septuagint, 
1  Chron.  xxv.  21,  A)]. 

One  of  those  disciples  who  companied  with 
the  followers  of  Christ  from  the  time  of 
Christ's  baptism  and  was  a  witness  of  the 
resurrection.  He  accordingly  had  qualifica- 
tions for  the  apostleship.  The  question 
whether  he  or  another  disciple  with  similar 
qualifications  should  fill  the  place  in  the 
number  of  the  Twelve  made  vacant  by  the 
treacheiy  of  Judas  was  submitted  to  God  by 
prayer;  and  when  lots  were  given,  Matthias 
was  chosen,  and  he  was  at  once  numbered 
with  the  apostles  I  Acts  i.  21-26).  Nothing 
more  is  known  of  his  history. 

Mat-ti-tM'ah  [gift  of  .Tehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  the  singer  Jeduthun 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  3),  and  himself  one  of  the 
musicians  of  the  sanctuary  who  played  the 
harp  (xv.  18,  21).  He  was  afterwards  made 
head  of  the  fourteenth  of  the  courses  into 
which  the  musicians  were  divided  by  David 
(xxv.  21). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Korah,  family 
of  Kohath.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Shal- 
lum,  and  was  placed  in  charge  over  the 
things  that  were  baked  in  pans  (1  Chron. 
ix.  31). 

3.  A  son  of  Nebo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

4.  A  priest  or  Levite  who  supported  Ezra 
when  he  addressed  the  returned  exiles  re- 
garding the  law  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Mat'tock. 

An  instrument  for  loosening  the  soil, 
shaped  like  a  pickaxe  or  hoe  with  two  blades 
in  different  planes,  the  cutting  edge  of  one 
resembling  that  of  an  axe,  and  the  other  that 
of  an  adze.  It  is  used  specially  for  grubbing 
up  ihe  roots  of  trees.  In  the  O.  T.  mattock 
is  the  rendering  of:  1.  The  Hebrew  it/rt/i"re- 
shah,  cutting  instrument,  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  20, 
21.  3Inh"resheth,  a  similar  word  from  the 
same  root,  occurs  in  ver.  20,  and  is  believed 
to  denote  the  plowshare.  Both  of  these  im- 
plements were  made  of  metal.  2.  The  He- 
brew Madder,  dressing  instrument.  It  was 
used  in  digging  and  dressing  vineyards  (Is. 
yii.  25). 

In  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  6  the  Hebrew  is  be- 
lieved to  be  corrupt,  and  for  mattock  of  the 
A.  v.,  the  E.  y.  substitutes  ruins. 

Maul. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Mephis, 
breaker,  a  weajxin  of  war  (Prov.  xxv.  18). 

Maz'za-roth. 

A  feature  of  the  starry  heavens  (.Job 
xxxviii.  32).  The  margin  of  both  English 
versions  interprets  it  as  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
e(iuivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Maszaloth  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  5,  margin).  The  i)arallel  passage. 
Job  ix.  9,  suggests  that  the  Ma~znroth  are  a 
constellation  of  the  southern  sky,  a  cluster 
among  the  stars  that  are  chamberod  in  the 
south.  Other  inteqiretations  have  also  been 
l)roposed. 


Meadow 


48o 


Meals 


Mead'ow. 

1.  .The  rendering  of  the  Egyptian  word 
Ahn,  in  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xli.  2,  18.  The  word 
denotes  reed-grass  or,  as  it  is  rendered  in  Job 
viii.  11,  Hags. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ma'"reh 
(Judg.  XX.  33,  A.  V.)  ;  see  Maareh-geba. 

Me 'ah  [a  hundred]. 

A  tower  at  Jertisaleni  not  far  from  that  of 
Hanaiieel  and  the  sheep  gate  (Neh.  iii.  1; 
xii.  39)  ;  see  .Ikrusalem  II.  3. 

Meal  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Meals. 

The  Israelites  ate  in  the  morning  and  in 
the  evening  (Ex.  xvi.  12;  1  Kin.  xvii.  6; 
John  xxi.  4,  12).  This  custom  did  not  forbid 
a  morsel  at  other  hours.  Laborers  partook 
of  a  light  repast  at  noon  (Ruth  ii.  14).  Later 
tlie  ascetic  Essenes  did  with  two  meals,  the 
first  at  tlie  fifth  hour  or  eleven  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  the  other  in  the  evening  (War 
ii.  8,  5).  Among  the  stricter  Jews  of  the 
lime  of  Christ,  the  fast  of  the  night  was  not 
broken  by  a  meal  on  an  ordinary  day  before 
nine  o'clock,  which  was  the  hour  of  prayer 
(Acts  ii.  15)  ;  and  on  the  Sabbath  food  was 
not  served  before  twelve  o'clock,  when  the 
service  in  the  synagogue  was  over  (Life  54). 
The  chief  meal  of  the  day  took  place  in  the 
evening  (War  i.  17,  4  ;  Life  44  ;  cp.  Gen.  xix. 
1-3  ;  Ex.  xii.  18  :  Ruth  iii.  7).  Feasts  were 
sometimes  s]iread  at  noon  by  the  Egyptians 
and  Syrians  (Gen.  xliii.  16  ;  1  Kin.  xx.  16). 


designated  highest,  middle,  and  lowest  re- 
spectively, the  highest  being  to  the  right  of 
the  servants  as  they  approached  the  table. 
Generally,  only  three  jxTsons  occn])ied  a 
couch,  but  occasionally  four  or  tive.  The 
body  lay  diagonally  on  the  couch,  the  head 
being  near  the  table  and  the  feet  stretched 
out  towaixl  the  back  of  the  couch.  The  left 
elbow  rested  on  a  cushion  and  supjjorted  the 
upper  part  of  the  body.  The  right  arm  re- 
mained free.  The  head  of  the  person  re- 
clining in  front  of  another  rested  on  or  near 
the  breast  of  him  who  lay  behind  (John  xiii. 
23  ;  xxi.  20).  The  three  positions  on  each 
couch  were  also  termed  highest,  middle,  and 
lowest,  the  highest  person  being  the  one  who 
had  nobody  at  his  back.  The  position  of 
honor  (Mat.  xxiii.  6,  R.  V.)  was  the  liighest 
place  on  the  highest  conch.  Women  took 
their  meals  with  men.  occasionally  at  least 
(Ruih  li.  14  ;  1  Sam.  i.  4  ;   Job  i.  4J.' 

The  Hebrews  and  (ireeks.  like  the  modern 
.\rabs,  washed  their  hands  before  eating 
(Mat.  xxvi.  23:  Iliad  x.  .577:  Odys.  i.  136)', 
since  generally  there  was  a  common  dish  into 
which  the  hand  of  each  wns  dipped.  This 
cleanly  custom  became  a  ritu'il  observance 
with  the  Pharisees,  and  as  such  was  con- 
demned by  Christ  (Mark  vii.  1-13).  A  bless- 
ing was  asked  before  the  meal  by  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  ix.  13),  by  Christ  (Mat.  xiv.'  19  ;  xv.  36 ; 
xxvi.  26),  and  by  the  early  Christians  (.Acts 
xxvii.  35).  It  was  also  customarv  amongthe 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ  (cp.  War  ii.  8,  5). 


Romans  at  Meal. 


.\s  to  the  posture  at  meals,  the  ancient 
Hebrew.s,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  (Iliad  x.  578 ;  Anab.  vi.  1, 3)  and  modern 
Arabs,  were  in  the  habit  of  sitting,  probably 
on  mats  spread  on  the  floor  or  ground  (Gen. 
xxvii.  19  ;  Judg.  xix.  6  ;  1  Sam.  xx.  5,  24  ;  1 
Kin.  xiii.  20).  Reclining  on  couches  came 
into  use  later  (Esth.  i.  6  ;  vii.  8  ;  Ezek.  xxiii. 
41  ;  John  xxi.  20),  and  probably  prevailed 
in  the  Greco-Roman  period  (Mark  vii.  4  ;  in 
A.  V.  tables).  Three  couches  were  ordinarily 
placed  about  a  table,  being  arranged  so  as  to 
form  three  sides  of  a  square  and  leave  the 
fourth  sid^s  open  for  the  admittance  of  serv- 
ants  with    the   dishes.      The   couches   were 


A  piece  of  bread  served  as  a  spoon  and  was 
dipped  into  the  bowl  of  grease  or  meat,  or 
the  thick  soup  or  pottage  was  ladled  witii 
the  hollow  band  into  a  dish.  (Jccasionally 
separate  portions  were  served  iu  the  same 
manner  to  each  (Ruth  ii.  14;  1  Sam.  i.  4; 
John  xiii.  26).  Prayer  after  meals  developed 
out  of  Deut.  viii.  10    War  ii.  8,  5,. 

At  pretentious  meals  on  festive  occasions, 
when  a  large  company  of  guests  gathered 
about  the  table,  greater  ceremony  was  ob- 
served. It  was  courteous  to  receive  tlie  guest 
with  a  ki.ss  Luke  vii.  45).  and  indisjiensable 
to  provide  water  for  him  to  wash  iiis  feet  and 
hands  with  UJen.  xviii.  4;  xix.  2;  Luke  vii. 


Meals 


486 


Measure 


44  ;  John  ii.  6).  He  came  in  his  best  attire, 
of  course,  and  often  with  the  iiair,  beard,  feet, 
and  sometimes  ch)thes,  perfumed  (Amos  vi. 
G  ;  Wisd.  ii.  7).  Occasionally  he  was  anointed 
at  the  house  of  the  host  (Luke  vii.  38 ;  John 
xii.  3).  The  participants  at  the  feast  sorne- 
times  wore  a  wreath  ou  the  head  (Is.  xxviii. 


j.lf,  iiiiiCflf 


ii!iiiiijiiii.iPiiipiitii.  ,j 

Washing  the  Hands  before  or  alter  a  Meal. 

1;  Wisd.  ii.  7,  8;  Antiq.  xix.  9,  1).  They 
were  arranged  according  to  rank  (1  Sam.  ix. 
22;  Luke  xiv.  8 ;  and  so  in  Egypt,  Gen.  xliii. 
33).  Portions  of  food  were  placed  before 
each  (1  Sam.  i.  4),  and  the  guest  of  honor  re- 
ceived a  larger  or  choicer  share  (5  ;  ix.  24  ; 


Modern  Orientals  at  a  Meal. 

.so  in  Egypt,  (icn.  xliii.  34).  A  ruler  was 
sometimes  appointed  to  preside  at  the  feast, 
taste  the  yiands.  and  direct  the  proceedings 
(Ecclus.  xxxii.  1,  2;  John  ii.  9,  10).  The 
banquet  was  rendered  merrier  by  music  (Is. 


V.  12;  Ecclus.  xxxii.  5,  6),  singing  (2  Sam. 
xix.  .3.5  ;  Amos  vi.  4-6),  dancing  (Mat.  xiv.  6  ; 
Luke  XV.  25),  and  riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12). 
These  customs  receive  illustration  from  the 
manner  of  feasts  among  the  Greeks.  The 
guests  were  apt  to  be  placed  according  to 
rank,  and  the  guest  of  honor  received  the 
choicest  food  (Herod,  vi.  .57:  Iliad  vii.  321). 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  meal  garlands  and 
various  kinds  of  perfumes  were  given  to  the 
guests,  and  wine  was  served.  Ordinarily  a 
governor,  chosen  from  among  the  company 
(Anab.  vi.  1,  30),  presided.  His  command 
was  law.  He  tasted  the  food  and  drink  be- 
fore they  were  placed  on  the  table,  directed 
the  servants,  tixed  the  proportion  in  whicli 
the  wine  and  water  were  mixed,  and  deter- 
mined the  quantity  which  each  of  the  com- 
pany should  drink.  He  also  proposed  the 
amusements.  The  pleasure  was  heightened 
by  songs,  and  by  the  spectacle  of  dancing 
(Plato,  Sympos.  ii.,  Legg.  671 ;  Anab.  vi.  1, 
3-13). 

A  gruesome  custom  existed  among  the 
Egyptians,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  78). 
At  the  banquets  of  the  wealthy  the  image  of 
a  dead  body  in  a  coffin  was  carried  round 
and  shown  to  each  of  the  company  with  the 
remark:  "Look  upon  this,  then  drink  and 
enjoy  yourself;  for  when  dead  you  will  be 
like  this." 

Me-a'rab  [a  cave]. 

A  place  near  Sidon  (Josh.  xiii.  4)  ;  com- 
monly, but  without  certainty,  identified  with 
a  district  of  caves,  on  the  top  of  Lebanon, 
east  of  Sidon,  known  as  Mughar  Jezzim  or 
caves  of  Jezzim.  Conder  suggests  Moghei- 
riyeh.  6  miles  northeast  of  Sidon. 

Meas'ure. 

I.  Measures  of  Length. 

The  unit  was  the  cubit,  18  inches  or  more ; 
see  Cubit. 

4  fingers  =  1  handbreadth  ; 
3  handbreadths  =  1  span  ; 
2  spans  =  1  cubit. 

The  finger,  accordingly,  was  J  inch. 

In  the  Greco-Roman  period  distance  was 
measured  by  miles  and  stades.  5000  Roman 
feet  =  1  Roman  mile  =  1478.7  meters  = 
4851.43  English  feet.  Eight  stadia  (Luke 
xxiv.  13,  rendered  furlong)  were  loosely  reck- 
oned to  the  mile  ;  although  theoretically  the 
stadion  was  600  Greek  feet  or  625  Roman 
feet,  the  length  of  the  race  course  at  Olympia. 


II.  Measure  of  Area. 

Acre  is  the  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  Semed, 
yoke,  and  Mn'''nah,  furrow  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14; 
Is.  V.  10).  The  Roman  actus,  furrow,  was  120 
Roman  feet  in  length,  and  the  jufjerum.  yoke, 
was  a  piece  of  land  two  actus  long  by  one 
actus  broad  or  less  than  §  of  an  acre.  Proba- 
bly the  Hebrew  acre  was  not  very  different. 


Meat  Offering 


487 


Media 


III.  Measures  of  Capacity. 

The  unit  was  the  ephah  for  diy  substances 
and  the  bath  for  liquids,  the  ephah  and  the 
bath  beinu:  of  equal  capacity  (Ezek.  xlv.  11), 
and  containing  a  triHo  more  than  3  j)ecks,  5 
quarts,  U.  S.  dry  measure,  or  8  gallons,  1 
quart,  I3  pints,  U.  S.  wine  measure.  See 
Ephah. 

Liquid  Measure. 

12  logs    =  1  bin  ; 

6  bins   =  1  bath  ; 
10  baths  =  1  homer,  or  cor  (Ezek. 
xlv.  14). 

The  log,  accordingly,  contained  a  trifle 
over  .9  pint  or  about  3§  gills,  and  the  bin 
about  5  quarts.  1^  pints.  A  third  part,  He- 
brew shalish  (Ps.  Ixxx.  5  ;  Is.  xl.  12,  rendered 
measure)  was  probably  the  third  of  a  bath, 
and  hence  corresjtonded  to  aseah.  The  Greek 
measure  metretcs  (John  ii.  6,  rendered  firkin) 
contained  in  Athens  39.39  liters  or  41.61  U. 
S.  liquid  quarts. 

Dry  Measure. 

6  kabs  =  1  seab 

3  seahs   or  measures  )      1  ephah   (Ex.  xvi. 
or  >  =     36  ;  Num.  xv.  4, 

10  omers  or  tenth  parts  )  Septuagiut). 

10  ephahs=  1  homer  (Ezek.  xlv.  11). 

The  kab  was  equivalent  to  about  3f  pints, 
and  the  scab  to  9f  quarts.  The  Greek  elioim.c 
(Rev.  vi.  6,  rendered  measure)  is  estimated 
at  1.094  liters  or  .99301  quart.  The  Koman 
modius  (Mat.  v.  15,  rendered  bushel)  con- 
tained .948  imperial  peck,  or  7.82  U.  S.  dry 
quarts. 

Meat  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Me-bun'nai  [built]. 

A  Hushathite.  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  27).  The  name  is  probably  to 
be  read  Sibbecai,  in  accordance  with  xxi.  18 
and  1  Chron.  xi.  29  ;  xxvii.  11. 

Me-che'rath-ite. 

A  person  related  by  birth  or  residence  to 
Mecherah  (1  Chron.  xi.  36).  No  person  or 
place  called  Mecherah  is  known.  The  pas- 
sage in  Chronicles  must  be  compared  with  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  34. 

Me-co'nali,  in  A.  Y.  Mekonah  [foundation, 
place]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Judali  (Neb.  xi. 
28),  named  in  connection  with  Ziklag  and 
other  towns  of  the  extreme  south.  Not 
identified. 

Me'dad  [love]. 

A  man  who,  though  not  present  at  the 
"tabernacle  when  the  Spirit  was  imparted  to 
the  elders,  vet  received  the  gift  (Num.  xi. 
26-29).     SeeELDAD. 

Me'dan. 

A  tribe    descended    from    Abraham   and 


Keturah  and  mentioiuul  in  connection  with 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Chron.  i.  32).  Wetz- 
stein  observes  that  the  .\nibian  geographer 
Yakut  mentions  a  wady  Medan  near  the 
ruined  town  of  Dedan  (cp.  Gen.  xxv.  3). 

Mede,  in  A.  V.  onco  Median  (Dan.  v.  31). 

A  person  belonging  to  the  Median  nation- 
ality; a  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  Media  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  6;  Esth.  i.  19  ;  Is.  xiii.  17;  Dan. 
V.  28,  31). 

Med'e-ba,  in  1  Mac.  Medaba  [water  «)f 
quietness]. 

An  old  Moal)ite  town  mentioned  with 
Heshbou  and  Dibon  in  Num.  xxi.  30.  It  was 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Keuben  (Josh.  xiii.  9, 
16).  During  the  reign  of  David  it  was  held 
for  a  time  by  the  Ammonites,  who  witli  their 
Aramtean  allies  were  defeated  there  by  Joab 
(1  Chron.  xix.  7).  It  reverted  to  the  Moab- 
ites  (Moabite  Stone  30;  Is.  xv.  2).  John 
Maccabfeus  was  seized  and  slain  here  by  sons 
of  Jambri  or  Ambri,  a  powerful  family  of 
the  town.  The  act  was  revenged  by  his 
brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon  (1  Mac.  ix.  3(i- 
42;  Anti(j.  xiii.  1,  2  and  4).  John  Ilyrcanus 
took  the  town  after  a  siege  lasting  nearly  six 
mouths  (9,  1).  The  ruins  are  .still  called 
Madeba,  and  are  situated  about  16  miles  east 
by  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and 
6  to  the  south  of  Heshbon.  They  are  on  an 
eminence,  from  which  the  city  extended 
eastward  into  the  plain.  There  are  remains 
of  a  city  wall,  and  of  temples  and  other 
buildings,  with  Greek,  Roman,  and  Phie- 
nician  inscriptions.  At  the  southeast  angle 
of  the  city  is  a  fine  tank  or  reservoir  VM 
yards  square,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  many 
caves  which  have  been  used  as  cisterns. 

Me'di-a. 

A  country  in  Asia  lying  east  of  the  Zagros 
mountains,  south  of  the  Caspian  .Sea.  west 
of  Parthia,  and  north  of  Elara.  Its  length 
was  about  600  miles,  its  breadth  about  250. 
and  its  area  about  150,000  square  miles.  But 
when  the  empire  was  at  the  greatest  it  ex- 
tended beyond  these  limits,  especially  in  the 
northwest.  A  great  part  of  .Media  jiroper 
was  a  table-land  3000  feet  high.  The  rest 
consisted  of  seven  parallel  mountain  chains 
running  from  the  northwest  to  the  soutlie:ist, 
with  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys  be- 
tween. The  pasturage  was  excellent,  and 
the  country  was  noted  for  its  horses.  The 
early  inhabitants  were  in  all  probability  a 
non-Aryan  and  non-Semitic  race,  who  were 
conquered  by  Aryans,  the  Madai  of  (4en.  x. 
2  (cp.  Herod.  7,  62).  The  histor>-  of  Media 
begins  to  be  known  in  the  ninth  century 
B.  c.  Berosus  the  Babylonian,  it  is  true, 
makes  the  Medes,  about  24.58  B.  c.  capture 
Babylon  and  establish  there  a  Median  king- 
dom, which  lasted  224  years;  but  it  is  not 
known  on  what  authority  his  statement  rests. 
About  835  the  country  was  probably  invaded 
by  Shalmaneser,king  of  Assyria,  and  later  by 
Siiamshi-Ramraan  his  son,  who  reigned  from 


Median 


488 


Megiddo 


823-810,  and  by  Rarainanuirari,  who  was 
king  from  810-781,  wirh  tlie  result  that 
the  Medes  became  tributaries  of  Assyria, 
^riglath  pileser  conquered  and  annexed  dis- 
tricts of  Media.  Wlien  Sarson  capturi'd 
Samaria,  722  B.  v.,  he  placed  Israelites  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  (i ;  xviii.  11). 
About  710  the  Medes  themselves  were  more 
thoroughly  conquered  by  Sargon,  who  ex- 
acted fron'i  them  a  tribute  of  the  fine  horses 
for  which  Media  was  celebrated.  Sennacii- 
erib  also  boasts  of  tribute  received  from 
Media,  and  Esarhaddon  placed  governors  in 
the  country.  In  all  this  there  is  no  trace  of 
the  Medes  forming  a  united  nation  under 
one  king  (contrarv  to  Herod,  i.  (Hi,  seq.). 
Under  Phraortes,  eri.'i-f):}:?  B.  c,  Media  became 
a  formidable  power.  About  (J25  his  son 
Cyaxares  allied  himself  with  Nabopolassar  of 
Babylon,  besieged  and  captured  Nineveh,  and 
thus  terminated  the  irreat  Assyrian  empire 
(cp.  Antiq.  x  5,  1).  The  victors  divided  the 
spoil  between  them,  the  share  of  Cyaxares 
being  Assyria  proper  and  the  countries  de- 
pendent on  it  toward  the  north  and  north- 
west. The  marriage  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  son 
of  Nabopolassar,  with  Amyites  or  Amytis, 
daughter  of  Cyaxares,  cemented  the  alliance 
between  Babylonia  and  Media,  and  greatly 
strengthened  both  monarchies.  When  Cy- 
axares died,  in  593,  his  son  Astyages  be- 
came king.  In  his  old  age,  altout  5.50 
the  Persians,  whose  country  lay  south  and 
southeast  of  Media,  successfully  rebelled, 
and  Cyrus  their  leader  became  king  of  Media 
and  Persia.  The  conquerors  and  the  con- 
quered were  both  of  the  fine  Aryan  race, 
and  they  became  a  dual  nation,  Medo-Persia. 
In  330  B.  c.  Media  became  a  part  of  Alexan- 
der's empire.  After  this  conqueror's  death  it 
was  united  to  Syria  (1  Mac.  vi.  56),  and  later 
it  formed  a  part  of  the  Parthian  empire. 

In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the  Medes  are 
introduced  as  at  least  one  of  the  nationalities 
which  should  take  part  in  the  cajjture  of 
Babylon  (Is.  xiii.  17,  18;  cp.  also  Jer.  li.  11. 
28)  ;  and  Elam  and  Media  are  named  as  the 
two  countries  from  which  the  conquerors  of 
Babylon  should  come  (Is.  xxi.  2,  9).  On  the 
capture  of  the  great  city  by  the  Medo- 
Persians  under  Cyrus  in  539,  Darius  the 
Mede  took  the  kingdom  of  IJahylon  (Dan.  v. 
31  ;  cp.  2S).  The  Medo-Persian  emjiire  is  the 
second  kingdom  (Dan.  ii.  39),  the  bear  (vii. 
5),  and  the  two-horned  ram  (viii,  3-7,  20). 
One  horn  was  higher  thati  the  other,  and 
the  higher  came  up  last  (ver.  .3);  in  other 
words,  the  Median  power  came  first,  but 
the  Persian,  which  followed,  surpassed  it  in 
strength. 

Me'di-an.     See  Mede. 

Med'i-cine. 

Egyjit  was  early  renowned  for  medical 
knowledge  and  skill.  Cyrus  of  Persia  sent 
to  Egypt  for  an  oculist,  and  Darius  had 
Egyptian  ]>liy.sicians  at  Susa  (Herod,  iii.  1, 


129\  For  each  disease  there  was  a  practi- 
tioner (Herod,  ii.  84).  They  embalmed 
(Gen.  1.  2)  ;  they  treated  diseases  of  the  eye 
and  feet  (Herod,  iii.  1,  129)  :  women  prac- 
ticed midwifery  (Ex.  i.  15).  They  had  many 
medicines  (Jer.  xlvi.  11).  Even  the  word 
chemistry  is  perhaps  derived  from  Kurn-f, 
the  ancient  name  of  Egypt.  In  Greece  the 
physicians  of  Crotona  enjoyed  the  highest 
reputation,  while  those  of  Cyrene  in  Afriii;a 
stood  next  (Herod,  iii.  131). 

The  physician  and  his  coadjutor  ite 
apothecary  are  mentioned  in  the  writin{;s 
of  the  Hebrews,  beginning  as  early  as  the 
exodus  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xv.  26;  2  Chrou. 
xvi.  12 ;  Jer.  viii.  22  ;  Mat.  Jx.  12 ;  Mark  v. 
26;  War  ii.  8,  6;  and  Ex.  s.x.  35;  Neh.  iii. 
8;  Ecc.  X.  1  ;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  8).  The  means 
and  medicines  which  they  employed  for 
eilecting  cures  were  bandages  (Ts.  1.  6),  aji- 
plications  of  oil  and  of  oil  mingled  with 
wine,  and  baths  of  oil  (Is.  i.  6  ;  Luke  x.  34  ; 
Jas.  V.  14  ;  War  i.  33,  5),  salves  and  poultices 
(2  Kin.  XX.  7  ;  Jer.  viii.  22),  roots  and  leaves 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  12;  War  ii.  8,  6),  and  wine  (1 
Tim.  V.  23).  "The  Lord  created  medicines 
out  of  the  earth ;  and  a  prudent  man  will 
have  no  disgust  at  them  "  (Ecclus.  xxxviii.  4). 

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  Sea  [midland  sea]. 

The  sea  which  lies  between  Europe  and 
Africa.  In  Scripture  it  is  referred  to  simply  as 
the  sea,  since  it  was  the  chief  one  in  the  cur- 
rent thought  of  the  Hebrews  (Num.  xiii.  29; 
Acts  X.  6) ;  or  it  is  called  the  great  sea  (Num. 
xxxiv.  6  :  Josh.  xv.  47),  or  the  hinder  or  west- 
ern sea  (Dent.  xi.  24  ;  Joel  ii.  20 ;  in  A.  V.  ut- 
most and  uttermost),  or  the  sea  of  the  Philis- 
tines (Ex.  xxiii.  31).  The  (ireeks  and  Romans 
usually  spoke  of  it  as  the  sea  or  our  sea ;  after 
the  O.  T.  period  they  termed  it  the  sea  on 
this  side  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules  (Aristotle), 
or  the  internal  sea  (Pliny).  The  designa- 
tion Mediterranean  is  late.  Its  length  is 
2000  miles,  and  its  narrowest  part  is  between 
Sicily  and  the  African  coast,  where  it  is  only 
79  miles  in  width.  In  O.  T.  times  the  Phoe- 
nician navigators  were  acquainted  with  it  in 
its  entire  extent  from  Syria  to  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar  or,  using  the  Greek  designation,  to 
the  pillars  of  Hercules. 

Me-gid'do,  once  Megiddon  (Zech.  xii.  11) 
[place  of  trooi>s]. 

An  important  town  in  Palestine,  mentioned 
as  Mejedi  among  the  towns  captured  by 
Thothmes  III.  of  Egypt  in  the  twenty-second 
year  of  his  reign.  When  the  Israelites  en- 
tered Canaan,  Megiddo  had  a  native  king, 
who  was  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  21).  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  ; 
but  was  assigned  to  the  ISIanassites,  who, 
however,  failed  to  drive  out  the  Canaanite 
inhabitants  (xvii.  11;  Judg.  i.  27;  1  Chron. 
vii.  29).  It  had  waters,  doubtle.ss  some 
stream,  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  v.  19),  and  was 
not  far  fnmi  Taanacli  and  Beth-shean  (i.  27  ; 
1    Kin.   iv.   12).     Solomon    strengthened    its 


Mehetabel 


489 


Melchizedek 


fortifications  (ix.  15).  Aliaziah,  king  of 
Jndah,  wounded  by  the  partisans  of  Jehu, 
fled  to  Megiddo,  and  died  there  {2  Kin.  ix. 
27).  In  the  ])hiin  near  the  city  the  l>attle  was 
fought  between  Pliaraoh-necho  and  Josiah, 
in  which  the  latter  was  killed  (xxiii.  2!) ;  2 
Chron.  xxxv.  22  ;  1  PIsdras  i.  29).  A  great 
mourning  for  the  death  of  the  good  king 
took  plape  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25 ;  Zech.  xii.  11). 
The  name  Megidd(j  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  Armageddon  (q.  v.).  Robinson,  and 
500  years  before  him  Moses  hap-Parchi,  con- 
sidered Megiddo  to  have  been  at  el-Lejjun, 
on  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Kishon,  about 
9  miles  west  slightly  north  of  Jezreel. 
Thomson,  however,  located  the  site  at  Tell 
el-Mutasellini,  less  than  a  mile  north  of  el- 
Lejjun.  Recent  excavation  has  shown  that 
the  citadel  crowned  the  height  marked  by 
Tell  el-Mutasellim  ;  while  the  camp  of  the 
legion,  wliich  the  Romans  stationed  at  Me- 
giddo, stood  five  minutes'  walk  distant  at  the 
lianilet  known  as  el-ljcjjun,  which  jierpetu- 
ates  the  Latin  name  and  where  bricks  have 
been  found  bearing  the  stamp  of  the  sixth 
legion.  The  place  had  great  strategic  im- 
]iortance,  since  it  commanded  the  pass 
through  the  mountains  betweeu  the  plains 
of  Sharon  and  Esdraelon. 

Me-het'a-bel,  in  A.  V.  once  Mehetabeel 
(Neh.  vi.  10)  |  God  blesses] . 

1.  The  wife  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  39  ;  1  Chron.  i.  50). 

2.  Father  of  a  certain  Delaiah  (Neh.  vi. 
10). 

Me-hl'da  [conjunction,  union]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
43,  52). 

Me'Mr  [price]. 

A  man  of  Judab  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 

Me-ho'lath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  place  called 
Meholah  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19)  ;  perhaps  Abel- 
meholah,  Elisha's  native  village. 

Me-hu'Ja-el. 

Son  of  Irad,  and  father  of  Methusael,  of 
the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Me-hu'man  [faithful,  a  eunuch;  if  the 
name  is  related  to  Aramaic,  m'haimnn]. 

One  of  the  seven  chamberlains  who  served 
in  the  presence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
i.  10).     See  article  Abagtha. 

Me-hu'nim,  Mehunims.     See  Meunim. 

Me-jar'kon  [waters  of  the  yellow  color, 
yi'llow  waters]. 

A  spot  in  the  territory  of  Dan  near  Joppa 
(Josh.  xix.  4()).  A  place  on  the  river  'Aujah 
lias  been  suggested  (Kiepert,  Conder).  The 
river  flows  from  a  swamp,  through  canes, 
willows,  rushes,  and  grass,  and  then  in  a 
deeply-hollowed  channel,  whence  it  carries 
away  vegetable  soil  enough  to  render  the 
water  yellow.  Thus  the  name  suits.  The 
stream  is  never  drv,  and  iu  winter  is  unford- 


able.  It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  3.J 
miles  north  of  .Topjia. 

Me-ko'nah.     See  Meconah. 

Mel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

A  (iibeonite  wlio  helped  to  rebuild  part  of 
the  wall  around  Jeru.salem  (Neh.  iii.  7). 

Merchi  [probably  by  contraction  for  He- 
brew Malhiijinih.  Jehovah  is  king]. 

A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of  Chri  f 
who  lived,  the  one  before,  the  other  after, 
the  time  of  Zerubbal)el  (Luke  iii.  24,  28;. 

Mel-chi'ah.     See  Malchiah. 

Mel-cMs'e-dec.    See  Melchizkdek. 

Mel-cM-shu'a.    See  Malchi-shua. 

Mel-cWz'e-dek,  iu  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Melchis- 
edec  [king  of  righteousness  or  justice]. 

King  of  Salem  and  priest  of  the  most  high 
God  (Gen.  xiv.  18  seq.).  By  Salem,  Jerusa- 
lem is  probably  meant ;  for  1.  The  city  was 
in  existence,  bore  the  name  of  Jerusalem, 
and  was  under  a  king  before  the  conquest  of 
Canaan  by  the  Israelites.  2.  The  name  Je- 
rusalem means  city  or,  to  the  Hebrew  ear, 
foundation  of  peace  or  safety,  so  that  Salem 
is  an  appropriate  abbreviation.  3.  Salem  is 
used  as  the  name  of  Jerusalem  in  Ps.  Ixxvi. 
2.  4.  The  comparison  of  David's  Lord  with 
Melchizedek  in  Ps.  ex.  4  appears  most  apt  if 
Melchizedek  was  king  of  the  same  city  as 
David.  5.  Jerusalem  is  on  the  route  from 
Hobah  and  Damascus  to  Hebron,  whither 
Abraham  was  going. 

Melchizedek,  as  described  in  Hebrews  v.  10  ; 
vi.  20 ;  vii.,  was  without  father,  without 
mother,  without  genealogy.  This  statement 
means  that  his  pedigree  is  not  recorded  (cp. 
Ezra  ii.  59,  62).  This  mode  of  expression 
was  familiar  to  the  Assyrian  scribes,  was  used 
by  the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  is  knowu  to  Greek 
and  Latin  writers.  .  He  is  further  described 
as  having  neither  beginning  of  days  nor  end 
of  life,  of  whom  it  is  testified  that  he  lives. 
He  suddenly  emerges  from  the  unknown  and 
as  suddenly  disappears ;  it  is  not  known 
whence  he  came  or  whither  he  went,  neither 
birth  nor  death  is  assigned  to  him,  he  is  a 
type  of  undying  priesthood. 

Melchizedek  was  priest  of  God  Most  High. 
El  'elyon  appears  late  among  the  Phoenicians 
as  a  title  of  Saturn,  the  begetter  of  heaven 
and  earth  (Sanchoni  ithon  quoted  by  Eusebius, 
Praep.  i.  10).  If  El  'elyon  is  not  in  MeU-hize- 
dek's  conception  the  absolutely  only  (rod,  he 
is  the  highest,  the  God  of  the  gods  ;  a  lofty 
idea,  even  though  not  a  pure  monotheism. 
Melchizedek  came  forth  from  his  royal  city 
to  welcome  the  returning  benefactor  of  the 
peoples  of  Canaan ;  and  Al)rahaui  recognized 
him  as  a  priest  of  the  true  God  and  publicly 
testified  to  sharing  the  same  or  a  kindred 
faith  by  paying  tithes  to  him  who  was  repre- 
seutative  of  God  Most  High,  to  the  priest 
who  had  ascribed  the  victory  to  the  Creator 
of  heaven  and  earth  (cp.  Acts  x.  35). 

The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 


Melea 


490 


Menahem 


shows  liow  groat  a  personajje  Melcliizedek 
was,  to  wliotn  even  Abraham,  aiul  through 
him  virtually  Levi,  paid  tithes,  thus  adrait- 
ting  their  iuferiurity.  When  thus  our  Lord 
was  made  a  high  priest  after  the  order  of 
:Melchizedek,  he  held  a  liigher  oftice  than  the 
Aaronic  priesthood. 

Me'le-a. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  shortly 
after  David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me 'lech  [a  king]. 

A  sun  of  Micah,  a  descendant  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii.  3.t  ;  ix.  41). 

Mel'i-cu.     See  Mali.uchi. 

Mel'i-ta. 

The  island  where  Paul  was  shipwrecked 
(Acts  xxviii.  1).  Two  islands  bore  this  name 
in  ancient  times.  One,  now  called  Melida, 
lies  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  otl"  the  coast  of  Ual- 
matia,  the  other  is  now  known  as  Malta.  The 
latter  is  now  probably  universally  believed 
to  be  the  i.sland  where  the  ship  of  Paul  was 
wrecked.  This  opinion  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  Mr.  Smith,  of  Jordauhill, 
■who  was  accustomed  to  sail  in  a  yacht  on 
the  Mediterranean,  investigated  first  the  di- 
rection from  which  the  wind  Euroclydon  or 
Eura(iuilo  blew,  then  the  course  in  which 
the  shii>  would  drift,  and  her  probable  rate 
of  progress  while  she  lay-to  under  storm 
sails.  The  result  was  that  he  found  she 
would  reach  Malta  just  about  the  time  which 
the  narrative  in  The  Acts  requires.  The  vessel 
had  been  driven  to  and  fro  in  the  (sea  of) 
Adria  (xxvii.  27);  see  Adiua.  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  shipwreck  is  St.  I'aul's  Bay, 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  island.  In  The 
Acts  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  are  called 
barbarians  because  they  were  neither  Greeks 
nor  Romans. 

Mel'on. 

A  succulent  plant  and  its  edible  fruit,  in 
Hebrew  '"battiah,  which  the  Hebrews  ate  when 
in  Egypt  (Num.  xi.  .5).  Melons  of  all  sorts 
wore  cultivated  in  Egyi)t,  and  the  water- 
melon {('ucnmis  citviiUus)  is  still  called  bnttili 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  is  grown  in  immense 
(liiiuititics. 

Mel'zar  [probably  from  a  Persian  word 
meaning  steward]. 

A  man  whom  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs  sot 
over  Daniel  and  his  companions  (Dan.  i.  11, 
1(>,  A.  v.).  Hut  in  Hebrew  it  has  tiie  article 
before  it;  the  R.  V.  and  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  therefore  translate  it  steward. 

Mem. 

The  thirteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  M  comes  from  the  same  source, 
and  rei)re.sents  it  in  anglicized  Hel)rew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  bead  of  the  thirteenth  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  ver.se 
of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

For  Hebrew  letters,  whose  similarity  of 
form  to  mem  has  caused  ditUculty  to  copy- 
ists, see  e.  (j.  Beth. 


Mem'pMs  [Egyptian  Men-nefer,  place  of 
good,  or,  as  it  was  interpreted  to  Plutarch, 
haven  of  good]. 

An  imi)ortant  Egyptian  city,  said  by  Herod- 
otus to  liave  been  built  by  Menes,  the  first 
historical  king  of  Egj'pt,  on  land  reclaimed 
by  him  from  the  Nile.  It  stood  in  the  plain 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  about  10 
miles  above  the  apex  of  the  delta.  It  became 
the  metropolis  and  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
and  the  third,  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  the  sev- 
enth, and  the  eighth  dynasties  were  consid- 
ered Memphite  by  Manetho.  The  deity  spe- 
cially worshiped  in  the  city  was  Ptah.  Mem- 
phis remained  a  flourishing  city  even  after 
the  capital  was  transferred  to  Thebes,  and 
did  not  lose  its  importance  until  Alexandria 
was  founded.  To  the  Hebrews  Memphis  was 
known  as  Nopli,  from  the  demotic  Men-nofi, 
and  Moph,  from  Menf  (Is.  xix.  13  ;  text  of 
Hos.  ix.  Ij;  cp.  Assyrian  Minpi).  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  murder  of  Gedaliah, 
the  Jews  left  in  the  laud  lied  to  Egypt,  and 
.some  of  them  settled  at  Memphis  (Jer.  xliv. 
1).  Judgment  was  threatened  against  the 
city  by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  (xlvi.  19 ;  cp. 
also  ii.  1(>  and  xlvi.  14;  Ezek.  xxx.  13,  16; 
cp.  also  Is.  xix.  13  ;  Hos.  ix.  6).  A  consider- 
able part  of  Memphis  existed  in  tlie  middle 
ages,  but  materials  from  it  were  continually 
carried  away  to  be  used  for  building  purposea 
in  Cairo.  Now  it  is  all  but  gone,  two  Arab 
villages  occupying  its  site.  But  twenty  pyr- 
amids, which  constituted  its  necropolis,  and 
the  celebrated  sphinx  jiresent  the  most  im- 
pressive menmrials  of  its  former  greatness. 

Me-mu'can. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
IMedia  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus  who  saw 
the  king's  face.  Memucan's  counsel  was  ad- 
verse to  Vashti  (Esth.  i.  14,  15,  21). 

Men'a-liem  [comforter]. 

A  son  of  ( iadi  who,  when  the  news  reached 
Tirzah  that  Shallum  had  murdered  king 
Zechariab,  went  to  Samaria,  slew  Shallum, 
and  reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  xv.  14).  The 
town  of  Tiphsah  refused  to  admit  him  within 
its  gates,  so  he  captured  it,  and  perpetrated 
cruelties  on  the  inhabitants  (ver.  l(i).  His 
throne  was  unsteady;  and  when  Pul,  better 
known  as  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
invaded  the  land,  Menahem  purchased  ex- 
emption from  devastation  for  his  realm  and 
support  for  his  own  tottering  throne  by  the 
payment  of  1000  talents  of  silver,  nearly  two 
million  dollars,  which  represented  a  much 
greater  purchasing  value  then  than  now. 
The  money  was  raised  by  a  tax  on  the 
wealthiest  men  in  Israel,  who  had  to  pay 
50  shekels,  about  $32.50,  each.  There  must, 
therefore,  have  been  more  than  (iO.OOO  Isra- 
elites able  to  contribute  this  amount  uiuler 
corai)ulsion.  Tiglath-pileser,  as  recorded  in 
the  Assyrian  sculptures,  claims  Minihimmu 
(Menahem)  of  Samaria  as  one  of  his  tribu- 
taries.    In   religion   the   Israelite   king  ad- 


Menan 


491 


Meraioth 


liered  to  the  calf  worsliip  of  .Terobi);uii  I. 
He  reigned  ten  years,  from  about  747  to  73S 
B.  c.  inclusive,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Israel  by  his  son  Pekahiah  (2  Kin. 
XV.  17,  22). 

Me'nan.    See  Menna. 

Me'ne. 

The  first  word  of  the  inscription  written 
ty  a  hand  on  the  wall  at  Belshazzar's  feast: 
Mene.  Mene,  Tekel,  Upharsin  (Dan.  v. 
2.5).  These  mysterious  words  are  Aramaic. 
They  are  rendered  on  the  margin  of  R.  V. 
"Numbered,  numbered,  weighed,  and  divis- 
ions;" Pharsin  being  the  plural  of  the  noun 
p'res,  Mene  being  the  regular  pa.ssive  par- 
ticiple of  its  verb  in  the  Peal  species,  and 
Tekel  being  regarded  as  likewise  a  passive 
participle,  with  the  vocalization  which  is  tra- 
ditionally given  to  it  changed  from  t'kil  to 
t'kiel  to  conform  to  the  sound  of  »i'iie\  These 
letters  were  not  vocalized  as  written  on  the 
wall,  and  might  have  been  pronounced  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  Even  if  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation had  occurred  to  one  of  the  wise 
men  as  among  several  possibilities,  he  had 
no  means  of  establishing  the  correctness  of 
his  reading  or  of  interpreting  the  words. 
Daniel  solved  the  enigma  (2.")-28).  How 
difficult  it  was  to  determine  the  true  pronun- 
ciation is  illustrated  by  the  proposal  which 
has  been  made  by  scholars  to  regard  Mene  as 
the  absolute  state  of  the  noun  manya',  maneh. 
and  to  read  the  words  "A  maneh,  a  maneh, 
a  shekel  and  half  manehs,"  or  "Numbered 
have  been  a  maneh,  a  shekel,  and  half  ma- 
nehs." The  words  as  thus  read  have  been 
sometimes  understood  as  symbolizing  under 
the  figure  of  weights  that  a  worthy  person 
(Nebuchadnezzar,  the  virtual  founder  of  the 
empire)  had  been  succeeded  by  an  inferior 
ruler  (Belshazzar),  and  that  the  empire  was 
about  to  be  divided  into  halves. 

Me'ni  [fate,  destiny]. 

The  name  of  the  god  of  destiny,  whom 
idolatrous  Hebrews  worshiped  (Is.  Ixv.  11, 
margin).  In  the  text  the  English  versions 
prefer  the  alternative  interpretation  of  the 
word,  regarding  it  as  a  common  noun  and 
not  a  proper  name. 

Men'na,  in  A.  V.  Menan. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  shortly 
after  the  time  of  David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me-nu'hoth  [apparently,  the  resting 
places] . 

A  place,  if  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, of  which  half  the  inhabitants  were 
descended  through  Shobal  from  Caleb  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  52,  E.  V.).  The 
name,  if  vocalized  as  in  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  would  not  give  rise  to  the  gentile  ad- 
jective of  ver.  54,  which  is  rendered  Mana- 
hathites.  Perhaps,  therefore,  Meuuhoth 
should  be  read  Manahath.  (q.  v.). 

Me-on'e-nim  [augurs]. 

The  augurs'  oak  or  terebinth  stood  near 


Shcchcm  (Judg.  ix.  37;  not  plain,  as  in  A. 
v.).     See  rem;>rks  under  Moreii. 

Me-on'o-thai  [my  habitations]. 

A  man  (if  .Iiulah.  the  father  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Ojihrah   (1   Chron.  iv.  14). 

Meph'a-ath  f beauty]. 

A  town  of  the  Ileubenites  (.Tosh.  xiii.  18), 
given  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  .37 ;  1 
Chron.  vi.  79).  In  Jeremiah's  time  it  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (.Ter.  xlviii.  21). 
Site  unknown. 

Me-phib'o-sheth  [destroying  shame]. 

1.  Son  of  king  Saul  by  K'iziiah,  the  daughter 
of  Aiah.  He  was  executed  at  the  instance 
of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  9). 

2.  The  son  of  Jonathan.  He  was  five 
years  old  when  the  tidings  came  of  his 
father's  and  his  grandfather's  death  at  (iil- 
boa.  Under  the  intluence  of  panic,  the 
nurse  took  him  up  in  her  arms  and  fled  with 
him  ;  but  in  her  flight  she  let  him  fall,  so 
that  he  became  lame  in  both  his  feet  (2  Sam. 
iv.  4).  For  a  long  time  he  lived  at  Lo-debar, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  whence  David  called  him 
to  court  to  show  him  kindness  for  his  father 
Jonathan's  sake,  restoring  to  him  the  estates 
of  Saul  and  appointing  him  a  place  at  the 
royal  tal>le  (ix.  1-13).  During  the  rebellion 
of  Absalom  he  remained  at  Jerusalem,  and 
was  accused  by  his  servant  Ziba  of  dis- 
loyalty. David  believed  the  accusation  and 
transferred  Mephibosheth's  estates  to  Ziba. 
After  the  return  of  David,  Mephibosheth  at- 
tempted to  clear  himself  of  the  charge,  and 
David  restored  half  the  estates  to  him  ;  but 
he  declared  that  he  did  not  wish  the  prop- 
erty, since  he  had  his  desire  in  the  restora- 
tion of  the  king  (xvi.  1-4;  xix.  24-30).  He 
had  a  son  Micha  (ix.  12),  through  whom  the 
race  of  Jonathan  was  perpetuated.  In  1 
Chron.  viii.  34 ;  ix.  40  >Iephibosheth  is  called 
Merib-baal,  a  striver  is  the  Lord  or  perhaps, 
striver  against  Baal.  This  was  probably  his 
original  name,  bosheth,  shame,  being  substi- 
tuted for  baal,  lord,  by  later  writers  when  the 
word  Baal  had  become  distasteful  through  as- 
sociation with  idolatry. 

Me'ral)  [increase]. 

Saul's  elder  daughter  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 
Her  father  ])romised  her  in  marriage  to 
David,  and  then,  breaking  faith,  gave  her 
as  a  wife  to  Adriel  the  Meholathite  (xviii. 
17-19).  Their  five  sons  were  given  up  by 
David  to  tlie  Gibeonites  to  be  put  to  death 
for  the  sin  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  margin  ; 
cp.  Greek  of  Lucian,  Peshito). 

Me-ra'lali  [contumacy,  stubbornness]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  Seraiah 
in  the  days  of  Joiakim,  a  generation  after 
the  exile  "(Neh.  xii.  12). 

Me-ra'ioth  [rebellions]. 

1.  A  priest,  son  of  Zerahiah  (1  Cliron.  vi. 
(j,  7,  52).  He  lived  while  the  house  of  Eli 
had  charge  of  the  tabernacle. 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Ahitub  and  father  of 


Merari 


492 


Meres 


the  younger  Zadok  of  the  high-priestly  line 
(1  Chron.  ix.  11;  Neh.  xi.  11;.  He  seems  to 
have  lived  about  half  a  century  before  the 
exile. 

3.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  15,.  See 
Meremoth. 

Me-ra'ri  [bitter,  unhappy]. 

Sou  of  Levi,  and  founder  of  one  of  the 
three  Levitical  families  (Gen.  xlvi.  11 ;  Ex. 
vi.  I'i;   Num.  xxvi.  .")7). 

Me-ra'rites. 

One  of  the  three  great  families  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  They  were  descended  from  Merari. 
In  the  wilderness  they  encamped  on  the  north 
side  of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  iii.  3.5),  had 
under  their  charge  its  boards,  bars,  pillars, 
sockets,  and  vessels  (36 ;  iv.  29-33),  and  were 
under  the  direction  of  Ithamar,  the  youngest 
son  of  Aaron  (iv.  23).  To  enable  them  to 
carry  these  materials  there  were  assigned  to 
them  four  wagons  and  eight  oxen  (vii.  8). 
They  were  subdivided  into  the  Mahlites  and 
the  Mushites  (iii.  20,  33)  ;  and  at  the  first 
census  in  the  wilderness  numbered  6200 
males  from  a  month  old  and  upward  (33,  34), 
being  fewer  in  total  number  than  the  other 
families  of  Levi.  Of  these,  3200  were  from 
30  to  60  years  old  (iv.  42-45),  a  larger  propor- 
tion than  in  the  other  families.  The  cities 
assigned  to  them  numbered  twelve,  of  which 
four  were  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  four  in 
that  of  Eeuben,  and  four  in  that  of  Gad  ;  one 
of  them,  Ramoth-gilead,  being  a  city  of  ref- 
uge (Josh.  xxi.  34-40;  1  Chron.  vi.  63,  77-81). 
They  were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chron. 
xxii'i.  6,  21-23).  They  had  a  due  part  with 
their  fellow  Levites  in  the  musical  service  of 
the  sanctuary,  holding  six  of  the  twenty-four 
offices  (1  Chron.  vi.  31,  44;  xxv.  3).  Mem- 
bers of  the  family  are  mentioned  among  those 
who  aided  in  cleansing  the  temple  in  Heze- 
ziah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12),  and  a  small, 
but  notable,  company  of  them  returned  with 
Ezra  to  Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Ezra  viii. 
18,  19). 

Mer-a-tha/im  [twofold  rcbellionl. 

A  symbolical  name  for  Babylon  (.ler.  1.  21). 

Mer'cu-ry,  in  A.  V.  Mer-cu'ri-us. 

A  deity  worshiped  by  the  Romans  and, 
under  the  name  of  lli-rmes,  by  the  Greeks 
also.  He  was  the  herald  of  the  gods,  and 
specially  attended  upon  Jujiiter.  He  was 
quick  in  his  movements,  was  a  good  speaker, 
and  was  credited  with  having  been  the  in- 
ventor of  letters,  of  music,  and  of  other 
arts.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  looked  upon 
as  go<ls  by  the  people  of  LysLra,  when  the 
cripple  was  healed  at  the  apostle's  word  ; 
and  as  I'aul  was  the  chief  speaker,  they  took 
him  for  Mercury  and  Barnabas,  whom  he  ac- 
companied, for  Jupiter  (Acts  xiv.  12). 

Mer'cy  Seat. 

The  covering  of  the  ark  ;  called  in  Hebrew 
Kapporeth,  covering  (especially  if  not  exclu- 


sively in  the  sense  of  atonement),  and  la 
Greek  'llasterlon,  propitiatory  (Ex.  xxvi.  34; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  Its  name  did  not  suggest  a  mere 
lid,  but  brought  to  mind  the  act  and  place  of 
atonement  and  the  accomplished  atonement. 
The  rendering  mercy  seat  is  therefore  a 
happy  one,  adopted  by  Tyndale  from  Luther. 
It  was  made  of  pure  gold  ;  its  length  was 
two  and  a  half  cubits,  and  its  breadth  a  cubit 
and  a  half.  On  each  side  of  it  and  wrought 
as  one  piece  with  it  stood  a  cherub,  with  its 
face  toward  the  other  cherub,  but  bent  down- 
ward toward  the  mercy  seat,  and  with  out- 
stretched wings,  so  that  a  wing  of  each  ex- 
tended over  the  mercy  seat  and  met  that  of 
the  other  cherub.  Between  these  cherubim 
Jehovah's  glory  was  manifested,  and  there 
Jehovah  communed  with  his  people  (Ex. 
xxv.  17-22;  xxx.  6;  Num.  vii.  89).  There 
was  a  similar  arrangement  in  Solomon's 
temple  (1  Kin.  vi.  23-28;  viii.  6-11:  1  Chron. 
xxviii.  11).  Once  a  year,  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement,  the  high  priest,  after  he 
had  ottered  a  sm  ottering  for  himself,  en- 
tered the  most  holy  place  and  burnt  incense, 
symbol  of  accepted  worship,  in  the  presence 
of  Jehovah,  which  rose  and  enveloped  the 
mercy  seat  in  a  cloud.  He  then  sprinkled 
tlie  blood  of  the  sacriliced  bullock  on  and 
before  the  mercy  seat.  Having  sacrificed 
the  goat  that  was  the  sin  offering  for  the 
nation,  he  carried  its  blood  also  beyond  the 
veil,  into  the  most  holy  place, 'and  sprinkled 
it  upon  and  before  the  mercy  seat.  He 
made  atonement  for  the  sins  of  himself  and 
the  nation  in  the  presence  of  the  covenant 
law,  which  was  written  on  the  tables  of 
stone  and  was  lying  in  the  ark,  and  of  Je- 
hovali,  who  dwelt  between  the  cherubim 
(Lev.  xvi.  2,  13-17). 

Me'red  [rebellion]. 

Son  of  Ezrah,  who  was  reckoned  as  bo- 
longing  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  had  o. 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  to  wife  and  probably 
also  a  Jewess  (1  Chron.  iv.  17,  18,  K.  V.). 

Mer'e-moth  [elevations]. 

1.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  n  father's  house 
among  the  priests,  enumerated  in  the  cor- 
responding position  in  the  catalogue,  bears 
the  name  Meraioth  (ver.  15).  One  of  the 
two  names  is  probably  a  misreading  of  mem 
or  jod. 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Uriah.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  weigh  the  silver  and  gold  brought 
by  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  33).  He 
repaired  i)art  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  4,  21),  and  is  probably  the  person  of  the 
flame  who  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  5). 

3.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  36). 

Me'res. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  who  saw  the  king's  face  in  the  reign 
of  Ahasuerus  (Esther  i.  14). 


Meribah 


493 


Merom 


Mer'i-bah  [contention,  strife]. 

1.  A  coninion  noun  used  once,  perhaps 
oftener,  in  addition  to  Massali  to  designate 
tlie  place  at  Horeb,  near  Eepliidini,  wlure 
tlie  ])eople  strove  witli  Moses  (Ex.  17)  for 
water;  and  God  gave  them  drink  from  tlie 
rock  (1-7).  The  word  is  not  found  in  this 
l)assage  in  the  Vulgate,  but  is  attested  by 
otlier  ancient  versions. 

2.  A  second  locality,  namely,  Kadesh-bar- 
nea  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  where  also  the 
people  strove  with  Moses  and  with  Jehovah 
and  water  was  miraculously  brought  from 
the  rock  (Num.  xx.  .3,  13,  24;  xxvii.  14; 
Deut.  xxsii.  .51).  The  waters  of  this  Meribah 
are  the  waters  of  strife,  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  A.  V.  of  Ps.  cvi.  32  and  Ezek.  xlvii. 
19;  xlviii.  28.  For  strife  the  R.  V.  in  its 
text  of  the  first  passage  substitutes  Meri- 
bah, iu  the  second  Meriboth-kadesh,  and 
in  the  third  Meribath-kadesh.  This  event 
may  well  be  referred  to  in  Ps.  Ixxxi.  7, 
where  it  is  God  who  proves  Israel ;  and  in 
Deut.  xxxiii.  8.  where  God  proves  Levi  and 
where  Meribah  is  mentioned  with  Massaii; 
and  in  Ps.  xcv.  8,  E.  V.,  where  also  Meribah 
is  mentioned  with  Massah  (see  Massah).  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  there  is  nothing  surpris- 
ing, under  the  circumstances,  in  the  out- 
break of  discontent  at  the  scarcity  of  water, 
which  was  experienced  more  than  twice  or 
thrice.  The  localities  areditTerent  and  quite 
far  apart.  The  time  is  different.  The  con- 
duct of  Moses  is  very  different  on  the  two 
occasions. 

Mer-ib-ba'al.     See  Mephibosheth. 

Mer-1-batli-lca'desh  [contention  at  Ka- 
desh]  and  Meriboth-kadesh  [contentions  at 
Kadesli]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Ezek.  xlvii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28,  E.  V.).  See 
Meribah  2. 

Mer'o-dach  [Assyrian  and  Babvlouian 
Maifhik]. 

The  patron  deity  of  Babylon  (Jer.  1.  2). 
See  Bel. 

Mer'o-dach-bal'a-dan,  in  2  Kin.  xx.  12 
Berodach-baladan  [Merodach  has  given  a 
son] .  Berodach  may  be  a  copyist's  misspelling 
for  ]\Ierodach,  or  represent  the  approximation 
uf  sound  between  ni  and  b  in  Babylonian. 

A  king  of  Babylon,  son  of  Baladan  (2  Kin. 
XX.  12),  of  the  dynasty  of  Bit-Yakin.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  ability,  courage,  and  en- 
terprise. The  dynasty  had  its  capital  at  Bit- 
Vakiu,  in  the  marshes  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Euphrates,  a  district  which  was  the  ancestral 
home  of  the  Chaldean  tribe.  Merodach- 
baladan  succeeded  to  this  petty  throne. 
About  731  B.  c.  he  did  homage  to  Tiglath- 
pileser,  king  of  Assyria ;  but  when,  in  722, 
the  Assyrian  armj-  was  absent  carrying  on 
the  siege  of  Samaria,  and  news  reached 
Babylonia  that  the  king  of  Assyria  had  died 
or  been  murdered,  Merodach-baladan  took 
the  opportunity  of  becoming  king  of  Baby- 


lon. Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  recognized 
him  in  721.  He  reigned  eleven  years.  In 
712,  or  thereabouts,  Merodach-bul'adan  .scut 
the  embassy  to  Hezekiah,  which,  traveling 
with  the  ostensible  object  of  congratulating 
Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  (2  Kin.  xx.  12-19  ; 
2  C'hron.  xxxii.  31 ;  Is.  xxxix.  1-8),  was 
really  designed  to  invite  him  to  join  in  a  con- 
federacy with  the  rulers  of  Babylon,  Su.siana, 
Phauicia,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia,  and  Egypt 
for  a  grand  attack  on  the  Assyrian  empire. 
Sargon  suspected  what  was  going  on,  attacked 
his  enemies  individually  before  they  had  time 
to  unite,  and  vanquished  them  one  by  one. 
In  710  Sargon  took  Babylon,  and  in  709  Bit- 
Yakin,  capturing  Merodach-baladan  at  the 
latter  place.  Some  time  after  Sargon's  death 
Merodach-baladan  was  again  free,  and  in  704 
or  703  he  reentered  Babylon,  and  slew  the 
Assyrian  viceroy,  who  was  then  its  ruler. 
But  his  second  reign  lasted  only  from  six 
to  nine  months.  He  was  defeated  and 
driven  from  Babylon  to  Bit-Yakin  by 
Sennacherib.  Sargon's  son  and  successor. 
In  700.  in  connection  with  the  revolt  of 
a  Chaldean  called  Nergal-ushezib  or  Shu- 
zub,  Merodach-baladan  raised  his  head  again. 
Sennacherib  took  the  road  to  Bit-Yakin, 
but  Merodach-lialadan  avoided  battle  and 
fled  to  a  town  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.  Sen- 
nacherib again  prevailed,  quelling  the  re- 
volt in  fi98.  In  697  he  attacked  the  last 
refuge  of  Merodach-baladan,  which  was  a 
fragment  of  territory  given  him  by  the  Elam- 
ites.  The  Assyrian  king  employed  Phoeni- 
cian ships  for  the  purpose.  Merodacli"s  small 
settlement,  which  he  had  abandoned,  was 
captured  and  burnt,  and  he  was  not  able  to 
raise  his  head  again.  Though  he  may  have 
ultimately  failed  in  his  enterprises,  yet  he 
had  not  lived  in  vain.  The  Chaldeans,  whose 
chief  he  was,  and  who  seem  to  have  been  a 
Semitic  race,  became  from  his  days  the 
dominant  caste  in  Babylon. 

Me'rom  [a  height,  a  high  place]. 

By  the  waters  of  Merom  .Joshua  defeated 
the  kings  of  northern  Canaan  and  their 
allies  (Josli.  xi.  5,  7),  who  according  to  tradi- 
tion had  pitched  their  camp  near  Beroth  (tlie 
wells,  or  have  Beroth  and  Merom  become 
confused?  see  Beth)  in  upper  Galilee,  not 
far  from  Kedesh  (Antiq.  v.  1,  17).  These 
waters  are  usually  identified  with  a  lake  on 
the  Jordan,  11  miles  north  of  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee, or  with  the  streams  that  fiow  through 
its  basin.  This  lake  is  4  miles  long  i)y  3i 
broad,  its  surface  lies  689  feet  above  the  .sea 
of  Galilee,  and  it  is  almost  certainly  the  body 
of  water  called  by  Josephus  the  lake  Seme- 
chouitis  (Antiq.  V.  5,  1;  War  iv.  1,  1).  It 
occupies  the  southern  portion  of  a  very 
marshv  basin  about  1.")  miles  long  by  .5  broad. 
The  basin  is  now  called  the  Huleh  and  tlie 
lake  Baheiret  el-Huleli  or  lake  of  the  Huleli. 
Huleh,  an  Arabic  name  given  also  to  the  iilaiu 
south  of  llamath,  perhaps  echoes  the  name 


Meronothite 


494 


Mesha 


The  Lake  of  the  Huleli,  )ierliai)s  ilic  ^\■atels  of  iSIerom. 


of  tlu"  flistiift  Uhitha,  between  Traehoiiitis 
and  (ialih'e  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3). 

Me-ron'o-tMte. 

An  inhabitant  of  Meronoth  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
30;  Neh.  iii.  7).  ^Meronoth  has  not  been 
identified. 

Me'roz  [in-obably.  a  place  of  refuge]. 

A  town  whieli  jjave  no  assistance  in  the 
figlit  with  Sisera  (Jndg.  v.  23).  Its  site  is 
iinlviiown,  though  el-Murussus,  a  ruin  about 
44  miles  northwest  of  Beth-shean,  has  been 
suggested,  or  Kefr  Misr,  on  the  southern 
slo])e  of  mount  Tabor,  62  miles  northwest  of 
el-Mnrussus. 

Mes'a-loth,  in  A.  V.  Masaloth  [perhaps, 
from  Ifehrt'W  m'siUolh.  ascents,  stairs]. 

A  i)lacc  in  tlie  district  of  Arbela  (1  Mac. 
ix.  2).  .Tosejjlius  understood  it  to  be  the  re- 
gion of  fortified  caves  at  Arbela  in  (ialilee, 
which  were  only  to  be  readied  l)y  steps 
(Antii).  xii.  11,  1). 

Me'sech.     Sec  Mkshkch. 

Me'sha,  I. 

Th(^  limit  in  one  dirt'ction  of  the  region 
occupied  by  the  descendants  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
X.  30).  Not  identified.  IMouza,  on  the  eastern 
<-(iast  of  the  Red  Sea,  about  100  miles  from 
the  straits  of  Bab  el-Mandcb,  15ischa  in 
northern  Yemen,  the  district  ^leseue  at  the 
northwestern  end  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
Massa  (ci).  Septuagint  and  Gen.  xxv.  14)  have 
been  suggested. 

Me'sha,  II.  [perhaps,  retreat,  withdrawal]. 
A    Jien.jamite,  a  son   of  Shaliaraim   by  his 
wife  Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  M,  !)). 


Me'sha,  III.  [salvation]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron^ 
house  of  Caleb.  He  was  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Ziiih  (1  Chron.  ii.  42). 

2.  A  king  of  Moab,  sou  of  Chemosh-meleeh. 
He  rendered  to  king  Ahab  the  tribute  of 
100,000  laml)s  and  as  many  rams,  namely 
their  wool  (2  Kin.  iii.  4).  Ahab  was  slain  at 
the  battle  of  Kamoth-gilead  about  853  B.  c, 
which  probably  took  place  in  the  early 
sjiring,  "the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to- 
war,''  and  Ahaziah  thereby  became  sole  king. 
The  discomfiture  of  Israel  and  Judah  at 
Kamoth-gilead  and  the  death  of  Ahab  were 
the  signal  to  Mesha  to  refuse  the  tril)ute  of 
this  year,  the  second  of  Ahaziah  (Antiq.  ix. 
2,  l)i  to  Israel  (2  Kin.  i.  1).  Jeho.shaphat, 
king  of  Jiulab,  returned  from  Eamoth-gilead 
to  Jerusalem,  say  in  May,  and  undertook  a 
religious  reformation  of  the  nation  (2  Chron. 
xix.).  After  this  work  of  reform  had  begun 
(xx.  1),  the  Ammonites  and  ^loabites,  in  alli- 
ance with  the  Edoniites,  who  had  bct'U  per- 
suaded to  revolt,  invaded  Judah.  Jehosh- 
aphat  defeated  the  allies  and  reduced 
Edom  to  its  former  subjection,  and  a  time 
of  peace  ensued  (30).  Ahaziah  died  at  the 
end  of  this  year,  perhaps  in  December  or 
January  or  later,  and  Jehoram  his  brother 
succeeded  him  (2  Kin.  i.  17).  The  next  year, 
852  B.  c,  or  later,  Jehoram,  desiring  to  ren- 
der Moab  again  tributary,  asked  aid  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  (iii.  7).  The  latter  jn-obably 
wished  to  chastise  the  Moabites  still  further 
for  their  invasion  of  Judah,  and,  tlierefore, 
although  he  had  been  rebuked  for  allying 
himself   with   ungodly  Ahab   and  Ahaziah^. 


Meshach 


49o 


MeshuUam 


consented,  for  Jehoram  liad  exhibited  sitrns 
of  godliness  by  a  considerable  reformation 
(2).  Jehoram  advanced  with  his  confeder- 
ates, Jehoshapluit  and  an  unnamed  Edomite 
king,  round  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  allied  armies  almost  perished  with 
thirst,  but  Elisha  bade  them  dig  trenches, 
pred ieting  that  water  would  come.  It  flowed 
into  the  valley  early  in  the  morning;  and  as 
the  ruddy  liirhtof  the  suji  shoniion  it,  the  Mo- 
abite  king,  doubtless  Mesha,  thinking  it  was 
blood  and  inferring  that  the  three  invading 
armies  had  quarreled  and  turned  their  swords 
against  each  other,  carelessly  advauced  with 
his  forces  to  take  the  prey.  He  was  routed, 
and  the  Israelites  entered  his  land  and  beat 
down  his  cities  (24,  25 1.  At  Kir-hareseth, 
seeing  that  the  battle  was  too  sore  for  him 
and  failing  in  a  desperate  attempt  to  break 
through  the  lines  of  the  enemy,  he  took  his 
eldest  son  and  heir  apparent  and  offered  him 
as  a  burnt  offering  to  Chemosh  on  the  city 
wall.  The  besiegers  apparently  felt  that  tliey 
were  in  part  respon.sible  for  occasioning  this 
human  sacrifice  and  that  they  had  incurred 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  tliey  raised  the  siege 
and  returned  to  the  land  of  Israel  without 
resubjugating  Moab  (25-27).  The  Moabite 
stone  was  erected  partly  for  the  purjjose  of 
commemorating  this  revolt  and  its  successful 
issue  :  see  Moabite  Stoxe. 

Me'shach. 

The  name  given  by  the  priiice  of  the 
eunuchs  at  Babylon  to  ]Mishael,  one  of  the 
three  faithful  Jews  afterwards  saved  from 
the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7;  ii.  49;  iii.  13- 
30). 

Me'shech,  in  A.  Y.  once  Mesech  ( Ps.  cxx.  5). 

A  peo]ile  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  They  traded  in  the  Tyrian  markets  in 
slaves  and  vessels  of  bi-ass  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13). 
They  were  allies  of  Tubal,  and  allies  or  sub- 
jects of  Gog,  the  prince  of  Eosh,  Meshech, 
and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26;  xxxviii.  2,  3; 
xxxix.  1,  R.  v.).  ]VIeshech  and  Tubal  are 
associated  together  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions as  they  are  in  the  Bible.  In  the  days 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  about  1120  B.  c,  and 
Shalmaneser,  859-825,  the  land  of  Musku, 
that  is  Meshech,  lay  in  the  mountains  to  the 
north  of  Assyria  and  bordered  on  Tabal,  that 
is  Tubal,  in  the  west.  They  were  gradually 
driven  northward  to  near  the  Black  Sea. 
Herodotus  calls  the  two  races  the  Moschoi 
and  Tibarenoi,  and  locates  them  in  the 
mountains southe«.-:t  of  the  Black  Sea  (Herod. 
iii.  94  ;  vii.  78).  The  Moschoi  dwelt  between 
the  source  of  the  Phasis  and  Cyrus  rivers 
(Pliny  vi.  4). 

Me-shel-e-mi'ah  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Izhar 
and  Korah.  He  and  his  sons  were  doorkeep- 
ers of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  ix.  21 ;  xxvi. 
1).     In  xxvi.  14  he  is  called  Shelemiah. 

Me-shez'a-bel,  in  A.  Y.  Meshezabeel  [God 
sets  free]. 


1.  Father  of  a  certain  Berechiah  (Neh. 
iii.  4). 

2.  One  of  those  M'ho  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  21). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah.  familv  of  Zerah  (Neh 
xi.  24). 

Me-sliil'le-mitli  [recompense,  retribution]. 
See  Mkshillemoth  2. 

Me-shil'le-motli  [recompen.ses]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  father  of  that  Berechiah 
wlio  urged  the  release  of  the  cai)ti  ves  lirought 
from  Judah  by  Pekah's  army  (2  Cliron. 
xxviii.   12). 

2.  A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (Neh. 
xi.  i:{),  called  Meshillemith  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12. 

Me-sho'bab  [restored]. 

One  of  the  Sinieouite  ])rin(:-es  wlir>  seized 
upon  the  pasture  lauds  near  Gedor  (1  Chron. 
iv.  34-41), 

Me-shul'lam  [a  friend]. 

1 .  A  Beujamite,  descended  from  Shaharaim 
through  Ei]:aal  (1  Chron.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  leading  man  among  the  Gadites  in 
the  reign  of  Jotham  (1   Chron.  v.  13). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Shaphan  the  scribe  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  3). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Zadok,  and  father  of 
the  high  priest  Hilkiah  who  lived  in  Josiah's 
reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  11).  See 
Shallum  7. 

5.  A  Kohathite  Levite  who  with  others 
hel])ed  faithfully  to  superintend  the  work- 
men who  re]iaired  the  temple  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Cliron.  xxxiv.  12). 

(j.  A  priest,  son  of  Meshillemith  of  the 
house  of  Immer  (1  Chron.  ix.  12). 

7.  A  son  of  Zenibbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  19). 

8.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Sallu  (1  Chron. 
ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

9.  Another  Benjamite,  son  of  Shephatiah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  8). 

10.  A  chief  man  whom,  with  others.  Ezra 
sent  from  the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Le- 
vites  to  go  to  Jerusalem   (Ezra  viii.  16). 

11.  One  of  those  who  busied  themselves, 
probably  adversely,  in  the  matter  of  in- 
ducing the  Jews  who  liad  married  foreign 
wives  to  put  them  away  (Ezra  x.  15). 

12.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

13.  A  son  of  Berechiah.  He  helped  to 
repair  two  portions  ut  the  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
at  the  second  of  which  he  liad  a  chamber 
(Neh.  iii.  4,  30).  Johanan,  son  of  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  married  his  daughter  (vi.  18). 

14.  Son  of  Besodeiah.  He  with  anotlier 
returned  exile  repaired  the  old  gate  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 

15.  One  of  those  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left 
hand  while  he  read  and  explained  the  law 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

16.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of 
a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  7). 

17.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  did  so  (Neh. 
X.  20). 


Meshullemeth 


496 


Mezahab 


18.  One  of  the  princes  of  .Iiida'i  who 
marched  in  the  procession  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wail  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  33;. 

19.  A  jirie.st,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Ezra  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joialcim 
(Neh.  xii.  13). 

20.  Another  priest  at  the  same  date,  head 
of  the  father's  house  Ginnethon  (Neh.  xii. 
Iti;. 

21.  A  porter  who  lived  at  the  same  date 
(Neh.  xii.  2o). 

Me-shul'le-meth  [a  female  friend]. 

Wife  of  king  Manasseh,  and  mother  of 
king  Anion   (2  Kin.  xxi.  19). 

Me-so'ba-ite.     See  Mezob.a.ite. 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a  [land  between  rivers]. 

The  rendering,  borrowed  from  the  Septua- 
gint,  for  the  Hebrew  .\rani-naharaim ;  see 
Aram  2,  (1).  It  is  a  (4reek  name  which  appears 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
Greek  and  Eoman  geographers  used  the  term 
for  the  whole  country  between  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  rivers,  excluding  the  mountainous 
region  where  the  rivers  take  their  rise  and 
ordinarily  also  the  low-lying  plain  of  Baby- 
lonia in  the  other  direction.  Thus  limited, 
its  upper  portion  is  hilly  and  fertile  and  its 
lower  part,  especially  toward  the  Tigris,  is  a 
salt  desert.  Mesopotamia  is  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jezireh  or  the  island. 

Some  of  its  inhabitants  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  on  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  descended  (Acts  ii.  9).  Stephen  in- 
cludes Ur  of  the  Chaldees  in  Mesopotamia 
(vii.  2). 

Mes-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Messlas  (John 
i.41  ;  iv.  25),  the  Greek  form  [anointed  one]. 

A  Hebrew  word,  to  which  the  Greek  word 
Christos  answers.  It  was  applicable  to  any 
person  anointed  with  the  holy  oil ;  as  the 
liigh  priest  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16  ;  1  Sam.  xii.  3,5, 
Hebrew)  or  the  king  (2  Sam.  i.  14,  16).  The 
title  is  given  to  the  patriarchs  Abraham  and 
Isaac  and  to  the  Persian  king  Cyrus,  as 
chosen  ones  to  administer  the  kingdom  of 
God  (Ps.  cv.  15;  Is.  xlv.  1).  When  God 
promi.sed  David  that  the  throne  and  scepter 
should  remain  in  his  family  forever  (2  Sam. 
vii.  13),  the  title  acquired  a  special  reference 
and  denoted  the  representative  of  the  royal 
line  of  David  (Ps.  ii.  2;  xviii.  50;  Ixxxiv.  9; 
Ixx.xix.  .38,  51;  cxxxii.  10,  17;  Lam.  iv,  20; 
Hab.  iii.  13).  And  when  prophecy  began  to 
tell  of  a  king  who  should  ajipear  in  this  line 
and  be  the  great  deliverer  of  his  people  (.Tor. 
xxiii.  5, 6),  whose  goings  forth  are  from  of  old, 
from  everlasting  (Mic.  v.  2-5),  and  who  should 
uphold  the  throne  and  kingdom  of  David 
forever  (Is.  ix.  6,  7),  the  title  of  the  Messiah, 
par  cxcellenre,  naturally  became  attached  to 
him  (Dan.ix.  25.  26;  Targum  Onkelos,  Num. 
xxiv.  17-19),  and  ultimately  became  a  cus- 
tomary designation  of  bim,  being  as  comumn 
as  tlie  title  son  of  David  (John  i.  41  ;  iv.  25 ; 
and  in  the  form  Christ,  Mat.  i.  1  et  passim). 

The  terra  Messianic  projjhecy  denotes  all 


prophecy  which  treats  of  the  person,  work, 
or  kingdom  of  Christ,  whether  it  does  so 
with  express  mention  of  Christ  or  speaks  of 
the  future  salvation,  glory,  and  consumma- 
tion of  God's  kingdom  without  mention  of 
the  mediator.  The  term  Messianic  times 
does  not  refer  exclusively  to  the  period  when 
Christ  lived  on  earth.  It  generally  compre- 
hends the  dispensation  which  Christ  in- 
augurated and  conducts  as  mediatorial  king, 
whether  viewed  in  its  entirety  or  in  some  of 
its  aspects. 

Met'als. 

The  metals  used  in  ancient  times  were 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin 
(Num.  xxxi.  22) ;  see  the  several  articles. 
Perhaps  antimony  was  employed  for  color- 
ing the  eyelids  and  eyebrows.     See  Paint. 

Me-theg-am'mah  [probably,  bridle  of  the 
mother  city,  i.  e.  jurisdiction  of  the  metropo- 
lis]. 

A  town  taken  by  David  from  the  Philis- 
tines (2  Sam.  viii.  1).  The  reference  is 
doubtless  to  Gath  and  its  suburbs  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  1). 

Me-thu'sa-el.     See  Methushael. 

Me-thu'se-lan,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Mathu- 
sala  [perhaps,  man  of  a  weapon]. 

Son  of  I^noch  and  father  of  the  Sethite 
Lamech  (Gen.  v.  21-27).  If  the  number  of 
years  which  are  assigned  to  him  refer  to  his 
own  individual  life,  he  is  notable  for  having 
lived  to  a  greater  age  than  any  other  man 
recorded  in  history.     See  Chronology. 

Me-thu'slia-el,  in  A.  V.  Me-thu'sael  [man 
of  God]. 

Son  of  Mehujael,  and  father  of  Lamech, 
of  the  Tace  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Me-u'nim,  in  A.  V.  also  Mehunim  and 
Mehunims  [i)lural  of  the  gentile  adjective 
from  Maon,  denoting  the  people  of  Maon]. 

A  people  whose  capital  was  probably  the 
city  of  Ma'an,  12  miles  southeast  of  Petra. 
They  inhabited  mount  Seir  (2  Chron.  xx.  1, 
emended  text,  with  10;  cp.  Septuagint).  A 
body  of  them  were  smitten  by  the  Simeon- 
ites  near  Gedor,  where  they  dwelt  as 
strangers  (1  Chron.  iv.  39-41).  They  are 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Philistines 
and  Arabians  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  7).  Some  of 
them,  probably  captives  of  war  and  their 
descendants,  served  at  the  temple  in  Jerusa- 
lem as  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii.  50;  Neh.  vii.  52). 
They  are  mentioned  in  Judg.  x.  12,  accord- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  text,  where  the  Septuagint 
has  Midian.  The  Meunim  are  identified 
by  the  Septuagint  with  the  Minseans.  If  the 
identification  be  correct,  they  are  only  a 
northern  settlement  of  that  people. 

Mez'a-hal)  [waters  of  gold]. 

An  ancestress  of  the  wife  of  Hadar,  king 
of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  39;  1  Chron.  i.  50);  or 
perhaps  a  district,  of  which  Matred  was  a 
native.    The  R.  V.  hyphenates  the  name. 


Mezobaite 


497 


Micah 


Me-zo'toa-ite,  in  A.  V.  Mesobaite. 

Appamitly  a  jjceatile  adjective,  as  in  the 
English  and  Greek  versions  '1  ("liiun.  xi.  47l; 
bnt  tlie  Hebrew  text  is  evideutlj'  corrupt. 

Mi'a-min.     See  Mijamin. 

Mib'har  [choice]. 

Oue  of  David's  mighty  men,  sou  of  Hagri 
or  better  a  Hagrite  (1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  re- 
marks about  the  text  under  Bani. 

Mib'sam  [sweet  odor]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  13;   1  Chron.  i.  '29). 

2.  A  Simeouite  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 

Mib'zar  [a  fortification,  a  stronghold]. 
An  Edomite  chieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi.  42 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  53). 

Mi'ca,  in  A.  V.  Micha  once  Micah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15)  [evidently,  like  Micah,  an  ab- 
breviation of  Micaiah,  who  is  like  Jehovah? 
(cp.  Mic.  i.  1  with  Jer.  xxvi.  18  R.  V..  and  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  20  with  2  Kin.  xxii.  12)].  A 
variant  Hebrew  spelling  yields  the  English 
form  Micah,  cp.  2  Sam.  ix.  12  with  1  Chron. 
viii.  34. 

1.  A  son  of  Mephibosheth  (2  Sam.  ix.  12). 
The  interchangeable  form  of  the  name, 
Micah,  is  given  him  in  1  Chron.  viii.  34,  35; 
ix.  40,  41. 

2.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
x.  11). 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15;  Neh.  xi.  17,  22;  and  xii.  35, 
where  the  form  Micaiah  is  used). 

Mi'cah,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Micbah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24,  25)  [who  is  like  Jehovah?].  See 
Mica. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20  ;  xxiv.  24,  25). 

2.  An  Ephraimite  who  stole  from  his 
mother  1100  shekels  of  silver,  about  725  dol- 
lars, but  afterwards  gave  them  back  again. 
His  mother  dedicated  200  of  them  to  the 
Lord  for  images.  A  graven  and  a  molten 
image  were  made  of  them  and  pieced  in  the 
house  of  Micah,  and  Micah  consecrated  his 
son  to  be  priest.  A  Levite  chanced  to  pass 
that  way,  and  Micah  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity to  secure  an  accredited  minister  at 
the  sanctuary.  A  Levite,  though  not  a 
priest,  was  better  than  the  layman,  Micah's 
son.  The  Levite  consented  for  hire  to  minis- 
ter before  Jehovah  in  a  house  of  images, 
contrary  to  the  second  commandment.  Some- 
time afterwards,  migrating  Danites  passed 
that  way,  allured  the  Levite  to  go  with 
them,  and  carried  otf  Micah's  images,  despite 
his  protestations  (Judg.  xvii.,  xviii.). 

3.  A  sou  of  Merib-baal  (1  Chron.  viii.  34, 
35:  ix.  40,  41) ;  see  Mica  1. 

4.  A  Reubenite  who  lived  several  genera- 
tions before  730  b.  c.  (1  Chron.  v.  5). 

5.  Father  of  Abdon.  He  was  born  before 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20  ;  2  ^in. 
xxii.  12,  where  the  form  Micaiah  is  used)  ; 
cp.   ACHBOR  2. 


6.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  ix. 
15,  A.  V.)  ;  see  Mica  3. 

7.  A  Morashtite,  a  native  aiipannflv  of 
Moresheth-gath  (Mic.  i.  14),  a  town  beliivcd 
to  have  been  in  Judah,  not  far  from  (iath 
and  for  a  time  a  dependency  of  the  Phili.s- 
tine  city.  He  prophesied  in  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah  (Mic.  i.  1  ;  and 
Jer.  xxvi.  18.  where  the  form  Micaiali  is 
used).  He  therefore  began  his  career  a  little 
later  than  his  contemporaries  Hosea  and 
Isaiah  (cp.  i.  1  with  Is.  i.  1  and  Hos.  i.  1). 
He  spoke  upon  the  same  great  themes  as 
Isaiali  and  so  similarly  that,  as  Calvin  has 
said,  Micah  was,  as  it  were,  Isaiah's  col- 
league. 

Micah's  style  is  simple;  not  rugged  but 
elegant.  He  is  plain-spoken  in  tlie  rebuke 
of  sin  (i.  5;  ii.  1,  2;  vi.  10-12).  His  transi- 
tions of  thought  are  often  al)rupt,  but  a  log- 
ical connection  is  seldom  difficult  to  discern. 
He  is  fond  of  the  interrogation  (i.  5;  ii.  7; 
iv.  9;  vi.  3,  fi,  7,  10,  11),  uses  irony  (ii.  11), 
introduces  a  metajihor,  and  retains  it  and 
carries  it  forward  (i.  6;  iii.  2,  3,  6  ;  iv.  6-8, 
13;  vi.  10,  11,  14,  15),  and  delights  in  paro- 
nomasia or  play  upon  words,  employing  it 
largely  in  the  first  chapter  and  perhaps  al- 
lowing it  to  determine  the  form  of  the  con- 
cluding paragraph  of  the  book.  That  para- 
graph is  spoken  in  praise  of  Jehovah,  and  is 
based  on  the  rhetorical  question,  "  Who  is  a 
God  like  unto  thee?"  the  prophet  closing 
his  prophecy  by  ])nblishing  the  claim  with 
it.S  ground  which  his  own  name  makes. 

Micah  drew  confidence  and  strength  from 
the  character  of  God,  as  revealed  in  the  ten 
commandments,  in  his  dealing  with  Israel, 
and  in  individual  experience  (ii.  7;  vi.  3-5; 
vii.  15).  God  himself  does  justice  and  loves 
mercy,  and  he  requires  these  traits  in  his 
people.  The  promises  of  God  were  also  a 
source  of  strength  and  sweet  encouragement 
to  the  prophet.  He  knew  that  Israel's  se- 
curity lay  in  God's  purpose  to  save  his  people 
according  to  the  promise  made  to  Abraham 
(vii.  20)  and  centered  in  the  son  of  David  (v. 
2-6;  cp.  Luke  i.  72-75).  The  foes  of  the 
kingdom  cannot  prevail.  Chapter  v.  isbasi'd 
on  the  same  truth  as  Ps.  ii. ;  and,  like  the 
sweet  message  of  forgiveness  and  restoration 
(vii.  8-20),  rests  upon  God's  word. 

The  book  of  Micah  is  the  sixth  of  the 
minor  prophets.  Its  author  prophesied  in 
the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz.  and  Hezekiah 
(i.  1).  Its  contents  also  show  that  it  was 
written  after  the  reigns  of  Omri  and  Aliab 
(vi.  16),  at  the  time  when  Assyria  was  the 
power  whicli  the  Israelites  dreaded  (v.  5,  6), 
and  in  part  at  least  while  Samaria  and  the 
northern  kingdom  were  still  in  existence  (i. 
6,  14) ;  bnt  how  long  before  the  fall  of  Sama- 
ria the  words  of  i.  5-7  were  uttered  cannot 
be  determined,  for  from  the  time  of  Uzziah 
and  Jotham  the  prophets  were  foretelling 
the  approaching  doom  of  Samaria  (Hos.  i.  6; 
iii.  4;  v.  9 ;  Amos  ii.   6;  iii.   12;  v.  1-3,27; 


Micah 


498 


Micah 


vi.  1,  7-11,  14;  Is.  vii.  8,  9;  viii.  4)  and  the 
desolation  of  Judah  (Hos.  v.  10;  Amos  ii.  4  ; 
Is.  vi.  1,  11-13 ;  vii.  17-25).  Tlie  allusion  to 
the  desolation  of  Basliau  and  Gilead  may  in- 
dicate a  period  later  than  733-732  B.  c,  when 
Tiglath-pileser  ravaged  that  territory  and 
deported  its  inhal)itants  (Mic.  vii.  14,  where 
the  days  of  old  refer  to  the  occupation  of  the 
region  by  Israel  from  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest onward,  cp.  14  with  20).  The  proi)hecy 
of  iii.  12  was  spoken  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (Jer.  xxvi.  18),  though  Micah  may 
have  discoursed  on  this  theme  before. 

The  prophecies  of  Micah,  although  they 
refer  especially  to  Judah  and  were  spoken  to 
the  people  of  the  .southern  kingdom,  yet  con- 
cern all  Israel  (Mic.  i.  1,5-7,  9-16).  The  abrupt 
transitions  indicate  that  the  book  is  rather  a 
summary  of  the  prophet's  teaching  than  a 
series  of  distinct  discourses.  The  expression 
"  Hear  ye,"  repeated  three  times,  serves  to 
mark  the  beginning  of  three  divisions,  each 
of  which  likewise  ends  with  a  message  of 
hope.  I.  Judgment  upon  Samaria  for  its  in- 
curable disposition  toward  idolatry  (i.  2-8), 
and  upon  Judah  as  involved  in  like  guilt 
(9-16).  Woe  upon  the  oppressors  of  the 
people  and  projihecy  of  the  ruin  and  cap- 
tivity of  the  nation  (ii.4,  5)  as  a  jjunishment 
for  the  unrighteousness  aud  injustice  of  its 
representative  men  (l-ll).  Yet  a  remnant 
shall  be  restored  ( 12, 13).  II.  Denunciations 
passing  into  prophecies  of  salvation.  Kebuke 
of  the  civil  and  religious  authorities  for 
"Heartless  indifference  to  truth  and  right  and 
for  the  mercenary  character  of  their  doctrine 
and  government  (iii.  1-11) ;  the  consequent 
abandonment  of  Zion  by  Jehovah  to  the 
power  of  its  foes  (12)  ;  but  the  ultimate  ex- 
altation of  Jehovah's  kingdom  in  moral  in- 
fluence among  men  and  in  jjcace,  prosperity, 
and  power  (iv.  l-S).  But  at  jtresent  dismay, 
helplessness,  cai)tivity  (9,  10),  followed  by  the 
overthrow  of  its  enemies  for  their  sinful  op- 
position to  Jehovah  (11-13).  But  at  present 
discomfiture  for  Ziou  (v.  1),  until  he  shall 
(;ome  forth  unto  (iod  that  is  to  be  ruler  in 
Israel,  whose  goings  forth  are  from  of  old, 
from  everlasting  (2-4).  This  foreordina- 
tion  of  God  regarding  the  Messiah  secures 
the  deliverance  of  Zion  from  the  Assyrians 
{'^,  6;  cp.  Is.  vii.  4-16),  and  is  the  pledge  and 
potency  that  guarantees  the  survival  of 
God's  peoi)le  throughout  the  ages  and  their 
ultimate  triumj)h  over  all  foes  and  attain- 
ment of  conformity  to  (Jod's  ideal  (Mic.  v. 
7-15).  III.  Jehovah's  controversy  with  the 
]K!ople  as  a  whole,  not  with  the  wealthy  and 
tiie  official  classes  only  (vi.  1-5),  explaining 
the  r(!quirements  of  true  religion  (6-H ;  see 
also  Is.  i.  11-17),  lann>nting  its  absence  and 
the  presence  of  its  very  ojiposite  (Mic.  vi.  9- 
vii.  6),  and  closing  with  tlie  iiro])het's  own 
confidence  in  a  glorious  future  due  to  the 
forgiving  grace  of  Jehovah  and  his  faithful- 
n(!ss  to  liis  covenant  with  Abraham  (7-20). 

Chap.  iv.  1-3  is  almost  identical  with  Is.  ii. 


2-4,  but  is  more  closely  connected  than  in 
the  corresponding  passage  in  Isaiah  with  the 
verses  which  immediately  follow.  Joel  ex- 
presses a  similar  thought  (Joel  iii.  10).  Isaiah 
certainly  quoted  his  words,  as  the  introduc- 
tion, "And  it  shall  come  to  pass,"  shows; 
and  he  may  have  cited  them  from  Micah. 
But  the  verbal  variations  between  Isaiah  and 
Micah,  and  between  these  jirojihets  and  Joel, 
may  be  ex]ilaintd  by  sujqiosing  that  each 
adopted  a  ti'aditional  prediction  current  in 
his  day.  At  any  rate  God's  people  of  old  had 
authoritative  prophecy  upon  which  they 
relied,  and  favorite  passages  which  they 
quoted,  just  as  Christians  of  to-day  have. 

The  integrity  of  the  text  of  Micah  has 
been  impugned.  The  evidence  urged  as 
proof  of  interpolation  consists  mainly  in  the 
following  facts,  frequently  reinforced  by  a 
denial  that  the  style  is  Micah's:  I.  Exile  is 
presupposed  (ii.  12,  13;  vii.  7-20;  Well- 
hausen).  But  surely  Micah  might  look  for- 
ward to  an  exile  of  the  people,  for  1.  On  the 
theory  of  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  addresses 
in  Deuteronomy,  it  was  natural  for  Micah  to 
look  forward  to  the  exile  of  the  people.  As 
foreseen  and  foretold,  sin  meant  national 
weakness  and  ruin  ;  and  this  condition  in 
that  age  of  the  world  had  for  its  ordinary  re- 
sult subjugation  by  the  great  world  powers 
and  deportation  into  slavery  (Dent,  xxviii. 
31-.37,  47-53  ;  cp.  Is.  i.  19,  20).  2.  The  exile 
of  Judah,  or  at  least  of  the  upper  classes,  is 
taught  in  admittedly  genuine  passages  of 
Micah,  and  an  exile  undoubtedly  of  the 
nation  as  a  whole  is  clearlv  announced  by 
Isaiah  (Mic.  i.  15,  16;  ii.  3-5,  10;  Is.  v.  is'; 
vi.  11-13;  vii.  3;  a  remnant  shall  return,  x. 
21).  A  forward  look  to  the  exile  is  there- 
fore quite  in  place  in  the  prophecy  of  Micah. 
Critics  of  this  trend,  who  regard  the  context 
as  genuine,  reject  the  clause  in  iv.  10  where 
Babylon  is  mentioned  as  a  place  of  exile.  It 
is  called  a  gloss  ;  and  it  may  certainly  be  omit- 
ted without  injury  to  the  sense.  But  (1)  so 
may  many  clauses  admittedly  genuine  be 
omitted  without  destroying  the  connection. 
And  (2)  Isaiah  speaks  of  Babylon  as  a  place 
of  exile,  in  a  prophecy  which  Micah  may  liave 
had  in  mind  (Is.  xxxix.  6,  7).  Once  again 
Isaiah,  having  before  his  mind's  eye  the 
children  of  Israel  scattered  throughout  the 
inhabited  world,  mentions  Shinar,  i.  e., 
Babylon,  as  one  of  the  lands  of  the  exile  (xi. 
11).  This  portion  of  the  chapter,  like  the 
clause  in  Jlicah,  is  exscinded,  primarily  be- 
cause of  this  reference  to  Ba))ylonian  exile. 
II.  Messianic  elements :  the  reassembling 
of  Israel  and  their  triumphant  breaking 
forth  under  the  leadershiji  of  their  king  (Mic. 
ii.  13) ;  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  Zion  in 
the  Messianic  period,  and  the  accession  of 
the  gentiles  (iv.  1-8)  ;  and  the  per.son  of  the 
Messiah  (v.  2-8).  But  these  thoughts  were 
unquestionably  contemporary  with  Micah 
(Hos.  xi.  8-11,  not  to  refer  to  disputed  pas- 
sages in  Hosea ;  Is.  ii.  2-4  ;  iv.  2-6,  ix.  1-7 


Micah 


499 


Micaiali 


[Heb.  viii.  S-iis.  fj]  ;  x.  20-2-2  ;  xi.  1-10  ;  sue 
also  Amos  ix.  11-15,  and  tlie  remarks  on  its 
genuineness).  III.  Tlie  universalism  which 
finds  expression  in  Jehovah's  relation  to  the 
gentile  world.  The  answer  to  this  objection 
is:  1.  The  ])resiippositious  are  not  wanting 
in  Micah's  own  tliought,  as  retiected  in  pas- 
sages admittedly  genuine  (i.  2).  2.  A  uni- 
versalistic  conception  appears  in  Amos'  de- 
nunciation of  Jehovah's  punishment  upon 
the  nations  for  tlieir  hostility  to  the  kingdom 
of  God  (Amos,  chaps,  i.  and  ii.)  ;  in  the  atti- 
tude of  Jehovah  to  Damascus,  Egypt,  and 
Assyria,  prochiimed  by  Isaiali ;  and  in  the 
writings  ascribed  to  J.  and  E.,  contcmjjorary 
with  Micah,  in  wliich  mention  is  ukkU'  (»f 
God's  moral  government  of  the  world  (Gen. 
ii.-xi.  ;  xviii.  25,  etc.).  IV.  The  eschatolog- 
ical  ideas  of  a  w^orld  attack  upon  Zion  and  its 
failure,  in  contrast  with  the  prophecy  of  tlie 
overthrow  of  Zion  by  its  enemies  !  .Mic.  iv. 
11-13  with  iii.  12).  The  two  ideas  are,  how- 
ever, not  inconsistent.  Tlie  conflict  of  tlie 
world  power  witli  Judali  is  viewed  by 
Micah,  as  by  otiier  jiropliets  of  his  own  time 
and  later,  from  two  points:  Jehovah  gives 
up  his  people  to  the  sword  and  to  captivity 
because  of  their  sins ;  but  in  so  far  as  the 
hostility  of  the  world  is  directed  against 
Zion  in  its  religious  significance,  it  is  a 
struggle  against  Jehovah  and  must  issue  in 
the  destruction  of  the  opposing  nations  (Is. 
i.  19,  20:  viii.  5-8  and  9,  10;  x.  .5-7  aud  12- 
10 ;  comp.  Is.  iii.  8,  24-26  ;  v.  i:?.  26-30).  No 
sword  formed  against  her  shall  prosper. 
The  progress  of  the  Assyrian  advance  into 
■Tudah  under  Sennacherib  in  the  days  of 
Isaiah  and  perliaps  of  Micah,  and  its  failure, 
oflered  a  striking  illustration  of  the  twofold 
principle  here  proclaimed  as  a  truth  valid 
for  all  time  (2  Kin.  xviii.  13-xix.  37  ;  cji. 
xviii.  11,  12  aud  xix.  4-7;  Vos,  Presb.,  and 
Eefd  Rev.  x.  305).  V.  Condemnation  of 
the  pillars  and  the  Asherim,  which  were 
used  in  the  popular  worship,  but  were  cot 
condemned  until  the  liigh  places  were  made 
an  object  of  attack  by  the  prophets,  that  is, 
after  the  Deuteronomic  reform.  But  1. 
Xotice  the  implication  that  the  addresses  in 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy  are  not  Mosaic  in 
their  origin.  2.  The  attitude  of  Micah  is 
that  of  his  predecessor  Hosea.  The  very 
building  of  pillai's  is  condemned  by  Hosea 
( Hos.  X.  1,  2).  And  Hosea  condemns  all  idols 
and  must,  therefore,  have  opposed  the  images 
of  the  goddess  Asherah  (cp.  ii.  5, 13 ;  iv.  12,  17  ; 
viii.  4-6;  and  Mic.  i.  7).  3.  The  entire  pas- 
sage Mic.  v.  9-14  is  similar  to  Is.  ii.  6-8.  VI. 
The  transitions  from  threatening  to  promise 
(  Mic.  ii.  12,  13  ;  iv.  1-8  ;  vii.  7-20).  This  se- 
(juence  is,  however,  customary  among  the 
prophets.  It  is  their  uniform  Jiabit  after  de- 
nouncing doom  to  illumine  tlie  darkness  with 
Tr  ray  of  promise,  and  thus  encourage  the 
goJly  to  stand  fast  and  .strive  and  hope.  It 
is,  however,  the  liabit  of  those  critics  who 
bring  forward   the  objection   mentioned    to 


exscind  these  jiassages  of  jiromise,  or  iiiauy 
of  them,  aud  thus  trim  the  prophecies  to  suit 
a  theory. 

Several  remarks  that  liear  on  the  genuine- 
ness of  chapters  vi.  and  vii.  may  be  thrown 
loosely  together.  The  thought  of  the  exiles 
scattered  far  and  wide  (^lic.  vii.  12)  is  not 
surprising  in  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah  ;  and 
the  hope  that  the  walls  of  Jeru.salem  will  be 
rebuilt  (vii.  11)  is  natural  after  one  lias  ])ic- 
tured  the  enemy  treading  down  Zion  as  tlie 
mire  of  the  streets  (10).  Over  against 
Ewald's  assignment  of  chapters  vi.  and  vii. 
to  the  time  of  Manasseh  (a  date,  it  will  be 
observed,  which  need  not  fall  outside  of 
Micah's  lifetime)  may  be  placed  CoriiiU's 
opinion  that  everything  in  these  chapters 
applies  well  to  the  time  of  Ahaz.  The  an- 
ticipation of  exile  (vii.  7-20),  and  the  ravag- 
ing of  the  kingdom  bj-  its  foes,  yet  tlieir 
submission  (vi.  13-16;  vii.  16,  17),  and  tlie 
transition  from  threatening  to  promise, 
characterize  cluqiters  i.-v.  equally  with  vi. 
and  vii.  Chapters  vi.  and  vii.  form  a  natu- 
ral advance  from  the  denunciation  of  the 
official  representatives  of  the  nation  (i.-iii.) 
to  Jehovah's  controversy  with  the  people  as 
a  wliole  (vi.,  vii.).  The  figure  of  Jehovah  in 
controversy  with  Israel  was  familiar  to  the 
prophets  of  this  period  (Hos.  iv.  1 ;  xii.  2; 
cp.  Is.  i.  2-24)  ;  and  to  refer  to  events  of 
Israel's  early  history,  as  in  vi.  4,  5;  vii.  15, 
20,  was  a  common  practice  with  Micah  (i. 
15;  V.  6),  Hosea,  and  Isaiah.  As  tlie  pro- 
jihecies  of  chapters  i.-v.  resemble  Isaiah's 
utterances,  so  chapter  vi.  resembles  Is.  i. 

Mi-ca'iah,  in  A.  V.  Michaiah  exce])t  in  1 
Kin.  xxii.  8-28;  2  Cliron.  xviii.  (j-27  [who 
is  like  Jehovah  ?]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Uriel  of  Gibeah,  wife  of 
Rehoboam,  and  mother  of  king  Abijah  (2 
Chron.  xiii.  2).  According  to  xi.20,  Abijah's 
niotlier  was  ]SIaacah,  daughter  of  Absalom. 
Micaiah  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Maacalu 
for  so  Abijah's  mother  is  always  called  else- 
where, and  she  was  ])rol)ably  granddaughter 
of  Absalom  and  daughter  of  Uriel  by  his 
wife  Tamar,  Ab.salom's  daughter.  See  Maa- 
CAH  9. 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Imlah.  Being  desired 
by  Ahab  to  concur  in  the  favorable  prediction 
given  by  the  jirophets  of  Baal  regarding 
Ahah's  expedition  against  Ramoth-gilead,  he 
did  what  was  required  of  him,  but  with  such 
transparent  insincerity  that  he  was  adjured 
to  speak  the  trutii.  on  which,  in  the  name  of 
Jehovah,  he  jiredicted  the  death  of  Ahah  in 
the  coming  fight.  The  order  was  given  to 
make  him  a  prisoner  till  the  event  should 
prove  his  unfavorable  vaticination  to  be  un- 
true (1  Kin.  xxii.  8-28  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  6-27). 

3.  One  of  Jehoshaphat's  princes  sent  by 
him  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chrou. 
xvii.  7). 

4.  The  projihet,  better  known  as  Micah 
( Jer.  XX vi.  I's,  E.  R.  V. ;  see  A.  R.  V.  margin  i. 


Micha 


500 


Michmethath 


5.  Father  of  Achbor.  He  lis-ed  before 
Josiah's  reign  (;2  Kiii.  xxii.  1-2) ;  see  Micah  5. 

6.  A  sou  of  Gemariah,  who  reported  to  the 
Jewisli  princes  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  the 
contents  of  Jeremiah's  book  as  read  by 
Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.  11-13). 

7.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (Neh.  xii.  35); 
see  Mica  3. 

a.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trump- 
ets when  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  was  dedi- 
cated by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

Mi'cha.     See  Mica. 

Mi'cha-el  [who  is  like  God?]. 

1.  A  man  of  Asher,  father  of  the  repre- 
sentative from  that  tribe  on  the  commission 
to  spy  out  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  13). 

2.  A  Gadite,  descended  from  Buz  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  in  Gilead  (1  Chron.  v.  13 ; 
cp.  11,  14,  16). 

3.  Another  Gadite,  ancestor  of  the  preced- 
ing (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  A  Levite.  family  of  Gershom  and  ances- 
tor of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  vi.  40). 

5.  A  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
family  of  Tola,  house  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron. 
Tii.  3). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  16). 

7.  A  Manassite  captain  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

8.  Father  of  Omri,  who  ruled  the  people 
of  Issachar  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
18). 

0.  A  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 

10.  Father  of  Zebadiah,  of  the  sons  of 
.Shephatiah  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

11.  An  archangel  (Jude  9),  one  of  the  chief 
angelic  princes  who  helped  the  man  clothed 
in  linen  against  the  spiritual  being  behind  the 
Persian  empire,  called  the  ])rince  of  the  king- 
dom of  Persia  (Dan.  x.  13),  who  contended  for 
Israel  (21;  xii.  1),  and  who  with  his  angels 
wars  victoriously  against  the  enemies  of  the 
people  of  Ciod  (Rev.  xii.  7).  When  the  doc- 
trine of  angels  was  wrought  out  by  the  Jews 
after  the  exile,  Michael  was  made  one  of 
seven  archangels  (Tob.  xii.  15),  Gabriel  being, 
of  course,  included  in  the  number  (Dan.  viii. 
16  ;  ix.  21),  and  live  others  being  added  to 
make  up  seven,  namely,  Raphael  (Tol).  iii.  17), 
Uriel  (2  Esd.  iv.  1),  Chamuel,  Jophiel,  and 
Zadkiel.  The  common  belief  that  Michael  dis- 
puted with  Satan  about  the  body  of  Moses,  to 
which  Jude  refers  and  upoji  which  he  bases 
a  lesson  (Jude  0;  cp.  2  Pet.  ii.  11)  is  reflected 
in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan  on  Deut.  xxxiv. 
G,  which  ascribes  the  burial  of  Moses  to 
Michael  and  other  angels.  The  form  of  ex- 
l)ression  in  Zecli.  iii.  1,  2  and  Jude  9  may 
have  been  diTivc^d  from  the  current  account; 
but  more  probably  the  words  of  the  prophet 
Zecliariiih  determined  the  phraseology  of  the 
Common  belief 

Mi'cliah.     See  Micah. 
Mi-clia'iali.     See  Micaiah. 


Mi'chal  [jierhaps,  a  brook]. 

The  younger  daughter  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  49).  After  Saul  had  failed  to  fulfill  his 
promise  to  give  his  elder  daughter  Merab  to 
David,  he  learned  that  Miclial  was  in  love 
with  the  young  hero,  and  he  gladly  embraced 
the  opportunity  which  this  affection  afforded 
him  to  expose  David  to  the  risk  of  death. 
He  offered  Michal  to  David  on  condition  that 
he  should  slay  a  hundred  Philistines.  David 
accomplished  the  assigned  task  and  received 
Michal  to  wife  (1  Sam.  xviii.  27,  28).  She 
aided  David  in  escaping  from  her  father's 
machinations,  but  after  the  former  became  a 
fugitive  Saul  married  her  to  another  man, 
regardless  of  the  obligations  she  was  under 
to  David  (xxv.  44).  When  Abuer,  Ish-bo- 
sheth's  general,  sought  to  make  up  matters 
with  David,  the  king  required  that  his  wife 
Michal  should  be  restored  to  him,  which  was 
done  (2  Sam.  iii.  15).  But  when  David  was 
bringing  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  and.  in  the 
intensity  of  his  religious  zeal,  danced  before 
the  Lord,  Michal  thought  the  hero  and  king 
was  acting  in  an  undignified  manner,  and 
she  despised  him  in  her  heart,  and  rebuked 
him  with  scornful  and  untrue  words.  But 
David  replied  that  he  had  humbled  himself 
before  the  Lord  and  would  continue  to  do  so, 
but  that  he  would  be  held  in  honor  by  those 
in  whose  sight  she  falsely  insinuated  he  had 
acted  in  a  lewd  manner.  After  a  time  Michal 
died  childless  (2  Sam.  vi.  14-23). 

Mich'mash,  and  twice  Michmas  (Ezra  ii. 
27;  Neh.  vii.  31),  and  so  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac. 
ix.  73  [something  hidden  away]. 

A  town  near  the  mount  of  Bethel  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  2).  east  of  Beth-aven  (5),  and  north  of 
Geba  (xiv.  5,  in  A.  V.  Gibeah  ;  Is.  x.  28,  29). 
The  Philistines  encamped  at  Michmash  to 
war  with  Saul ;  but  through  the  valor  of 
Jonathan  and  his  armor  bearer  at  the  craggy 
pass  near  by  a  slaughter  was  begun  among 
Ihem  and  they  were  routed  by  the  army  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5-7,  15  seq. ;  xiv.  1-2.3). 
Fxiles  from  Michmash  returned  from  the  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  ii.  27  ;  Neh.  vii.  31).  They  were 
Benjamites  (xi.  31).  Jonathan  Maccabaeus 
took  up  his  residence  at  Michmash  and  exer- 
cised judgeship  (1  Mac.  ix.  73,  in  A.  V.  Mach- 
mas  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  6).  The  pass  of  Michmash, 
still  retaining  the  name  of  Mukhmas,  is  7| 
miles  north  by  east  of  Jerusalem,  2  north- 
east of  Geba,  and  3  south  by  east  of  Bethel. 
The  village  of  Mukhmas  is  one  of  an  humble 
cliaracter  ;  the  pass  is  probably,  as  Robinson 
thought,  the  wady  es-Suweinit,  and  the  two 
rocks  of  Bozez  and  Seneh  which  flanked  the 
pass  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4)  are  described  by  him  as 
two  conical,  or  rather  spherical,  hills,  with 
rocky  sides. 

Micli'me-tliath,  in  A.  V.  Michmethah. 
A    town   on    the   boundary    line    between 
Epliraim   and    Manasseh.      It    lay    "  before 
Sliechem "    (Josh.    xvi.    6;    xvii.    7).      Site 
doubtful. 


Michri 


501 


Migdol 


Micb'ri  [valuable]. 

A  Beiijamite  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

Mich'tam  [eusraving,  inscription]. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
xvi.  ;  Ivi.-lx.  It  has  been  understood  as 
meaning:  1.  Concealed,  secret,  hence  a  mys- 
tery or  a  hitherto  unknown  composition.  2. 
({olden  psalm.  3.  Epigram,  a  poem  intended, 
like  an  inscription,  to  record  memorable 
thoughts,  and  often  indulging  in  refrains. 
The  last  opinion  has  most  support. 

Mid'din  [extensions]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  61).     Site  unknown. 

Mid'i-an,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Madian  [strife, 
contention]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  sent 
away  with  gifts  into  the  wilderness,  and  in 
whom  the  Midianites  were  linked  with 
Abraham.  The  person  and  tribe  form  one 
conception  (Gen.  xxv.  1-6). 

2.  A  region  in  the  Arabian  desert  near  the 
jElanitic  gulf,  occupied  by  the  Midianites 
(Gen.  xxv.  6).  It  was  bordered  by  Edom  on 
the  northwest.  Its  boundaries  were  never 
demarked,  and  doubtless  shifted  considerably 
at  different  periods ;  but  all  the  region  re- 
ferred to  in  the  O.  T.  as  dominated  by  the 
Midianites  is  found  within  an  area  which 
measures  about  17o  miles  from  north  to  south. 
About  the  time  of  the  exodus  Midian  con- 
trolled the  pasture  lands  east  of  Horeb  in 
the  ])eninsula  of  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1).  A  dis- 
trict adjacent  to  Moab  and  near  the  Amorite 
kingdom,  whose  capital  was  Heshbon,  was 
occupied  by  Midianites,  who  had  been  settled 
there  for  some  time  (Gen.  xxxvi.  35:  Num. 
xxii.  4  ;  xxv.  1,6;  Josh.  xiii.  21).  The  in- 
tervening region  east  of  Edom  to  the  Red 
Sea  doubtless  belonged  to  Midian.  The  Mid- 
ianites who  were  routed  in  the  valley  of 
Jezreel  fled  in  this  direction,  and  Gideon  in 
])ursuing  them  passed  Succoth  and  the  Gadite 
town  of  Jogbehah  (Judg.  viii.  5,  10,  11  ;  cp. 
Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28).  In  David's  time  a 
royal  refugee  from  Edom  found  temporary 
asylum  in  Midian,  probably  southeast  of 
Edom,  betbre  he  went  into  Kgypt  (1  Kin.  xi. 
IT,  18).  The  center  of  population  was  east 
and  southea.st  of  the  jElanitic  gulf  of  the 
Red  Sea,  where  the  name  has  lived  from  age 
to  age  and  is  still  preserved  in  the  ruins 
called  Madyan. 

Mid'i-an-ites. 

A  })eople  of  the  desert  (Gen.  xxv.  2,  6 ; 
Num.  X.  29-31 ;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Hab.  iii.  7 ;  Judith 
ii.  26).  Five  families  of  them  sprang  from 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  4).  Of  these  five,  the 
name  of  Ephah  has  been  identified  with 
much  probability  with  a  name  on  the  As- 
syrian inscriptions  of  the  8th  century  be- 
fore Christ,  which  denotes  a  tribe  of  northern 
Arabia.  Midianite  merchants,  who  were 
wath  the  caravan  of  Ishmaelites  coming  from 
Gilead,  bought  Joseph  and  carried  him  to 
Egypt  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28).     The  father-in- 


law  of  Mcses  was  a  Midianite  (Ex.  iii.  1). 
Midianites  joined  with  Moabites  Hn  hiring 
Balaam  to  curse  the  Israelites  and  after- 
wards seduced  the  people  to  idohitry  and 
licentiousness  (Num.  xxii.  4,6;  xxv.).  The 
Israelites  were  consequently  directed  to  make 
war  on  them.  They  did  so,  killing  the  five 
kings  of  Midian  with  all  the  male  i)opula- 
tion  of  the  district  and  the  married  women 
(xxxi.).  These  kings  were  allies  or  vassals 
of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites  (Josh.  xiii. 
21).  In  the  period  of  the  judges,  Midianites, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Amalekites  and  the 
(hililnn  of  the  east,  entered  Canaan,  with 
their  cattle  and  their  tents,  like  locusts  for 
multitude,  everywhere  appropriating  the 
crops,  and  reducing  to  the  greatest  distress 
those  who  had  sown  them.  After  the  oj)- 
pression  had  lasted  for  seven  years,  God 
raised  up  Jcrubbaal,  or  Gideon,  to  deliver 
the  now  repentant  people.  The  decisive 
battle  was  fought  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It 
resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  foreign 
oppressors.  Their  two  princes,  Oreb  and 
Zeeb,  were  taken  and  put  to  death  ;  and  later 
their  two  kings,  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  shared 
the  same  fate.  The  land  had  rest,  then,  for 
the  normal  period  of  forty  years  (Judg.  vi.- 
viii. ;  ix.  17  ;  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  9-12  ;  Is.  ix.  4  ; 
X.  26). 

Mig'dal-el  [tower  of  God]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38). 
Its  identification  with  el-Mejdel,  that  is  Mag- 
dala,  on  the  .sea  of  Galilee,  is  contrary  to  the 
order  of  enumeration.  Its  site  is  probably 
Mujeidil,  V2h  miles  northwest  of  Kades,  i.  e. 
Kedesh,  and  11  miles  north-northwest  of 
Yarun.   /.  e.  Iron. 

Mig'dal-gad  [tower  of  Gad  or  fortune]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
'Josh.  XV.  37).  El-Mejdel  has  been  suggested, 
inland  2|  miles  east,  slightly  north,  from 
Ashkelon.  This  location  would  be  in  the 
country  of  the  Philistines. 

Mig'dol  [tower;  in  Egyptian  malcthal, 
tower] . 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  while 
they  were  leaving  Egypt.  It  was  near  the 
sea  (the  Red  Sea  according  to  Ex.  xv.  4,  22 ; 
Deut.  xi.  4)  ;  was  before  Pi-hahiroth  and  be- 
fore Baal-zephon  (Ex.  xiv.  2;  Num.  xxxiii. 
7).  After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Jews  fled  to  Egypt  and 
took  up  their  abode  in  a  place  called  Migdol 
(Jer.  xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  If  the  marginal 
reading  of  Ezek.  xxix.  10;  xxx.  6  is  correct, 
Migdol  was  in  the  extreme  north  of  Egypt. 
Ancient  authors  mention  a  Migdol  or  Mag- 
dolon  12  miles  distant  from  Pelusium,  on  the 
northeastern  frontier  of  Egypt,  and  the 
Makthal  most  frequently  mentioned  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  was  situated  near  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  (Ebers).  Brug.sch  identi- 
fies this  place  with  Tell  es-Samut,  and  re- 
gards it  as  the  site  of  the  encampment  of 
the  Israelites.     But  this  situation  does  not 


Migron 


502 


Mill 


harmonize  witli  the  location  of  the  camp  on 
the  Red  S&a,  as  the  term  Red  Sea  is  under- 
stood. Other  fortresses  on  the  frontier,  how- 
ever, went  by  the  name  of  Migdol  (Ebers). 
Naville  has "  exjn-essed  the  opinion  that 
Migdol  was  at  the  present  station  of  the 
Serapeum,  midway  between  lake  Timsah 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes  ;  while  Ebers  locates  it 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
near  the  Persian  moiuiment.  Here  the  gulf 
of  Suez  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  was  nar- 
row and  probably  shallow.  It  was  also  liable 
to  be  driven  back  by  an  east  wind,  so  as 
temporarily  to  leave  a  dry  way  at  a  particu- 
lar spot. 

Mig'ron  [possibly,  a  precipice] . 

A  village  of  Benjamin,  south  of  Aiatli  and 
north  of  Michmasl'i  ( Is.  x.  ;i« ).  The  site  may 
be  marked  by  the  ruins  Makrun.  Saul  once 
camped  in  its  vicinity,  in  the  outermost  part 
of  Gibeah  (1  Sam.  xiv.  2l.  If  the  site  of 
Gibeah  is  Tell  el-Ful,  as  is  commonly  be- 
lieved, or  perhaps  even  if  Geba  is  intended, 
and  if  the  text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  2  is  pure,  there 
would  seem  to  have  been  two  Migrons,  one 
north  and  the  other  considerably  south  of 
Michmash. 

Mij'a-min,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Miamln 
[from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
gr(jwn  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  sixth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  David  distributed 
the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  0,  9). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  5,  7). 
In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests  bore  the  name  Miniamin  (ver.  17). 
The  difference  between  these  names  is  unes- 
sential, being  whoUj'  external ;  in  one  form 
llie  letter  nun  is  assimilated,  in  the  other  it 
is  not. 

3.  A  son  of  Parosh,  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  25). 

4.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house  (cp.  number  2).  sealed  the 
covenant  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x. 
7).  Perhaps  it  was  he  who  was  one  of  the 
trumpeters  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
(xii.  41)  ;  see  Miniamin  3,  and  for  form  of 
the  name  see  under  2  of  this  article. 

Mik'loth  [rods]. 

1.  A  military  captain  in  David's  reign, 
who  was  on  duty  with  another  captain  in  the 
second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  4). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Giboon  (1  Chron.  viii.  ,32  ;  ix.  37,  3.S). 

Mik-ne'iah  [po.ssession  of  .Jehovah]. 

A  Levitc  of  the  second  degree,  a  gate 
keejier  of  the  ark,  who  i)layed  the  harj)  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  21). 

Mil'a-lai  [eloquent]. 

A  Levite  who  i)layiMl  a  musical  instrument 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  .Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  3(>). 


Mil'cali  [counsel  or  counselor]. 

1.  A  daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Nahor  and  the 
mother  of  Hnz,  Buz,  Kemuel,  Chesed,  Hazo, 
Pildash,  Jidlaph,  and  Bethuel  (Gen.  xi.  29; 
xxii.  20-23).  She  was  the  grandmother  of 
Eebekah  (xxii.  23;  xxiv.  15,  24). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Zelojihehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33). 

Mil'com.    See  Molech. 

Mile  [thousand  (paces)]. 

In  the  only  passage  of  the  Bible  in  which 
the  word  occurs  (Mat.  v.  41)  the  Roman  mile 
is  intended,  containinglOOOpacesof  5  Roman 
feet  each,  and  equivalent  to  4851.43  Eng- 
lish feet,  or  about  \l  of  an  English  mile. 

Mi-le'tus,  in  A.  V.  once  Miletum. 

A  seaport  to  which  Paul  came  a  day  after 
he  had  been  at  Trogyllium  (Acts  xx.  15). 
Thither  he  summoned  the  elders  of  the 
church  at  Ephesus,  togive  them  exhortations 
and  bid  them  farewell  (17-38).  At  Miletus 
Trojihimus  was  once  left  when  he  was  sick 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A.  V.  Miletum).  The  city 
was  on  the  seacoast  of  Ionia,  about  36  miles 
south  of  E])hesus,  and  near  the  boundary 
line  between  that  region  and  Caria.  It  had 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo,  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  philoso])hers  Thales  and 
Anaximander,  and  perhaps  of  Democritus. 
Scarcely  any  relics  of  the  city  now  remain. 

Milk." 

An  important  article  of  diet,  especially  in 
the  East.  The  milk  of  cows  (2  Sam.  xvii.29; 
Is.  vii.  22),  sheep  (Dent,  xxxii.  14),  goats 
(Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  camels  (cp.  Gen.  xxxii. 
15)  was  and  is  still  used.  The  milk  of  the 
camel  is  excellent,  being  rich  and  strong,  but 
not  very  sweet.  Milk  was  used  in  its  natural 
state  and  as  curds  and  as  cheese  (Deut.  xxxii. 
14;  ,Tudg.  Y.  25;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  It  was 
kept  in  skin  bottles,  and  served  in  dishes 
(Judg.  iv.  19;  v.  2,5). 

Mill. 

In  Palestine  and  neighboring  lands  the 
mill  was  a  simjile  machine,  consisting  of  two 
round  millstones  (Deut.  xxiv.  6).  In  the 
mill  in  use  among  the  people  to-day,  the  stones 
are  generally  made  of  basjilt,  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  diameter  and  from  two  to  four  inches 
thick.  The  nether  stone  is  slightly  convex 
on  the  toj).  It  has  a  jieg  in  the  center,  about 
which  the  upjier  stone  revolves.  This  upper 
stone  is  slightly  concave  on  the  under  side  in 
order  to  fit  on  the  nether  stone,  and  is  jiierced 
by  a  hole  in  the  center  which  receives  the 
peg  and  into  which  the  grain  is  dropped  by 
hand.  It  is  turned  by  means  of  an  ujnight 
handle  near  the  circumference.  The  meal 
falls  over  the  edge  of  the  nether  stone  into  a 
cloth  si>read  underneath  or  into  a  jilatter. 
The  work  of  grinding  is  laborious  and 
menial.  It  was  performed  by  the  women  (Ecc. 
xii.  3,  R.  V.  margin  ;  Mat.  xxiv.  41),  slave 
women  (Ex.  xi.  5  ;  Is.  xlvii.  2),  and  prisoners 
(.Judg.  xvi.  21).     In  ordinary  Jewish  hou«e- 


Millet 


503 


Minister 


holds,  however,  it  was  not  regarded  as  at  all 
degrading    for   the   female   portion    of    the 


Women  at  the  Mill. 

family  to  grind  meal  every  morning  for  a 
day's  consumiition,  rising  np  for  the  purpose, 
at  least  in  winter,  long  before  daybreak.  If 
the  millstone  was  taken  away,  the  family 
was  left  without  ground  grain  till  it  was  re- 
turned, on  which  account  it  was  forbidden 
by  the  Mosaic  law  to  take  the  mill  or  the 
upper  millstone  to  pledge,  for  he  taketh  (a 
man's)  life  to  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  6).  The 
cessation  of  the  sound  of  grinding  betokens 
utter  desolation  (Jer.  xxv.  10  ;  Eev.  xviii. 
22). 

A  larger  mill,  constructed  on  the  same 
princi]ile,  but  turned  by  an  ass,  was  also  in 
use  (Mat.  xviii.  6,  R.  V.  margin). 

Millet. 

A  cereal  (Panicum  milinceum),  in  Hebrew 
dohan,  in  Arabic  duln.  Ezekiel  was  bidden 
to  use  it  as  an  ingredient  of  the  bread  which 
he  was  ordered  to  prepare  (Ezek.iv.  9).  It  is 
extensively  used  in  western  and  southern 
Asia,  northern  Africa,  and  southern  Enro})e. 
The  stalks  make  an  excellent  fodder  for  cat- 
tle, while  the  grain  is  fed  to  poultry,  and  af- 
fords a  nntritious  and  palatable  food  for  man. 
It  is  possible  that  under  the  Hebrew  dohan 
other  allied  species  of  cereals  may  be  in- 
cluded, and  especially  Sorghum  vuhiare.  the 
Indian  millet,  a  taller  grass  much  cultivated 
in  India  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  known 
to  the  natives  as  doiira. 

Mil'lo  [filling,  terrace]. 

1.  A  house,  i.  e.  probably  a  fortress,  at 
Sliechem  (Judg.  ix.  fi,  20). 

2.  A  bastion  at  Jerusalem,  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  David,  rebuilt  by  Solomon,  and 
strengthened  by  Hezekiah  as  a  precaution 
against  the  expected  .siege  by  the  Assyrians 
(2  Sam.  V.  9  ;  1  Kin.  ix.  15,  24  ;  xi.  27 ;  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  5).  Its  site  is  unknown.  It 
was  in  or  at  the  city  of  David,  apparently 
intended  to  cover  the  old  Jebusite  .strong- 
hold (2  Chron.  xxxii.  5).  General  considera- 
tions lead  to  the  conjecture  that  it  may  have 
stood  on  the  southwestern  hill,  on  the  north- 
eastern corner,  on  the  spur  that  overlooked 
the  Tyropceon  valley  and  faced  the  temple. 


Mine. 

The  oi)eratiou  of  mining,  by  which  gold, 
silver,  iron,  cojipcr,  and  precious  .stones  were 
obtained,  is  gnii>hically  described  in  .Jot) 
xxviii.  1-11.  The  Egy]>tians  carried  on 
mining  ojierations  from  an  early  ])eriod.  As 
early  as  the  fourth  dynasty  they  discovered 
co])]ier  in  wady  Maghiirah,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  and  commenced  mining  and  smelt- 
ing operations,  which  continued  for  many 
years.  Work  was  suspended  during  the 
domination  of  the  Hyksos,  but  was  resumed 
nnder  Thothmes  III.,  and  was  carried  on  un- 
der Eamses  II.,  who  is  commoiily  believed  to 
have  been  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression. 
The  miners  were  criminals,  prisoners  of  war, 
and  slaves,  working  under  the  whii>  of  the 
taskmaster  and  often  in  fetters.  The  mines 
had  broad,  low  openings.  The  shaft  pene- 
trated to  a  consideral)le  depth.  The  roof  was 
su]iported  by  pillars  of  stone  which  the 
miners  left  and  by  timber  of  acacia  wood. 
The  gold  and  silver  mines  of  S])ain  were 
{■elebrated  (1  Mac.  viii.  3).  Canaan  was  de- 
scribed to  the  expectant  Israelites  as  a  land 
whose  stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills 
tliou  niayest  dig  brass  (Deut.  viii.  9);  but 
there  is  no  account  of  their  having  carried 
on  mining  operations  in  Palestine.  That  the 
Hebrews  understood  how  to  drive  shafts  is 
shown  by  the  tunnel  which  they  cut  from  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin  to  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
Iron  mines  now  exist  on  Lebanon. 

Min'i-a-min  [from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  One  of  those  who,  under  the  direction 
of  a  Levite,  Kore,  took  charge  of  the  free- 
will offerings  in  the  temple  and  distributed 
them  to  the  Levites  during  Hezekiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  15). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  17)';  see  Mljamin  2. 

3.  A  jiriest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trumpets 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  .Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  41) ;  see  Mljamin  4. 

Min'is-ter. 

1.  A  personal  attendant  and  helper,  not  a 
menial,  in  Hebrew  m'shareth,  in  Greek 
'uperefes.  .Tosei)h,  the  slave,  when  raised  to 
a  ])osition  of  honor  and  trust  in  his  master's 
household,  miuLstered  unto  him  (Gen.  xxxix. 
4).  Abishag  was  given  honorable  and  influ- 
ential place  by  David,  and  she  ministered 
unto  him  (1  Kin.  i.  4,  15).  Joshua  attended 
Moses,  took  charge  of  the  first  tent  of  meet- 
ing, and  succeeded  j\Io.ses  in  office  (Ex.  xxiv. 
13;  xxxiii.  11;  Josh.  i.  1).  Elisha  attended 
Elijah,  poured  water  on  his  hands,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  (1  Kin.  xix.  21;  2  Kin.  iii.  11). 
The  attendant  of  the  synagogue  aided  the 
officiating  teacher  in  the  service  (Luke  iv. 
20).  The  disciples  attended  Jesus  and  were 
eyewitnesses  (i.  2;  Acts  xxvi.  16).  John 
Mark  attended  Paul  and  Barnabas  during  a 
part  of  the  first  missionary  journey  (xiii.  5). 

2.  A  public  functionary  in  the  servi<'e  of 


Minni 


504 


Miracle 


the  state  or  of  God,  in  Hebrew  m'^shareth,  in 
Greek  leitvuryos ;  as  the  priests  and  Levites 
in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xxviii.  43;  Num.  iii.  31;  Deut. 
xviii.  5  ;  Is.  Ixi.  6  :  cp.  Septuagint ;  Luke  i. 
23  ;  Heb.  ix.  21),  Christ  as  high  priest  in  the 
heavenly  sanctuary  (Heb.  viii.  2),  Paul  in 
administering  the  gospel  unto  the  gentiles 
(Rom.  XV.  16).  The  epithet  is  applied  to  the 
civil  magistrate  as  a  public  oificial  (xiii.  6). 
It  designates  an  attache  of  the  royal  court 
(1  Kin.  X.  5),  often  a  person  of  high  rank  (2 
Chron.  xxii.  8  ;  Esth.  i.  10) ;  and  it  is  used  of 
the  angels  (Ps.  ciii.  21 ;  civ.  4). 

3.  One  engaged  in  the  service  of  another, 
and  regarded  primarily  as  the  master's  own 
representative  and  servant,  and  not  as  acting 
in  behalf  of  others,  in  Greek  diahonos ;  for 
example,  a  magistrate  as  the  representative 
of  God,  an  avenger  for  wrath  to  him  that 
doeth  evil  (Eom.  xiii.  4).  It  is  used  espe- 
cially for  God's  minister  in  the  gospel  ;  as 
Timothy  (1  Thes.  iii.  2),  Paul  and  Apollos  (1 
Cor.  iii.  5),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21),  Epaphras 
(Col.  i.  7).  The  term  diakonos  was  also  used 
in  a  restricted  sense  for  deacon,  a  church 
officer  with  specified  duties  distinguishing 
him  from  a  bishop. 

Min'ni. 

A  people  of  Armenia  (Antiq.  i.  3,  6)  in- 
habiting the  district  near  lake  Van,  prob- 
ably between  that  and  lake  Urumiah,  and 
adjacent  to  the  kingdom  of  Ararat  on  the 
Araxes.  In  830  b.  c.  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  pillaged  the  country  of  the 
Minni.  In  716  B.  c.  and  again  in  715  the 
king  of  Minni  revolted  against  Assyria,  but 
in  714  ho  was  anew  subdued.  The  Minni 
continued  to  give  trouble  at  intervals,  espe- 
cial Iv  during  the  reign  of  the  Assyrian  king 
Ashiirbanipal  (668-626) ;  till  at  length  about 
606  B.  c.  they  took  part  with  the  Medes, 
Cimmerians,  and  other  nationalities  in  cap- 
turing Nineveh  and  ending  the  Assyrian 
empire.  In  Jer.  li.  27  (R.  V.)  the  kingdoms 
of  Ararat,  Minni,  and  Ashkenaz  are  de- 
scribed as  uniting  for  the  destruction  of 
Babylon. 

Min'nith. 

A  town  of  the  Ammoiiite  country  (Judg. 
xi.  33).  It  exported  wheat  to  Tyre  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  17).  According  to  Eusehius,  there  was 
a  village  called  Manith  4  Roman  miles  from 
Heshbon  in  the  direction  of  Philadelphia. 

Min'strel. 

A  iniisiciaii  (Rev.  xviii.  22,  in  A.  V.  mr.si- 
<'ian) ;  especially  one  who  sings  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  an  instrument. 

1.  The  Hebrew  word  M'no<t(jen,  which  is 
rendered  minstrel  in  2  Kin.  iii.  IT),  signifies  a 
player  on  a  stringed  instrument,  as  harj)  or 
lyre.  Music  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews 
to  still  excitement ;  and  when  Saul  was 
troubled  by  an  evil  spirit,  David  was  sum- 
moned to  the  court  to  act  as  minstrel  (1  Sam. 
xvi.    14-23).      Music,    sometimes    at    least, 


formed  part  of  the  religious  exercises  of  the 
prophets  (1  Sam.  x.  5-10) ;  and  Elisl^a  sum- 
moned a  minstrel  to  play  before  him  while 
he  waited  for  God  to  speak  to  him  (2  Kin. 
iii.  15).  The  music  calmed  the  prophet's 
mind,  recalled  his  thoughts  from  the  outside 
world,  and  gladdened  his  spirit.  "  Prophecy," 
says  Maimonides,  "  dwelleth  not  in  the  midst 
of  melancholy  nor  in  the  midst  of  apathy, 
but  in  the  midst  of  joy." 

2.  The  minstrels  hired  by  Jairus  (Mat.  ix. 
23,  A.  V.)  were  flute  players  (E.  V.),  who 
with  singers  and  wailing  women  were  em- 
ployed as  professional  mourners  (2  Chron. 
XXXV.  25;  Jer.  ix.  17-20;  xlviii.  31  with  36). 

Mint. 

An  herb  of  the  genus  Mentha,  of  which 
there  are  several  species.  It  is  called  in 
Greek  'ediiosmou,  sweet  smelling  (Mat.  xxiii. 
23).  Horsemint  (3Ieiitha  sylvestris)  is  the 
mo.st  common  species  in  Syria,  and  grows 
wild  on  all  the  hills.  It  is  not  known  cer- 
tainly which  sort  the  ancient  Israelites  cul- 
tivated. 

Miph'kad,  in  R.  V.  Hammiplikad,  incor- 
porating the  Hebrew  article  [appointed 
place] . 

A  gate  at  Jerusalem,  jirobably  of  the  tem- 
ple (Neh.  iii.  31) :  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Mir'a-cle. 

Miracles  are  wonders,  signs,  types,  powers, 
works  of  God  (Deut.  xi.  3;  xxix.  3;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  7.  11,  12,  43;  xcv.  9;  Mark  ix.  39; 
Luke  xxiii.  8  ;  John  ii.  11,  23  ;  ix.  3  ;  Acts  ii. 
22;  vi.  8;  viii.  13;  see  R.  V.).  They  are  not 
merely  wonderful  events  ;  but  are  also  signs, 
types,  powers,  works  of  God.  They  are  not 
merely  supernatural  events,  like  the  creation 
of  the  world ;  for  God  is  not  represented  as 
bringing  the  universe  into  existence  as  a 
sign  of  attestation.  Nor  are  they  merely 
extraordinary  providences,  which  men  some- 
times term  miracles  of  providence,  and  which 
are  brought  about  by  secondary  means  and 
are  not  signs ;  such  as  the  storm  which  dis- 
persed the  Spanish  Armada.  The  locusts 
which  were  blown  into  Egyi)t  by  the  strong 
east  wind  and  blown  away  again  by  the  west 
wind  (Ex.  x.  13,  19),  and  the  arrival  of 
(juails,  which  migrate  in  the  spring  and  sup- 
plied the  camp  of  Israel  with  meat  for  an 
evening  (xvi.  13)  were  extraordinary  provi- 
dences, but  with  additional  elements.  They 
were  foretold  and  were  intended  as  .signs. 
The  plague  of  locusts  was  one  of  the  signs 
and  wonders  wrought  at  Zoan  (Ps.  Ixxviii. 
42,  46),  and  the  quails  were  sent  that  Israel 
might  know  that  Jehovah  is  God  and  their 
God  (Ex.  xvi.  12).  In  the  strict  biblical 
sense,  miracles  are  events  in  the  external 
world,  wrought  by  the  inmiediate  jiower  of 
God  and  intended  as  a  sign  or  attestation. 
They  are  po.ssible  because  God  sustains,  con- 
trols, and  guides  all  things,  and  is  personal 
and  omni])otent.  Perhaps  the  manner  of 
working  these   deeds   in   the   realm   of  the 


Miriam 


505 


Mishal 


physical  universe  is  illustrated  by  the  power 
of  the  human  will.  Man  wills,  and  mus- 
cular force  is  exerted  which  controls  or 
counteracts  nature's  laws ;  as  when  one 
hurls  a  stone  into  the  air  against  the  law 
of  gravitation.  Mii-acles  are  not  to  be  credu- 
lously received,  but  their  genuineness  must 
be  tested.  The  tests  are:  1.  They  exhibit 
the  character  of  God  and  teach  truths  con- 
cerning God.  2.  They  are  in  harmony  with 
the  established  truths  of  religion  (Deut.  xiii. 
1-3).  If  a  wonder  is  worked  which  contra- 
dicts the  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  it  is  a 
lying  wonder  (2  Thes.  ii.  9  ;  Eev.  xvi.  14). 
3.  There  is  an  adequate  occasion  for  them. 
God  does  not  work  them  except  for  great 
cause  and  for  a  religious  purpose.  They  be- 
long to  the  history  of  redemption  ;  and  there 
is  no  genuine  miracle  without  an  adequate 
occasion  for  it  in  God's  redemptive  revela- 
tion of  himself.  4.  They  are  established, 
not  by  the  number  of  witnesses,  but  by  the 
character  and  qualifications  of  the  witnesses. 

The  miracles  of  the  Bible  are  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  four  periods,  separated 
from  each  other  by  centuries;  the  time  of 
1.  The  redemption  of  God's  people  from 
Egypt  and  their  establishment  in  Canaan 
under  Moses  and  Joshua.  2.  The  life  and 
death  struggle  of  the  true  religion  with 
lieathenism  under  Elijah  and  Elisha.  3.  The 
exile,  when  Jehovah  atforded  proof  of  his 
power  and  supremacy  over  the  gods  of  the 
lieathen,  although  his  people  were  in  cap- 
tivity (Daniel  and  his  companions).  4.  The 
introduction  of  Christianity,  when  miracles 
attested  the  person  of  Christ  and  his  doc- 
trine. Outside  of  these  periods  miracles  are 
rai-e  indeed  (Gen.  v.  24).  They  were  almost 
totally  unknown  during  the  many  centuries 
from  the  creation  to  the  exodus. 

The  working  of  miracles  in  the  apostolic 
age,  although  not  confined  to  the  apostles 
(Acts  vi.  8 ;  viii.  5-7),  were  the  signs  of  an 
apostle  (2  Cor.  sii.  12;  Heb.  ii.  4  ;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
43  ;  Gal.  iii.  5). 

Mir'i-am  [obstinacy,  rebellion]. 

1.  Sister  of  Aaron  and  of  Moses  (Ex.  xv. 
20;  Num.  xxvi.  59).  It  was  probably  she 
who  watched  over  the  ark  which  contained 
the  infant  Moses  (Ex.  ii.  4-8).  After  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  .she  took  a  timbrel 
and  led  the  Israelite  women  with  timbrels 
aud  with  dances,  saj'ing:  "Sing  ye  to  the 
Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ;  the 
horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the 
sea"  (xv.  20,  21).  She  was  a  prophetess 
(ibid.),  and  she  and  her  brothers  were  chosen 
by  God  to  be  leaders  of  the  Hebrew  people 
(iv.  15,  29,  30;  Mic.  vi.  4);  but  she  insti- 
gated Aaron,  and  they  made  Moses'  marriage 
with  a  Cushite  wonuin  the  occasion  of  mur- 
muring against  his  superior  position  and  in- 
fluence. They  claimed  that  God  had  .spoken 
by  them  as  well  as  by  Moses.  For  this  in- 
subordination to  the  will  of  God,  .she  was 


made  a  leper  as  white  as  snow,  but  owing  to 
the  intercession  of  Moses  was  speedily  healed 
(Num.  xii.  1-16;  Deut.  xxiv.  9).  She  died, 
and  was  buried  in  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Mir'mah,  in  A.  V.  Mirma  [deceit]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his 
wife  Hodcsh  (1  Chron.  viii.  10). 

Mir'ror. 

A  polished  surface  intended  to  reflect  ob- 
jects, e.s])ccially  the  face  (Wisdom  vii.  2()  ;  2 
Cor.  iii.  ly  ;  Jas.  i.  23).  Ancient  mirrors  were 
made  of  molten  brass  or  other  alloy  of  copper 
iEx.  xxxviii.  H;  Job  xxxvii.  18),  and  were 
round,  oval,  and  s(iuare,  and  often  ])rovided 
with  a  handle.  If  they  acquired  rust  spots, 
they  were  polished  anew  (Ecclus.  xii.  11). 
They  lacked   the  perfection  of  the  modern 


Ancient  Mirrors. 


glass,  and  the  image  in  them  was  less  clear 
and  true  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12).  As  the  material 
was  meRil,  R.  Y.  substitutes  mirror  for  glass, 
the  rendering  of  A.  V.  Opinion  is  divided 
as  to  whether  mirrors  or  transparent  gar- 
ments are  referred  to  in  Is.  iii.  23. 

Later,  in  the  West,  mirrors  were  some- 
times made  of  tin.  Praxiteles,  in  the  time 
of  Pompey,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  of  silver.  They  were  even  made 
of  gold. 

Mis'gab  [high  place,  the  high  fort]. 

An  unidentified  Moabite  city  (Jer.  xlviii.  1). 

Mish'a-el  [who  is  God?]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (Ex.  vi.  22;   Lev.  x.  4). 

2.  One  of  Daniel's  three  comjianions,  called 
by  the  Babylonians  Meshach  (Dau.  i.  6,  7,  11, 
19;  ii.  17;"l  Mac.  ii.  59). 

3.  One  of  those  who  stood  by  Ezra  when 
he  iireached  to  the  people  (Xeh.  viii.  4). 

Mi'shal,  in  A.  Y.  once  Misheal  (Josh.  xix. 
26)  [prayer]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26),  given 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shonite  family  (xxi.  30).  It  is  called  in  1 
Chron.  vi.  74  Mashal.     Not  identified. 


Mishaiu 


506 


Mizpah 


Mi'sham  [swiftness]. 

A  Beiijaniito.  ;i  son  of  Elpaal,  who  with 
his  brothers  built  Ono  and  I.od  1 1  t'hron.  viii. 
12). 

Mi'she-al.     See  Mishal. 

Misli'ma  [hearing]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  Tlie  name  perhaps 
lingers  either  in  Jebel  Misma',  midway  be- 
tween Damascus  and  Jauf,  oi-  in  the  other 
Jebel  Misma',  about  150  miles  due  east  of 
Taima. 

•2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 

Mish-man'nah  [fatness]. 

( )nc  of  the  Gadites  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  10). 

Mish'ra-ites. 

A  family  which  was  connected  with  Kir- 
jath-jearim  (1  Chron.  ii.  ^i?)}. 

Mls'par,  in  A.  V.  Mizpar  ;  but  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  had  the  correct  spelling, 
Mispar  [a  uarrati%'e,  a  number]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  2).  In  Neh. 
vii.  7  the  feminine  form  is  used,  Mispereth. 

Mis'pe-retli.     See  Mispak. 

Mis-re-photli-nia'iin  [burnings  or  eleva- 
tions at  the  waters]. 

A  place  to  which  Joshua  pursued  the  kings 
defeated  at  the  waters  of  Merom  (Josh.  xi. 
8),  on  the  frontier  of  the  country  of  the 
Zidonians  (xiii.  6).  It  is  now  commonly, 
and  probably  correctly,  identified  with  the 
ruins  and  the  fountain  el-Musheirifeh,  11 
miles  north  of  Acre,  and  \  mile  from  the  sea, 
at  the  foot  of  Eas  en-Nakurah. 

Mite. 

A  small  coin,  worth  about  J  cent  (Mark 
xii.  42).     See  Money. 

Mi'ter. 

The  headdress  or  turban,  called  in  He- 
brew misnepheth,  which  was  worn  by  the 
high  priest.  It  was  made  of  fine  lineu. 
Its  distinguishing  characteristic  was  a  golden 
plate  inscribed  with  the  words  Holiness 
to  the  Lord,  and  atiixed  in  front  by  a  blue- 
colored  lace  (Ex.  xxviii.  4.  :5G-39;  Lev.  xvi. 
4  ;  E/,ek.  xxi.  26,  in  A.  V.  diadem);  see  High 
l'i;ii:sT,  and  for  Zech.  iii.  Jj   see  DiADEM. 

Mith'kah,  in  A.  V.  Mithcah  [sweetness]. 

.Vn  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  28,  2!)). 

Mith'nite. 

Probably  an  inhabitant  of  a  town  called 
Met  hen  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

Mith're-dath  [given  by  Mithra,  the  ani- 
mating sjiirit  of  tire]. 

1.  Treasurer  under  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
through  whom  the  sacred  vessels  were  re- 
st(U'ed  to  the  Jews  (E/.ra  i.  8). 

2.  One  of  those  who  in  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes  Longimanus  comi)lained  that  the 
Jews  were  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
.saleni  (Ezra  iv.  7). 


Mit-y-le'ne. 

A  city  between  Assos  and  Chios  visited  by 
Paul  (.\cts  XX.  13-15).  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, and  was  noted  for  being  the  birth- 
lilace  of  the  i>oet  Alcseus,  the  statesman 
Pittacus,  and  the  poetess  Sappho.  It  is  still 
called  Mitylen. 

Mi'zar  [smallness]. 

A  hill  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
probably  within  sight  of  the  peaks  of  Her- 
mon  (Ps.xlii.  6).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Miz'pah  and  Mizpeh  [watchtower]. 

1.  The  name  given  to  the  cairn  north  of 
the  Jabbok,  called  Galeed  or  heap  of  witness, 
to  indicate  the  special  thing  to  which  it  bore 
witness,  namely,  that  God  is  the  watcher  be- 
tween the  covenanting  parties  (Gen.  xxxi. 
44-49) ;  see  Galeed. 

2.  A  town  in  Gilead,  east  of  the  Jordan 
(Judg.  X.  17;  xi.  11);  probably  identical 
with  Mizpeh  of  Gilead  (xi.  29)  and  with 
Eamath-mizpeh  or  height  of  Mizpeh  (Josh, 
xiii.  26),  otherwise  known  as  Ramoth  in 
Gilead  or  Ranmtli-gilead  (Deut.  iv.  43;  1 
Kin.  iv.  13)  and  Eamah  (2  Kin.  viii.  28,  29). 
It  was  situated  in  the  territory  of  Gad,  on 
the  boundary  (Josh.  xiii.  26),  assigned  to  the 
Levites  (xxi.  38),  and  appointed  a  city  of 
refuge  (Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  8).  Jephthah 
dwelt  here  (Judg.  xi.  34),  and  it  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  taxgatherer  for  one  of  the  twelve 
districts  into  which  Solomon  divided  the 
country  (1  Kin.  iv.  13).  To  gain  and  hold 
possession  of  it  battles  were  fought  between 
Israel  and  the  Syrians  (1  Kin.  xxii.  3  seq.  ; 
2  Kin.  viii.  28).  It  was  taken  and  burned 
by  Judas  MaccabjEus  (1  Mac.  v.  35,  in  A.  V. 
Maspha).  According  to  Eusebius,  it  lay  15 
Roman  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  on  the 
Jabbok.  It  is  commonly  identified  with  es- 
Salt,  about  10  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
'Jabbok  and  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  at 
Damieh  ;  but  the  ruined  town  of  Jal'ud, 
about  6  miles  north  of  es-Salt,  has  strong 
claim  to  be  the  site. 

3.  A  xilace  at  the  foot  of  motint  Hermon 
(Josh.  xi.  3),  not  identified.  The  land  of 
Mizpah  is  probably  the  same  as  the  valley  of 
Mizpeh  (8). 

4.  A  village  in  or  near  the  lowland  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  38),  commonly  identified 
with  Tell  es-Safi,  7J  miles  uort  h-northwest  of 
Beit  Jibrin.  Eusebius  located  it  north  of  Eleu- 
theropolis,  that  is,  Beit  Jibrin,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

5.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26), 
not  far  from  Eamah  (25;  1  Kin.  xv.  22)  and 
over  against  Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  iii.  46,  in 
A.  V.  Masi)ha).  The  tribes  were  summoned 
to  it  at  times  for  conferences  (1  Sam.  vii.  5- 
17;  X.  17;  Judg.  xx.  1-3;  xxi.  1,  5,8).  It 
was  fortified  by  Asa  as  a  defense  against  the 
northern  tribes  (1  Kin.  xv.  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  (>).  .M'ter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
the  l')al)>liiiiian  ."overnor  fixed  his  residence 


Mizpar 


r,07 


Moab 


here  (2  Kiu.  xxv.  23-25;  Jcr.  xl.ti-lG;  xli. 
l-l(i).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  iii.  7,  15,  19).  Robiusoii  believed  its 
site  to  have  been  eitlier  at  Neby  Samwil, 
which  means  proi)het  .S;imuel,  or  at  Tell  el- 
Fiil,  conspieiious  eminences  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  but  lie  decides  in  favor  of  the  former. 
This  identification  has  received  cordial  ac- 
ceptance. The  place  is  2935  feet  above  the 
sea  level,  and  about  4  miles  north  northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  from  whicli  it  is  distinctly 
seen. 

6.  An  unidentified  place  in  Moab  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  3). 

Miz'par.     See  Mispar. 

Miz'peh.    See  Mizpah. 

Miz'ra-im  [dual  form  of  misru,  probably, 
defense,  dcfensed  land]. 

Eiiyjit,  the  dual  form  pointing  to  the  two 
countries  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  settled 
by  descendants  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6)  ;  see 
Egypt. 

Miz'zah  [possibly,  fear]. 

The  chief  of  a  tribe  in  the  land  of  Edom, 
a  descendant  of  Esau,  and  also  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17;  1  Chron.  i.  37). 

Mna'son. 

An  early  disciple  from  Cyprus,  who  accom- 
panied Paul  on  his  last  .journey  from  Ctesarea 
to  Jerusalem,  and  with  whom  the  apostle 
was  to  lodge  (Acts  xxi.  16). 

Mo'ab  [scarcely,  water  of  a  father  ;  prob- 
ably, desire]. 

1.  Son  of  Lot  by  an  incestuous  union  with 
his  elder  daughter  (Gen.  xix.  37). 

2.  The  descendants  of  Moab,  Lot's  son, 
closely  related  to  the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix. 
37,  38).  They  were  conquered  by  Ramses  II. 
I  inscription  on  base  of  statue  at  Luxor). 
They  had  become  numerous  before  the  time 
tliat  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red  Sea  (Ex. 
XV.  15);  had  taken  possession  of  the  country 
i'vnm  the  plain  of  Heshbon  unto  the  wady 
Kuralii,  which  emerges  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  formed  the  boundary 
of  Moab  toward  Edom;  and  with  their  kin- 
dred the  Ammonites  had  absorbed  and  de- 
stroyed the  remnants  of  the  stalwart  race 
which  had  previously  occupied  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan  (Deut.  ii.  10,  11,  19-21; 
cp.  Gen.  xiv.  5).  Shortly  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Israelites,  Sihou,  king  of  the  Amorites, 
had  wrested  from  them  the  pasture  land 
north  of  the  Arnon,  though  the  country  was 
still  remembered  as  the  land  of  Moab,  con- 
fining IMoab  for  a  time  to  the  country  south 
of  the  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  13-15.  26-30).  The 
Moabites  showed  a  commercial  friendliness  to 
the  migrating  Isrmlites  (Deut.  ii.  28,  29),  but 
refused  them  jiermission  to  pass  through  their 
land  (Judg.  xi.  17;  cp.  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  Be- 
cause, doubtless,  of  the  kinship  between  the 
Moabites  and  Israelites,  l\Ioses  was  fort»iddeu 
to  attack  them  (Deut.  ii.  9  :  cp.  19).  Never- 
theless, the  king  of  Moab,  alarmed  when  the 


Israelites  encamped  iu  his  vicinity,  sent  for 
Balaam  to  curse  them  (Num.  xxii.-xxiv. ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  9).  For  this  hostile  attitude  the 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  exclude  them 
from  the  congregation  to  the  tenth  genera- 
tion, and  to  maintain  a  coldness  and  indiU'er- 
ence  toward  them  forever  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6; 
Neh.  xiii.  1).  The  last  encamimient  of  the 
Israelites  licf'ore  they  crossed  the  Jordan  was 
at  Shittim  in  the  plains  that  lay  within  the 
old  bounds  of  Moab  (Num.  xxii.  1-Josii.iii.  1 1, 
While  they  were  tliere,  Moabite  and  -MidiaTi- 
ite  women  seduced  tlieni  to  licentious  idol- 
atry (Num.  XXV.;  IIos.  ix.  10).  Early  in  the 
tiine  of  the  judges  Eglon,  king  of  .Moai),  in- 
vaded Canaan,  established  his  seat  of  gov- 
ernment at  Jericho,  and  oppressed  tlie  Israel- 
ites of  the  adjacent  hill  countrv  18  .vears 
until  he  was  assassinated  by  Ehud  (.Judg.  iii. 
12-30;  1  Sara.  xii.  9).  Eliuielech  sojourned 
in  Moab,  and  tlience  came  his  two  daughters- 
in-law,  Orpah  and  Ruth.  Ruth  married  Boaz 
and  became  tlie  ancestress  of  David  (Ruth  i. 
22;  iv.  3.  5,  10,  13-17:  Mat.  i.  5-16).  Saul 
warred  with  the  Moabites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47), 
and  David,  when  a  fugitive  from  Saul,  put 
liis  father  and  mother  in  charge  of  the 
king  of  Moab  (xxii.  3,  4).  After  David  be- 
came king,  he  ovei'came  the  .Moabites,  laid 
them  under  tribute,  and  doomed  a  large  pro- 
jiortion  of  them  to  death  (2  Sam.  viii.  2,  12; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  2,  11).  The  Moabites  were 
subject  to  Omri  and  his  son  :  but  on  the 
death  of  Ahab  they  rebelled,  and  neither  of 
Omri's  grandsons,  Ahaziah,  who  was  inca- 
pacitated for  the  attem-pt  b.v  a  fall,  nor  Jeho- 
ram  was  able  to  subdue  them  (2  Kin.  i.  1 ; 
iii.  4-27:  Jloabite  Stone).  Jehoshajjhat  was 
king  of  Judah  at  that  time,  and  the  Moabites 
formed  a  confederacy  with  the  Ammonites, 
Edomites,  and  others  for  the  invasion  of 
Judah,  but  the  allies  turned  their  weapons 
against  each  other,  and  Judah  did  not  need 
to  strike  a  blow  (2  Chron.  xx.  1-30 :  c]).  I's. 
Ix.  8;  Ixxxiii.  6;  cviii.  9).  The  year  that 
Elisha  died,  bands  of  Moabites  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xiii.  20i.  They 
l)aid  tribute  to  Tiglath-pileser  and  Sen- 
nacherib, kings  of  Assyria.  The.v  entered 
Judah  in  the  I'eign  of  .lehoiakim  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  2'.  Many  of  the  towns  north  of  the 
Arnon  had  reverted  to  Moab  (c|).  Is.  xv.l. 
The  prophets  denounced  the  Moaliitt's  often 
as  types  of  the  enemies  of  the  kingdom  of  (iod 
(Is.  XV. ;  xvi.  ;  xxv.  10;  Jer.  ix.  26;  xxv.  21  ; 
xxvii.  3;  xlviii.;  Ezek.  xxv.  8-11;  .\inos  ii.  1, 
2;  Zeph.  ii.  8-11).  Some  of  the  Jews,  who  Hed 
from  Jerusalem  when  Nebuchadnezzar  in- 
vaded Judah.  took  refuge  in  Moab.  but  re- 
turned when  Gedaliah  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor (Jer.  xl.  11).  Nebuchadnezzar  subju- 
gated the  Moabites  (Antiti.  x.  9,  7).  They 
disappear  henceforth  from  history  as  a  nation, 
though  still  existing  as  a  race  (Ezra  ix.  1  ; 
Neh.  xiii.  1,  23:  Antiq.  i.  11,  5).  Alexander 
Jannreus  placed  them  under  tribute  (Antiq. 
xiii.  13,  5). 


Moabite  Stone 


508 


Moabite  Stone 


;5.  Till!  foiiiitry  occupied  by  the  Moabites. 
It  was  bouuded  ou  tlie  west  by  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  was  separated  from  Edom  on  the 
south  by  the  wady  Kurahi,  known  in  its 
upper  course  as  the  wady  el-' Ahsy.  This  fact 
is  learned  from  the  towns  which  are  men- 
tioned as  situated  in  Moabite  territory.  On 
the  east  lay  the  desert  (Num.  xxi.  11).  The 
northern  boundary  which  the  Amorites  and 
Israelites  recognized  was  the  Arnon  (Num. 
xxi.  13;  Deut.  11.  36;  Hi.  12;  Josh.  xli.  1; 
Judg.  xi.  18),  but  the  Moabites  at  an  early 
date  possessed  (Num.  xxi.  26),  and  always 
regarded  as  theirs  and  frequently  occupied,  a 
considerable  district  north  of  the  river  (Is. 
XV.  ;  Moabite  Stone  8-30).  Moab  Is  chiefly 
a  lolling  plateau,  about  3200  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  is  well  adapted  for  pas- 
turage. The  western  edge  descends  abruptly 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  face  of  the  blufl"  is 
cut  by  deep  valleys.  The  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea  is  comparatively  fertile  from  the  great 
abundance  of  springs. 

The  field  of  Moab  was  the  territory  of 
Moab  (Gen.  xxxvi.  35;  Num.  xxi.  20,  R.  V.). 
The  plains  of  Moab  were  those  parts  of  the 
Arabah  or  level  valley  of  the  Jordan  which 
at  one  time  were  included  within  the  bounds 
of  Moab.  They  lay  on  the  east  of  the  river, 
opposite  Jericho,  and  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  xxii.  1;  xxxiii.  48, 
49). 

Mo'ab-ite  Stone. 

An  inscribed  stone  found  within  the  ter- 
ritory   of    Moab,    and    recording    Moabite 


-Moabite  btuuc 


history.  On  the  19th  of  August,  1868,  the 
Kev.  F.  Klein,  a  German  in  the  employ 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  was  en- 


camped at  Dhiban,  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Moabite  town  of  Dibon,  when  he  was  in- 
formed by  a  sheik  that  within  ten  minutes' 
walk  from  his  tent  there  lay  an  Inscril  led  stone. 
Proceeding  to  the  spot,  he  found  lying  on 
its  back  a  slab  of  black  basalt,  three  feet  ten 
inches  high,  two  feet  broad,  and  a  foot  and 
two  and  a  half  inches  thick,  rounded  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom  to  nearly  a  semicircle. 
The  inscription  consisted  of  thirty-four  lines 
of  writing  in  an  unknown  character,  run- 
ning across  the  stone,  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  apart.  He  at  once  .set  on  foot  nego- 
tiations for  its  transfer  to  the  Berlin  Museum. 
Unhappily,  M.  Clermont-Ganneau,  of  the 
French  Consulate,  also  attempted  to  obtain 
it  for  the  Paris  Museum.  This  ran  it  up  to  a 
nearly  prohibitory  price.  Then  the  Arabs 
fell  to  fighting  over  the  expected  money. 
The  dispute  settled  nothing,  so  kindling  a  fire 
under  the  stone,  and  pouring  water  on  it  when 
it  was  hot,  they  broke  it  into  fragments, 
which  they  distributed  among  the  several 
granaries,  to  act  as  blessings  to  the  grain. 
Prior  to  the  destruction,  a  messenger  from 
M.  Clermont-Ganneau  had  obtained  a  squeeze 
of  the  inscription  ;  but  having  to  escape  pre- 
cipitately on  horseback  and  crumpling  up 
the  paper  while  it  was  still  wet,  it  broke  into 
seven  pieces,  and  was  not  of  much  use. 
Better  squeezes  of  the  two  larger  portions  of 
the  broken  stone  were  afterwards  obtained  by 
a  messenger  from  Sir  Charles  Warren  and  by 
another  from  M.  Clermont-Ganneau  ;  and 
finally  a  number  of  fragments  of  the  stone 
itself  reached  Jerusalem,  and  are  now  some 
in  Paris  and  others  in  London.  With  the 
aid  of  the  squeezes  the  pieces  were  put  to- 
gether. It  was  found  that  of  about  1100 
letters,  669  in  all,  or  less  than  two-thirds, 
had  been  recovered,  and  that  the  language 
was  akin  to  Hebrew.  The  inscription  is  as 
follows  : 

1.  I  am  Mesha,  son  of  Chemoshmelech,  king  of 

Moab,  the  D- 

2.  ibonite.    My  father  reigned  over  Moab  for 

thirty  years,  and  reign  did 

3.  I  after  my  father.    And   I  have  made  this 

high  place  for  Chemosh  in  Krhh  on  ac- 
count of  the  deli  vera  ijce  of  Me-' 

4.  sha,  because  he  saved  me  from  all  the  kings 

and  because  he  let  me  see  my  pleasure  on 
all  that  hated  me.    Omr- 
6.  i  was  king  of  Israel,  and  he  afflicted  Moab 
many  days,  because  Chemosh  was  angry 
with  his"]a- 

6.  nd.    And  his  son  succeeded  him ;  and  he 

also  said:  "I  will  afflict  Moab."  In  my 
days  he  spake  thus. 

7.  But  I  saw  my  pleasure  on  him  and  on  his 

house,  and  Israel  perished  with  everlast- 
ins  destruction.  Now  Omri  had  taken 
possession  of  all  the  [la-] 

8.  nd  of  Medeba,  and  dwelt  in  it  during  his 

days  and  half  the  days  of  his  sons  [or  his 
son],  forty  years;  but  resto- 

9.  re  it  did  ('hemosh  in  my  days.    And  I  built 

Biinhneon  and  I  made  in  it  "the  reservoir  (?) 
and  I  liuilt 
10.  Kiriallien.    And  the  men  of  Gad  had  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Ataroth  from  of  old,  and 
built  for  himself  had  the  king  of  I- 


Moabite  Stone 


509 


Moladah 


11.  srael  Ataroth.    And  I  fouglit  against  the  city 

and  took  it  and  slew  all  the  [people  of] 

12.  the  city,  a  sight  unto  Chemosh  and  to  Moab. 

And  I  brought  back  from  there  the  altar 
hearth  of  Daudoh  (?)  and  drag- 

13.  ged  it  before  Chemosh  in  Kerioth.  And  I  set- 

tled the  men  of  Srn  in  it  and  the  men  of 

14.  Mhrth.    And  Chemosh  said  tome  :  "Go,  take 

Nebo  against  Israel."    And  I 

15.  went  by  night  and   fought  against  it  from 

break  of  dawn  until  noon,  and  to- 

16.  ok  it  and  slew  all  of  them,  seven  thousand 

men  and  boys  and  women  and  gir- 

17.  Is  and  maidservants ;  for  I  had  devoted  it  to 

Ashtor-Chemosh.    And  I  took  thence  the 
altar-liear- 

18.  ths  of  Jehovah  and  dragged  them  before 

Chemosh.    Now  the  king  of  Israel  had 
built 

19.  Jahaz :  and  he  abode  in  it  while  he  fought 

against  me.    But  Chemosh  drove  him  out 
from  before  me.    And 

20.  I  took  two   hundred  men  of  Moab,  all   its 

chiefs;  and  led  them  against  Jahaz  and 
took  it 

21.  to  add  to  Dibon.    I  built  Krhh,  the  wall  of 

the  woods  and  the  wall  of" 

22.  the  mound.    And  I  built  its  gates  and  I  built 

its  tow  ers.     And 

23.  I  built  the  king's  palace,  and  made  the  en- 

closures of  the  [ for  the  wat]  ers 

in  the  midst  of 

24.  the  city.     .\nd  there  was  no  cistern  in  the 

midst  of  the  city,  in  Krhh.    And  I  said  to 
all  the  people  :  "  Make  for 

25.  yourselves,  every  one  a  cistern  in  liis  house." 

And  I  cut  out  the  cutting  for  Krhh  with 
the  help  of  prisoner- 

26.  s  of  Israel.     I  built  Aroer  and   made  the 

highway  on  the  Arnon. 

27.  I  built  Beth-bamoth,  for  it  was  pulled  down. 

I  built  Bezer,  for  ruins 

28 Dibon  fifty,  for  all  Dibon  was  obedient. 

And  1  reigned 

29.  over  one  hundred  in  the  cities  which  I  added 

to  the  land.    And  I  built 

30.  Medeba  and  Beth-diblathen  and  Beth-baal- 

meon,  and  took  thither  the  [herdsmen] 
31 the  sheep  of  the  land.    And  as 

for  Horonen,  there  dwelt  in  it  the  so[n] 

of  De[d]an.    And  De[dati]  said 
32 Chemosh    said   to  me :    "  Go 

down,  fight  against  Horonen  ; "  and  I  went 

dow'n  and  .... 
33 and  Chemosh  [resto]red  it  in 

my  days.    And  I thence  ten  (?) 

34 

To  judge  from  Mesha's  own  words,  the 
stele  was  a  memorial  commemorative  not 
merely  of  his  recovery  of  independence  for 
Moab  from  Israel,  but  of  bis  glorious  and 
successful  reign  as  a  whole  (1.  4,  31) ;  erected 
late  in  his  reign,  after  the  death  of  Aliab,  after 
the  humiliation  of  that  house  also,  and  not  im- 
probably after  the  extinction  of  the  line  of 
Omri  by  Jehu,  and  the  entrance  of  Israel 
into  its  period  of  dire  distress  (1.  7). 

The  Hebrew  records  date  the  revolt  of 
Moab  after  the  death  of  Ahab  (2  Kin.  i.  1  ; 
iii.  5) :  a  date  which  conflicts  with  a  usual 
understanding  of  the  inscription,  to  the 
effect  that  the  revolt  occurred  in  the  middle 
of  Ahab's  reign.  But  the  statements  of  the 
stone  maybe  readily  interpreted  in  harmony 
with  the  Hebrew  account,  and  that  in  one 
of  two  ways : 


1.  The  two  accounts  may  be  combined. 
The  capture  of  the  frontier  town  of  Medeba 
was  effected  by  Mesha  about  the  middle  of 
Ahab's  reign  (1.  8):  but  the  Moabite  king 
did  not  attempt  actual  I  j'  to  throw^  off  the 
Israelitish  yoke  until  after  Ahab's  death. 

2.  Or,  better,  in  accordance  with  the  well- 
known  custom  of  the  times,  whereby  the  royal 
descendants  of  Omri,  as  of  other  founders 
of  dynasties,  were  designated  .simply  as  his 
sons;  in  view  of  the  ascription  of  round 
forty  years  to  the  occupation  of  Medeba  by 
the  Israelites ;  in  view  of  Moabite  grammar, 
whereby  the  collocation  beth  nun  he  in  line  8 
may  be  properly  rendered  his  sous;  and  in 
view^  of  the  probability  which  arises  from 
Mesha's  own  words  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  the  final  overthrow  of  Omri's  sons ; 
lines  7  and  8  of  the  inscription  may  be  trans- 
lated :  "  Now  Omri  had  taken  possession  of 
all  the  land  of  Medeba,  and  [Israel]  dwelt 
therein  during  his  days  and  half  the  days  of 
his  sons,  forty  years."  This  is  the  same  .story 
as  told  by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  revolt 
of  Moab  did  actually  occur  midway  in  the 
reign  of  Omri's  sons,  as  it  were  dividing 
their  reign  in  twain,  and  lending  in  Moab- 
itish  eyes  an  aspect  to  the  latter  half  of  their 
rule  far  different  from  the  former.  See  Omri 
and  Mesha. 

Mo-a-di'ah  [perhaps,  host  of  Jehovah]. 

A  iatlier's  house  among  the  priests  in  the 
time  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii. 
17) ;  see  M.\adiah. 

Mo'din  [informers  or  prognosticators,  prog- 
nostication (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13)]. 

The  native  town  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac. 
ii.  1),  with  the  family  tomb  where  Mattathias 
and  two  of  his  sons,  Judas  and  Jonathan, 
were  buried  (ii.  70;  ix.  19;  xiii.  2,^).  It 
stood  on  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  Philistia 
(xvi.  4,  5),  and  the  tomb  was  visible  from 
the  sea  (xiii.  29).  The  town  was  still  in  ex- 
istence in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Diospolis,  that  is  Lydda. 
The  Talmud  states  its  distance  from  Jerusa- 
lem at  15  Roman  miles.  The  site  is  disputed. 
Hitzig  located  it  at  el-Burj,  2J  miles  south  of 
Midieh ;  and  Eolnnson,  following  medifeval 
pilgrims,  at  Latrun.  The  more  recent  sug- 
gestion of  Forner  has  been  favorably  re- 
ceived, that  the  site  is  Midieh,  hard  by  the 
road  to  Jerusalem  via  Beth-horon,  anout  6 
miles  from  Lydda  and  18  from  Jerusalem. 
One  half  mile  north  of  the  ruined  village  of 
Midieh,  and  about  the  .same  distance  west  of 
the  modern  village  rises  a  hill,  from  the 
summit  of  wliich  vessels  on  the  sea  are 
visible  and  where  the  foundatiousof  a  stately 
tomb  have  been  found. 

Mol'a-dali  [birth,  origin]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judali 
(Josh.  XV.  26),  assigned  to  the  Sinieonites 
(xix.  2 ;  1  Chron.  iv.  28).  It  was  inliahited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  26).  It  is  doubt- 
less the  town  known    in    the   Gre«'k  period 


Mole 


ri]0 


Money 


as  Malatha,  in  Idumsea.  to  which  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  during  the  earlier  and  less  pros- 
jierous  period  of  his  life,  retired  in  debt  and 
in  depression  of  spirits  (Antiq.  xviii.  6,  2). 
The  Unomasticon  locates  Malatha  4  Roman 
miles  from  Arad  and  on  the  road  from 
Hebron  to  Aila,  that  is  Elath.  Robinson  is 
commonly  followed  in  his  identitieation  of 
it  with  Milh,  on  the  Roman  road  7|  miles 
southwest  of  Arad,  where  there  are  vestiges 
of  an  extensive  town  with  important  wells. 
It  is  about  14  miles  east  by  south  from  Beer- 
sheba,  and  22  south  by  west  from  Hebron. 

Mole. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshe- 
meth  (Lev.  xi.  30,  A.  V.).     See  Chameleon. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
n"phor  pi'iofh,  digging  of  holes  or  digging  of 
rats  ( Is.  ii.  2(1).  The  two  words  are  better  re- 
garded as  one,  Ipphai-paroih,  diggers.  These 
may  be  rats  or  moles.  It  is  believed  that  no 
species  of  Talpn.  the  genus  to  which  the 
common  mole  (T.  euiopxa)  belongs,  exists  in 
Palestine,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  mole 
rat  (Spiila.r  ft/phlus),  which  is  probably  the 
animal  intended  by  Isaiah.  This  animal  is 
very  common  In  the  Holy  Land,  living  un- 
derground in  small  societies.  It  resembles 
the  mole  in  appearance,  but  is  not  of  the 
same  order,  l)eing  a  rodent  feeding  on  vege- 
tables, chiefly  bulbs,  whereas  the  mole  is 
insectivorous.  It  is  larger  than  the  mole, 
being  eight  or  more  inches  long.  It  is  silvery 
gray  in  color,  is  tailless,  and  has  only  minute 
or  rudimentary  ej^es. 

Mo'lech,  in  A.  V.  twice  Moloch,  a  spelling 
introduced  into  the  English  version  through 
the  Greek  text  of  Amos  v.  26  and  its  cjuota- 
tion  by  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  43.  The  Hebrew 
text  and  R.  V.  have  "your  king"  in  place 
of  Moloch  [reigning  one,  king]. 

A  deity  worshiped  by  the  children  of  Am- 
mon  (1  Kin.  xi.  7).  The  article  is  prefixed 
to  his  nauie  where  it  occurs  in  the  Hebrew, 
indicating  that  the  word  is  not  a  i>roper 
name,  but  an  appellative  preserving  its 
meaning  of  reigning  one.  He  was  known 
also  as  Milcom  (1  Kin.  xi.  5,  33)  and  Malcam 
(Jer.  xlix.  1,3,  R.  V.;  Z.ph.  i.  r-,;  and  R.  V. 
margin  2  Sam.  xii.  30  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  2),  proper 
names  formed  ))y  the  familiar  terminations 
om  and  am.  He  was  an  aspect  of  Baal  (Jer. 
.xxxii.  35),  whose  name  is  a  common  noun 
likewise  and  signifies  lord.  Baal  was  wor- 
shiped with  human  sacrifices  at  Tyre  under 
the  name  of  Melcarth,  king  of  the  city  ; 
and  aji  exceedingly  detestable  feature  of 
Molech's  worshij)  was  the  burning  of  chil- 
dren to  him  in  the  fire.  The  ])racti(e  was 
in  vogue  early  ;  and  when  the  Israelites  were 
at  Sinai  and  expected  soon  to  be  neighbors 
of  the  Ammonites,  the  law  was  ciincted  that 
if  any  man  made  or  iM'rniittcd  his  children 
to  "pass  through  the  tire  to  Molech  "  he  was 
to  be  put  to  death  (Lev.  xviii.  21  ;  xx.  1-5). 
Nevertheless  Solomon  in  his  old  age  erected 


an  altar  to  Milcom,  being  led  into  this  idol- 
atry by  the  Annnonite  wives  whom  he  loved  ; 
and  in  the  following  centuries  children 
were  burnt  to  Molech  in  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom  at  the  high  place  of  Topheth  (Ps.  cvi. 
38;  Jer.  vii.  31;  xix.  4,  5;  Ezek.  xvi.  21; 
xxiii.  37,39;  cp.  Is.  xxx.  33).  Aliaz  burnt 
children  of  his  there  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  3),  and 
Manasseh  made  at  least  one  of  his  sons  to 
pass  through  the  fire  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6).  The 
northern  Israelites  were  also  guilty  of  this 
hideous  rite  (2  Kin.  xvii.  17  ;  Ezek.  xxiii. 
37).  Josiah  destroyed  the  altars  which  Solo- 
mon built  on  the  mount  of  Corruption  to 
this  false  divinity  and  other  heathen  gods, 
and  defiled  the  high  place  of  Topheth  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  10,  13). 

Molid  [begetter]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

Moloch.     See  .Molech. 

Mol'ten  Sea  or  Bra'zen  Sea. 

A  great  basin  made  by  Solomon  of  brass 
which  David  had  taken  as  booty  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  8).  It  stood  in  the  inner  court  of  the 
temple  between  the  altar  of  burnt  offering 
and  the  sanctuary,  somewhat  toward  the 
south  ;  and  was  intended  for  the  priests  to 
wash  their  hands  and  feet  in  before  entering 
the  sanctuary  or  approaching  the  altar  (1 
Kin.  vii.  39  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  6  ;  Antiq.  viii.  3,  6  ; 
cp.  Ex.  xxx.  18-21).  It  was  round,  10  cubits 
in  diameter  and  5  in  height,  and  held  2000 
baths  (1  Kin.  vii.  23,  26;  in  2  Chron.  iv.  5  in- 
correctly 3000).  The  brim  curved  outward 
like  a  cup,  and  the  sides  were  ornamented 
with  two  rows  of  knops  underneath  the  brim 
(1  Kin.  vii.  24,  26).  It  was  notan  exact  hem- 
isphere, but  its  sides  bulged  out  like  a  tulip, 
as  appears  from  the  statement  of  its  capacity 
and  from  the  comparison  of  it  to  a  lily.  It 
stood  upon  twelve  brazen  oxen,  in  four 
groups  of  three  each,  facing  the  four  quarters. 
Ahaz  took  it  down  from  the  o.xen  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  17)  ;  and  finally,  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
captured  Jerusalem,  he  broke  the  basin  in 
pieces  (xxv.  13,  16;  Jer.  xxvii.  19-22). 

Mon'ey. 

Money  was  early  coined  by  the  Greeks  and 
the  peo]iles  of  Asia  Minor  within  the  sphere 
of  Greek  influence.  Staters,  made  of  an  alloy 
of  gold  with  silver  called  electron,  were 
struck  in  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor  and  silver 
coins  at  ^Egina  as  early  as  700  to  650  b.  c. 
In  the  rest  of  western  Asia  an«}  in  Egypt 
people  were  content  to  use  gold  and  silver  in 
bars,  rings,  and  other  forms,  probably 
stamjied  with  the  value,  but  not  issued  I>-\- 
authority  (Josh.  vii.  21  ;  and  cp.  name  of 
talent,  kikkar,  circle).  In  business  transac- 
tions reliance  was  not  placed  on  the  stamp, 
but  the  quantity  was  determined  by  weigh- 
ing ((ien.  xxiii.  Ki ;  xliii.  21);  cp.  WioiCiHTS. 
Counting  was  rarely  resorted  to  (2  Kin.  xii. 
11),  and  then  only  to  form  a  general  estimate. 
Shekel  in  the  early  period  does  not  mean  a 


Money 

coin  bearing  an  authoritative  stamp,  bnt  a 
certain  weight  (shekel)  of  silver.  The  weights 
formed  a  series  in  the  denomination  of  talent, 
maneh,  shekel,  gerah,  and  beka  or  half 
shekel :  see  Weights.  Darius  Hystaspis, 
521-486  B.  c,  is  credited  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  coinage  into  Persia  (Herod,  iv.  166), 
whereby  the  Jews  became  acquainted  with 


51 1  Money- 


Gold  Daric. 

coins.  The  ordinary  daric  (Ezra  ii.  69  ;  in  A. 
V.  dram)  was  a  thick  gold  coiu.  showing  on 
one  side  the  king,  kneeling  and  holding  a 
bow  and  a  javelin.  On  the  reverse  was  an 
irregular  square,  doul)tless  the  mark  of  the 
punch  with  which  the  hnii])  of  metal  was 
driven  into  the  die.  It  was  worth  about  five 
dollars;  see  Daric.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  empire,  the  Greek  system  came  into 
vogue  in  Palestine,  and  money  was  reckoned 
by  talents  and  draclimas  (1  Mac.  si.  28  ;  2 
Mac.  iv.  19). 


Silver  Half  Shekel  of  Year  1. 

In  the  year  141-140  b.  c,  Simon  Jfaccabaeus 
obtained  the  right  to  coin  money  for  his  nation 
with  his  own  .stamp  (1  Mac.  xv.  6),  and  issued 
silver  shekels  and  half  shekels  and  perhaps 


Shekel  of  Year  2. 

copper  half,  quarter,  and  sixth  shekels.  The 
silver  coins  show  a  vase  on  the  obverse  with 
the  date  above  and  the  legend  "shekel  (or 
half  shekel)  of  Israel  ; "  and  on  the  reverse 
a  branch  bearing  flowers  encircled  by  tlie 
words  ".Jerusalem  the  holy."  The  small 
copper  coin  of  John  Hyrcanus,  which  is  rep- 
resented in  the  accompanying  cut,  bears  on 
the  obverse  within  a  wreath  of  olive  the  in- 
scription, "  Jehohauau  the  high  priest,  head 


and  friend  of  the  Jews.''  The  reverse  has  a 
Greek  symbol,  the  united  cornucopias,  be- 
tween which  is  a  pomegranate.     Herod  the 


Copper  Coin  of  John  Hyrcanus. 

Great  and  his  successors  down  to  Herod 
Agrippa  II.  issued  copper  coins,  but  only  with 
Greek  legends. 


Copper  Coin  of  Herod  Antipas,  Tetrarch  of 
Galilee. 

The  money  of  the  Greeks,  however,  con- 
tinued to  circulate  along  with  the  Jewish 
coinage.  The  coins  consisted  of  drachmas 
and  tetradrachmas.  The silverdrachnia  (Luke 
XV.  8,  K.  V.  margin)  in  the  time  of  the  Herods 
and  the  procurators  was  equivalent  to  the 
Eoman  denariusand  worth  about  16  cents  :  the 
silver  stater  or  tetradrachma  (Mat.  xvii.  27. 
margin),  struck  by  the  Greek  cities  of  Syria 
and  Phcenicia,  was  worth  about  66  cents,  but 
soon  afterwards  became  much  debased.  The 
lepton  was  a  small  copper  coin  (Luke  xii.  .59  ; 
xxi.  2,  rendered  mite),  not  the  lepton  of  the 
Greek  systt'm,l)ut  the  smallest  cop])er  coin  in 
circulation,  worth  about  J  cent  and  equal  to 
half  the  quadrans  (Mark  xii.  42).  The  name 
denotes  small.  It  was  a  Jewish  coin,  for  only 
Jewish  money  was  allowed  to  be  offered  in 
the  temple;  "and  it  was  probably  a  copper 
coin  issued  by  John  Hyrcanus  or  other  Mac- 
cabsean  prince.  The  didrachma,  which  corre- 
sponded to  the  half  shekel  (Mat.  xvii.  24.  mar- 
gin), waspro1)ably  notin  circulation  or  but  lit- 
tle used  in  Palestine.  The  talent  employed 
in  Palestine  (1  l^Iac.  xi.  28  ;  Mat.  xviii.  24) 
was  the  Attic  talent,  which  Alexander  had 
made  the  lawful  standard  throughout  his 
empire  and  which  afterwards  maintained  its 
su]iremacy.  It  w;is  not  a  coin,  but  money  of 
account ;  was  divided  into  minas  (1  ^fac.  xiv. 
24;  Luke  xix.  13-2.5,  rendered  ]M)und);  and 
it  consi.sted  of  60  minas  or  6000  drachmas. 
It  suff'ered  great  d(pr(<iation,  the  drachma 
falling  off  from  about  (i7.5  grains  to  about  .55 
grains  or  16  cents  under  the  early  Ca-sars. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Romans  in  Pales- 
tine, the  money  of  the  Romans  had  also  come 
into  circulation.  The  denarius  CMat.  xviii. 
28;  rendered  penny)  was  a  silver  coin.  In 
the  time  of  the  empire  its  obverse  almost  in- 
variably bore  the  head  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign or  of  some  member  of  the   imperial 


Money 


512 


Money 


family.  P'runi  the  time  of  Augustus  to  that 
of  Nero,  its  staudard  weight  was  60  graius, 
eqnivaleut  to  about  17  ceuts.  It  was  the 
tril)Ute  money  payable   by  the  Jews  to  the 


Denarius  with  Imnge  and  Superscription  of  Ti- 
berius Caesar. 

imperial  treasury  (Mat.  xxii.  19).  The  assa- 
rion  (x.  29  ;  Luke  xii.  6,  rendered  farthing), 
the  Greek  name  of  the  Roman  as,  was  a 
small  copper  coin,  the  value  of  which  was 
reduced  in  217  b.  c.  to  yV  "f  a  (denarius  or  to 
about  1  cent.  The  quadrans  (Mat.  v.  26 ; 
Mark  xii.  42  ;  rendered   farthing)  was  the 


Procurator's  Copper  Coin. 

fourth  part  of  an  as,  or  J  cent.  The  pro- 
curators of  Judfea  were  also  accustomed  to 
coin  money.  They  issued  copper  pieces  in 
the  name  of  the  imperial  family  and  with  the 
legend  in  Greek  letters.  The  coin  which  is 
represented  in  the  accotnjianying  cut  bears 
the  name  of  Ti.  Claudius  (';esar  (iermanicus 
written  in  Greek  on  the  margin,  and  in  the 
center  two  palm  branches  laid  crosswise  with 
the  date,  "year  14,"  between  them.  The 
reverse  contains  the  name  of  the  emperor's 
wife,  Julia  Agrip])ina.  It  was  struck  in  a. 
D.  •')4,  during  the  procuratorship  of  Felix. 

The  gold  coin  which  was  current  in  Pales- 
tine during  the  N.  T.  period  was  the  lloman 
denarius  aureus,  generally  termed  simply 
aureus  (Antiq.  xiv.  8,  .'5,  rendered  pieces  of 
gold  ',  which  i)assed  for  25  silver  denarii. 

The  natioiuil  coinage  of  Israel  was  revived 


Shekel  of  Simon,  Prince  of  Israel. 

by  Eleazar,  th(>  ])riest,  and  Simon,  the  jjrinco, 
during   the  first  revolt,  A.  u.  66-70.     Silver 


shekels  and  quarter  shekels  and  copper  coins 
with  various  devices  and  old  Hebrew  in- 
scriptions were  issued.  The  shekel  of  Simon, 
of  which  a  copy  is  here  given,  shows  on  the 
obverse  a  palm  tree  and  the  legend  "Simon, 
prince  of  Israel,"  and  on  the  reverse  a  vine 
and  "  Year  one  of  the  redemption  of  Israel." 
On  the  suppression  of  this  revolt  and  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  coins  were  struck  in 
Kome  with  the  image  and  name  of  the  em- 
peror Vespasian  on  the  obverse,  and  a  female 


Silver  Coin  of  Vespasian,  commemorating  the 
Capture  of  Jerusalem. 

captive  under  a  palm  tree,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion "  Judsea  subdued"  or  "Judaea  captive" 
on  the  reverse ;  cp.  medal,  article  Jerusalem. 
Herod  Agrippa  II.,  king  of  part  of  Galilee 
and  the  region  to  the  east,  continued  to  issue 


Copper  Coin  of  llerod  Agrippa  II. 


copper  coins  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The 
one  depicted  dates  from  the  reign  of  Titus. 
It  bears  the  head  of  the  emperor,  his  name 
and  titles,  on  the  obverse  ;  and  on  the  re- 
verse a  winged  victory  holding  a  wreath  and 
a  palm  branch,  and  the  date,  "year  26  of 
king  Agrippa."  During  the  second  revolt, 
which  was  headed  by  Bar-cocheba,  A.  D.  132- 
1.35.  shekels  and  quarter  shekels  of  silver 
and  also  of  copper,  with  old  Hebrew  inscrip- 


Shckel  of  Bar-cocheba. 

tions,  were  again  coined.  The  shekel  shows 
a  lelrastyle  temple  on  the  obverse,  j)robably 
a  Cdiivenlioual  representation  of  the  beauti- 
ful gate  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.     At  the 


Money  Changers 


513 


Moon 


sides  of  it  appears  the  word  Simon,  perhaps 
the  personal  name  of  the  leader  of  the  re- 
volt ;  while  above  it  a  star  is  introduced, 
doubtless  in  allusion  to  the  surname  of  the 
leader,  Bar-cocheba,  son  of  a  star.  To  obtain 
quarter  shekels  the  Roman  denarius  was  re- 
struck,  which  at  this  time  so  nearly  equaled 
the  quarter  shekel  in  value  that  it  could  be 
substituted  for  it  without  inconvenience. 

Mon'ey  Chan-gers. 

When  a  census  was  taken  every  Israelite, 
whether  rich  or  poor,  who  had  reached  the 
age  of  twenty  years,  was  required  to  pay 
half  a  shekel  into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord 
as  an  ottering  to  make  atonement  (Ex.  xxx. 
13-15).  Later  it  was  customary,  according 
to  Maimonides,  to  pay  this  jjoll  tax  annually. 
Besides  this  tax,  pious  Israelites  made  free- 
will offerings,  which  they  cast  into  chests 
placed  in  the  court  of  the  women  (Mark  xii. 
41).  This  money  must  be  in  native  coin; 
and  as  several  currencies  circulated  in  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  as  multitudes 
of  Jews  from  foreign  lands  visited  Jerusalem 
at  the  passover,  bringing  the  coin  of  their 
country  with  them,  need  arose  of  facilities 
for  exchanging  foreign  for  native  money. 
The  business  of  the  money  changer  sprang 
up.  They  had  stalls  in  the  city  ;  and  as  the 
feast  ai)proached  they  were  admitted  to  the 
precincts  of  the  temple  and  placed  their 
tables  in  the  court  of  the  gentiles.  The  pre- 
mium paid  for  half  a  shekel  was,  according 
to  the  Talmud,  a  kolJi(bos,  equal  to  twelve 
grains  of  silver  and  worth  about  three  cents. 
From  this  premium  the  money  changer  was 
called  a  kollubigtrs  (Mat.  xxi.  12),  and  from 
the  table  at  which  he  sat  a  trapesHes  (Mat. 
XXV.  27).  On  two  different  occasions  Jesus 
overturned  the  tables  of  the  money  changers 
and  drove  the  cattle  dealers  from  the  court, 
because  their  presence  and  too  often  their 
dishonesty  and  avarice  were  incomjjatible 
with  the  sanctity  of  the  place  and  with  the 
quiet  which  is  necessary  f(jr  worship  (John  ii. 
14-16;  Mat.  xxi.  12,  VS). 

Month. 

In  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  acquainted 
with  a  year  of  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
each,  with  five  additional  days  to  i)roduce 
conformity  with  the  solar  year  of  3()5  days 
(Herod,  ii.  4),  and  in  the  account  of  the 
flood  the  months  are  reckoned  at  thirty  days 
each  (Gen.  vii.  11,  24;  viii.  3,  4).  After- 
wards, however,  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have 
used  a  lunar  month.  This  may  be  gathered 
(1)  from  the  two  words  for  month  which  de- 
note respectively  new  moon  and  lunation 
and  indicate  the  original  measurement;  (2) 
from  jiassages  like  Gen.  i.  14;  Ps.  civ.  19; 
Ecclus.  xliii.  6-8  ;  (3)  from  the  observance  of 
the  day  of  the  new  moon  by  sjiecial  offerings 
to  Jehovah  (Num.  x.  10;  xxviii.  11-14;  2 
Chron.  ii.  4) ;  and  (4)  from  the  coincidence 
between  the  passover,  which  was  always  cele- 
brated on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  day 
33 


of  the  month,  and  the  full  moon  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3-5);  see  further  Antiq.  iii.  10,  3  and  5;  iv! 
4,  6,  and  article  Year.  A  lunation  requires 
a  little  more  than  twenty-nine  days  and  a 
half.  The  months  would  accordingly  aver- 
age twenty-nine  and  thirty  days  alternately. 
When,  however,  a  month  is  spoken  of  gener- 
ally, thirty  days  are  meant  (cp.  Num.  xx.  29; 
Dent,  xxxiv.  8  with  xxi.  13).  The  mcmths 
were  commonly  distinguished  by  nunil)er. 
The  names  of  only  four  Hebrew  inonths  are 
found  in  Bible  narratives  relating  to  the 
period  l)efore  the  captivity.  They  are  the 
first  month,  Abib  (Ex.  xiii.  4,  etc.)^  the  sec- 
ond month,  Zif  (1  Kin.  vi.  37) ;  the  .seventh, 
Ethanim  (viii.  2)  ;  and  the  eiglith,  Bui  (vi. 
38).  After  the  captivity  the  names  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  Babylonians  and  other 
Semites  were  employed.    See  Ykar. 

Moon. 

The  jnincipal  luminary  of  the  night  (Gen. 
i.  16  ;  Ps.  cxxxvi.  9),  relied  ujjon  to  measure 
time,  marking  ofl"  moons  or  months,  and 
regulating  the  day  of  the  pa.ssover,  and  thus 
aiding  in  regulating  the  feasts  of  the  year 
(Gen.  i.  14;  Ps.  civ.  19;  Ecclus.  xliii.  6,7; 
Antiq.  iii.  10.  5).  Almost  all  the  nations 
with  which  the  ancient  Hebrews  came  into 
contact  worshiped  the  moon.  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees,  from  which  Abraham  emigrated, 
and  Haran,  where  he  settled  for  a  time  and 
where  Jacob  dwelt  for  twenty  years,  were 
noted  seats  of  the  moon's  worship.  When 
Abraham  removed  to  Canaan,  he  had  neigh- 
bors who  worshiped  tiie  moon  (cp.  with  cau- 
tion AsnTOEETH  and  Sixaij.  The  Egyptians 
sacrificed  the  pig  to  the  moon,  when  the 
disk  was  at  its  full  (Herod,  ii.  47).  In  the 
time  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  inva- 
sions of  Palestine,  the  Hebrews  came  again 
into  contact  with  people  who  regarded  tlie 
moon  as  one  of  the  great  gods.  At  this  time 
the  worship  of  the  moon  and  other  heavenly 
bodies  made  serious  inroads  on  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  (2  Kin.  xxi.  3 ;  xxiii.  4,  5 ;  Jer. 
vii.  18;  viii.  2).  The  moon  was  adored  by  a 
kiss  of  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27),  with  the 
burning  of  incense  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5).  In 
heathen  temples  the  moon  was  often  repre- 
sented by  the  crescent  as  a  symbol  and  by  an 
image  in  the  form  of  a  human  being.  This 
heathenism  had  its  check  in  the  sublime 
doctrine  of  Jehovah.  The  sun  and  moon 
were  made  by  the  God  of  Israel,  were  cre- 
ated for  the  useful  purjiose  of  giving  light, 
and  were  serviceable  to  man  in  affording  a 
convenient  measurement  of  time. 

Different  from  the  worship  of  the  moon 
was  the  childish  conception  that  the  varying 
appearance  of  the  moon  from  night  to  night 
at  its  rising,  during  its  course  acro.ss  the  sky, 
and  at  its  setting,  which  are  due  to  atmo.s- 
plieric  and  astronomic  conditions,  presaged 
political  occurrences.  The  asjicct  of  the  moon 
may  indicate  weather  ]iri)l)abilitics  ;  but  the 
folly  of  basing  predictions  of  national  events 


Moph 


51-1 


Moreh 


ou  such  phenomena  was  pointed  out  by  the 
prophets  (Is.  xlvii.  13).  The  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  shared  in  the  widespread  belief,  ap- 
parently justified  by  the  statements  of  trav- 
elers in  equatorial  regions,  that  the  moon 
may  affect  the  health  and  under  circum- 
stances produce  evil  consequences  to  muscles 
and  nerves.  But  the  child  of  God  can  safely 
intrust  himself  to  the  watchful  care  of  Je- 
hovah (Ps.  cxxi.  6). 

As  the  months  were  lunar,  the  new  moon 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  month  ;  and  the 
day  of  the  new  moon,  being  the  commence- 
ment of  a  natural  division  of  time,  was  ob- 
served as  a  holy  day.  No  set  convocation 
seems  to  have  been  prescribed  ;  l)Ut  additional 
sacrifices  were  offered  (Num.  xxviii.  11-14), 
trumpets  were  blown  (Num.  x.  10;  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3),  ordinary  labor  was  suspended  (Amos  viii. 
5),  and  the  day  offered  favorable  opportunity 
for  religious  instruction  (2  Kin.  iv.  23  ;  Ezek. 
xlvi.  1,  3).  It  was  kept  with  joy  and  feasting 
(1  Sam.  XX.  5  ;  Judith  viii.  6).  The  new  moon 
of  the  seventh  month  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  recurrence  of  a  fixed  portion 
of  time,  and  consequently  fell  under  the 
Sabbath  law,  and  was  observed  as  such  in 
addition  to  the  usual  worship  on  the  day  of 
the  new  moon  (Lev.  xxiii.  24,  25;  Num. 
xxix.  1-6).  After  the  exile  this  celebration 
assumed  the  character  of  a  new  year's  fes- 
tival. 

The  advent  of  the  new  moon  was  calcu- 
lated at  an  early  period  (1  Sam.  xx.  5,  18). 
The  Babylonian  astrologers  watched  for  it 
on  the  evening  when  it  was  expected  to  be 
seen,  in  order  to  take  note  of  its  apiiearance. 
According  to  the  Talmud,  the  sanhedrin  as- 
.sembled  seven  times  a  year  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  thirtieth  day  of  the  month. 
Watchmen  were  stationed  on  the  heights 
about  Jerusalem  to  watch  for  the  new  mo(m 
and  report  it  as  soon  as  seen.  When  the  evi- 
dence of  its  appearance  was  deemed  suffi- 
cient, the  sanhedrin  pronounced  the  word 
M'kitddnxh,  it  is  consecrated,  and  the  day  be- 
came the  first  of  the  new  month,  leaving 
twenty-nine  days  for  the  preceding  month. 
If  fogs  or  clouds  prevented  the  moon  from 
being  discerned,  the  day  was  reckoned  as 
the  thirtieth  and  the  new  mouth  began  on 
the  morrow.  Tlie  announcement  of  the  new 
moon  was  made  to  the  country  at  large  by 
lighting  a  beacon  fire  on  the  mount  of  Olives, 
which  was  repeated  by  similar  signals  from 
other  mountain  toi)s.  The  Samaritans  are 
said  to  have  thwarted  this  jilan  by  kindling 
fires  i)reinaturely.  In  conseciuence  the  sig- 
nals vv(!re  discontinued,  and  the  announce- 
ment of  the  new  moon  was  made  by  mes- 
sengers. 

Moph.     See  Mkmphis. 

Mo'rash-tite,  in  A.  V.  Morasthite. 
A    native  or  inhabitant  of  Moresheth,  as 
was  the  jjiopliet  Micah  (i.  1;  Jer.  xxvi.  IH)  ; 

see  MOKESHETH-GATH. 


Mor'de-cal  [perhaps,  Persian,  signifying 
little  man,  or  the  common  Babylonian  name, 
a  diminutive  or  hypocoristic  form  of  Mero- 
dach  (see  Esther).] 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  or  descendant  of  Jair, 
son  of  Shimei,  son  ofKish(Esth.  ii.  5).  The 
relative  clause  which  as  verse  6  follows  this 
genealogy  may  refer  to  the  last  name  of  the 
series  (cp.  2  Chron.  xxii.  9),  and  state  that 
Kish,  a  Benjamite,  was  carried  into  exile 
with  king  Jeconiah  in  598  B.  c. ;  or  the  clause 
may  relate  to  an  earlier  name  in  the  list,  for 
example,  to  Jair  (cp.  Gen.  xxiv.  47),  in 
which  case  Mordecai  was  a  descendant  of 
Jair,  a  Benjamite,  -who  was  carried  away 
to  Babylonia  with  Jeconiah.  He  brought 
up  Hadassah  or  Esthei%  his  uncle's  daugh- 
ter, adopting  her  as  his  own  after  her 
father  and  mother  had  died.  She  acted 
under  his  direction  in  the  series  of  events 
which  ended  by  making  her  queen  of  Persia 
as  wife  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  ii.  7-2(»).     This 

'  king  was  Xerxes,  who  reigned  from  486  to 
460  B.  c.  Through  Esther  Mordecai  informed 
the  king  of  a  plot  against  his  life,  and  the 
two  conspirators  were  executed  (21-23).  When 
Hamau  was  the  king's  favorite,  Mordecai  de- 
clined to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  re- 
fusing to  jiay  the  customary  civility  because 
of  Haman's  unprincipled  character  or  perhajis 
because  Haman  was  an  Agagite.  The  in- 
sulted dignitary  determined  to  wreak  ven- 
geance not  on  Mordecai  alone,  but  on  the 
entire  Jewish  people,  and  the  king  granted 
him  leave  (iii.  5-11).  One  night  Ahasuerus 
could  not  sleep,  and  to  relieve  the  tedium  of 
his  waking  hours,  he  desired  that  the  book 
recording  the  chronicles  of  the  kingdom 
should  be  read  to  him  by  his  attendants. 
The  conspiracy  came  up  in  the  jiart  read, 
and  the  king  remembered  that  he  had  done 
nothing  for  his  deliverer.  When  morning 
dawned  he  requested  Haman,  who  had  come 
to  ask  permission  to  hang  Mordecai,  to  take 
that  faithful  subject,  array  him  in  royal 
apparel,  and  conduct  him  through  the  streets 
of  the  city  (Susa)  mounted  on  a  hor.se  belong- 
ing to  the  sovereign,  and  to  proclaim  before 
him  as  he  went  along:  "Thus  shall  it  be 
done  to  the  man  whom  the  king  deligliteth 
to  honor."  This  was  the  commencement  of 
Haman's  fall,  and  of  a  series  of  events 
which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Haman  and 
his  sons,  and  the  promotion  of  Mordecai  to 
be  the  second  man  in  the  empire  (Esth.  vi.- 
X.).  Some  interpreters  would  identify  Mor- 
decai with  the  eunuch  Matacas  or  Natacas, 
who,  according  to  Ctesias,  was  the  chief  fav- 
orite of  Xerxes. 

2.  A  Jew  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7). 

Mo'reh  [archer,  or  the  first  rain,  or  teacher] . 

1.  A  terebinth  or  oak  tree  and  grove  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xi.  29,  30), 
which  most  probably  took  its  name  from  an 
archer  or  teacher  who  at  one  time  or  other 


Moresheth-gath 


515 


Moses 


dwelt  there.  Abraham  encamped  by  it  when 
he  arrived  in  Canaan  from  Mesopotamia,  and 
erected  an  altar  there  to  Jehovali  wlio  ap- 
peared unto  hira.  It  was  proba}>ly  the;  tree 
under  wliich  Jacol)  buried  the  amulets  and 
idols  that  his  family  had  brought  with 
them  from  Haran,  and  whore  Joshua  erected 
a  stone  to  commemorate  the  covenant  which 
the  people  renewed  there,  and  whither  the 
men  of  Shechem  went  to  make  Abimelech 
king  (Gen.  xxxv.  4  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  2(J,  though 
slightly  diflerent  words  are  used  for  tere- 
binth in  these  two  jiassages  from  that  em- 
ployed in  Gen.  xii.  (j ;  Judg.  ix.  0).  The 
identity  of  the  tree  with  the  oak  or  terebinth 
of  the  augurs  near  Sheciiem  is  not  so  obvious 
(Judg.  ix.  37). 

2.  A  hill  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel  to  the 
north  of  the  spring  of  Harod  (Judg.  vii.  1). 
Not  positively  identified.  Jebel  Duhy,  or 
Little  Hermon,  about  8  miles  northwest  of 
mount  Gilboa  and  1  mile  south  of  Nain,  has 
been  suggested. 

Mor'esh-eth-gath  [possession  of  Gath  or 
of  a  wine  press]. 

A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
places  in  Judah,  and  therefore  evidently 
situated  in  the  same  region  (Micah  i.  14). 
Jerome  located  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Eleu- 
theropolis.  Gath  in  the  name  is  generallj'  sup- 
l)oscd  to  denote  the  Philistine  city  and  to 
indicate  that  Moresheth  was  near  it.  Per- 
haps the  town  was  the  home  of  the  prophet 
Micah  (i.  1). 

Mo-ri'ah  [the  meaning  is  unknown.  The 
definite  article  prefixed  to  the  word  shows 
that  it  is  not  a  proper  name  and  that  it  does 
not  contain  the  divine  name  Jehovah ;  and 
the  orthography  further  shows  that  the  word 
floes  not  mean  "  appearance  or  provision  of 
Jehovah  "]. 

1.  A  district  of  country,  on  one  of  whose 
hills  Abraham  i)rei)ared  to  sacrifice  I.saac; 
probabl  J'  the  region  lying  round  about  the  hill 
of  the  same  name  on  which  the  temple  was 
afterwards  l>uilt,  and  taking  its  name  from 
that  bill  or  from  some  circumstance  common 
to  both  it  and  the  hill  (Gen.  xxii.  2;  Autiq. 
i.  1.3,  1  and  2).  The  Samaritans,  and  after 
them  a  few  modern  scholars  like  Bleek,  Tucli, 
Stanley,  identify  Moreh  near  Shechem  with 
ISIoriah  (see  Samaritan  text)  and  Gerizim 
with  the  scene  of  Abraham's  sacrifice.  The 
Samaritan  identification  doubtless  rests  on 
the  fact  that  Abraham  did  build  an  altar  at 
Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  (i,  7),  and  the  identification 
was  encouraged  by  the  desire  to  enhance  the 
religious  glory  of  their  country.  But  the 
etymology  of  Moreh  and  Moriah  is  ditJerent. 

2.  The  hill  on  which  was  the  threshing 
floor  of  Oman  the  Jebusite.  David  ])ur- 
chased  the  floor  and  erected  an  altar  on  it. 
and  Solomon  made  it  the  site  of  the  temple 
(2  Sam.  xxiv.  18  seq. :  2  Chron.  iii,  1).  The 
original  hill  has  been  much  altered  arti- 
ficially  and   part   of  its   slopes   are    bidden 


beneath  accumulated  rubbish  and  embank- 
ments, but  its  general  contour  has  been 
determined.  Mount  Moriah  stood  hctwccn 
the  Kidron  and  Tyro]i(eon  valleys,  and  lifted 
its  summit  directly  oi)iiosite  the  mouth  of 
that  ravine  which  forms  the  western  branch 
of  the  latter  valley.  On  the  north  a  slight 
depression  separated  it  from  the  narrow  neck 
of  land  which  connected  it  with  the  main 
plateau.  It  is  dilfictilt  to  state  exact  dimen- 
sions ;  to  call  its  original  area  (JOU  feet  from 
north  to  south  by  300  from  east  to  west  may 
be  not  far  from  the  truth.  Its  highest  jxiint 
is  now,  according  to  Warren,  244H  feet  above 
the  ocean.  Other  platforms  are  2430  and 
2420  feet,  from  which  the  east  and  west 
slopes  very  rapidly  fall. 

Mor'tar  I. 

A  vessel  in  which  grain  and  spices  are 
pounded  with  a  pestle  (Num.  xi.  8;  Prov. 
xxvii.  22).  The  Arabs  of  the  present  day 
use  stone  mortars  in  which  to  i)ound  wheat 
for  making  kibby,  their  national  food,  and 
the  sound  of  braying  the  grain  with  the 
pestle  may  be  heard  at  all  hours  in  the 
towns. 

Mor'tar  II. 

A  substance  used  to  bind  bricks  or  stones 
together  in  a  wall.  Various  materials  were 
used.  1.  Mud  or  clay  without  lime  (Nah. 
iii.  14),  frequently  employed  by  jieasants  in 
Palestine.  2.  Mortar  ])roperly  so  called,  con- 
sisting of  sand  and  lime  mixed  with  water, 
which  was  employed  in  building  the  better 
class  of  houses  (cp.  Ezek.  xiii.  10).  Palestine 
is  a  limest(me  country,  and  lime  is  easily  ob- 
tained (Is.  xxxiii.  12).  3.  Bitumen  in  regions 
like  Babylonia  where  clay  and  lime  are 
scarce  (Gen.  xi.  3,  E.  V.  margin).  The  walls 
of  houses  were  (Lev.  xiv.  42)  and  still  are 
daubed  or  plastered  with  mud  or  mortar, 
often  mixed  with  straw  and  jiebbleg,  to  i)ro- 
tect  them  against  the  weather.  The  mortar 
used  for  this  purpose  in  Egypt  consists  of  one 
half  clay,  one  quarter  lime,  and  the  rest  ashes 
and  straw. 

Mo-se'rah,  in  A.  V.  Mosera  [bond,  fetter]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  near  Bene-jaakan  ( Deut .  x.  6).  In 
Num.  xxxiii.  30,  the  plural  form  iMoseroth  is 
used  as  the  name  of  the  place.  The  site  is  un- 
known ;  but  it  was  near  mount  Hor,  by  the 
border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  23;  xxxiii.  .37; 
with  Deut.  x.  ti),  in  the  country  of  the  Hor- 
ites  (cp.  Gen.  xxxvi.  2t>,  27  with  1  Chron.  i.  42). 
Jebel  Madara  sounds  mncli  like  ]\rosera  ;  but 
is  not  the  exact  ((luivalent.  if  the  Arabic 
.spelling  has  been  correctly  rejjorted  by  travel- 
ers.    See  HoK. 

Mo-se'roth.     See  preceding  article. 

Mo'ses  [from  the  Egyptian  mes  or  mesu, 
extraction,  a  son]. 

The  great  Hebrew  leader  and  legislator. 
He  was  a  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house 
of  Amram  (Ex.  vi.  is,  20).    Jochebed  is  called 


Moses 


516 


Moses 


the  mother  of  Moses  (ver.  20) ;  but  this  ex- 
pression is  donbtk'ss  to  he  understood  in  the 
sense  of  ancestress,  Amram  and  Jochebed 
being  founders  of  the  tribal  house  into  which 
Moses  was  born  ;  see  Egypt.  The  edict  re- 
quiring the  Hebrew  male  children  to  be  cast 
into  the  Nile  brought  Moses  into  imminent 
peril  of  his  life.  But  his  mother  saw  that 
he  was  a  goodly  child,  or,  as  Stephen  words 
it,  exceeding  fair  (Acts  vii.  20);  and  she 
hid  him  three  months  in  her  house.  When 
she  could  hide  him  no  longer,  she  placed  him 
within  an  ark  of  bulrushes,  which  had  been 
daubed  with  bitumen  and  pitch  to  render  it 
water-tight;  put  it  among  the  flags  on  tlie 
river's  bank  ;  and  posted  Miriam,  then  a 
young  girl,  to  watch  the  result.  By  and  by 
Pharaoh's  daughter,  attended  by  her  maid- 
ens, came  to  the  river  to  bathe.  Her  name 
was  Thermuthis,  according  to  Josephns 
(Antiq.  ii.  9,  5).  Eusebius  calls  her  Merris, 
which  sounds  like  Meri,  one  of  the  younger 
daughters  of  Eamses  II.  The  rabbius  iden- 
tify her  with  Bithiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  IH).  She 
espied  the  ark,  and  had  it  opened.  She  saw 
by  the  features  and  color  of  the  infant  that 
he  was  a  Hebrew.  He  wept  and  she  was 
touched  with  pity.  At  this  critical  moment 
Miriam  stepped  forward,  and  with  admirable 
tact  asked  :  "Shall  I  go  and  call  thee  a  nurse 
of  the  Hebrew  women,  that  she  may  nurse 
the  child  for  thee  ?  "  The  princess  bade  her 
go,  and  the  child's  mother  was  called  and 
the  infant  committed  to  her  care.  When  he 
was  weaned  he  was  taken  to  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adopted  him  and  called  him 
Moses.  The  name  was  doubly  fitting,  the 
child  having  been  drawn  from  the  water  and 
being  adopted  as  a  son  (Ex.  ii.  1-10).  The 
adopted  son  of  a  princess  required  a  princely 
education,  and  Moses  became  instructed  in 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians  (Acts  vii. 
2:2),  who  were  then  unsurpassed  in  civiliza- 
tion by  any  people  in  the  world.  This  was 
designed  to  fit  him  for  high  office  under  the 
gavernment,  if  not  even  for  the  Egyptian 
throne.  But  in  God's  intention  it  was  to 
prepare  him  for  the  leadership  of  the 
Hebrews.  He  was  ])ossessed  of  great  natu- 
ral al)ility,  and  the  training  which  he  re- 
ceived schooled  him  for  the  great  work  for 
which  he  was  destined.  He  became  familiar 
with  court  life  and  intercourse  with  princes, 
with  the  grandeur  aud  poujp  of  religious 
worship  and  witli  ritualistic  conventionali- 
ties aud  symbolism,  witli  letters  aud  the 
literary  ideas  of  the  time.  He  witnessed 
tiie  administration  of  justice,  and  he  ac- 
quired a  general  ac(|iuuutan<-,e  with  tiie  arts 
which  were  jiracticed  in  civilized  life.  He 
remem))ered,  however,  his  origin,  believed 
tbe  pr(unises  which  had  been  made  to  tlie 
Hebrew  [)eoi>le,  and  before  the  close  of  his 
sojourn  in  Egyi)t  he  had  discovered  the  call 
of  God  to  him  to  be  the  judge  and  the  de- 
liverer of  the  Israelites.  Going  out  to  ol)- 
serve  the  state  of  his  countrymen,   he  .saw 


one  of  them  struck  by  an  Egyptian.  Moses 
killed  the  oppressor,  and  hid  his  body  in  the 
sand.  Another  day  he  tried  to  reconcile  two 
Hebrews  who  were  striving  together,  on 
which  the  one  who  was  in  the  wrong  inso- 
lently asked  :  "  Who  made  thee  a  prince  and 
a  judge  over  us  ?  intendest  thou  to  kill  me,  as 
thou  killedst  the  Egyptian  ? "  Moses  was 
alarmed  to  find  that  his  deed  of  the  previous 
day  had  become  known,  and  on  learning 
that  it  had  reached  the  ears  of  Pharaoh, 
who  said  that  he  would  kill  him  for  it,  fled 
from  Egypt  to  the  land  of  Midian.  He  had 
refused  to  be  called  the  son  of  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  people 
of  God,  and  had  assumed  the  position  of  de- 
liverer and  judge  (Ex.  ii.  11-15;  Acts  vii. 
24-28 ;  Heb.  xi.  24,  25).  He  was  now  forty 
years  old  (Acts  vii.  23).  On  arriving  in 
Midian,  Moses  aided  the  daughters  of  Jethro 
to  water  their  flocks.  This  act  introduced 
him  to  Jethro,  who  was  a  priest.  Jethro 
showed  him  hospitality,  furnished  him 
with  employment,  and  gave  him  one  of 
his  daughters  to  wife.  She  bore  Moses  two 
sons,  Gershom  aud  Eliezer  (Ex.  ii.  22  ;  iv.  20  ; 
xviii.  3,  4).  He  remained  in  Midian  forty 
years  (Acts  vii.  30),  intimately  associated 
witli  a  people  who  were  descended  from 
Abraham  and  perhaps  worshiped  the  God  of 
Abraham  (cp.  Ex.  xviii.  10-12).  This  period 
was  likewise  a  time  of  preparation.  He 
enjoyed  close  fellowship  with  a  leading  man 
of  the  Midianites,  a  man  of  sound  judgment 
(Ex.  xviii. )  and  a  priest.  Here  Moses  widened 
his  acquaintance  with  religious  thought  and 
forms  of  worship.  He  learned  the  roads  of 
the  wilderness,  its  resources,  climate,  and 
mode  of  life  of  its  inhabitants.  Amid  its 
solemn  grandeur  and  in  its  deep  solitude 
he  had  opportunity  for  reflection.  At  the 
close  of  this  period  he  was  astonished  to 
see  a  bush  burning  and  yet  remaining  un- 
consumed.  As  he  turned  aside  to  look  more 
narrowly  at  a  sight  so  unique,  he  received 
an  authenticated  call  from  Jehovah,  and  the 
objections  were  overcome  which  he  raised  on 
the  ground  of  insulficiency  for  the  work 
(Ex.  iii.  11),  inability  to  tell  the  people  in 
what  character  God  would  manifest  himself 
for  their  deliverance  (13),  lack  of  credentials 
to  secure  the  recognition  of  the  people  (iv.  1), 
and  lack  of  eloquence  to  persuade  (10).  These 
difficulties  were  removed ;  and  Moses  ac- 
quiesced, but  unwillingly.  God  was  dis- 
pleased, and  promised  that  Aaron  should 
help  Moses  (14).  Moses  took  his  wife  Zip- 
porah  and  his  sons  to  return  to  Egypt  (20). 
Two  sons  had  been  born  to  him.  One  of 
them,  doitbtless  the  younger,  he  had  not 
circumcised,  because  Zii>porah  regarded  the 
rite  as  bloody.  In  yielding  to  her  in  this 
matter  Moses  had  shown  himself  unfaithful 
in  his  own  household  and  unfit  for  his  high 
commission.  God  was  displeased  with  this 
neglect  of  the  sign  of  the  covenant;  and 
now,  as  Moses  was  returning  to  Egypt  with 


Moses 


517 


Moses 


his  family,  God  brought  him  iiifih  unto  death 
at  the  inn.  But  Ziiiporah  discerned  the 
cause  and,  desirous  of  savinfi;  her  luisband's 
life,  at  once  took  a  knife  and  performed  the 
oiieration,  saying,  "  A  bridegroom  of  blood  art 
thou  to  me "  (Ex.  iv.  24-2(i).  Arriving  in 
Egypt,  I\[oses  repeatedly,  in  conjunction  with 
Aaron,  conveyed  to  Pharaoh  the  divine  com- 
mands, the  rejection  of  wliich  brought  on 
the  obstinate  king  and  his  people  the  suc- 
f-ession  of  judgments  known  as  the  ten 
plagues  (v.-xiii.  16).  When  the  departure 
from  Egypt  took  place,  it  was  Moses  who, 
under  divine  guidance,  led  the  people.  At 
Sinai  he  was  admitted  to  intimate  relations 
with  God.  God  allowed  all  the  people  to 
hear  his  voice  in  articulate  words ;  but  he 
permitted  Moses  to  see  him  manifested  and 
he  spake  unto  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man 
speaketh  unto  his  friend  (Ex.  xxiv.  9-11 ; 
xxxiii.  11,  17-23;  xxxiv.  5-29),  and  he  re- 
vealed his  will  to  Moses  i'rom  time  to  time 
for  the  instruction  of  his  people,  as  he  did 
afterwards  to  the  successive  prophets.  In 
communion  with  God  Mo-ses  obtained  the 
statutes  based  on  the  ten  commandments 
(see  Theocracy).  Immediately  afterwards, 
during  a  sojourn  of  forty  days  on  the  mount, 
he  was  made  acquainted  with  the  form,  di- 
mensions, and  materials  of  the  tabernacle 
and  its  furniture  (see  Tabernacle),  and 
received  from  God  the  two  tables  of  stone  ; 
but  on  finding  that  in  liis  absence  the  people 
had  taken  to  worshiping  a  golden  calf,  he 
dashed  the  tablets  to  the  ground  as  he 
neared  the  camp  and  broke  them  in  his 
righteous  indignation  and  in  token  of  the 
fact  that  the  covenant,  of  which  they  were 
the  fundamental  law,  had  been  annulled  by 
the  sin  of  the  people.  He  then  inflicted 
punishment  upon  the  people  ;  and  all  who 
had  not  held  aloof  from  the  place  of  idol- 
atrous worship,  or  had  not  retired  when  re- 
minded of  their  sin  by  the  act  of  Moses,  in 
their  obstinacy  were  exposed  to  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  Levites  who  offered  themselves 
as  executioners.  Having  acted  symbolically 
and  judicially,  Moses  now  acted  media- 
torialiy  and  interceded  for  the  people,  and 
God  promised  that  his  angel  should  accom- 
pany the  host.  Moses  was  again  called  into 
the  mountain,  and  the  portions  of  the  cov- 
enant respecting  the  service  of  God,  which 
had  been  grossly  violated  in  a  fundamental 
})rinciple,  were  singled  out  and  emphasized, 
and  he  received  two  other  tables  inscribed 
like  the  first  (xix.,  XX. ;  xxxii. -xxxiv.).  On 
each  of  these  occasions  he  fasted  forty  days 
and  nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  18;  xxxiv.  28;  Dent, 
ix.  9,  18),  as  Elijah  afterwards  did  (1  Kin. 
xix.  8),  both  in  this  respect  foreshadowing 
the  similar  fast  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  iv.  2). 
The  name  of  Moses  is  forever  associated  with 
the  laws  given  at  Sinai  and  during  the  sub- 
sequent desert  wanderings  (see  Leviticus 
and  Numbers). 

When  Moses  came  down  from  mount  Sinai, 


afterthe  second  sojourn  of  forty  days,  with  the 
tables  of  the  law  in  his  hand,  the  skin  of  his 
face  shone,  sending  forth  beams  (Hebrew, 
horns),  and  the  people  were  afraid  to  come 
nigh  him  (Ex.  xxxiv.  29,  li.  V.  margin). 
Moses  called  to  tliem,  and  they  returned  to 
him;  and  he  si)ake  with  Ihem  and  gave  to 
them  all  that  the  Lord  had  spoken  with  him. 
"And  till  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face.  But  when 
Moses  went  in  before  the  Lord  to  si)eak  with 
him,  he  took  the  veil  ofl",  until  he  came  out " 
(33,  34,  A.  v.).  The  E.  V..  following  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  and  correctly  ren- 
dering the  Hebrew,  says  just  the  contrary: 
"  And  when  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face."  He  did 
not  wear  the  veil  while  speaking  either  with 
the  people  or  with  the  Lord.  He  wore  the 
veil,  not  to  hide  the  splendor  (A.  V.),  but  to 
conceal  the  vanishing  away  of  the  si)lendor 
(R.  v.) ;  and  he  wore  it  until  he  returned  to 
the  presence  of  the  Lord,  wdiere  the  light  of 
his  countenance  was  rekindled.  Moses  "put 
a  veil  upon  his  face,  that  the  children  of 
Israel  should  not  look  steadfastly  on  the  end 
of  that  which  was  passing  away "  (2  Cor. 
iii.  13,   R.  v.,  cp.  7). 

In  the  second  year  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  ISIoses  is  men- 
tioned as  having  m.nrried  a  Cushite  woman 
(Num.  xii.  1).  Zipporah  may  have  died  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year,  although  her  death 
is  not  recorded  (cp.  Ex.  xviii.  2).  Among 
the  later  Jews  the  story  ran  that  the  Cushite 
woman  was  an  Ethiopian  princess  named 
Tharbis,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  Moses 
on  the  occasion  of  his  leading  an  Egyptian 
army  into  Ethiopia,  while  he  was  still  a 
member  of  Pharaoh's  household  (Antiq.  ii. 
10,  2).  The  tale  is  evidently  a  fabrication. 
The  marriage  took  place  in  the  wilderness, 
when  Jliriam  and  Aaron  were  jealous  of 
Moses'  superiority  in  public  aflairs.  They 
were  leaders  of  the  host,  directors  of  the 
national  life,  and  prophets  as  well  as  Closes ; 
and  on  this  ground  they  claimed  that  their 
opposition  to  Moses"  marriage  with  the  for- 
eigner should  have  been  heeded  by  him. 
The  Cushite  woman  was  probably  one  of  the 
mixed  multitude  which  accomi)anied  the 
Israelites  in  the  flight  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xii. 

38). 

north-  after  leaving  Kadesh,  Korah  and 
other  princes  rebelled  against  the  authority 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  but  were  signally  pun- 
ished by  God  (Num.  xvi.);  see  Kouah.  At 
the  second  encampment  at  Kade^ll,  Moses 
and  Aaron  grievously  sinned  (Num.  xx.). 
When  bidden  by  God  to  speak  unto  the  rock 
that  it  give  forth  its  water,  :\Ioses  said  to  the 
assembled  people:  "Hear  now,  ye  rebels; 
shall  we  bring  you  forth  water  out  of  this 
rock?"  The  brothers  failed  to  observe  their 
subordinate  position.  They  claimed  to  be 
the  leaders  and  providers  of  the  people, 
whereas  it  was  God  who  had  led  the  Israel- 


Moses 


518 


Moses 


ites  from  Egypt  and  luid  fed  theni  for  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  They  took  to  them- 
selves the  honor  which  belonged  to  ({od  alone. 
When  called  upon  to  act  for  God,  they  acted 
in  their  own  name,  and  used  for  their  own 
glory  the  power  delegated  unto  them.  For 
this  sin  of  treason  they  were  denied  the 
jirivilege  of  conducting  tlie  people  into  the 
])romised  land.  It  was  a  .sore  chastisement 
to  Moses,  l)ut  it  made  no  change  in  the  fidelity 
of  this  great  servant  of  the  Lord.  After  the 
condemnation  he  was  faithful,  as  he  had  been 
before.  He  started  the  people  once  more  on 
their  march  to  Canaan.  He  led  Aaron  up 
mount  Hor,  stri]iped  him  of  his  official  robes, 
;ind  transferred  his  office  to  Eleazar,  thus 
himself  aiding  in  carrying  out  the  death 
sentence.  When  the  people  were  bitten  by 
the  fiery  serpents,  he  interceded  with  God 
for  tliem,  and  at  God's  bidding  erected  the 
brazen  serpent  and  bade  his  dying  country- 
men look  and  live.  He  led  the  armies  of 
Israel  into  the  territory  of  Sihon  and  Og, 
and  conquered  it  for  Israel.  When  the  camp 
was  pitched  in  a  valley  in  the  mountains  of 
Abarim,  and  glimpses  of  the  land  of  Abraham, 
Lsaac.  and  Jacob  were  obtained,  the  pent-up 
emotions  of  Moses' soul  again,  as  on  other  unre- 
corded occasions  since  his  transgression  found 
relief  in  prayer :  "  O  Lord  God,  thou  hast  be- 
gun to  show  thy  servant  thy  greatness,  and  thy 
strong  hand  :  .  .  .  .  Let  me  go  over,  I  pray 
thee,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond 
Jordan,  that  goodly  mountain,  and  Lebanon.'- 
But  the  answer  came  :  "  Let  it  suffice  thee  ; 
speak  no  more  unto  me  of  this  matter  .... 
for  thou  shalt  not  go  over  Jordan"  (Deut. 
iii.  24-27).  The  camp  was  moved  and 
pitched  at  Shittim  in  the  valley,  and  Moses 
put  his  house  in  order  that  he  might  die.  He 
delivered  a  parting  address  to  the  people  ;  see 
Deuteronomy.  He  led  Joshua,  whom  God 
had  appointed  to  succeed  him,  before  the 
high  priest  in  the  presence  of  the  congrega- 
tion, placed  liis  hands  upon  him,  and,  giving 
him  a  charge,  transferred  to  him  the  office 
which  he  himself  had  so  honorably  and 
elhciently  filled  for  forty  years.  He  after- 
wards led  Joshua  to  the  door  of  the  taber- 
nacle to  receive  a  charge  from  God.  Then 
he  taught  the  jieople  a  song  that  they  might 
have  words  of  religious  wisdom  in  their 
menu)ry  and  on  their  tongues,  bestowed  his 
farewell  blessing  on  the  several  tribes,  as- 
cended mount  Nebo  and  viewed  the  jiromised 
land  from  its  summit,  and  died.  He  was  120 
years  old,  yet  was  his  eye  not  dim  nor  his 
natural  force  abated.  God  buried  him  near 
by  (Deut.  x.x.xiv.). 

It  was  during  the  forty  years  in  tlie  wil- 
derness tliat  the  ])riucipal  literary  work  of 
Moses  was  done.  He  k(;i)t  a  record  of  the 
encampments  (Num.  xxxiii.),  nuide  a  note  of 
events,  such  as  the  l)attle  with  Amalek  (Ex. 
xvii.  14),  connnitted  the  statutes  founded  on 
tlie  covenant  law  to  writing  (xxiv.  4-7),  pre- 
served a  copy  of  his  farewell  address  (Deut. 


xxxi.  24).  He  had  also  the  richness,  vivid- 
ness, and  depth  of  thought  requisite  for 
writing  Hebrew  poetry,  which  is  very  simple 
in  its  structure  and  a  ready  vehicle  for  fervid 
utterance.  The  most  spontaneous  of  his 
poems,  written  under  the  intense  feeling  of 
the  moment,  was  the  song  which  he  uttered 
when  Pharaoh  was  overthrown  in  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  1-18).  Moses  ascribes  the  glory  to 
Jehovah  (1-3),  describes  the  event  (4-12), 
anticipates  its  eftect  upon  the  enemies  of  Is- 
rael (13-15),  and  discerns  in  it  a  guarantee 
that  Jehovah  will  bring  Israel  into  the  prom- 
ised land  (16-18).  The  song  may  have  been 
composed  in  a  few  moments.  Ps.  xc.  is  the 
product  of  a  quieter  mood  and  of  reflection. 
His  didactic  song,  embodying  the  religious 
le.ssons  of  the  preceding  forty  years,  was 
prepared  with  the  design  of  its  being  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  the  people  (Deut.  xxxii. ; 
cp.  xxxi.  19,  22).  His  farewell  blessing  of 
the  tribes,  like  the  farewell  words  of  Jacob 
to  his  sons,  was  also  cast  in  poetic  form 
(Deut.  xxxiii.).  Moses  had  literary  ability  ; 
in  these  several  forms  of  literature  he  hail 
predecessors  among  the  Egyptians;  and 
especially  did  he  have  also  the  stimulus  af- 
forded by  their  literary  ideas  and  the  ex- 
ample of  their  histories,  and  the  incentive  of 
the  awakened  national  life  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  stirring  events  amid  which  he  lived 
to  lead  him  to  write  a  connected  history  of 
his  people,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Penta- 
teuch. For  his  authorship  of  that  work  .see 
Pentateuch. 

As  the  organizer  of  a  nation  Mo.ses  under 
the  guidance  of  God  provided  Israel  with 
civil  and  religious  institutions.  These  insti- 
tutions were  timely  in  the  sense  that  both 
kinds  were  regarded  by  the  peoples  of  that 
day  as  normal  and  essential  to  a  state,  their 
character  corresponded  to  the  ideals  of  the 
age,  and  they  represented  the  highest  moral 
and  religious  truth  possessed  by  men.  The 
laws  were  not  as  a  whole  novel  The  con- 
stitution consisted  of  ten  commandments. 
It  had  long  been  known  to  Israel  that  idol- 
atry, proscribed  by  the  second  command- 
ment, was  abhorrent  to  Jehovah  (Gen.  xxxv. 
2).  There  is  evidence  that  the  Sabbath  day 
was  instituted  long  before  the  fourth  com- 
mandment was  promulgated  at  Sinai.  Long 
also  before  Israel  heard  the  law  at  Sinai, 
murder,  adultery,  theft,  and  false  witness- 
bearing  were  universally  held  to  be  crimes 
l)unishable  by  man.  The  significance  of 
Israel's  constitution  lay  in  the  fact  that  rec- 
ognized moral  obligations  were  made  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  kingdom,  and  that 
the  tenth  commandment  [irobed  back  of  the 
outward  act  into  the  inner  nature  of  man 
and  located  the  source  of  sin  in  the  evil  de- 
sires of  the  heart.  The  main  portion  of  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  consists  of  statutes 
based  on  the  covenant  law  of  the  Decalogue 
(Ex.  xxi.  1-xxiii.  19).  In  certain  cases  at 
least  old  laws  were  reaffirmed  and  ancient 


Moses 


519 


Mourning 


customs  were  made  laws  of  the  kingdom. 
Tlie  codex  of  Hammurabi  (see  Amraphel) 
enables  the  student  to  trace  more  of  the  or- 
dinances back  into  tlie  period  before  Moses 
than  he  had  previously  been  able  to  do;  and 
it  shows  also  that  the  idea  of  codification, 
which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant,  had  dawned  upon  man  cen- 
turies before  the  time  of  Moses.  The  eccle- 
siastical legislation  of  Moses  was  also  timely  ; 
providing  a  sanctuary  with  the  ground  plan 
of  the  prevalent  type  of  Egyptian  temple,  as 
an  edifice  stable,  sj'uimetrical  in  its  propor- 
tions, and  employing  the  approved  symbol- 
ism of  the  day  in  its  appointments  and  ritual, 
with  a  priesthood  and  priestly  organization 
and  priestly  functions  in  general  like  those 
of  contemporary  nations.  It  was  a  sacred 
house  and  a  worship  that  embodied  the  good 
in  the  religious  thought  and  j)ractice  of  the 
civilized  world,  that  were  intelligible  alike 
to  Israelite  and  gentile,  and  were  distin- 
guished by  monotheism  and  spirituality,  and 
by  the  exhibition  of  the  way  in  wliich  the 
sinner  may  approach  the  holy  (4od.  Moses 
was  inspired,  but  a  body  of  laws  and  a  form 
of  worship  entirely  hidden  from  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world  were  not  revealed  to  him. 
Moses  was  a  prophet,  and  was  insjiired  as 
other  prophets  were  inspired.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  he  was  made  an 
infallible  communicator  to  his  fellow-men  of 
the  mind  and  will  of  God.  He  spent  days 
in  personal  communion  with  God,  who  en- 
lightened his  mind  concerning  God  and  the 
nature  of  the  kingdom,  led  him  infallibly  to 
discern  the  laws  appropriate  to  the  condition 
of  the  people  and  adapted  to  discipline  them 
in  the  spirit  of  the  kingdom,  and  promjtted 
and  controlled  and  enabled  him  to  frame 
legislation  and  found  institutions,  more  or 
lessoutof  old  materials  and  on  old  models 
indeed,  yet  distinguished  from  all  analogies 
auKing  contemporary  peoples  by  the  exhibi- 
tion of  the  spiritual  nature  and  holiness  of 
(T()d,  by  the  extrication  of  man's  conduct  from 
civil  relations  merely  and  bringing  it  into  re- 
lation to  God  also,  and  by  the  power  to  lift  the 
secular  life  into  the  true  service  of  God. 

Moses  had  the  wisdom  of  a  statesman.  He 
observed  the  opposition  to  him  which  was 
manifested  in  his  own  family  (Num.  sii.), 
the  jealousy  of  other  tribes  and  his  own  to 
the  pre-eminence  of  himself  and  Aaron 
(xvi.),  the  worldly  considerations  by  which 
the  people  were  actuated  (xxxii.),  their  lack 
of  faith  in  Jehovah  at  critical  moments, 
and  their  readiness  to  lapse  into  idolatry. 
He  meditated  on  these  weaknesses  which 
threatened  the  national  existence  ;  and  when 
he  came  to  prei)are  his  farewell  address  he 
insisted  upon  the  law  of  the  one  altar  and 
upon  the  spirituality  of  religion  as  the  great 
means  under  God  of  overcoming  these  de- 
fects by  deepening  the  moral  life  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  preserving 
l>urity  of  worship  and  doctrine,  binding  the 


people  together  as  one  nation,  and  nKiking 
their  own  religion  a  grander  spectacle  than 
the  ceremonies  at  heathen  shrines;  see  Ai/rAR 
and  Dkutkuonomy.  After  his  death  the 
greatness  of  Moses  was  universally  recog- 
nized, atid  his  reputation  grew  as  the  cen- 
turies went  by.  He  had,  moreover,  the 
distinguished  honor  of  being  pei'mitted  to 
reappear  as  the  representative  of  (X  T.  law, 
with  Elijah,  the  rei)resentative  of  O.  T. 
proj)hecy,  to  hold  converse  with  Jesus  on  the 
mount  of  trausflgurati(m  (Mat.  xvii.  3,  4). 

Moth. 

An  insect  proverbial  for  its  destruction  of 
clothing  (Job  xiii.  28  ;  Mat.  vi.  19  ;  Jas.  v.  2). 
Its  larva  feeds  upon  wool  (Is.  li.  S),  and  out 
of  the  same  substance  builds  itself  a  house 
or  case,  in  which  it  lives  ( Jol)  xxvii.  18),  j)ro- 
truding  its  head  while  eating.  The  clothes 
moth  {Tinea)  is  intended,  of  which  several 
species,  as  T.  peUionella  and  vestianella,  feed 
on  fur  and  wool. 

Mount. 

1.  A  mountain.  The  word  is  now  used 
almost  exclusively  in  poetry  or  as  part  of  a 
compound  name,  as  mount  Carmel,  mount 
Tabor,  mount  Zion,  mount  of  Olives  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  19  ;  Ps.  xlviii.  2  ;  Zech.  xiv.  4)  ;  see 
Carmel,  Zion,  etc. 

2.  A  mound,  especially  one  raised  against 
the  wall  of  a  besieged  city  by  the  assailing 
army  (Jer.  vi.  6;  Dan.  xi.  15  ;  and  R.  V.  of 
2  Sam.  XX.  15  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  32),  and  on  which 
the  battering  ram  was  placed  (Ezek.  xxvi. 
8,  9) ;  see  illustration  under  Lachish.  In 
Is.  xxix.  3  a  difl'erent  Hebrew  word  is  used, 
which  K.  V.  renders  fort. 

Moun'tain. 

of  the  mountains  in  or  near  Palestine  the 
loftiest  was  mount  Hermon.  Then  followed 
the  Lebanon  range.  Compared  with  those 
towering  elevations  such  hills  as  mount  Zion, 
mount  Moriah,  mount  Carmel.  mount  Tabor, 
etc.,  were  very  inferior  eminences  (Deut. 
iii.  25).  Mountain  is  a  natural  image  for 
eternal  continuance  ( Deut.  xxxiii.  15  ;  Hah. 
iii.  6),  for  stability  (Is.  liv.  10),  for  difficult, 
dangerous,  wearisome  ])aths  in  life  (Jer.  xiii. 
16),  for  insurmountable  obstacles  (Zech.  iv. 
7;  Mat.  xxi.  21). 

Mount  of  Con-gre-ga'tion. 

A  mountain  in  the  farthest  north  (Is.  xiv. 
13)  ;  the  reference  probably  being  to  a  con- 
ception common  in  ancient  mythology  and 
current  among  the  Babylonians,  that  the 
gods  assembled  on  a  mountain  of  the  north. 
That  the  Babylonians  located  the  mountain 
in  the  north  may  at  least  be  inferred  by 
analogy,  but  the  evidence  is  confined  as  yet 
to  this  passage,  where  the  king  of  Babylon 
is  the  speaker. 

Mourn'ing. 

The  mourning  of  the  oriental  was  and  is 
ostentatious.  Public  expression  was  given  to 
grief  principally  by  removing  ornaments  and 
neglecting  the  person  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4;  2  Sam. 


Mouse 


520 


Mule 


xiv.  2;  xix.  24;  Mat.  vi.  16-18).  rending 
the  clothes  by  slitting  the  tunic  at  the  throat 
or  tearing  the  coat  or  the  outer  naautle  (Lev. 
X.  6;  2  Sam.  xiii.  81;  Joel  ii.  13),  shaving 
the  head  or  plucking  out  the  hair  (Ezra  ix. 
3 ;  Jer.  vii.  29),  putting  on  sackcloth  (Joel  1. 
8),  sprinkling  ashes  or  dust  on  the  head  (2 
Sam.  XV.  32),  fasting  (Ps.  xxxv.  13),  weeping 
and  lamenting  (Joel  i.  8,  13).  Several  of 
these  modes  were  usually  combined  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  34  ;  2  Sam.  iii.  31,  32 ;  xiii.  19 ;  xv. 
32;  Ezra  ix.  3,  5;  Job  i.  20;  Jer.  xli.  5). 
Friends  came  to  the  house  of  mourning,  and 
flute  players  and  professional  mourners, 
chiefly  women,  were  also  employed,  who 
made  loud  lamentations  (Jer.  ix  17,  18 ; 
Mat.  ix.  23  ;  Acts  ix.  39) ;  see  Minstrel.  As 
at  the  present  day,  funeral  feasts  were  given 
to  the  crowds  that  assembled  at  the  funeral 
(Jer.  xvi.  7 ;  Baruch  vi.  32).  After  the 
funeral  women  came  forth  very  early  in  the 
morning  to  visit  the  grave,  as  they  are  still 
accustomed  to  do,  and  to  pray,  weep  and  sob  or 
chant  hymns  or  beat  their  breasts  (Mark  xvi. 
1,  2).  Many  of  them  are  professionals  ;  but 
others  are  sincere  mourners,  relatives  of  the 
deceased  and  their  sympathizing  friends 
(John  xi.  31).  Customs,  in  general  similar, 
prevailed  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Scythia 
(Herod,  ii.  66,  8o ;  iv.  71  ;  viii.  99  ;  ix.  24). 

The  period  of  mourning  varied.  It  was 
thirty  days  for  Aaron  and  Moses  (Num.  xx. 
29:  Deut.  xxxiv.  8),  and  seven  days  for  Saul 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).  The  Egyptians  observed 
seventy  days  for  Jacob,  and  seven  more  days 
were  devoted  to  public  mourning  for  him  at 
the  threshing  floor  of  Atad  (Gen.  1.  3,  10). 

Mouse. 

A  small  rodent  quadruped,  Mus  mvscitJns 
and  other  allied  species  of  the  family  MnrUJse. 
It  was  an  unclean  animal  (Lev.  xi.  29),  but 
was  eaten  by  Israelites  in  Isaiah's  time,  who 
gave  themselves  up  to  heathenism  and  paid 
no  attention  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Is.  Ixvi.  17). 
The  field  mouse  {Arvicola  orvalis)  was  de- 
structive to  crops  (1  Sam.  vi.  5).  The  He- 
brew word  for  mouse,  'akbar,  is  a  compre- 
hensive one,  including  not  merely  the  genus 
Mus,  but  most  of  the  family  Miirhlx,  with 
many  animals  from  other  families  having 
either  an  affinity  or  an  analogy  to  the  typi- 
cal mice.  The  Arabs  include  the  jerboa 
under  the  designation  '(ikhar,  and  they  eat 
it,  and  various  other  mouse-like  animals, 
such  as  sand  rats,  which  belong  to  the  sub- 
family (ii'rhiUhix,  and  dormice,  of  the  related 
family  Mi/oxidie. 

Mo'za  [a  going  forth,  issue]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  36,  37). 

Mo'zali. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Not 
identified.     The  name  is  etymologically  dif- 


ferent  from    Beit   Mizza,   a   ruined   village, 
about  5  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Mul'ber-ry  Tree. 

A  tree  of  the  same  order  as  the  fig.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Syria  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
on  which  the  silkworm  feeds.  A  cooling 
drink  is  made  from  its  berries,  the  juice 
being  expressed,  sweetened  with  honey,  and 
flavored  with  spices.  The  juice  of  the  ber- 
ries was  shown  to  elephants  to  prepare  them 
for  battle  (1  Mac.  vi.  34  ;  cp.  3  Mac.  v.  2).  A 
mulberry  is  mentioned  in  N.  T.  under  the 
name  of  sycamine. 

Mulberry  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
BakcC,  weeping,  distilling  ;  a  tree  which  grew 
near  Jerusalem  and  of  which  the  leaves 
rustled  in  the  wind  (2  Sam.  v.  23,  24 ;  1 
Chron.  xiv.  14, 15).  In  these  passages  and  in 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6  the  margin  of  E.  V.  has  balsam 
tree.  Eoyle  suggested  that  the  tree  intended 
is  that  called  hah  by  the  Arabs,  or  rather 
shajrat  nl-hak,  the  gnat  tree,  which  he  iden- 
tifies with  the  poplar.  Two  species  of  poplar 
are  common  along  the  banks  of  streams  and 
in  moist  soil  in  Palestine,  the  white  poplar 
and  the  Euphrates  poplar;  but  there  is  no 
etymological  connection  between  hak  and 
haka\ 

Mule. 

A  graminivorous  animal,  called  in  Hebrew 
pered  (1  Kin.  xviii  5).    The  mule  is  a  hybrid 


Mule  in  .\ncient  Assyria. 

between  the  hor.se  and  the  ass.  It  is  often 
mentioned  with  hor.ses  (Ps.  xxxii.  9),  and 
was  much  used  for  riding  and  for  carrying 
burdens  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29;  2  Kin.  v.  17;  1 
(Jhron.  xii.  40).  It  is  not  mentioned  before 
the  time  of  David,  but  was  in  common  use 
from  his  days  onward.  The  Tyrians  obtained 
mules  in  Armenia  (Ezek.  .xxvii.  14). 

In  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xxxvi.  24  the  Hebrew 


Muppim 


521 


Music 


plural  yemim.  is  translated  mules;  but  it 
should  rather  be  reudered  hot  springs,  as  it 
is  in  the  Vulgate  and  in  E.  V.  In  A.  V.  of 
Esth.  viii.  10,  14  rekenh  is  rendered  mule,  iu 
1  Kin.  iv.  28  dromedary.  R.  V.  substitutes 
swift  steed. 

Mup'pim. 

A  son  of  Benjamin  (Geu.  xlvi.  21) ;  see 
Shephupham. 

Mur'der. 

Just  after  the  deluge  it  was  enacted  that 
whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall 
his  blood  be  shed :  for  in  the  image  of  God 
made  he  man  {Geu.  ix.  6).  The  avenger  of 
blood  had  the  right  to  put  the  murderer  to 
death  (Num.  xxxv.  19)  ;  but  if  the  man- 
slayer  reached  a  city  of  refuge  he  was  tem- 
porarily safe.  The  cities  of  refuge  were  not 
instituted  for  the  benefit  of  the  deliberate 
murderer ;  they  were  designed  for  the  man 
who  had  accidentally  committed  manslaugh- 
ter (Num.  XXXV.).  Even  if  the  deliberate 
murderer  had  fled  for  asylum  to  the  altar, 
and  probably  taken  hold  of  its  horns,  he  was 
to  be  taken  from  it  and  put  to  death  (Ex. 
xxi.  14 ;  cp.  1  Kin.  ii.  28-34).  At  the  city  of 
refuge  the  manslayer  was  given  a  trial.  The 
concurrent  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit- 
nesses was  required  to  convict  him  of  murder 
(Num.  XXXV.  30;  Deut.  xvii.  6).  If  guilty 
of  deliberate  murder,  no  ransom  was  ac- 
cepted (Num.  XXXV.  31),  he  was  delivered  to 
the  avenger  of  blood  to  be  slain  (19 ;  Deut. 
xix.  12).  If  acquitted,  he  was  granted  asy- 
lum in  the  city.    See  City  of  Refuge. 

Mu'sM. 

A  Levite,  son  of  IMerari,  and  the  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  or  house  (Ex.  vi.  19;  Num. 
iii.  20 ;  xxvi.  58 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  19,  47 ;  xxiii. 
21,23;  xxiv.  26,  30). 

Mu'sic. 

Music  is  ancient  (Gen.  iv.  21).  Among 
the  Hebrews.  Miriam  and  her  companions 
took  timbrels  and  danced  and  sang  praises  to 


on  mu.sical  instruments,  and  danced  (Jer. 
xxv.  10;  1  Mac.  ix.  39;  Luke  xv.  25).  Mar- 
riage processions,  as  they  pas.sed  througli  the 
streets,  were  accompanied  with  music  and 
song  (Jer.  vii.  34).  Women  and  maidens 
welcomed  the  victorious  warrior  on  his  re- 
turn home  with  music,  song,  and  dance 
(Judg.  xi.  34;  1  Sam.  xviii.  (i).  Kings  had 
their  court  nuisicians  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25; 
Ecc.  ii.  8).  The  accession  of  a  king  and  his 
marriage  and  his  feasts  were  made  joyous 
with  music  (2  Sam.  xix.  35;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  Ps. 
xlv.  8,  R.  v.).  The  shepherd  iiiiglit  have  his 
harp  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18).  The  mind  might  l)e 
quieted  and  refi'eshed  by  music  (1  Sam.  x.  5  ; 
xvi.  16 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  15).  Psalms  might  be  sung 
to  the  accompaniment  of  the  harp  (Ps.  xcii. 
1-3;  cxxxvii.  2;  cp.  Amos  vi.  5). 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Hebrews 
were  of  three  classes :  stringed  instruments, 
wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  per- 
cussion. Stringed  instruments  consisted  of 
a  body  of  wood  with  strings  of  gut,  and 
were  'played  with  the  fingers  of  one  or  both 
hands  or  were  struck  with  a  plectrum  of 
wood,  ivory,  or  metal.  They  were  chiefly 
the  harp  aud  psaltery.  The  harp  was  in 
general  use  among  the  people  both  for  worldly 
and  sacred  music ;  the  psaltery  was  commonly, 
though  not  exclusively,  reserved  for  religious 
purposes.  The  psaltery  was  tuned  to  the 
soprano  register,  the  harp  an  octave  lower 
(1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21).  The  wind  instruments 
were  chiefly  flutes  or  pipes  aud  horns.  The 
pipe  was  often  played  with  other  instruments 
(1  Sam.  X.  5;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  Is.  v.  12;  xxx. 
29;  Ecclus.  xl.  21),  was  employed  to  lead 
dancing  (Mat.  xi.  17),  and  was  played  at 
weddings  (1  Mac.  iii.  45;  Rev.  xviii.  22).  It 
was  specially  the  instrument  of  lamentation 
(Jer.  xlviii.  36 ;  Mat.  ix.  23,  R.V. ;  War  iii.  9, 5). 
The  Bible  does  not  mention  its  use  in  the 
temple  service,  not  even  in  1  Mac.  iv.  54  ;  but 
it  was  used  in  sacred  music  (1  Sam.  x.  5)  and 
was  heard  in  processions  of  worshipers  march- 


Band  of  Musicians  in  Assyria. 


the  Lord  for  liis  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
at  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  20).  The  people 
danced  and  sang  in  idolatrous  worship  about 
the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  6,  18).  In  family 
feasts  and  religious  festivals  they  sang,  played 


ing  to  the  house  of  God  (Is.  xxx.  29),  and  in 
the  later  temple  it  had  an  assigned  p'acc, 
especially  at  the  passover  and  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. The  ram"s  horn,  or  an  imitation  of 
it,  was  sometimes  used  to  increase  the  noise 


Music 


•522 


Music 


of  other  instruments  (1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2 
Chron.  xv.  14 ;  Ps.  xcviii.  6,  rendered  trumpet), 
but  was  generally  blown  by  itself.  Its  prin- 
cipal employment  was  not  in  music,  but  for 
military  purposes  and  to  make  proclamations. 
Straight,  narrow,  silver  trumpets,  about  a 
cubit  in  length,  and  called  Ifsufnili.  were  used 
by  the  priests  to  announce  festivals,  to  call  the 
congregation,  and  on  advancing  to  battle 
(Num.  X.  1-10).  They  were  rarely  blown  by 
laymen  (Hos.  v.  8;  perhaps,  2  Kin.  xi.  14 
and  2  Chron.  xxiii.  13).  Of  the  instruments 
of  percussion  the  timbrel  or  tabret  was  the 
popular  instrument;  it  was  usually  played 
by  women  and  was  employed  on  festive  occa- 
sions, especially  to  beat  time  at  the  dances 
and  for  singers  (Gen.  xxxi.  27  ;  Ex.  xv.  20 ; 
Judg.  xi.  34  ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2).  Cymbals  of  brass 
were  used  in  the  temple  service  (1  Chron. 
XV.  19). 

Music   was  cultivated   by   the   companies 
which  gathered  about  the  prophets  (1  Sam. 


288  were  trained  musicians,  who  were  de- 
pended upon  to  lead  the  less  skilled  body  of 
assistants  (1  Chron.  xxv.  7,  8).  They  were 
divided  into  twenty-four  courses,  containing 
twelve  trained  musicians  each.  Of  these 
courses  four  belonged  to  the  family  of  Asaph, 
six  to  that  of  Jeduthuu,  and  fourteen  to  that 
of  Heman.  The  orchestra  which  accompa- 
nied the  singing  consisted  of  stringed  instru- 
ments, but  cymbals  were  also  used,  being 
probably  struck  by  the  chief  musician  to 
beat  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  19-21).  It  appears 
from  this  passage  that  the  proportion  of 
psalteries  to  harps  was  eight  to  six.  In 
Herod's  temple  there  were  ordinarily  two 
psalteries,  nine  harps,  and  one  cymbal,  and 
on  certain  days  pipes  were  added.  The  par- 
ticipation of  priests  with  trumpets  in  the 
orchestra  of  stringed  instruments  was  ex- 
ceptional (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13 ;  vii.  6).  In  the 
second  temple  the  trumpets,  when  blown  in 
connection  M'ith  the  regular  orchestra,  were 


^C= 


Band  of  Musicians  in  Ancient  Egypt  accompanying  the  Ministrations  of  a  Priest. 


X.  5),  various  instruments  being  employed  as 
an  orchestra.  It  is  not  mentioned  as  belong- 
ing to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  in  the 
early  period.  David  introduced  it  into  the 
worshi])  at  the  sanctuary,  and  Solomon  pro- 
moted it  (2  Sam.  vi.  5,  14;  1  Kin.  x.  12;  1 
Chron.  XV.,  xvi.).  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  paid 
sj)ecial  attention  to  its  restoration  (2  (!hron. 
xxix.  2.");  XXXV.  l.'j).  David  was  assisted  in 
his  work  by  Asiipli,  Henian,  and  Ethan  or 
Jeduthun,  three  masters  of  music.  A  choir 
of  singers  and  musicians,  with  Asaj)!)  at  its 
head,  was  formed  of  Tjcvites,  and  stationed 
liefdre  the  ark  at  the  tabernacle  on  Zion, 
while  Ifeman  and  .Jeduthun,  with  their 
choirs,  were  assigned  to  the  old  tabernacle  at 
(iibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi.  4-(),  39-42).  These 
tliree  choirs  were  afterwards  united  in  the 
temi)le.  In  David's  reign  they  numbered 
1000  members  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5),  of  whom 


heard  only  in  the  pauses  or  as  responsive 
music  (Ezra  iii.  10, 11).  The  musicians  stood 
on  the  east  of  the  great  altar  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 
In  Herod's  temple  they  occupied  a  broad 
staircase,  which  led  from  the  court  of  Israel 
to  the  court  of  the  priests.  In  this  later 
temple  a  choir  of  boys,  standing  at  the  foot 
of  the  stairs,  lent  their  higher  voices  to  the 
song  of  the  Levites. 

Little  is  known  of  the  character  of  the 
music.  The  Hebrews  had  a  scale  of  eight 
tones.  Their  sacred  choirs  probably  sang  in 
unison  the  same  simple  melody,  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  one  an  octave  higher  than  the 
other,  and  representing  the  male  and  female 
voices,  and  were  accompanied  by  the  instru- 
ments in  the  same  tones  (1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21). 
Melodies  are  probably  named  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  ix.,  xxii.,  xlv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  and  others. 
Antiphonal  and  responsive  singing  was  prac- 


Mustard 


523 


Mystery 


ticed  (Ex.  xv.  21 ;  Neb.  xii.  31-43)  and  was 
often  heard  iu  the  temple  service  (Ezra  iii. 
10,  11 ;  Jer.  xxxiii.  11) ;  several  psalms  were 
arranged  lor  this  purpose,  e.  g.,  xxiv.  7-10 ; 
cxxxvi.  Tlie  congregation  seldom,  if  ever, 
joined  in  the  singing  iu  the  first  temple,  but 
at  its  close  they  united  in  saying  amen  (1 
Chron.  xvi.  7,  36).  In  the  Herodian  temple 
the  people  sometimes  jjarticipated  by  singing 
responses. 

Mus'tard. 

A  garden  herb  (Luke  xiii.  19),  which  in 
comparison  with  other  herbs  becomes  a  great 
tree  (Mat.  xiii.  32;  Mark  iv.  32),  on  whose 
branches  the  birds  rest  for  the  sake  of  obtain- 
ing its  seeds.  Its  seeds  are,  hyperbolically 
speaking,  less  than  all  seeds  (Mat.  xiii.  32). 
The  largeness  of  the  plant  grown  from  seeds 
so  small  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  from  a  very  small  beginning. 
The  mustard  seed  was  employed  proverbially 
by  the  Jews,  just  as  it  was  by  Jesus  (Mat.  xvii. 
20;  Luke  xvii.  6),  to  denote  anything  very 
minute.  The  common  mustard  of  Palestine 
is  Sinapis  nigra  or  black  mustard.  It  grows 
wild,  attaining  the  height  of  a  horse  and 
rider,  as  travelers  have  noticed.  It  is  also 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  seed,  which  is 
used  as  a  condiment.  Those  who  seek  another 
identification  generally  consider  the  mustard 
of  Scripture  to  have  been  Salvadora  persica, 
the  type  of  the  natural  order  Sdlradoniceif; 
or  Salvadorads.  Eoyle,  who  sujiported  this 
view,  says  that  it  has  a  succulent  fruit,  tast- 
ing like  garden  cress.  It  is,  however,  small, 
and  apparently  confined  to  the  low  valley  of 
the  Jordan  ;  and  it  is  not  an  herb. 

Muth-lab'ben  [die  for  the  son]. 

An  expression  of  doubtful  meaning  in  the 
title  of  Ps.  ix.  It  probably  indicates  a  famil- 
iar melody. 

Myn'dos,  in  A.  V.  Myndus. 

A  small  town  of  Caria,  situated  on  the  sea- 
coast  (Herod,  v.  33).  It  M'as  not  far  from 
Halicaruassus,  for  Alexander  led  a  detach- 
ment of  troops  across  the  iutervening  country 
in  one  night.  In  the  time  of  Simon  Macca- 
bffius  it  was  subject  to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 
Its  site  is  probably  marked  by  the  small 
sheltered  port  of  Guinishlu. 

My'ra. 

A  city  of  Lycia,  where  Paul,  when  a  pris- 
oner on  liis  way  to  Rome,  changed  ships 
(Acts  xxvii.  5.  <>).  Myra  was  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Lycia.  It  stood  some  two 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  was  built  on  and 
about  a  cliff,  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  leading 
into  the  interior  mountain  region.  It  is  now 
called  Dembra. 

Myrrh. 

1.  A  fragrant  substance,  called  in  Hebrew 
moc,  in  Greek  sw»rwrt.  It  was  an  ingredient 
in  the  oil  with  which  Aaron  and  his  succes- 


sors were  anointed  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  Beds  and 
garments  were  perfumed  with  it  (Ps.  xlv.  H; 
Prov.  vii.  17 ;  Song  iii.  (!),  and  an  oil  of 
luyrrh  was  used  in  tlu^  purilicatioii  of  women 
(Estli.  ii.  12).  The  magi  brought  it  from  the 
east  to  i)resent  to  the  infant  Jesus  (Mat.  ii. 
11).  At  the  crucifixion  it  was  ottered  to  him 
in  wine,  probably  to  deaden  jiain  (Mark  xv. 
23),  and  was  an  ingredient  in  the  spices  de- 
signed for  anointing  his  boily  (John  xix.  3U). 
It  was  used  for  embalming  the  dead  (Herod, 
ii.  bti).  The  tree  which  produced  it  grew 
in  Arabia  (iii.  107;  Pliny  xii.  KJ).  The 
plant  which  produced  it  was  pro))ably  Hal- 
samodendroii  myrrha.  It  is  a  small  tree,  with 
odoriferous  wood  and  bark,  short  .sjjiny 
branches,  trifoliolate  leaves,  and  plum-like 
fruit.  It  grows  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  fur- 
nishes the  myrrh  of  commerce. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lot  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25  ;  xliii.  11).  Myrrh  is  not  a  happy 
translation ;  it  should  have  been  ladanum 
(R.  V.  margin),  called  by  the  Greeks  ledoii 
and  ladiuiun,  and  by  the  Arabs  Iddan,  which 
is  cognate  with  the  Hebrew  lot.  It  is  a 
highly  fragrant  resin,  containing  a  volatile 
oil.  and  is  produced  by  Cistiis  creticiis  and 
various  other  species  of  rock  rose.  It  grows 
in  parts  of  Syria. 

Myr'tle. 

A  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  h"dns.  It  grew 
in  the  mountains  near  Jeru.salem,  and  booths 
were  made  of  its  branches  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  (Neh.  viii.  15).  It  is  mentioned 
also  in  Is.  xii.  19  ;  Iv.  13;  Zech.  i.  8.  10,  11. 
The  tree  is  undoubtedly  the  common  myrtle 
{3IyrtHS  communiii),  which  grows  iu  Palestine. 

My'si-a. 

A  province  in  the  extreme  northwest  of 
Asia  Minor  ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Pro- 
pontis,  now  sea  of  Marmora,  on  the  south  by 
Lydia,  on  the  east  by  Bithynia,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Hellespont.  The  Troad  lay 
within  its  limits.  Paul  and  Silas  passed 
through  it  to  Troas,  one  of  its  cities  (Acts 
xvi.  7,  8).  Assos,  to  which  Paul  sailed  to 
meet  his  associates,  was  another  (xx.  13).  A 
third  was  Pergamos,  one  of  the  seven  churches 
in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11  ;  ii.  12-17). 

Mys'ter-y. 

A  word  borrowed  from  the  heathen  reli- 
gion, in  which  a  mystery  was  a  secret  and  jie- 
culiar  doctrine,  which  distinguished  one  re- 
ligion from  another,  and  found  exi)ression  in 
rites,  ceremonies,  and  jnirifications  to  which 
only  initiated  persons  were  a<lniitted.  The 
word  does  not  imjily  that  the  doctrine  is  in- 
comprehensible. In  the  N.  T.  if  denotes  a 
.secret  hidden  from  the  world  till  the  ap- 
pointed time  (Rom.  xvi.  25),  or  until  man 
has  been  prepared  by  the  Spirit  of  God  to  re- 
ceive and  ajjpreciate  it  (.Mark  iv.  11).  which 
forms  a  characteristic  and  essential  doctrine 
and  finds  expression  in  the  life  (1  Tim. 
iii.  16). 


Naam 


5'24 


Nabal 


N. 


Na'am  [sweetness,  iileasantness]. 
A  sou  of  the  celebrated  Caleb  (1  Chron.  iv. 
15). 
Na'a-mah  [sweet,  pleasant]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Lamech,  and  sLsterof  Tubal- 
cain  (Gen.  iv.  22). 

2.  An  Ammonitsss,  a  wife  of  Solomon  and 
the  mother  of  king  Eelioboani  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
21.  31;  2  Chron.  xii.  1.3 1. 

.3.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  41  j.     Not  identified. 
Na'a-man  [pleasantness,  delight]. 

1.  A  grandson  of  Benjamin,  a  son  of  Bela 
and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num. 
xxvi.  40). 

2.  Commander  of  the  army  of  Ben-hadad, 
king  of  Damascus.  He  was  an  able  general, 
and  had  won  deliverance  for  the  Syrians, 
but  he  was  a  leper.  In  Svria  leprosv  did  not 
exclude  from  human  society,  as  it  did  in 
Israel,  though  it  was  a  loathsome  disease.  In 
one  of  the  Syrian  raids  into  the  Israelite  ter- 
ritory, the  soldiers  had  brought  away  a  little 
maid,  who  became  a  slave  to  Naaman's  wife. 
This  girl  expressed  to  her  mistress  the  wish 
that  Naaman  were  with  Elisha  in  Samaria, 
as  the  prophet  would  heal  him  of  his  leprosy. 
The  speech  of  the  maiden  was  reported  to 
her  master,  who  resolved  to  seek  a  cure  from 
Elisha.  His  sovereign,  the  king  of  Syria, 
wrote  a  letter  of  introduction  for  him,  and 
sent  him  to  the  king  of  Israel  to  be  cured. 
When  the  Israelite  ruler  received  it  he 
thought  that  the  real  intention  of  his  corre- 
spondtait  was  to  pick  a  quarrel  and  declare 
war.  Elisha  reassured  the  king,  and  desired 
that  Naaman  should  be  sent  to  him,  when  he 
would  learn  that  there  was  a  prophet  in  Is- 
rael. When  he  came  with  his  horses  and 
chariot  to  Elisha's  door,  the  proi)het  in  order 
to  humble  his  pride  and  teach  him  that  he 
owed  his  cure  not  to  man,  but  solely  to  the 
])ower  of  God,  did  not  appear,  but  sent  out  a 
message  that  he  should  dip  seven  times  in 
the  .Jordan.  Naaman,  feeling  atfronted,  and 
despising  the  means,  started  for  home  in  a 
passion,  saying,  "  Are  not  Abana  and  Phar- 
par,  rivers  of  Damascus,  better  than  all  the 
waters  of  Israel?  may  I  not  wash  in  them 
and  be  clean  ?  "  But  his  servants  soothed  his 
temp(!r,  and  urged  him  to  diji  in  the  Jordan. 
He  did  so,  and  was  cured.  FiIUmI  with 
gnitiludc,  he  wished  to  reward  Elislia.  The 
prophet  desired  to  impress  upon  the  Syrian 
the  freeness  of  God's  blessings,  and  refused 
all  recompense;  but  Gehazi,  his  servant, 
acted  in  a  very  different  si)irit.  Naaman  re- 
nounced iilolatry,  and  became  a  worshiper 
of  Jeliovuh  ;  and  hv  carried  home  two  mules' 
burden  of  earth  to  build  an  altar  to  Jehovah. 
He  lived,  however,  in  a  heathen  community 
and  could  not  altogether  escape  outward  par- 
ticipation in  heathen  customs.     His  king  was 


an  idolater,  a  worshiper  of  Eimmon  ;  and  it 
was  Naaman's  official  duty  to  support  him 
when  he  entered  the  temple  and  bowed  be- 
fore the  god.  The  prophet  of  Jehovah  per- 
mitted Naaman  to  fulfill  his  secular  duties, 
even  though  to  do  so  involved  his  assisting  his 
king  to  perform  heathen  worship  (2  Kin.  v.). 

Na'a-ma-tbite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Naamah  ;  as 
Zophar,  Job's  friend  (Job.  ii.  11  ;  xi.  1  ;  xx. 
1 ;  xlii.  9).  The  place  Avas  probablj-  in 
Arabia. 

Na'a-rah  [a  girl]. 

1.  A  wife  of  Ashhur,  the  ancestor  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Tekoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  6). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  E- 
jihraim,  east  of  Bethel,  and  not  far  from  Jeri- 
cho (Josh.  xvi.  7).  In  A.  V.  the  name  is 
written  Naarath.  The  final  th  is  archaic, 
and  is  probably  due  in  the  text  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  local  ending.  The  town  is  doubt- 
less one  with  Naaran  (1  Chron.  vii.  28). 
Archelaus  diverted  half  the  water  supply  of 
Neara  to  irrigate  the  palms  of  his  palace  at 
Jericho  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  1).  Eusebius  men- 
tions a  village  Noorath,  5  Roman  miles  from 
Jericho.  A  plausible  conjecture  for  the  site 
is  on  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah,  with  its  plentiful 
water;  perhaps  at  the  ruin  el-'Aujah. 

Na'a-rai. 

One  of  David's  valiant  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
37 ;  apparently  a  diverse  reading,  perhaps 
the  correction,  of  Paarai,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Na'a-ran.     See  Naarah  2. 

Na'a-rath.     See  Naarah  2. 

Na'a-shon.     See  Nahshon. 

Na-as'son.    See  Nahshon. 

Na'bal  [foolish,  wicked]. 

A  sheeitmaster,  resident  in  Maon,  who  pas- 
tured his  fiocks  around  the  village  Carmel  in 
Judah,  on  the  confines  of  the  wilderness. 
His  wife's  name  was  Abigail.  David  and  his 
followers  had  dwelt  for  some  time  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  had  used  their  might  to 
protect  the  property  of  the  jieople  from  ma- 
rauding bands  of  robbers.  When  Nabal  was 
shearing  his  sheep,  David  sent  ten  young 
men  to  solicit  assistance  for  himself  and  his 
followers.  Nabal  sent  back  a  churlish  re- 
fusal, which  so  irritated  David  that  he  put 
his  men  in  motion  with  the  intention  of  cut- 
ting off  Nabal  and  every  other  male  belong- 
ing to  the  household.  Abigail,  who  was  a 
clever  and  judicious  woman,  made  ready  a 
present  for  David,  and,  starting  ]ii-oniiitly. 
apologized  for  herhusband'sconduct,  allayed 
the  resentment  which  it  had  caused,  and 
jjrevented  the  gathering  storm  from  breaking 
on  her  home.  Returning  to  her  abode,  she 
found  a  great  feast  in  progress,  and  her  lord 
completely  intoxicated.  Next  morning,  when 
he  was  sober,  she  told  him  how  narrowly  he 
had  escaped  destruction.  He  was  profoundly 
affected  by  the  intelligence,  and  never  recov- 
ered   from   the   shock    which  it  caused,  but 


Nabathaeans 


Nahash 


died  in  ten  days.  After  a  time,  Abigail  be- 
came one  of  David's  wives  (1  Sam.  xxv 
1-42). 

Nab-a-thse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Na'bath-ites. 
See  Nebaioth. 

Na'both. 

An  inhabitant  of  Jezreel,  who  had  a  vine- 
yard at  that  town  near  one  of  Aliab'.-; palaces. 
The  king  wished  to  buy  it,  but  its  owner 
would  not  sell  it  because  it  bad  descended  to 
him  from  his  ancestors.  At  the  instance  of 
Jezebel,  Naboth's  life  was  sworn  away  by 
suborned  witnesses,  he  and  his  sons  (2  Kin. 
ix.  2ti),  to  whom  the  vineyard  would  have 
descended,  were  stoned  to  death,  their  bodies 
were  left  to  be  devoured  by  the  dogs,  and  the 
vineyard  was  seized  by  Ahab.  This  act  of 
violence  called  down  the  judgment  of  God  on 
the  guilty  king  and  his  yet  guiltier  wife 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  1-24 ;  xxii.  34-;58  ;  2  Kin.  ix. 
30-37). 

Na'chon.     See  Nacox. 

Na'chor.     See  Xahok. 

Na'con,  in  A.  V.  Nachon  [prepared,  ready]. 

The  designation  of  a  threshing  floor  at 
which  Uzzah  was  struck  dead  for  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  6),  and  hence  called 
Perez-uzzah,  i.  e.  breach  of  Uzzah  (S).  It  is 
not  certain  that  Nacon  is  the  original  spelling 
of  the  name ;  see  Chidon. 

Na'dal)  [of  one's  freewill,  liberal]. 

1.  The  eldest  of  Aaron's  four  sons  (Ex.  vi. 
23;  Num.  iii.  2;  xxvi.  60;  1  Chron.  vi.  3  ; 
xxiv.  1).  With  his  brother  Abihu,  he  was 
granted  the  jn-ivilege  of  a  near  approach  to 
Jehovah  at  Sinai  (Ex.  xxiv.  1),  and  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  to  the  priesthood  (xxviii. 
1),  but  both  of  them  afterwards  offered 
strange  tire  to  God,  and  as  a  penalty  were 
consumed  by  fire  (Lev.  x.  1-7;  Num.  xxvi. 
61).  From  the  fact  that  a  command  was  im- 
mediately thertafter  given  to  Aaron  not  to 
drink  wiiie  or  strong  drink  when  he  entered 
the  tabernacle,  it  may  be  inferred  that  Nadab 
and  Abihu  had  done  so,  and  were  under  the 
influence  of  liquor  when  they  committed  the 
sin  which  co.st  them  their  lives  (Lev.  x.  9). 
They  both  died  childless  (Num.  iii.  4  ;  1 
Chron.  xxiv.  2). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1    Chron.  ii.  28,   30). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Giheon  and 
Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii.  30:  ix.  36). 

4.  Son  of  Jeroboam  I.,  and  his  successor  on 
the  throne  of  Israel.  He  began  to  reign  about 
910  B.  c.  He  followed  the  evil  example  of 
his  father  with  respect  to  calf  worship.  He 
led  the  forces  of  his  kingdom  to  besiege  Gib- 
bethon,  but  was  murdered  witli  bis  relatives 
by  Baasha.  who  then  monnted  the  vacant 
throne  This  massacre  fulfilled  the  threaten- 
ings  of  Jehovah  against  Jeroboam  and  his 
house.  Nadab  reigned  less  than  two  full 
years  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10,  11,  20;  xv.  25,  30). 


Nad'a-bath,  in  A.  V.  Na-dab'a-tha. 

A  iilacc,  probably  a  village,  in  or  near 
Moab  (1  iVlac.  ix.  37;  in  Auti(i.  xiii.  1,  4 
(Tabatha). 

Nag'gai,  in  A.  V.  Nagge. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  25). 

Na'ha-lal  and  Nahalol  (Judg.  i.  30),  in  A. 
V.  once  Nahallal  (.losli.  xix.  15)  [pasture]. 

A  village  of  Zebulun  (.Fosli.  xix.  15),  from 
which,  however,  that  tribe  failed  to  drive 
out  the  Cauaanite  inlia))itants  (Judg.  i.  30). 
It  was  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh. 
xxi.  35).  The  Jeru.salcm  'I'alniud  says  tliat 
it  was  afterwards  called  Malilul.  Scliwarz 
and  Van  de  Velde  identify  this  with  tlie  vil- 
lage of  Ma'lul,  3i  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

Na-ha'li-el  [valley  and  brook  of  (i(.d]. 

An  encamjiment  (tf  the  Israelites,  between 
Beer,  in  the  desert  ea.st  of  Moab.  and  Hamotii, 
wliich  lay  between  Dibon  and  Baal-meon 
(Num.  xxi.  19),  and  hence  ])robably  on  one 
of  the  northern  tributaries  of  tlie  Anion. 
Not  identified  ;  although  the  name  is  possi- 
bly preserved  in  Encbeileh,  the  valley  of  the 
Arnon  from  the  Balua  eastward  to  the  moutli 
of  the  Sell  Sa'ideh,  a  distance  of  about  2 
miles. 

Na-hal'lal.     See  Nahalal. 

Na'ha-lol.     See  Nahalal. 

Na'ham  [solace,  consolation]. 

Brother  of  Hodiah's  wife  (1  Chron.  iv.  19, 
E.  v.).  The  translation  of  A.  V.  is  impossi- 
ble. 

Na-ham'a-iii  [compassionate]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  vii.  7). 

Na'ha-rai,  in  A.  V.  once  Nahari  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  37),  a  misspelling  of  late  editions  from 
which  the  original  edition  of  1611  was  free 
[snoring,  snorting]. 

A  Beerothite,  Joab's  armorbearer  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  37  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Na'hash  [serpent]. 

1.  Fatlier  of  Abigail  and  Zeruiah,  David's 
sisters  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  16 1. 
Probably  his  widow,  the  mother  of  Al)igail 
and  Zeruiah,  married  Jesse  and  became  the 
mother  of  David.  This  explanation  is  better 
than  the  assumption  that  Nahash  was  the 
name  of  Jesse's  wife  ;  or,  as  the  later  Jews 
interpreted  the  passage,  that  Nahash  was  an- 
other name  of  Jesse. 

2.  An  Ammonite  king  who  besieged  Jabesh- 
gilead,  and  when  its  inhabitants  offered  to 
surrender  and  become  tributary,  would  not 
accept  the  proposal  unless  every  man  in  the 
]>lace  consented  to  lose  the  right  eye.  He 
determined  to  put  a  reproach  upon  Israel. 
A  week's  time  was  given  in  which  to  seek 
help.  Before  it  expired,  Saul,  just  before 
elected  king,  appeared  with  a  ri'lievingarmy, 
totally  defeated  the  Ammonites,  and  .saved 
Jabesb-gilead  and  its  defenders  (1  Sam.  xi. 
l-ll).     Either  this  Nahash  or  a  son  of  his 


Nahath 


526 


Nahum 


bearing  the  same  name  treated  David  kindly, 
perhaps  because  he  was  at  variance  with  Saul 
(2  Sam.  X.  2). 

3.  A  man  who  lived  in  Kabbah  of  the  Am- 
monites (2  Sam.  xvii.  27).  He  may  have  been 
the  king  aforementioned,  or  an  Israelite  who 
had  settled  in  Kabbah  after  its  capture  by 
David  (2  Sam.  xii.  29). 

Na'hath  [descent  or  quiet]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael.  He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17  ;  1  t'hron.  i.  37). 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  26)  ; 
probably  the  person  elsewhere  called  Tohu 
and  Toah  (1  Sam.  i.  1 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  34). 

3.  A  Ijcvite,  one  of  those  who  bad  charge 
of  the  tithes  and  offerings  under  Hezekiah 
(2  Chron.  xxsi.  13). 

Nah'bi  [concealed]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  (Num.  xiii.  14). 

Na'hor,  in  A.  V.  twice  Nachor  (JoiBh.  xxiv. 
2;  Luke  iii.  34)  [breathing  hard,  snorting]. 

1.  A  son  of  Serug,  and  grandfather  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  24,  25). 

2.  A  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xi.  27).  He  married  his  niece  Milcah, 
daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot  (29). 
He  is  not  mentioned  as  emigrating  from  Ur 
with  Terah,  Abraham,  and  Lot ;  but  later  he 
is  found  in  Mesopotamia  at  Haran  (xxiv.  10 ; 
3xvii.  43).  Eight  sons  were  born  to  him  by 
Milcah,  from  whom  sprang  Aramsean  tribes. 
Four  others  traced  their  descent  from  his 
;oncubine  (xxii.  21-24).  One  of  his  sons  by 
Milcah  was  Bethuel,  who  became  the  father 
'j{  Rebekah  and  Laban  (xxiv.  1.5,  29). 

Nah'shon,  A.  V.  has  once  Naashon  (Ex.  vi. 
23),  and  in  N.  T.  Naasson  [enchanting, 
ominous]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the 
early  period  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Num.  i.  7;  ii.  3;  vii.  12,  17;  x.  14).  His 
sister  was  married  to  Aaron,  who  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi.  23).  Nahshon  was 
the  grandfather  or  remoter  ancestor  of  Boa?, 
Ruth's  hu.sband,  and  the  fifth  backward  in 
the  genealogy  of  David  (Kiith  iv.  20-22;  1 
(Jhron.  ii.  10-12).  This  placed  him  in  the 
ancestry  of  our  I>ord  (Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  32, 
33). 

Na'hum  [comi)assionate]. 

A  ]ir()]dict  horn  at  Elkosh,  doubtless  a  vil- 
lage of  Palestine.  He  proiibesied  to  .Tudah 
(i.  15),  not  to  the  ten  tril)es  in  captivity. 
The  ]>osition  of  the  book  among  the  minor 
j)roplu'ts,  after  Micab  and  before  Habakkuk 
and  Zephaniah,  is  evidence  that  it  was  writ- 
ten l)ct\veeii  tli(^  cdniincncciiient  of  Heze- 
kiali's  and  the  close  of  .losiah's  reign  (Mic.  i. 
1;  Zi'pli.  i.  1);  and  that  the  propliet  cites 
the  destruction  of  No-amon  in  Egy])t  (iii.  8- 
10),  which  was  overthrown  by  the  Assyrians 
in  (i(i4  B.  €.,  and  i)redicts  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
(7),  which  occurred  about  (JOO  b.  c,  narrows 


I 
the  limits  within  which  the  composition  of 
the  book  must  be  sought  to  the  fifty-eight 
years  intervening  between  these  events.  It 
was  a  time  when  the  people  of  Judah  were 
despondent  by  reason  of  the  persistent  inva- 
sions of  the  Assyrians  and  the  captivity  of 
their  king. 

The  theme  of  the  prophecy  is  the  burden 
of  Nineveh  (i.  1).  The  prophet  insists  on 
the  familiar  truth  that  Jehovah  is  a  jealous 
God,  whose  vengeance  is  certain  to  fall  on 
his  adversaries,  but  who  is  a  stronghold  to 
those  that  trust  in  liim  (2-8),  urges  the 
people  to  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  counsel  of 
those  who  were  s])eaking  against  Jehovah's 
tardiness  and  advising  the  abandonment  of 
his  service  (9-11),  declares  the  unalterable 
purpose  of  the  Lord  to  deliver  his  people 
(12-14),  and  exhorts  them  to  unswerving 
loyalty  to  their  God  and  the  faithful  ob- 
servance of  his  worship  (15).  On  the  basis 
of  this  truth,  the  prophet  proceeds  to  describe 
the  overthrow  of  the  worldly  power  which 
was  then  oppressing  the  kingdom  of  God. 
He  pictures  the  siege  of  the  city  (ii.  1-10),  and 
takes  occasion  to  taunt  the  city  which  had 
been  as  a  den  of  lions  (11-13).  Returning  to 
the  description  of  the  siege,  he  attributes 
the  judgment  which  befalls  the  city  to  its 
whoredoms  (iii.  1-4).  This  allusion  leads  to  a 
change  of  the  figure,  and  he  depicts  the  pun- 
ishment as  the  punishment  of  a  harlot  (5-7). 
He  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  Nineveh 
is  not  better  than  No-amon,  which  went  into 
captivity  (8-10),  and  he  predicts  that  like 
No-amon  Nineveh  shall  be  destroyed  (11-19). 
The  prophecy  opens  with  an  address  jioetic 
in  character  and  alpliabetic  in  form  (i.  2-15  ; 
in  Heb.  i.  2-ii.  1).  But  it  is  not  an  alpha- 
betic p.salm  of  the  ordinary  kind,  in  which 
the  verses  begin  with  the  letters  of  tlie 
alphabet  in  their  conventional  sequence  (cp. 
Ps.  cxix.).  The  prophet  has  done  more.  He 
has  allowed  the  consecutive  sounds  to  intro- 
duce topics  rather  than  verses  and  to  follow 
each  other  singly  or  in  groups  throughout 
the  stately  oration.  H(i  teaches  the  ear  to 
listen  for  certain  sounds  and  to  hear  them 
with  satisfaction.  I.  The  prophet  enunci- 
ates a  doctrine  of  Jehovah,  God  of  Israel 
(sounding  alcph  in  the  very  first  word  'el, 
God  ),  the  doctrine  that  forms  the  basal  truth 
of  his  prophecy,  namely,  that  Jehovah, 
though  slow  to  anger,  yet  taketh  vengeance 
on  his  adversaries  (2,  3;  aleph  beginning  im- 
portant words).  TJieii  the  proi)het  describes 
the  majesty  and  niii^ht  of  Jehovah  in  nature: 
he  is  in  the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm,  and 
the  clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet  (beth 
being  heard  thrice  in  this  part  of  verse  3); 
he  rebaki's  the  waters  that  they  dry  up  antl 
vegetatiou  languishes  (4,  which  l)egins  with 
gimel);  the  mountains  and  hills  tremble 
before  him  (5;  he  being  heard  four  times 
in  i)rominent  words,  and  the  conjunction 
vav  being  used  four  times  also,  if  that  is  in- 
tentional) ;  the  fierceness  of  his  indignation 


Nahum 


527 


Nain 


none  can  withstand  (6  ;  the  significant  words 
beginning  once  with  zayiii  and  twice  with 
hheth  in  proper  order).  The  truth  that  has 
been  set  forth  involves  on  the  one  hand  the 
goodness  of  Jehovah  to  his  people  and  his 
knowledge  of  them  (7  ;  facts  stated  in  words 
beginning  with  teth  and  yodh),  and  on  the 
other  hand,  the  overthrow  of  evil  (8;  the 
principal  word  being  kalah,  yielding  the  two 
sonnds  kaph  and  lamedh  and  followed  twice 
by  that  of  mem  in  the  word  "place").  The 
climax  of  doctrine  has  been  reached.  II.  A 
new  section  of  the  exalted  discourse  opens, 
in  which  the  prophet  bases  prediction  on  the 
truth  that  has  been  set  forth.  He  reiterates 
the  impotence  of  opposition  to  Jehovah  : 
first  in  the  form  of  a  question  (9  ;  which  in 
its  main  part  begins  with  another  mem  and 
ends  with  nun);  next  as  a  declaration,  re- 
peating the  conclusion  of  the  doctrinal  sec- 
tion (the  consecution  of  sounds  being  allowed 
to  recur,  kaph  being  heard  once  and  lamedh 
twice  in  the  two  words  that  dominate  the 
thought,  kalah  and  lo\  and  immediately  af- 
terwards mem  thrice).  Then  the  prophet 
foretells  the  destruction  of  God's  foes  (10- 
13;  samekh  beginning  four  consecutive 
words  and  fairly  hissing  through  verse  10, 
while  ayin  snarls  four  times  in  consecutive 
words  in  verse  11  and  four  times  in  the 
second  half  of  verse  12  and  in  the  first  word 
of  verse  1.3).  The  prediction  of  the  deliver- 
ance of  God's  people  proceeds  (14;  tsadhe 
beginning  the  verse,  and  qoph  being  the 
initial  letter  of  two  words  at  its  close). 
Finally,  in  view  of  the  truth  that  has  been 
presented,  the  prophet  exhorts  God's  people 
to  continue  steadfast  and  undismayed  in  his 
service  and  worship  (15;  resh  and  sin  and 
shin  being  prominent  tones,  repeatedly  heard 
in  the  first  half  of  the  verse ;  and  tav  being 
the  last  letter  of  the  verse  and  the  conclud- 
ing sound  of  the  prophecy  which  began  with 
aleph).  This  last  verse,  both  by  its  thougbt 
and  rhythm,  forms  the  transition  to  chap.  ii. 
Daleth  and  pe  are  missed  from  this  enum- 
eration ;  but  when  the  story  of  the  sounds  is 
fully  told,  these  letters  are  found.  The  ear 
is  satisfied.  It  hears  that  which  it  awaits. 
The  prophet's  exalted  utterance  begins  with 
aleph  in  verse  2  and  presently  beth  is  heard, 
while  at  the  end  of  the  verse  aleph  and  beth 
are  sounded  together ;  aleph  is  twice  heard 
at  the  beginning  of  verse  3,  followed  by 
gimel  and  daleth  together ;  then  beth  is 
twice  heard,  followed  by  daleth  ;  then  aleph 
and  beth  are  taken  up  again  in  the  charac- 
teristic word  of  the  closing  statement,  fol- 
lowed by  a  word  containing  gimel ;  verse  4 
begins  with  gimel,  allows  beth  to  be  repeat- 
edly heard,  and  sounds  aleph  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  last  clause.  In  these 
verses  aleph  has  been  heard  ten  times  as  a 
radical  letter,  heth  seven  times  as  such,  gimel 
and  daleth  each  twice ;  whei-eas  tan  has  not 
been  heard  at  all  in  the  first  two  verses,  and 
sin  is  not  sounded  until  verse  3.     The  group 


of  letters  from  he  to  yodh  is  used  with  more 
restraint ;  he  indeed  begins  and  ends  verse 
5,  and  is  often  repeated  in  the  verse,  and 
vav  is  heard  at  the  beginning  or  end  of 
almost  every  word  ;  the  thought  of  ver.se  H 
is  embodied  in  a  word  beginning  with  zayin 
and  is  twice  repeated  in  synonyms  beginning 
with  hheth  ;  teth  is  heard  at  the  beginning  of 
verse  7,  and  the  emphatic  word  that  intro- 
duces the  last  clause  begins  with  yodh.  The 
first  part  of  the  poem  issues  in  the  exultant 
conclusion  that  wickedness  will  be  over- 
thrown, and  the  second  part  opens  with  the 
reiteration  of  this  truth  as  the  basis  of  pre- 
diction and  exhortation  (verses  8  and  9). 
Between  the  two  and  introductory  to  the 
second  is  a  question  suggestive  of  the  folly 
of  striving  against  Jehovah.  In  each  pas- 
sage the  poet  plays  with  the  consecutive 
sounds  kaph,  lamedh,  and  mem,  while  the 
gist  of  the  question  begins  with  mem  and 
ends  with  nun.  In  verses  9-12  the  sounds 
of  mem,  nun,  samekh,  ayin,  and  tsadhe 
abound,  indeed,  are  dominant  notes.  Pe  is 
also  heard,  but  quite  suhordinately  and  per- 
haps without  intention  on  the  prophet's  part, 
although  its  occurrence  gratifies  the  expect- 
ant ear.  In  verses  13  and  14  qoph,  resh,  shin, 
and  tav  are  allowed  prominence;  taA',  shin, 
and  resh  at  the  end  of  consecutive  syllables 
(beginning  of  verse  13),  and  shin,  qoph,  resh, 
qoph.  tav  at  the  beginning  of  syllables  in 
the  last  four  words  of  verse  14.  Verse  15 
shows  resh  in  three  consecutive  words,  fol- 
lowed by  sin  and  shin  in  three  consecutive 
words,  and  ending  with  the  radical  tau. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  born  scarcely 
three  centuries  earlier  (Luke  iii.  2.5).  A.  V. 
u.ses  the  Greek  form  of  the  name,  Naum. 

Nail. 

1.  The  horny  scale  at  the  end  of  the  finger 
(Deut.  xxi.  12 ;  Dan.  iv.  33). 

2.  A  tent  pin  (Judg.  iv.  21),  which  was  of 
large  size  and  commonly  made  of  wood. 
Those  used  to  fa.sten  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  were  of  bra.ss  (Ex.  xxvii.  19). 

3.  A  pin,  commonly  of  metal,  used  for 
driving  into  wood  or  other  material  to  hold 
separate  pieces  together,  or  left  jirojccting 
for  hanging  things  on.  It  might  be  made  of 
iron  (1  Chron.  xxii.  3),  or  of  gold,  or  be  gilded 
(2  Chron.  iii.  9).  It  was  sometimes  driven 
between  the  stones  of  a  wall  (Ecclus.  xxvii. 
2).  Idols  were  fastened  securely  in  place  by 
nails  (Is.  xli.  7  ;  Jer.  x.  4),  and  victims  were 
often  atfixed  to  the  cross  bj-  means  of  a  nail 
driven  tlirough  each  hand  and  the  feet  (.John 
XX.  25). 

Na'in. 

A  town  where  onr  Lord  raised  to  life  the 
only  son  of  a  widow  woman  (Luke  vii.  11-17). 
It  is  still  called  Xain,  and  is  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  eminence  called  .Tebel  Duliy, 
or  Little  Hermon,  2  miles  west-southwest 
of  En-dor,  and  5  miles  .south-southeast  of 
Nazareth.     It  is  a  small  hamlet,  little  more 


Naioth 


528 


Naphtali 


than  a  cluster  of  ruins ;  with  ancient  sepul- 
chral caverns  chiefly  on  the  east  of  the  village. 

Na'ioth  [habitations]. 

The  quarter  in  Ramah  where  the  prophets, 
who  ^fathered  about  Samuel  to  work  under 
his  direction,  dwelt  as  a  community  (1  Sam. 
xix.  18-xx.  1). 

The  word  occurs  in  this  passagre  only.  It 
was  not  understood  by  the  ancient  trans- 
lators, and  was  slightly  altered  by  the  Mas- 
soretes;  hence  the  versions  show  confusion. 
But  in  the  Hebrew  text  itself  there  is  no 
wavering.  The  word  is  used  six  times,  and 
without  variation.  It  has  the  nature  of  a 
proper  name,  being  without  the  rrticle  (xix. 
23;  XX.  1).  It  is  eithera  feminine  singular,  of 
archaic  form  like  Ephrathand  Zarepliath  iso 
Septuagent  in  Vatican  text  and  Lucian)  or  a 
rarer  formation  like  the  noun  (lasith  ;  or  else 
it  is  a  feminine  plural,  written  defectively 
because  of  the  previous  (i(>eiirrcnce  of  vav, 
and  of  the  same  type  as  (I'rii/i/ilh  or  rH^dyah. 
It  may  be  related  to  tinrch.  liahitation  (2  Sam. 
XV.  23;  Job  v.  3),  or  ndvdh.  habitation  (.Job 
viii.  6),  as  r^vdydh  is  related  to  rdveh  and 
rdvdh;  or  the  relation  may  be  that  of  sdday, 
field,  to  sddeh.  Accordingly,  it  is  well  to  ad- 
here to  the  common  interpretation  habita- 
tion or  habitations;  see  Prophetic  Asso- 
ciations. 

Name. 

English  names,  such  as  James,  Robert, 
Anne,  have  a  meaning,  but  it  is  known  only 
to  those  who  have  studied  the  etymology. 
In  biblical  times  it  was  diti'erent.  The  names 
of  persons  were  not  only  significant,  but  as  a 
rule  everj'body  knew  the  meaning  as  soon 
as  the  iiiuiie  was  heard.  Sarah,  Jacob,  Miriam, 
.rehi)sli:i]ili!it,  Martha,  Rhoda,  Dorcas  were 
intelligible  to  all. 

The  name  was  probably  given  by  the 
Hebrews  on  the  eighth  day  after  birth  (Gen. 
xvii.  12;  xxi.  3,  4  ;  Luke  i.  59  ;  ii.  21).  The 
child  might  be  given  the  name  of  a  natural 
object ;  as  Terah,  wild  goat,  Leah,  wild  cow, 
.fonah,  dove,  Tamar,  palm  tree,  Tabitha, 
gazelle.  It  might  receive  a  name  expressive 
of  its  physical  condition;  for  example, 
Shiphrah,  beauty ;  or  of  the  i)arents'  hope 
regarding  it,  as  Noah,  rest  (Gen.  v.  29). 
Some  names  were  given  prophetically,  as 
that  of  Jesus  because  he  should  be  a  saviour 
(Mat.  1.  21).  Many  names  testified  to  the 
piety  or  gratitude  of  the  parents,  as  Simeon, 
hearing  (Gen.  xxix.  33),  or  Nethaniah,  Jeho- 
vah hath  given,  or  Elizur,  God  isa  rock.  Others 
were  commemorative  of  national  events,  as 
Ichabod  (1  Sam.  iv.  21);  yet  others  were 
family  names  (Luke  i.  .")9-61 ;  cp.  iii.  23-38). 
When  character  had  developed,  a  new  name 
was  sometimes  given  as  expressive  of  it;  as 
Israel  and  Cephas.  In  the  later  ]ieriod, 
wlien  several  languages  wore  spok(;n  in  Pal- 
estine, a  name  was  often  translated  and  the 
person  was  known  by  two  njuncs,  as  {'ejihas 
after  tiie  Aramaic,  and  Peter  after  the  Greek, 


Thomas  and  Didymus,  both  names  meaning 
twin,  Messiah  and  Christ,  both  meaning 
anointed.  At'  this  time  also  names  were 
transformed,  the  Hebrew  Jehohanan  became 
in  Greek  Joannes,  and  Joseph  became  Joses. 

Surnames  were  lacking  among  the  He- 
brews ;  persons  were  designated  by  adding 
to  the  personal  name  the  name  of  their  city, 
as  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Joseph  of  Arimathsea, 
Mary  Magdalene,  Nahum  the  Elkoshite  ;  or 
by  a  statement  of  their  descent,  as  Simon 
son  of  Jonah  ;  by  their  disposition,  trade,  or 
other  characteristic,  as  Simon  Peter,  Nathan 
the  prophet,  Joseph  the  carpenter,  Matthew 
the  publican,  Simon  the  zealot,  and  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite.  Every  Roman  had  three 
namtrf ;  a  prienomen,  which  was  his  personal 
name  and  stood  first,  a  nomen,  which  was  that 
of  his  gens  or  house  and  stood  second,  and  a 
cognomen  or  surname  which  was  that  of  his 
family  and  came  last.  Thus  M.  Antonius 
Felix,  the  procurator,  was  Marcus  of  the 
clan  Antonia  and  the  family  called  Felix 
Frequently  only  the  nomen  and  cognomen 
were  given,  the  personal  name  being  omit- 
t»d  ;  as  Julius  Caesar,  Pontius  Pilate,  Claudius 
Lysias. 

Name  is  often  used  in  Hebrew  in  the  sense 
of  revealed  character  and  essence.  God 
swears  by  his  great  name  to  carry  out  his 
purpose  (Jer.  xliv.  26),  that  is,  he  swears  by 
his  attested  power  to  accomplish  his  word. 
The  name  of  God  which  is  excellent  in  all 
the  earth  (Ps.  viii.  1),  is  that  expression  of 
his  being  which  is  exhibited  in  creation  and 
redemption.  The  name  of  the  God  of -Jacob 
which  sets  the  king  on  high  (Ps.  xx.  1)  is  the 
manifested  power  of  Israel's  God.  The  name 
of  God  was  in  the  angel  which  led  Israel 
through  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xxiii.  21),  be- 
cause in  him  the  revealed  might  and  majesty 
of  God  himself  dwelt.  The  name  of  God 
dwelt  in  his  sanctuary  (2  Sam.  vii.  13),  the 
place  where  he  manifested  himself.  To 
know,  the  name  of  God  is  to  witness  the 
manifestation  of  those  attributes  and  appre- 
hend that  character  which  the  name  denotes 
(Ex.  vi.  3,  with  7 ;  1  Kin.  viii.  43 ;  Ps.  xci. 
14  ;  Is.  Iii.  6 ;  Ixiv.  2 ;  Jer.  xvi.  21). 

Na-o'mi  [pleasant]. 

Wife  of  Elimelech,  Elimelech  went  with  her 
and  his  two  sons  to  sojourn  in  Moab,  because 
famine  prevailed  in  Judah.  The  sons  married 
Moabite  women.  Elimelech  and  his  sons 
died,  and  Naomi  accompanied  by  her  daugh- 
ter-in-law Ruth  returned  to  Bethlehem  of 
Judah  (Ruth  i.-iv.). 

Na'phish,  in  A.  V.  once  NepMsh  (1  Chron. 
V.  19)  [respiration]. 

Son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15 ;  1  Chron.  1. 
31),  and  founder  of  a  clan  with  which  the 
Israelite  tribes  ea.st  of  the  Jordan  were  at 
one  time  in  conflict  (1  Chron.  v.  18-22). 

Naph'ta-li,  in  A.  V.  twice  Nephthalim 
(Mat.  iv.  13,  15),  once  Nepthalim  (Rev.  vii. 
())  [obtained  by  wrestling]. 


Naphtali 


529 


Nathan 


1.  Sixth  soil  of  Jacob,  and  second  by  Bil- 
hah,  Eachel's  maidservant.  Rachel  gave 
him  this  name  because  slie  had  wiestled  in 
prayer  foi"  God's  favor  and  blessing  (Gen. 
XXX.  8). 

2.  The  tribe  descended  from  N;  phtali.  It 
was  subdivided  into  four  great  families  which 
sprang  irom  the  four  sons  of  Na))litali  (Gen. 
xlvi.  2-1  ;  Num.  xxvi.  48,  49).  The  prince  of 
the  Naphtalite  tribe  early  in  the  Avilderness 
wandeiings  was  Ahira,  son  of  Enan  (Num.  i. 
15:  ii.  29;  vii.  78,  83;  x.  27):  at  a  later 
period  it  was  Pedahel,  son  of  Amniihud 
(xxxiv.  28) ;  its  representative  spy  was  Nah- 
bi,  son  of  ^'ophsi  (xiii.  14).  At  the  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  its  fighting  men  were 
,^15,400  (ii.  29,  30);  at  the  second  thev  were 
4.5,400  (xxvi.  ,50).  The  tribp  of  Naphtali 
])itched  on  the  north  side  of  the  tabernacle, 
beside  those  of  Dan  and  Asher  (ii.  29).  Ar- 
rived in  Canaan,  they  were  one  of  the  six 
tribes  which  stood  upon  mount  Ebal  to  pro- 
nounce curses  on  transgressors  of  the  law 
(Deut.  xxvii.  13;  cp.  Josh.  viii.  33).  The 
territory  allotted  to  them  was  in  northern 
Palestine.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  upper  Jordan  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  on 
the  south  by  Is-sachar  and  Zebulun,  and  on 
the  west  by  Zebulun  and  Asher  (Josh.  xix. 
34).  It  was  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land, 
about  50  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  vary- 
ing from  about  10  to  15  from  east  to  west.  It 
is  mostly  mountainous  (Josh.  xx.  7),  and  is 
quite  fertile.  Its  boundary  ran  by  mount 
Tabor  (xix.  34),  and  it  numbered  Eamah, 
Hazor,  Kedesh,  Iron,  and  Beth-anath  among 
its  fortified  cities  (36-38).  The  Gershonite 
Levites  had  three  cities  allotted  them  within 
its  limits  ;  they  were  Kedesh,  Hammoth-dor, 
and  Kartan.  The  first  of  tbem  was  a  city 
of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7 ;  xxi.  6,  32  ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  62,  76).  Up  to  the  early  period  of  the 
judges  the  Naphtalites  had  not  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Cauaanites  from  Beth-shemesh 
and  Beth-anath ;  they  had,  however,  made 
them  tributary.  The  Naphtalites  took  a 
large  share  in  the  fighting  under  Deborah 
and  Barak,  being  mentioned  with  Zebulun 
as  having  jeopardized  their  lives  unto  death 
in  the  high  i)laces  of  the  field  (Judg.  iv.  6, 
10  :  V.  18).  They  also  responded  to  the  sum- 
mons to  arms  issued  by  Gideon  (vi.  35 ;  vii. 
23).  A  thousand  captains,  with  37,000  fight- 
ing men,  came  to  David  at  Hebron,  to  aid 
him  in  the  contest  with  Ish-bosheth  (1  Chron. 
xii.  34  ;  cp.  40).  Their  ruler  some  time  after- 
wards W'as  Jerimoth,  son  of  Azriel  (xxvii.  19 ; 
fp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  27).  Ahimaaz  was  Solomon's 
purveyor  in  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15).  Hiram, 
not  the  Tyrian  king,  but  the  skillful  worker 
in  metal,  was  a  widow's  son  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  (vii.  14).  The  land  of  Naphtali  was 
ravaged  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin. 
XV.  20  ;  2  Chron.  xvi.  4),  and  many  of  its  in- 
habitants were  subsequently  carried  into 
captivity  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29).     To  these  calamities  Isaiah 

34 


nlliidos,  and  comforts  the  aflilicted  people  by 
intimating  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  that  the 
territory  now  ravaged  should  one  day  receive 
si>ecial  ])rivilege,  so  that  they  who  walked  in 
darkness  should  see  a  gri'at  light  (Is.  ix.  1-7). 
This  projihecy  was  fulfilled  when  our  Lord 
made  the  region  on  which  the  inva.siun  had 
fallen  the  special  seat  of  his  ministry  (Mat. 
iv.  12-16).  Chorazin,  Capernaum,  and  Ti- 
berias were  within  the  limits  of  what  had  beeu 
Naphtali. 

Naph'tu-Mm  [plural  of  nnphtnhi]. 

A  tribe  of  Egyptian  descent,  mentioned 
between  the  Libyans  of  Lower  and  the  I'ath- 
rusim  of  Upper  Egypt  (Gen.  x.  i:; ;  1  Cliroii. 
i.  11).  Ebers  derives  the  name  from  iiu-ptfih, 
the  [peoi)le]  of  Ptah,  or  inhabitants  of  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  in  the  district  about  Memjjhis,  the 
seat  of  Ptah's  worship.  Napata,  an  ancient 
capital  of  Ethiopia,  on  the  Nile  near  the 
fourth  cataract,  has  also  beeu  suggested. 

Nap'kin.     See  Handkerchief. 

Nar-cis'sus  [the  narcissus  or  daffodil]. 

A  Roman,  whose  household  was  in  the 
Lord  and  was  greeted  by  Paul  in  his  letter  to 
the  church  (Rom.  xvi.  11). 

Nard.     See  Spiken.\^rd. 

Na'sor.     See  Hazoe. 

Na'than  [he  has  given]. 

1.  Son  of  Attai,  and  father  of  Zabad,  be- 
longing to  the  house  of  Jerahmeel,  family  of 
Hezron,  tiibe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  36). 

2.  A  distinguished  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
David  and  Solomon.  The  proposal  to  build 
the  temple  was  submitted  to  him  by  David. 
At  first  he  was  favorable  to  the  project,  but 
afterwards  received  a  message  from  the  Lord 
directing  that  not  David,  but  his  successor 
was  to  have  the  honor  of  building  the  holy 
house  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-17 ;  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-15). 
Nathan  was  afterwards  sent  to  David  to 
bring  him  to  a  sense  of  his  great  sin  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  This  the 
prophet  did  by  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb 
(2  Sam.  xii.  1-15  ;  cp.  Ps.  Ii.  title).  In  his 
official  capacity  as  prophet  of  the  Lord  he 
named  the  young  Solomon  Jedidiah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25).  With  his  and  Gad's  concurrence,  or 
possibly  at  their  instigation,  David  arranged 
the  musical  service  for  the  sanctuary  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  25).  When  Adonijah  aspired 
to  the  throne  in  lieu  of  Solomon,  he  sent  no 
intimation  of  his  intention  to  Nathan,  be- 
lieving probably  that  the  prophet  was  too 
loyal  to  David  to  be  seduced  from  his  alle- 
giance (1  Kin.  i.8-10).  Nathan  advi.sed  Bath- 
sheba  to  go  at  once  and  tell  David  what  had 
occurred,  arranging  that  he  would  come  in 
and  confirm  her  words.  The  plan  was  car- 
ried out,  and  David  gave  orders  to  Zadok 
the  priest,  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Beiuiiah, 
chief  of  the  bodyguard,  to  proclaim  Solomon 
(11-45).  Nathan  wrote  a  history  in  which  he 
described  the  reign  of  David  and  part  at  least 
of  that  of  Solomon  (1  CTiron.  xxix.  29;  2 
Chron.  ix.  29). 


Nathanael 


530 


Nazareth 


3.  The  father  of  one  and  brother  of  an- 
other of  David's  mightj^  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
36  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  Igal. 

4.  The  third  of  those  cliildren  of  David 
who  were  born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14). 
He.  or  possibly  the  prophet,  was  father  of 
Solomon's  officials,  Azariah  and  Zabiul  (1 
Kin.  iv.  5).  His  family  is  mentioned  in  Zech. 
xii.  12.  Through  him  David  and  Jesus  Christ 
are  connected  by  natural  lineage  (Luke  iii. 
31) ;  while  it  is  through  Solomon  that  Joseph, 
the  husband  of  Mary,  is  connected  with 
David  (Mat.  i.  6). 

5.  A  chief  man  with  Ezra  at  the  brook  of 
Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

6.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39). 

Na-than'a-el  [God  hath  given]. 

A  native  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  whom  Jesus 
declared  to  be  an  Israelite  indeed  in  whom 
was  no  guile.  His  attention  was  directed  by 
Philip  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  of  O.  T.  proph- 
ecy. But  as  Nazareth  is  not  mentioned  in 
O.  T.  prophecy  and  besides  had  a  question- 
able reputation,  he  felt  difficulty  in  accept- 
ing the  Mes.sianic  claims  of  one  who  had 
been  brought  up  in  that  town ;  but  he  at 
once  yielded  to  the  evidence  which  the  su^ 
perhuman  knowledge  of  Jesus  furnished 
(John  i.  45-51).  He  was  in  the  boat  with 
Simon  Peter  when  the  miraculous  draught 
of  fishes  was  brought  in  (xxi.  2).  The  name 
does  not  occur  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles  given 
in  the  first  three  gospels,  but  he  was  prob- 
ably the  same  person  as  Bartholomew. 

Other  persons  of  the  name  are  mentioned 
in  O.  T.,  but  there  the  original  Hebrew  form 
is  used.     See  Nethanel. 

Na-than-me'lech  [the  king  hath  given]. 

A  chamberlain  who  lived  in  Josiah's  time 
within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11). 

Na'um.     See  Nahum  2. 

Naz-a-rene'  [belonging  to  Nazareth]. 

1.  One  born  or  resident  in  Nazareth  (Mat. 
ii.  23  ;  E.  V.  of  xxvi.  71  ;  Mark  xvi.  6).  In 
Is.  xi.  1  the  Messiah  is  called  ne.'^er  or  shoot 
out  of  the  roots  of  Jesse  ;  an  ofl:spring  of  the 
royal  family  indeed,  but  of  that  family  shorn 
of  its  glory  and  reduced  to  its  original  hum- 
ble condition.  He  is  frequently  called  the 
Branch  also  (Jer.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxxiii.  1.5  ;  Zech. 
iii.  8  ;  vi.  12).  On  the  most  probable  inter- 
l)retation  of  Mat.  ii.  23,  the  evangelist  sees  a 
fullillment  of  Isaiah's  proi)hecy  in  the  provi- 
dence which  led  the  ])arents  of  Jesus  to  take 
up  their  residence  in  Nazareth  again  and  re- 
sulted in  Jesus  being  a  Nazarene.  If  Naz- 
areth means  i)rotectress  or  guardian,  Matthew 
finds  the  fulfillment  merely  in  th(i  similarity 
of  sound  and  in  the  low  esteem  in  which  the 
town  and  its  inhabitants  were  h(>ld  ;  l)ut  if 
the  name  is  derived  from  the  s.inie  root  as 
neser  (see  Nazareth),  then  Matthew  finds 
the  fulfillment  in  the  meaning  chiefly  (Mat. 
xxvi.  71,  R.  V. ;  Mark  xvi.  (i,  R.  V.). " 


2.  An  adherent  of  the  religion  founded  by 
Jesus  ;  a  Christian.  It  is  used  contemptuous- 
ly (Acts  xxiv.  5). 

Naz'a-reth  [verdant,  oflfshoot ;  or  perhaps 
protectress  (see  below)]. 

A  town  of  Galilee  (Mat.  ii.  23),  where 
Joseph  and  Mary  lived  (Luke  ii.  39),  and 
where  Jesus  was  brought  up  (iv.  16)  and 
sjient  the  greater  part  of  thirty  years  (iii.  23 
with  Mark  i.  9).  He  was  accordingly  known 
as  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Mat.  xxi.  11  ;  Mark  i. 
24).  He  was  held  in  favor  there  (Luke  ii. 
52 ;  iv.  16)  ;  but  after  he  entered  on  his  mis- 
sion, he  was  twice  rejected  by  his  fellow 
townsmen  (iv.  28-31 ;  cp.  Mat.  iv.  13  ;  and 
xiii.  .54-58:  Mai'k  vi.  1-6).  Nazareth  stood 
upon  a  hill  (]L,uke  iv.  29).  The  town  was 
either  small  and  unimportant  or  of  recent 
origin  ;  for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. 
or  in  the  Apocrypha  or  by  Josephus.  It  is 
still  called  en-Nasirah.  It  lies  in  a  secluded 
valley  in  Lower  Galilee,  a  little  north  of  the 
great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  is  about  15 
miles  west-southwest  of  Tiberias,  20  south- 
west of  Tell  Hum,  the  reputed  site  of  ( Caper- 
naum, and  19  southeast  of  Acre.  The  valley  is 
about  a  mile  from  east  to  west  and,  on  an 
average,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  north  to 
south.  The  hill  on  the  northwest  rises  about 
500  feet  above  the  valley,  and  is  cut  into 
ravines  on  its  eastern  slope.  On  tliat  eastern 
declivity  stands  the  village  of  Nazareth. 
The  houses  are  better  than  those  in  many 
other  villages  in  Palestine,  being  made  of 
the  white  limestone  which  is  conspicuously 
displayed  along  all  the  higher  parts  of  the 
investing  hills.  They  are  prettily  situated 
among  fig  trees,  olive  trees,  and  some  cy- 
presses, while  down  below  in  the  valley  are 
gardens  surrounded  by  hedges  of  prickly 
pear.  In  the  midst  of  the  gardens  is  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin,  from  which  Nazareth 
derives  its  water,  and  whither  doubtless 
Mary  frequently  went  to  obtain  water  for 
her  household.  Nazareth  now  contains  4000 
or  more  inhabitants.  A  considerable  major- 
ity of  them  belong  to  the  Greek  church  ;  a 
smaller  iiroi)()rtion  are  Eoman  Catholics; 
about  one-fifth  of  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Mohammedans,  and  there  are  also  a  number 
of  Protestants.  There  is  a  fine  Franciscan 
convent.  The  monks  point  out  many  sacred 
sites  in  Nazareth,  but  only  the  fountain  of 
the  Virgin  rests  on  good  evidence.  The  site 
of  tlie  attempted  precipitation  was  probably 
near  the  Maronite  church,  where  there  are 
two  or  three  bare  scarps,  20,  30,  40,  or  50 
feet  high. 

The  name  Nazareth  is  written  in  several 
forms  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  N.  T.  Naz- 
areth and  Nazaret  are  the  best  attested,  but 
the  Alexandrian  text  has  Nazarath,  and  in 
Mat.  iv.  13  and  Luke  iv.  16  the  Sinaitic  and 
Vatican  t«xts  have  Nazara.  The  different 
forms  prol)ably  represent  popular  variations 
of   the  name  in  Palestine  itself;    the  town 


Nazareth. 


K(juntaiu  of  the  Vii-'du,  al  Nazuroth. 


Nazirite 


532 


Nebaioth 


having  been  called  in  Avauiaic  Niis'^ra",  or 
with  the  feminine  ending  t  (th)  retained,  as 
was  frequently  the  case  in  the  names  of 
towns  (Zarephatli,  Daberath,  Bozkath,  Tim- 
nath),  and  prcmounced  under  Hebrew  influ- 
ence, Nasereth  (cp.  Aramaic  'jf/f/'m'  and 
'igaereth,  a  letter).  As  thus  explained,  the 
word  is  a  feminine  participle.  It  is  rare  for 
the  Semitic  .sound  s  to  be  represented  by  z  in 
Greek,  as  this  explanation  of  Nazareth 
recjuires  ;  but  it  is  not  unparalleled  (ep. 
Zilpah.  Hebrew  S'dpah,  Greek  Zelpha). 
The  Syriac  preserves  s,  using  the  form 
Ndfrafh.  The  Arabs  who  conquered  the 
country  heard  the  emphatic  sibilant  and  i)er- 
petuated  the  name  in  the  form  en-Na.sirah. 
The  Arabic  name  signifies  helper  or  victor. 
The  derivation  of  the  original  name  is  fre- 
quently sought  in  the  Hebrew  root  nasar, 
watch,  protect,  guard,  so  that  Nazareth 
means  protectress  or  guardian.  But  this  root 
in  Aramaic,  including  Syriac,  is  n'tar.  Prob- 
ably, therefore,  the  name  Nazareth  is  de- 
rived from  the  root  which  appears  in  Hebrew 
jieser  and  Aramaic  nisra',  sprout  (Targum, 
Job  xxxi.  8),  Nazareth  accordingly  signifying 
verdant  place  or  oti'shoot. 

Naz'i-rite,  in  A.  V.  Nazarite  [separated, 
consecrated  (to  God)]. 

A  person,  male  or  female,  who  was  spe- 
cially consecrated  to  God.  Nazirites  probably 
existed  of  old  among  the  Hebrews,  but  their 
mode  of  life  was  brought  under  the  regula- 
tions of  the  law  at  Sinai.  The  Nazirite  vowed 
to  separate  himself  unto  the  Lord  for  a  cer- 
tain specified  period.  He  did  not,  however, 
become  a  hermit ;  he  continued  to  live  in 
human  society.  Nor  was  he  necessarily  an 
ascetic.  By  the  law  he  must  not  drink  wine 
or  strong  drink  nor  eat  any  product  of  the 
vine  during  the  days  of  his  separation  ;  for 
from  the  time  of  the  nomadic  patriarchs  the 
vine  was  the  symbol  of  a  settled  life  and 
culture,  which  were  quite  right  in  themselves, 
but  were  removed  from  the  ancient  simplicity 
of  life  and  manners.  See  Jonadab.  Nor 
must  the  Nazirite  shave  his  head.  The  long 
hair  was  the  visible  sign  of  his  consecration 
to  God  ;  the  hair  was  the  glory  of  the  head 
and  the  product  of  the  body  he  had  devoted 
to  (iod  ;  and  the  cutting  of  the  hair,  which 
God  made  grow,  was  pojiularly  regarded  as 
rendering  the  head  in  a  measure  common 
(cp.  Ex.  XX.  '.i't;  Num.  xix.  2  ;  Deut.  xv.  19). 
Finally,  the  Nazirite  must  not  render  him- 
self ceremonially  unclean  by  touching  a  dead 
liody,  even  if  the  ('orjise  should  be  that  of  a 
near  relative.  When  the  time  aii])ri)aclied 
for  his  vow  to  exi)ire,  he  api)eared  before  the 
priest,  made  certain  prescribed  otterings, 
shaved  off  his  hair  and  burned  it,  after 
which  he  might  again  drink  wine  (Num.  vi. 
1-21).  One  might  be  a  Nazirite;  for  lil'<'  in- 
stead of  for  a  limited  period,  and  might  be 
dedicated  to  that  mode  of  existence  at  or 
even   before  his  birth.     This  was  the  case 


with  Samson  (Judg.  xiii.  4,  5)  and  with 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  ii,  28).  Samson,  however, 
permitted  deviations  from  not  only  the  law 
of  the  Nazirite,  but  at  the  same  time  from 
other  laws  and  ancient  customs  and  the  dic- 
tates of  refinement.  In  the  time  of  Amos 
profane  people  tempted  the  Nazirites  to  break 
theirvovi' of  total  abstinence  from  wine,  even 
oifering  it  to  them  to  drink  (Amos  ii.  11,  12). 
After  the  exile  Nazirites  became  com jiarative- 
ly  numerous  (IMac.  iii.  49;  War  ii.  1.5, 1).  John 
the  Baptist  was  consecrated  a  Nazirite  from 
his  birth  (Luke  i.  1,5).  The  prophetess  Anna 
was  not  unlikely  a  Nazirite  (ii.  36,  37).  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  Nazirite  vow  that 
Paul  was  induced  to  take  to  allay  the  storm 
which  his  friends  saw  to  be  gathering  against 
him  on  his  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi. 
20-26).  Wealthy  persons  often  bore  the 
legal  expenses  of  poor  Nazarites  (Antiq.  xix. 
6,^1). 

Ne'ah  [emotion]. 

A  place  on  the  boundry  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13).     Site  unknown. 

Ne-ap'o-lis  [new  city]. 

The  .seaport  of  Philippi,  and  the  first  place 
in  Europe  at  which  Paul  touched  (Acts  xvi. 
11;  implied  also  in  xx.  6).  It  was  situated 
on  the  Strymonian  Gulf,  10  miles  east-south- 
east of  Phili])pi.  It  is  now  called  Kavalla, 
and  is  a  Turkish  city  with  Greek  and  Koman 
ruins  in  its  vicinity. 

Ne-a-ri'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  shaken 
out  (cp.  Neh.  v.  13  ;  Ex.  xiv.  27)]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  captain,  who  took  part  in  a 
successful  war  against  the  Amalekites  near 
mount  Seir  during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  42). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
22,  23). 

Ne'bai.     See  Nobai. 

Ne-ba'ioth,  in  A.  V.  of  Genesis  Nebajoth 
[to  the  Hebrew  ear  pi'obably  high  places] . 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13,  16;  sxviii.  9;  xxxvi.  3;  1  Chron.  i.  29) 
and  rich  in  flocks  (Is.  Ix.  7).  In  the  seventh 
century  B.  c.  the  Assyrians  report  tlie  pres- 
ence of  the  tribe  in  Arabia,  and  men- 
tion it,  as  does  the  Old  Testament,  in  con- 
nection with  Kedar.  They  are  jjcrhaps  to 
be  identified  with  the  Nabatha^an  Arabs, 
who,  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  be- 
fore Christ,  took  possession  of  mount  Seir, 
and  spread  thence  northeastward  into  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  25  ;  ix. 
35)  as  far  as  the  Hauran  and  Damascus 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  2).  The  entire  country  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  iElanitic  gulf  of  the 
Red  Sea  became  known  as  Nabatene  (Antiq. 
i.  12,  4).  They  were  conquered  by  Pompey 
in  62  B.  c,  and  in  A.  D.  105  Trajan  converted 
their  kingdom  into  a  Koman  province.  Their 
capital  was  Petra.  the  ancient  Sela.  One  of 
their  kings,  Aretas,  is  mentioned  in  2  Cor. 
xi.  32. 


Neballat 


Nebuchadrezzar 


Ne-bal'lat. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  inhabited  after  the 

captivity  (Neh.  si.  34),  now  Beit  Ncbilla, 
about  4  miles  northeast  of  Lydda  and  li 
north  of  el-Haditheh,  i.  e.  Hadid,  and  west 
by  north  of  Bethel. 

Ne'bat  [look,  aspect]. 

P'ather  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ne'bo  [as  name  of  a  deity,  is  Semitic  Baby- 
lonian Xabi'i,  announcer;  as  a  geographical 
name  it  may  indicate  that  the  place  was  a 
seat  of  Nebo's  worship,  or  correspond  to 
Arabic  naba\  and  denote  elevation]. 

1.  A  Babylonian  god  (Is.  xlvi.  1),  who 
presided  over  knowledge  and  literature.  The 
special  seat  of  his  worship  was  at  Borsippa, 
near  Babylon.  In  Isaiah's  time  images  of 
Nebo  were  used  as  objects  of  worship  (Is. 
xlvi.  1). 

2.  A  peak  of  the  Abarim  mountains  over 
against  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47;  Deut. 
xxxii.  49),  and  the  summit,  apparently,  of 
Pisgah  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1).  Its  probable  site  is 
Jebel  Neba,  8  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Jordan.  From  its  summit,  especially 
from  the  elevation  called  Eas  Siaghah,  there 
are  visible  in  the  clear  atmosphere  of  spring 
Hermon,  at  the  foot  of  which  lay  Dan  ;  and 
the  mountains  of  Naphtali ;  and  the  hill 
country  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  which  are 
bounded,  and  at  Carmel  washed  by,  the 
hinder  sea  ;  and  the  depression  which  marks 
the  south  country  ;  and  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Jordan  valley. 

3.  A  Moabite  town  near  or  on  mount  Nebo 
(Num.  xxxii.  3).  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  Reu- 
benites  (xxxii.  37,  38 ;  xxxiii.  47 ;  cp.  1 
Chron.  v.  8),  but  came  again  into  Moabite 
hands  (Moabite  Stone,  14;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer. 
xlviii.  1,  22).  The  site  is  generally  believed 
to  be  marked  by  the  ruins  which  are  called 
Nebbeh,  and  are  situated  6  miles  southwest 
of  Heshbon. 

4.  A  town  mentioned  just  after  Bethel 
and  Ai  (Ezra  ii.  29;  Neh.  vii.  33).  Not  iden- 
tified. Neither  Beit  Niiba,  13  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Bethel,  nor  Nuba,  about  7  miles 
northwest  by  north  of  Hebron,  is  etj^mologi- 
cally  identical  with  it. 

Neb-u-chad-rez'zar  and  Nebuchadnezzar 
lNabn-kn(lurri-i(:<nr,  Nebo,  defend  the  bound- 
ary]. The  two  forms  represent  different 
Hebrew  methods  of  reproducing  the  name. 

Son  of  Nabopolassar  and  king  of  Babylon. 
His  father  headed  a  successful  revolt  of  the 
Babylonians  against  Assyria  and  founded  the 
Babylonian  empire  in  (52r>  n.  c.  Pharaoh-necho, 
who  ascended  the  throne  of  Egji^t  in  (510  b.  c, 
finding  the  power  of  Assyria  weakened, 
marched  into  northern  Syria  about  608  B.  c., 
and  encroached  upon  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
29 ;  2  Chron.  sxxv.  20).  But  Nineveh,  the 
capital  of  Assyria,  was  taken  by  the  allied 
armies  of  Media  and  Babylon  about  606  B.  C, 
and  the  Egyptians  had  to  reckon  with  the 
new  claimants  of  the  Assyrian  dependencies. 


Nabopolassar  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
meet  them.  The  prince  defeat(>d  them  in 
60.)  B.  c,  witli  great  slaughter  at  the  battle 
of  Carclicmisli,  drove  them  back  to  thfir 
own  land,  and  subjugated  the  intervening 
regions  (2  Kin.  x.xiv.  7;  .Ter.  xlvi.  2).  But 
news  arrived  that  his  father  was  dead.  Com- 
mitting affairs  in  the  west  to  his  generals,  he 
hastened  back  to  Babylon  and  ascen<led  the 
throne  in  60.")  b.  c.  (con.  Apion.  i.  19).  In- 
formation regarding  his  reign  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  Jewish  .sacred  writers,  in- 
cluding Nebuchadnezzar's  conteinitoraries 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  sui)plemented 
by  notices  on  inscribed  bricks,  and  the  state- 
ments of  the  Babylonian  historian  Berosus, 
who  lived  about  250  years  after  Nebudiad- 
nezzar.  After  its  subjection,  Judah  rendered 
tribute  to  him  for  three  years  and  theti  re- 
volted (2  Kin.  xxiv.  1).  Nebuchadnezzar  re- 
turned to  Palestine  after  a  while,  suppressed 
the  revolt,  threw  one  king  in  fetters,  pres- 
ently ordered  the  new  king  to  be  carried 
captive  to  Babylon,  and  ])laced  yet  another 
king  on  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6,  10)  ; 
see  Jkhoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  Zp;dj:kiah. 
I  Zedekiah  remained  professedly  loyal  for 
about  eight  years;  in  the  ninth  year  he 
struck  for  independence,  being  assisted  by 
the  advance  of  an  Egyptian  army  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  5).  The  ultimate  result  was  that 
Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken,  .'587  b.  c, 
the  temple  burnt,  and  the  leading  inhabit- 
ants of  the  capital  and  the  country  carried 
into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  ;  xxv. ;  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  5-21;  Jer.  xxxix.  ;  Hi.).  About  this 
time,  probably  in  the  seventh  year  of  the 
Tyrian  king  Ithobalos  and  not  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar  began  the  siege 
of  Tyre,  which  lasted  thirteen  years  (Ezek. 
xxix.  18;  con.  Apion.  i.  21;  Antiq.  x.  11,  1). 
In  his  twenty-third  year,  .582  b.  c,  he  warred 
against  Coelesyria,  Moab,  and  Ammon,  and 
deported  several  hundred  Jews  (Jer.  lii.  30; 
Antiq.  x.  9,  7).  Afterwards  lie  chastiseil 
Egypt  for  the  part  it  had  taken  in  the  Jewish 
war.  About  572  b.  c.  he  invaded  Egypt  (cj). 
Ezek.  xxix.  19),  and  in  his  thirty-seventh 
year,  569  or  568  b.  c,  he  again  led  his  army 
against  the'  Egyptians.  It  is  probable  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  on  other  milit^iry 
campaigns,  though  the  record  of  them  is 
lost.  He  acted  on  the  policy  of  transporting 
the  inhabitants  of  conquered  countries  to 
otherpartsof  the  empire,  and  had  thusatcom- 
mand  much  servile  labor,  which  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  important  works.  lie  built  the 
great  wall  of  Babylon,  erected  a  magnificent 
palace  for  himself,  and  repaired  the  great  tem- 
ple of  Merodach  at  Babylon,  the  temple  of 
Nebo  at  Borsi])pa,  and  many  other  sanctuaries. 
He  is  said  to  have  built  hanging  gardens  to 
remind  his  wife  Amuhia  of  her  native  Jledian 
hills  (con.  Apion.  i.  19;  Antiq.  x.  11,  1),  and 
to  have  constructed  near  Sipjwra  a  iiuge  res- 
ervoir tV)r  irrigation,  reputed  to  have  been 
140  miles  in  circumference  and   IMO  feet  in 


Nebushazban 


534 


Nebemiah 


depth,  besides  canals  across  the  land,  and 
quays  and  breaKwaters  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  form  of  madness  from  which  he  suffered 
Avhcn  pride  overthrew  his  reason  was  that 
called  lycanthropy,  in  which  the  patient 
fancies  himself  one  of  the  inferior  animals, 
and  acts  as  such.  Nebuchadnezzar  imagined 
that  he  had  become  an  ox,  and  went  forth  to 
eat  grass  like  other  cattle  (Dan.  iv.).  He 
reigned  more  than  forty-three  years  and  died 
after  a  brief  illness  iu  the  year  562  B.  C, 
leaving  his  son  Evil-merodach  to  ascend  the 
throne. 

Neb-u-shaz'ban,  in  A.  V.  Nebushasban 

[Nabu-s}ii::ihi()nii,   Nebo,  save  me]. 

A  Babylonian  prince  who  held  the  office  of 
rab-saris  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xxxix. 
13). 

Neb-u-zar-a'dan  [Nahu-sir-iddhia,  Nebo 
hath  given  offspring]. 

The  captain  of  the  guard  in  the  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  which  captured  Jerusalem. 
He  was  chief  in  command  of  the  troops 
which  comi)leted  the  destruction  of  the  city 
and  burnt  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8-11,  IK- 
21 ;  Jer.  xxxix.  9,  10;  Hi.  12-30;  cp.  xli.  10: 
xliii.  6).  To  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  had 
recommended  his  countrymen  to  submit  to 
the  Babylonians,  ho,  by  express  orders  from 
the  victorious  sovereign,  showed  all  kindness 
(Jer.  xxxix.  11-14;  xl.l-.5).  Five  years  later 
he  deported  a  body  of  Jews  (lii.  30). 

Ne'co  and  Necoli,  in  A.  V.  Necho  and 
Nechoh  [Egyptian  iSVfc?/,  Nekau,  Kekhao],  See 
Pharaoh. 

Nec'ro-man-cy.  See  Familiar  Spirit 
and  Wizard. 

Ned-a-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  impelled  or  is 
bountiful]. 

A  son  of  king  Jeconiali  (1  Chron.  iii.  18). 

Nee'dle. 

A  sharp  instrument  required  for  embroid- 
ering and  sewing  (cp.  Ex.  xxxv.  35  ;  Ecc.  iii. 
7;  Mark  ii.  21).  The  eye  was  called  simply 
the  hole  (Mat.  xix.  24,  Greek).  Fancy  a 
camel  trying  to  go  through  the  eye  of  a 
needle  !  Yet  this  extreme  suggestion  aptly 
illustrates  the  difficulty,  or  rather  inipossi- 
liility,  for  them  that  trust  in  riches  to  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  God  (Mark  x.  24-2(i). 

Ne'geb,  The  [dry]. 

The  grazing  region  lying  a  few  miles  south 
of  Hebron  (Gen.  xviii.  1  with  xx.  1;  Num. 
xiii.  22) ;  called  in  R.  V.  the  South  (Gen.  xii. 
9,  R.  V.  margin).  As  a  physical  division  of 
the  country,  it  contrasted  with  the  hill 
country,  the  lowland,  and  the  Arabah  (Josh. 
X.  40;  xii.  8).  The  northern  part  of  it  was 
allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Simeon 
(XV.  21-32;  xix.  1-9).  Notable  ])laces  in  it 
were  Kadesh-barnea  (Gi'U.  xx.  1),  Beer-lahai- 
roi  (xxiv.  62),  Beer-sheba  (Josh.  xv.  28), 
Ziklag  (XV.  31),  and  Arad  (Num.  xxi.  1). 

Neg'i-nahand  jdural  Neginoth  []>layingon 
astringed  instrument  ;astring((l  instrument]. 


A  musical  term  occurring  in  the  title  of 
man  J'  p.salms,  where  it  denotes  a  stringed  in- 
strument, and  is  so  rendered  in  R.  V.  (Ps. 
Ixi.).  Elsewhere  the  word  often  means  song, 
music. 

Ne-hel'a-mite. 

The  designation  of  the  false  prophet  She- 
maiah  (Jer.  xxix.  24").  It  may  be  derived 
from  his  native  place  or  from  an  ancestor,  it 
is  uncertain  which.  On  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  it  is  rendered  dreamer. 

Ne-he-mi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  consoled]. 

1.  One  of  the  chief  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

2.  Son  of  Azbuk  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict of  Beth-zur.  He  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  16). 

3.  A  Jew  of  the  captivity,  son  of  Hacha- 
liah  (Neh.  i.  i).  He  was  discharging  his 
duty  of  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  king  of  Persia,  when  the  king  ob- 
served that  he  looked  sad,  and  questioned 
him  as  to  the  cause  of  his  sorrow.  Nehemiah 
frankly  told  him  it  was  the  state  of  ruin  in 
which  the  city  of  his  fathers'  sepulchers, 
Jeru.salem,  was  lying.  He  therefore  begged 
permission  to  go  and  build  again  the  wall  of 
the  city.  The  king  accorded  him  an  es- 
cort of  cavalry  for  the  journey,  gave  him 
letters  commending  him  to  the  different 
Persian  governors  by  the  way,  and  ajipointcd 
him  governor  of  Judah,  as  Zerubbabel  had 
been  (Neh.  i.  1-ii.  9;  v.  14).  He  arrived  at 
Jerusalem  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Arta- 
xerxes' reign,  445  B.  c.  Ezra  the  priest  was 
then  at  the  Jewish  capital,  having  come 
from  Babylonia  thirteen  years  previously. 
Nehemiah,  on  reaching  the  capital,  made  a 
journey  by  night  around  the  city  and  viewed 
the  ruined  walls.  He  now  intimated  to  the 
peoi)le  his  intention  of  rebuilding  the  walls, 
and  solicited  their  active  aid.  They  gave  it 
with  good  will,  each  notable  man  under- 
taking a  part  of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.).  The 
neighl)oring  gentile  tribes  did  not  like  to 
hear  that  Jeru.salem  was  being  rebuilt,  and 
three  of  their  representatives,  Sanballat,  the 
Horonite,  Tobiah,  an  Ammonite,  and  Geshem, 
an  Arab,  put  forth  active  efforts  to  stop  the 
building.  But  they  could  neither  circum- 
vent nor  intimidate  Nehemiah,  who  reso- 
lutely held  on  his  course.  The  builders  also 
guarded  against  sudden  attack  by  working 
with  one  hand  while  with  the  otker  they 
carried  a  weajjon  (ii.  10;  iv.-vi. ;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  13).  The  wall  was  rebuilt  in  fifty-two 
days  (vi.  15),  in  the  year  445  B.  c,  75  years 
after  the  temple  had  been  completed.  Atten- 
tion was  next  turned  to  the  instruction  of 
the  peoi)le  (viii.),  and  a  religious  revival  fol- 
lowed, which  led  to  all  the  leading  men, 
both  of  i)riests  and  people,  sealing  with  Ne- 
hemiah a  covenant  to  worship  Jehovah  (ix., 
X.).  After  governing  Judah  for  twelve  years, 
Nehemiah,  in  433  B.  c,  returned  to  Susa.   He 


Nehemiah 

asked  for  further  leave  of  a))seuce  (xiii.  (J), 
and,  returning  to  Jerusalem,  seems  to  Lave 
governed  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
trying  to  enforce  the  law  of  Moses  against 
all  who  in  any  way  departed  from  its  pro- 
visions (xiii.  8-31).  Josephus  states  that  he 
died  at  a  great  age  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  8).  A  suc- 
cessor, Bagohi  hy  name,  was  in  office  in  411 
B.  c.  (Elephantine  papyri).  Fnv  his  connec- 
tion with  the  formation  of  the  canon,  see 
Canon. 

The  Book  of  Nehemiah  stands  in  the 
Hagiograplia,  or  third  division  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures,  immediately  after  Ezra  and 
before  Chronicles.  In  counting  the  books  of 
Scripture,  the  Jews  reckoned  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah as  one  book ;  see  Ezra. 

Nehemiah,  informed  of  tbe  wretched  con- 
dition of  Jerusalem  (i),  obtains  permission 
of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  to  visit  Jeru- 
salem temporarily  as  a  royal  commissioner 
(it. ;  cp.  6).  He  incites  the  people  to  rebuild 
the  walls  (17).  The  names  of  the  builders 
(iii.).  He  finds  it  necessary  to  arm  the 
builders  because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Sa- 
maritans (iv.).  While  the  wall  is  in  process 
of  construction  he  corrects  abuses  among 
the  people  (v.).  The  wall  is  finished  not- 
withstanding all  attempts  of  Sanballat  and 
Tobiah  to  terrify  Nehemiah,  and  the  secret 
aid  furnished  these  foreigners  by  nobles  of 
Judah  (vi.).  The  city  being  large,  but  the 
population  scanty,  Nehemiah  desires  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  the  inhal)itants  (vii.  4). 
To  this  end  he  gathers  t<igetlu'r  the  nobles, 
the  rulers,  and  the  people  with  the  view  first 
of  reckoning  them  by  genealogy  and  then  of 
drafting  some  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem.  The 
register  of  them  that  came  up  at  the  first 
with  Zerubbabel  (vii.  6-73).  It  is  the  regis- 
ter of  Ezra  ii.  1-70.  Before  the  registration 
"was  accomplished,  the  seventh  month  ar- 
rived, which  brought  the  populace  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  the  feast.  The  people  ask  that  the 
law  of  Moses  be  read.  The  reading  results 
in,  first,  their  building  booths  in  which  to 
dwell  during  the  feast  (viii.),  and,  second, 
in  repentance  of  their  sins  and  of  their  guilt 
in  intermarriage  with  foreigners  (ix.).  They 
subscribe  or  seal  a  covenant  to  obey  God's 
law  and  to  abstain  from  intermarriage  with 
the  heathen.  A  list  of  those  who  sealed  ( x.). 
These  religious  acts  having  been  performed, 
the  original  intention  of  making  a  registra- 
tion of  the  people  and  securing  additional 
inhabitants  for  the  city  is  carried  out.  Lots 
are  cast  to  draft  one  in  ten  from  the  country 
people  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem  in  addition  to 
those  already  inhabiting  the  city  (xi.  1,  2). 
A  list  of  the  families  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem 
(3-24).  A  list  of  the  priests  and  Levites  who 
returned  at  the  first  with  Zerubbabel  (xii. 
1-9).  List  of  high  priests  from  Jeshua  to 
Jaddua  (10,  11).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
priestly  houses  in  the  generation  after  the 
return'  (12-21).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
Levites  at  the  same  time  and  shortly  after 


535 


Nehemiah 


(22-2fi).  The  dedication  of  the  wall  (27seq.)- 
In  the  interval  during  which  Nehemiah  was 
absent  at  the  I'ersiau  court  abuses  had  grown 
up:  the  Levites  had  been  illy  i)n)vi(ied  for 
(xiii.  10),  the  law  of  the  Sabbatii  was  observed 
with  laxity  (15),  and  intermarriages  with 
foreigners  had  not  entirely  ceased  (23).  These 
abuses  Nehemiah  corrected. 

Not  only  does  the  title  as.sign  the  author- 
ship of  the  book  to  Nehemiah  (i.  1),  but 
throughout  the  book  Nehemiah  speaks  in  the 
first  person,  except  (1)  when  state  documents 
and  their  dockets  are  inserted  (x.  1 ;  xii.  26) ; 
(2)  incidentally  in  the  midst  of  the  account 
of  Ezra's  religious  work,  where  the  i)re.sence 
of^Nehemiah  as  civil  governor  lending  his 
official  sanction,  with  otiier  persons  of  au- 
thority, is  briefly  recorded  (viii.  9  ;  and  (3) 
after  an  allusion  to  the  days  of  David  and 
Asaph  and  to  the  days  of  Zerubbabel,  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  are  mentioned  (xii.  47). 
In  this  last-mentioned  passage  the  third  per- 
son was  in  better  taste  in  this  connection 
than  the  first  person  would  have  been  ;  and 
besides,  the  passage  is  a  retrospect,  taken  after 
Nehemiah's  return  from  the  Persian  court, 
and  refers  to  what  took  place  during  the 
twelve  years  of  his  former  administration. 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  Nehemiah 
wrote  the  main  portion  of  the  book.  And 
the  prayer  of  ix.  6-38,  which  in  the  Septua- 
gint  is  introduced  by  the  words,  "and  Ezra 
said,"  and  which  in  fact  bears  traces  of  be- 
ing an  utterance  of  Ezra  (cp.  10  with  Ezra 
ix.  7,  15;  30  with  Ezra  ix.  1,  2,  11 ;  and  8, 
36  with  Ezra  ix.  9,  15),  would  be  properly  in- 
serted without  change  of  phraseology  by  Ne- 
hemiali  in  his  historical  work.  But  the  nar- 
rative in  viii.  9  and  x.  1  gives  to  Nehemiah 
the  title  of  Tirshatha.  Tirshatha  is  doubtless 
the  Persian  equivalent  of  i)ehah,  governor 
(Ezra  ii.  63  with  Hag.  i.  1).  The  use  of  the 
third  person  in  these  and  other  passages  is 
compatible  with  the  theory  of  Nehemiah's 
authorship;  but  the  title  of  Tirshatha  given 
him  is  notso  readily  explained  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  Nehemiah  wrote  the  passages,  for 
he  elsewhere  styles  himself,  and  is  referred 
to  as,  the  peha'h  (v.  14,  18;  xii.  26).  Most 
modern  critics  believe  that  traces  of  another 
hand  are  discernible.  Still  the  use  of  the  first 
person  plural  in  x.  30,  32,  34,  a  part  of  the 
section  viii.-x.,  suggests  an  eyewitness  of  the 
events.  If  anotherthan  Nehemiah  had  a  hand 
in  compiling  the  book,  the  question  whether 
this  writer  was  contemporary  with  Nehemiah 
or  later  depends  chiefly  upou  whether  the 
genealogies  (xii.  10,  11,  22)  are  brought  down 
to  the  reign  of  Darius  Codomaunus,  king  of 
Persia  from  336  to  330  B.  c,  aud  to  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua,  who  was  officiating 
when  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jerusalem 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  4).  If  they  are  brought  down 
to  this  date,  neither  Nehemiah  nor  a  con- 
temporary could  have  penned  the  words  ;  but 
if  the  references  to  Jaddua  merely  name  him 
as  a   youth,    and    include    him   because    he 


Nehiloth 


5.Sfi 


Net 


was  the  heir  to  the  office  of  high  priest,  the 
passages  easily  fall  within  the  lifetime  of 
Nehemiah  and  the  reign  of  Darius  Notluis, 
king  of  Tersia  from  424  to  405  B.  c.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  enumeration  of  families 
is  assigned  to  the  time  of  Joiakim,  son  of 
Jeshua  and  great-great-grandfather  of  Jaddua 
vxii.  12,  26),  and  the  latest  recorded  events 
occurred  in  the  generation  before  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua  (xii.  23  ;  xiii.  28).  The 
book  was  originally  reckoned  one  with  Ezra ; 
see  Ezra. 

Ne'hi-loth  [wind  instruments]  (Ps.  v. 
title). 

Ne'hum  [consolation]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity  (Neh.  vii.  7).  Called  in  Ezra 
ii.  2  Rehum  (cp.  3  Esdras  v.  8),  for  which 
Nehum  may  be  a  copyist's  error. 

Ne-hush'ta  [bronze]. 

Daughter  of  Elnathan  of  Jerusalem.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Jehoiakim  and  mother  of 
Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8). 

Ne-hush'tan  [piece  of  brass] .  See  Brazen 
Serpent. 

Ne-i'el. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  fJosh.  xix.  21). 
Not   identified.     Perhaps  the  same  as  Neah 

(i;5>. 

Ne'keb  [a  hollow,  perhaps  a  pass  or  a  cav- 
ern]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  The  R.  V.  joins  the  name  with  the  pre- 
ceding word,  calling  the  place  Adami-nekeb. 
The  Jerusalem  Talmud  calls  Nekeb  Siada- 
tha.  This  name  Conder  finds  lingering,  in  a 
corrupted  form,  in  Seiyadeh,  a  ruin  3^  miles 
west  by  north  of  the  exit  of  the  Jordan  from 
the  sea  of  Galilee.     But  see  Adami-nekeb. 

Ne-ko'da  [perhaps,  distinguished,  a  herd- 
man]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 
48,  f)0). 

Nem'u-el. 

1.  A  Reubenite,  brother  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  (Num.  xxvi.  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  (Num.  xxvi.  12)  ;  see 
Jemuel. 

Ne'pheg  [a  sprout,  an  offshoot]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Ex.  vi.  21 ). 

2.  One  of  the  .sons  born  to  David  in  .Terusa- 
lem  (2  Sam.  v.  15;  1  Chron.  iii.  7  ;  xiv.  (i). 

Nepli'i-lim.     See  Giant. 

Ne'pMsh.     See  Naphish. 

Neph'i-sim,  or  Ne-phu'sim ;  while  in 
NepMshesim  or  Nephushesim,  two  .spellings, 
one  with  sh,  the  oilier  with  s,  ar(>  aiijiareiitly 
coinl)incd  in  the  same  word  [exjianded  ones]. 

A  family  of  Ni'tliinim  (Ezra  ii.  50;  Neh. 
vii.  52),  perhaps  originally  captives  taken 
from  the  tribe  Naphish  (q.  v.). 

Neph'tlia-lim.     See  Naphtali. 


Neph'to-ah  [an  opening]. 

A  fountain  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  to  the  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Josh.  XV.  9  ;  xviii.  15).  It  is  generally 
located  at  'Ain  Lifta,  2  miles  northwest  of 
Jerusalem.  Porter  prefers  'Ain  Yalo,  3  miles 
southwest  of  Jerusalem.  Conder  points  out 
that  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  identified  Neph- 
toah  with  En  Etam,  which  he  identifies  with 
'Ain  'Atiin,  2^  miles  southwest  of  Bethlehem  ; 
but  his  suggestion  has  not  found  favor. 

Ne-phu'she-sim  and  Ne-phu'sim.  See 
Nephisim. 

Nep'tha-lim.     See  Naphtali. 

Ner  [a  lamp]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Abiel  and  father  of 
Abner  (1  Sam.  xiv.  51).  He  or  Abner  was 
Saul's  uncle  (50).  If  Abner  was  Saul's  uncle, 
Ner  was  Saul's  grandfather  and  identical  with 
the  following. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  and  father  or 
remoter  ancestor  of  Saul's  father,  Kish  (1 
Chron.  viii.  33 ;  ix.  35,  36).     See  Ki.'^n  2. 

Ne're-us  [a  sea  god  who,  under  Po.seidon 
or  Neptune,  ruled  the  Mediterranean  Sea]. 

A  Roman  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15),  not  improbably  the 
son  of  Philologus. 

Ner'gal. 

A  heathen  deity  worshiped  by  the  Baby- 
lonians (2  Kin.  xvii.  30).  The  chief  seat  of 
his  worship  was  Cuthah.  He  was  ruler  of  the 
nether  world,  and  god  of  war  and  pestilence  ; 
and  was  represented  under  the  i'orm  of  a 
colossal  winged  lion  with  a  human  face. 

Ner-gal-sha-re'zer  [Babylonian  Nergal- 
shinisnr,  Nergal,  protect  the  king]. 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes,  who 
held  the  office  of  rab-mag  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13). 
He  is  supposed  to  be  Nergalsharusur,  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Neriglissar  or  Nerigasolasar, 
Ai'ho  married  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
murdered  his  brother-in-law  Evil-merodach, 
and  ascended  the  throne  as  the  latter's  suc- 
cessor (con.  Apiou.  i.  20),  reigning  from  559 
to  556  B.  c. 

Ne'ri. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  and  somehow  gene- 
alogically the  father  of  Shealtiel  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Ne-ri'ah  [lamp  of  Jehovah]. 

Son  of  Maaseiah,  and  father  of  Baruch 
and  Seraiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  12  ;  xxxvi.4  ;  Ii.  59). 

Net. 

The  net  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  in  fowl- 
ing (Prov.  i.  17).  Doubtless,  as  in  Egypt, 
the  clap  net  was  used,  a  familiar  form  of 
which  consisted  of  two  half  hoops  or  frames 
covered  with  netting  and  attached  to  a  com- 
mon axis.  The  trap  was  spread  open  flat, 
and  the  bait  jilaced  in  the  center.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  bird  at  the  bait  released  a  spring, 
the  two  sides  closed  suddenly,  and  the  bird 
was  caught. 

The  net  was  also  used  in  hunting  (Is.  Ii. 
'20).     It  was  cast  about  the  game  (Job  xix.  6) 


Netaim 


537 


Netophah 


or  over  it  (Ezek.  sii.  13;  xix.  8),  or  laid  to 
catch  the  feet  (Ps.  ix.  15;  xxv.  15;  Ivii.  6; 
Laui.  i.  13).  Throughout  the  ancient  workl, 
as  sculpture  and  narrative  reveal,  it  was  usual 
to  extend  nets  on  stakes  so  as  to  inclose  a 
large  space  as  by  a  fence,  a  single  opening 
being  left  as  an  entrance.  Through  this  gate- 
way various  kinds  of  game  were  driven,  such 
as  hares,  hoars,  deer  ;  and  once  within  the 
inclosure,  they  were  under  control  and  easily 
dispatched.  Small  nets  were  used  to  close 
gaps  between  bushes  or  to  bar  a  path.  Purse 
nets  were  laid,  that  animals  might  run  into 
them  as  into  a  tunnel  and  find  no  exit. 

In  fishing  both  drag  nets  (Hab.  i.  15 ;  Mat. 
xiii.  47,  48)  and  casting  nets  (iv.  18 ;  John 
xxi.  6  ;  Herod,  i.  141)  were  used.  The  He- 
brews were  acquainted  with  the  common 
drag  net  of  Egypt  (Is.  xix.  8).  It  was  quite 
iarge,  its  cords  were  made  of  flax,  the  lower 
edge  was  weighted  with  lead  and  sunk  to  the 
bottom  of  the  river  or  sea,  and  the  ujiper 
edge  was  floated  by  pieces  of  wood  ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  Fishing.  This  form  of  net 
was  widely  used  throughout  the  world 
(Homer,  Odyssey  xxii.  384-387  ;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xvi.  8,'l3). 

Ne'ta-im  [plantings]. 

A  place  in  Judah  with  royal  plantations 
(1  Chron.  iv.  23,  K.V.). 

Neth'a-nel,  in  A.  V.  Ne-than'e-el  [C4od 
hath  given].     The  Greek  form  is  Nathanael. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  at  an 
earlv  period  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Nuim.  i.  8;  ii.  5;  vii.  18,  23;  x.   15). 

2.  Jesse's  fourth  sou,  and  David's  brother 
(1  Chron.  ii.  14). 

3.  One  of  the  priests  who  blew  trumpets 
when  the  ark  was  brought  up  to  the  city  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

4.  A  Levite,  father  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  6). 

5.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  in  David's  reign  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

6.  One  of  the  princes  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 

7.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  Josiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

8.  A  son  of  Pashhur.  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

9.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jedaiah  in  the  days  ofthe  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  21). 

10.  A  priest's  son  who  blew  a  trumpet  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  3(1). 

Neth-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  has  given]. 

1.  A  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2),  the 
head  of  the  fifth  course  of  singers  (12). 

2.  A  Levite  sent  with  others  by  Jehosha- 
phat to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  Father  of  Jehudi  (Jer.  xxxv.i.  14). 

4.  Father  of  that  Ishmael  who  assassinated 
Gedaliah  (2  Kiii.  xxv.  23,  25). 


Neth'i-nim,  in  A.  V.  NetMnims  [sivcn]. 

Temple  servants  or  slaves  given  by  David 
and  tlie  princes  for  the  service  of  llie  Levites 
(Ezra  viii.  20).  Prior  to  their  api)ointnient, 
similar  functions  seem  to  have  i)een  dis- 
charged by  the  Midianites,  whom  Moses  gave 
over  to  the  Ijcvites  (Num.  xxxi.  47),  and  at 
a  subsequent  period  by  the  ({ibeonites,  whom 
Joshua  assigned  as  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  for  the  house  of  (Jod  (.Tosh, 
ix.  23).  Even  after  the  Nethiniui  were  as- 
sociated with  them  or  superseded  them,  the 
number  of  the  Nethiuim  may  have  been  too 
smallfor  the  elaborate  triiii)ic  services  insti- 
tuted by  David's  son  and  successor,  and  been 
increased;  for  we  find  in  the  books  of  Ezra 
(ii.  55-.58)  and  Nehemiah  (vii.57-f)0)  the  chil- 
dren of  Solomon's  servants,  i.  e.  slaves,  men- 
tioned after  and  numbered  with  the  Neth- 
iuim. Although  they  were  organized  by 
David,  it  was  probably  under  a  different  name ; 
for  the  word  Nethinim  occurs  only  in  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  with  a  solitary 
passage  in  1  Chronicles  (ix.  2).  They  dis- 
charged the  more  menial  duties  required  by 
the  temide  worship.  Of  the  Nethinim  and 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants,  392  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerul)l)at)el  (Ezra 
ii.  58;  Neh.  vii.  60),  and  220  more  with  Kzra 
(Ezra  viii.  17-20).  The  Nethiuim  seem  to 
have  been  naturalized  foreigners  rather  than 
people  of  true  Israelite  descent  (1  Chron.  ix. 
2;  Ezra  ii.  59;  Neh.  vii.  61),  and  several  of 
the  names  on  the  list  of  their  leading  men 
have  a  foreign  aspect  (Ezra  ii.  43-54;  Neh. 
vii.  46-56).  They  were  probably  descendants 
of  the  Midianites  and  Gibeonites,  who  have 
been  already  mentioned,  and  of  various 
bands  of  captives  taken  in  war ;  they  con- 
tinued to  be  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
]irince  or  tribe  from  whom  they  were  taken, 
as  the  children  of  Sisera.  of  Rezin,  of  Meu- 
nim.  and  of  Nephisim  (Ezra  ii.  48,  50,  53; 
with  1  Chron.  v.  19-21  :  2  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 
The  children  of  Tabbaoth  and  Keros,  and  of 
Solomon's  servants  the  children  of  the  Soph- 
ereth  (Ezraii.  43,  44,  55),  which  mean  the  chil- 
dren of  the  rings,  of  the  weaver's  comb,  and 
of  the  scribal  office,  apparently  denote  the 
ofHcial  duties  in  the  temple  which  the  men  of 
these  classes  discharged.  Other  names  are 
those  of  progenitors  ;  and  yet  others  seem  to 
be  the  names  of  the  native  places  of  the  cap- 
tives, as  perhaps  Nekoda.  Harhur,  Harsha 
( ver.  48.  51,  52).  Some  of  them  lived  on  Ophcl, 
a  southern  prolongation  of  the  temple  hill 
(Neh.  iii.  26,  31  ;  xi.  3,  21),  others  in  tbe  vil- 
lages round  about  Jeru.salem  (Ezra  ii.  70  : 
Neh.  vii.  73).  Holding  an  oflicial  position 
at  the  temple,  although  the  office  was  menial, 
they  were  exem])t  from  imperial  taxation 
(Ezra  vii.  24).  They  seem  to  have  adopted 
with  some  cordiality  the  covenant  made  at 
the  instance  of  Nehemiah  to  worship  Jehovah 
(Neh.  X.  28.  29). 

Ne-to'phali  [dropi.ing.  falling  in  drops]. 

A  town  of  Judah.  evidently  near  Bethle- 


Netophathite 


538 


New  Testament 


hem  (1  Cbron.  ii.  54);  Ezra  ii.  21,  2-3;  Neh. 
vii.  26).  It  was  the  home  of  two  of  'David's 
mighty  men  {2  Sam.  xxiii.  28,  29).  Netopha- 
thites  with  Seraiah  at  their  head  were  among 
tlie  men  who  assembled  loyally  about  Geda- 
liah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  had  made  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  ou  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(2  Kin.  XXV.  23 ;  Jer.  xl.  8  seq.).  Fifty-six 
<jf  the  town's  people  returned  after  the  exile 
(Ezra  ii.  22).  It  was  not  originally  assigned 
to  the  Levites,  but  after  the  return  its  de- 
pendent villages  were  occupied  by  certain  of 
them,  including  singers  (1  Cbron.  ix.  16; 
Neh.  xii.  28).  On  the  survey  map  it  is  located, 
with  a  query,  at  the  ruin  Umm  Toba,  the 
Om  Tuba  of  Tobler,  and  the  Autubeh  of  Van 
de  Velde,  2  miles  northeast  of  Bethlehem. 
Beit  Nettif  has  also  been  suggested.  It 
stands  on  a  rocky  crest,  12  miles  west  of  Beth- 
lehem. The  distance  seems  rather  great. 
Neither  Umm  Toba  nor  Beit  Nettif  is  the 
true  counterpart  etymological ly  of  Netophah. 

Ne-to'plia-tMte,  in  A.  V.  of  Neh.  xii.  28  Ne- 
tophatM,  the  Hebrew  form  being  preserved. 

An  inhabitant  of  Netophah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
28). 

Net'tle. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hand, 
burning  plant,  one  that  inflames.  Men  driven 
by  want  take  refuge  under  it  (Job  xxx.  7). 
Along  with  the  stinging  nettle,  Hebrew  kim- 
m'shon,  it  overspreads  the  sluggard's-  iin- 
weedcd  garden  (Prov.  xxiv.  31).  In  fact  it 
springs  up  everywhere  when  cultivation  of 
the  land  is  neglected  (Zeph.  ii.  9).  The 
plant  cannot  be  identified  E.  V.  places 
wild  vetches  on  the  margin. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kimmosh 
in  Is.  xxxiv.  13  and  Hos.  ix.  6.  The  rab- 
binical idea  that  the  plant  is  a  nettle  has 
been  generally  adopted.  The  Roman  or  pill 
nettle  (TJrtica piluUfera)  is  found  everywhere 
in  Palestine.  The  Hebrew  word  itself  is 
probably  more  general  in  signification  and 
comprehends  a  large  class  of  weeds.  A  mod- 
ification of  the  word  is  kimm'shon  (Prov. 
xxiv.  31),  which  the  English  versions  rendei 
thorns. 

New  Moon.     See  Moon. 

New  Tes'ta-ment. 

The  second  of  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  Testament 
represents  the* Latin  word  tentameiitnm,  which 
is  used  to  translate  the  Greek  word  diatheke, 
covenant  (2  Cor.  iii.  14).  The  N.  T.  embodies 
the  new  covenant  of  which  Jesus  was  the 
Mediator  (Heb.  ix.  1.5;  cp.  x.  l(j,  17  and  Jer. 
xxxi.  31-34).  The  first  covenant  was  dedi- 
<!ated  with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  19,  20),  but  was  in 
no  sen.se  a  testament:  tlie  second,  while 
primarily  a  covenant  was  also  a  testament ; 
that  is,  it  was  not  merely  dedicated  with 
blood,  but  it  required  the  death  of  the  testa- 
tor to  give  it  force.  It  would  not  have  had 
proper  efficacy  had  not  Jesus  its  Mediator 
died  an  atoning  death. 


With  the  possible  exception  of  Matthew's 
Gospel,  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  were  written 
in  Greek.  This  language  had  taken  deep 
root  in  Palestine  during  the  more  than  three 
centuries  which  had  elapsed  since  the  con- 
quest of  the  Holy  Land  by  Alexander  the 
Great ;  and  the  merits  of  the  language  itself 
and  that  of  the  literature  which  it  enshrined, 
had  given  it  the  widest  currency  among  edu- 
cated men  throughout  the  Roman  empire, 
though  Greece  had  now  for  a  considerable 
time  lost  its  political  independence. 

The  original  manuscripts  of  the  books  of 
the  N.  T.  and  the  copies  made  "during  the 
first  three  centuries  have  disappeared.  Papy- 
rus, which  was  commonly  used  for  letters 
(2  John  12),  soon  wore  out,  and  in  the  time 
of  Diocletian,  A.  D.  303,  it  was  customary  for 
the  persecutors  of  Christians  to  seek  for 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  and  destroy  them. 
The  art  of  printing  was  unknown,  but  tran- 
scribers laboriousl.y  multiplied  copies.  The 
four  gospels  were  most  frequently  tran.scribed, 
and  after  them  the  epistles  of  Paul.  The 
Revelation  was  copied  least  often.  No  fewer 
than  3791  ancient  manuscript  copies  of  the 
N.  T.  in  whole  or  in  part  exist,  their  abun- 
dance markedly  contrasting  with  the  small 
number  of  the  classical  writers  which  have 
come   down  to  our  own  day. 

Corruptions  of  the  text  .soon  crept  in. 
Copyists  were  fallible,  careless,  and  often 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  Greek.  Men 
of  the  patristic  age  and  later  were  not  gov- 
erned by  the  modern  demand  for  scientific 
exactness,  and  they  handled  the  text  with 
considerable  license.  They  attempted  to  im- 
prove the  grammar  and  the  style,  to  correct 
supposed  errors  in  history  and  geography,  to 
adjust  the  quotations  from  the  O.  T.  to  the 
Greek  of  the  Septuagint,  and  to  harmonize 
the  gospels.  They  incorporated  marginal 
notes,  and  they  added  to  the  gospel  nar- 
ratives incidents  obtained  from  authentic 
sources,  as  John  vii.  53-viii.  1  and  Mark 
xvi.  9-20.  The  various  readings  which  thus 
originated  are  very  numerous.  "They  number 
150,000.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  these  are, 
however,  of  no  authority,  being  evidently 
not  genuine,  and  only  the  merest  fraction  of 
the  remainder  are  of  any  consequence  as 
aflPecting  the  sense.  The  very  number  of 
these  readings,  and  the  fact  that  they  were 
made  originally  in  difi'erent  parts  of  the 
world,  and  from  a  variety  of  manuscripts, 
enables  biblical  students  to  detect  and  elimi- 
nate the  errors,  and  approximate  to  the 
original  text  more  closely  than  if  the  various 
readings  were  fewer.  This  tedious  but  nec- 
essary work  has  been  carried  out  with  un- 
tiring energj^  by  textual  critics.  It  is  possible 
indirectly  to  gain  access  to  the  readings  in 
manuscripts  which  have  perished,  for  there 
were  early  versions  of  the  N.  T.  in  diiferent 
languages,  such  as  the  Syriac  and  Latin,  and 
quotations  from  the  N.  T.  are  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christians,    especially 


New  Testament 


539 


New  Testament 


in  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.  In 
most  cases  these  versions  and  citations  were 
made  from  manuscripts  not  now  existing, 
but  the  translation  shows  what  the  original 
must  have  been. 

The  N.  T.  manuscripts  fall  into  two  di- 
visions: Uncials,  in  Greek  capitals;  at  first 
without  breathings  or  accents  and  with  no 
separation  between  the  ditt'erent  words,  ex- 
cept occasionally  to  indicate  the  beginning 
of  a  new  paragraph,  and  very  little  even  be- 
tween the  dilferent  lines;  and  Cursives,  in 
small  running  hand,  and  with  divisions  of 
words  and  lines.  Tlie  change  between  the 
two  kinds  of  Greek  writing  took  place  about 
tlie  tenth  century.  Only  five  manuscripts 
of  the  N.  T.  approaching  to  completeness  are 
more  ancient  than  this  dividing  date.  The 
first,  designated  by  biblical  critics  A.  is  the 
Alexandrian  manuscrijit.  Though  taken 
to  England  by  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.,  it 
is  believed  that  it  was  written,  not  in  that 
capital,  but  in  Alexandria,  whence  its  title. 
Its  date  is  believed  to  be  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.  In  addition  to  a  large  portion 
of  the  O.  T.  and  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement 
and  part  of  the  Second,  it  contains  the 
whole  of  the  N.  T.  except  Mat.  i.-xxv.  5 ; 
John  vi.  50-viii.  52 ;  2  Cor.  iv.  13-xii.  (). 
The  page  is  divided  into  two  columns, 
and  the  text  is  marked  off  into  chapters, 
Mark  containing  forty-eight.  The  second, 
known  as  B,  is  the  Vatican  manuscript.  It 
has  been  in  the  Vatican  library  at  Eome  from 
1475  or  an  earlier  period,  but  not  till  1857  was 
an  edition  of  it  published,  and  that  one,  by 
Cardinal  Mai,  wiien  issued,  was  uncritical 
and  of  little  value.  But  in  1889-90  a  facsimile 
of  it  came  forth,  so  that  now  it  is  fully  ac- 
cessible to  scholars.  The  Vatican  manuscript 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
if  not  even  from  an  earlier  period.  Besides 
most  of  the  O.  T.,  it  contains  all  the  N.  T.  ex- 
cept Heb.  ix.  14,  xiii.  25.  1  and  2  Tim.,  Titus, 
Pbilem.,  and  Rev.  It  has  three  columns  to 
the  page,  and  is  divided  into  short  chapters, 
Matthew  having  170.  The  third,  C,  or  the 
Ephraem  manuscript,  is  a  palimpsest.  In 
the  twelfth  century  the  original  writing  was 
washed  out  to  make  room  for  the  text  of  sev- 
eral ascetic  treatises  of  Ephraem  the  Syrian. 
Traces  of  the  older  writing  were,  however, 
discernible,  and  in  1834  the  original  text  was 
revived  by  an  application  of  prussiate  of 
potash.  It  is  believed  that  it  belongs  to  the 
fifth  century,  and  perhaps  a  slightly  earlier 
period  of  it  than  the  manuscript  A.  It  con- 
tains portions  of  the  ().  T.  and  five-eighths 
of  the  N.  T.  The  lines  run  across  the  page. 
The  fourth,  D,  is  the  manuscript  of  Beza,  to 
whom  it  belonged  after  it  was  taken  from 
the  abbey  of  St.  Irena?us  in  Lyons  at  the  .sack 
of  the  city  in  1562.  It  is  commonly  dated 
in  the  sixth  century.  It  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  gospels  and  The 
Acts,  together  with  a  Latin  translation.     It 


is  for  the  nmst  part  the  only  witness 
among  Greek  manuscripts  to  a  type  of 
text  which  was  widely  current  as  early 
as  the  second  century,  and  of  wiiii-li  the 
other  principal  reiirest  ntatives  are  the  Old 
Latin  and  the  Old  Syriac  versions.  It  is 
written  stichometrically,  i.  f.,  in  single  lines 
containing  as  many  words  as  could  be  read 
at  a  breath,  consistently  witli  tlic  sense.  The 
fifth,  called  N  (the  Hebrew  first  k'tter,  aleph), 
is  the  Sinaitic  manuscript,  obtained  in  1844 
and  1859  by  Tischendorf  from  the  monks  be- 
longing to  the  convent  of  St.  C;itherine  on 
mount  Sinai.  Besides  the  major  part  of  the 
O.  T.,  it  contains  the  whole  N.  T.  without 
a  break,  together  with  the  epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas and  a  large  part  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hennas.  The  last  twelve  ver.ses  of  Mark 
are  lacking,  but  it  is  suspicious  that  the  page 
where  they  t)ccur  seems  to  be  a  cancel.  It 
was  made  in  the  fourth  centurj-.  It  has  four 
columns  to  the  page. 

The  cursive  manuscripts,  thougli  numerous, 
are  of  too  late  date  tostand  uti  tlic  same  level 
for  critical  purposes  as  tlie  uncials. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Greek  N. 
T.  actually  published  was  that  of  Era.smus, 
who  issued  it  in  1516.  It  was  rejjrinted  in 
1518,  a  second  and  more  correct  edition 
followed  in  1519,  a  third  in  1522,  a  fourth  in 
1527.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic primate  of  Spain,  had  been  engaged  for 
some  years  in  i>reparing  an  edition  of  the 
Greek  N.  T.,  but  various  causes  of  delay 
kept  it  hack  from  the  world  till  1521  or  1522. 
From  being  made  at  Alcala,  called  by  the 
Romans  Comjilutum,  it  is  known  as  the 
Complutensian  edition.  Among  other  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  N.  T.  which  followed, 
none  were  more  celebrated  than  those  of 
Robert  Stephens  of  Paris.  They  appeared 
in  1546,  1549,  1550,  and  1551.  Then  Bez;i 
the  reformer  came  upon  the  .scene,  and 
issued  several  editions  of  the  Greek  N.  T. 
between  1565  and  1604,  based  on  Stephens' 
third  edition  (1550),  which  in  turn  had  been 
founded  mainly  on  Erasmus'  fourth  or  fifth 
edition.  Stephens'  edition  of  15,30  is  the 
tvxhis  1-eceptiis  in  England,  but  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  this  designation  and  au- 
thority are  generally  given  to  the  first 
Elzevir  edition,  printed  at  Leyden  in  1624. 
This  Elzevir  text  is  mainly  that  of  Stei)hens' 
edition  of  1550,  from  which  it  difii'i-s  in  278 
places,  including  merely  orthograidiic  varia- 
tions. It  was  mainly  from  Beza's  (>dition  of 
1598  that  the  A.  V.  of  the  English  Bible  was 
made. 

The  division  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  into  our 
present  chajiters  has  been  generally  ascribed 
to  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  died  in  1263,  a 
Don>inican  monk,  who  used  it  for  his  con- 
cordance to  the  Vulgate.  Its  ap])licati<m  in 
this  concordance  certainly  brdugbt  this  di- 
vision into  repute,  and  established  tlu;  prac- 
tice of  citing  by  chai)tcrs  instead  of  referring 
to  the  book  merely  or  to  some   i)romineut 


Neziah 


540 


Night 


narrative  in  the  book  (cp.  Mark  ii.  26;  xii. 
•2fi ;  Rom.  xi.  2)  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  present  division  antedates  Hugo, 
and  was  due  to  Stephen  Langton,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  1228.  The  di- 
vision of  the  X.  T.  into  our  present  verses 
was  made  by  Eobert  Stephens  in  the  Grsek 
N.  T.  which  "he  published  in  1551.  The  iirst 
English  N.  T.  to  be  so  divided  was  Whitting- 
ham's  translation,  Geneva,  1557,  and  the  first 
English  Bible  so  divided  was  the  Geneva 
version  of  1560. 

Ne-zi'ahi  [bright,  pure,  illustrious]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  54  ;  Neh. 
vii.  50). 

Ne'zib  [statue,  idol,  military  station]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
43).  Beit  Nusib,  about  9  miles  west-north- 
west of  Hebron,  is  scarcely  the  site ;  for  it 
is  in  the  hill  country. 

Nib'haz. 

An  idol,  one  of  two  worshiped  by  the 
Avvites,  a  tribe  brought  with  others  from  the 
Assyrian  empire  to  colonize  Samaria  after 
thecaptivity  of  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
31).  The  Jewish  rabbins  derived  the  name 
from  the  Semitic  root  nabnh,  to  bark,  and 
considered  that  Nibhaz  had  the  figure  of  a 
dog ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that 
they  were  correct. 

Nib'shan  [soft,  level  soil]. 

A  town  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  ()2).     Site  unknown. 

Ni-ca'nor  [victorious]. 

1.  Son  of  Patroclus  and  one  of  the  king's 
friends  whom  Lysias,  regent  in  western 
Syria  during  the  absence  of  Antiochus  Epi])h- 
anes,  in  166  B.  c.  selected  to  lead  the  army 
to  suppress  the  Judtean  revolt  (1  Mac.  iii.  38  ; 
2  Mac.  viii.  9).  The  Syrians  were  defeated. 
Nican or  stood  high  in  tlu- favor  of  Demetrius 
I.  also,  and  wasai)pointed  governor  of  Judsea 
by  him  (1  Mac.  vii.  26  ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  He 
professed  friendship  for  Judas  Maccabieus, 
but  the  Jew  was  not  deceived.  Nieanor  en- 
gaged in  battle  with  Judas  at  Cajjliarsalania, 
and  was  slain  in  battle  with  him  near  Beth- 
horon,  160  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  vii.  27-49  ;  2  Mac.  xv. 
1-36). 

2.  One  of  the  seven  men  who  were  chosen 
in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  look  after  the 
Greek-sjjeaking  widows,  and  api)arently  the 
j)oor  in  general  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Nic-o-de'mus  [victor  over  the  jHoiile]. 

A  Pharisee  and  a  member  of  the  sanhe- 
drin.  Convinced  by  the  miracles  which  Jesus 
wrought  that  the  teacher  of  Nazareth  liad 
come  from  (iod,  he  sought  an  interview  wiih 
him;  but  by  night,  to  escape  observation  or 
because  the  hour  was  convenient.  Jesus  ex- 
plained to  him  the  nature  of  the  new  birtli, 
and  the  love  of  God  for  the  world  wiiich 
prompted  him  to  give  his  only  begotten  Son 


that  whosoever  accepted  him  in  faith  might 
have  eternal  life  (John  iii.  1-21).  At  a  meet- 
ing of  thesanhedrin,  when  the  members  began 
to  denounce  Jesus  as  an  impostor,  Nicodemus 
jiointedly  asked  whether  the  law  condemned 
a  man  uniieard  (vii.  50-.52).  After  the  death 
of  ('hrist  Nicodemus  took  about  a  hundred 
pounds'  weight  of  myrrh  and  aloes,  and  aided 
in  preparing  the  body  for  burial  (xix.  39). 

Nic-0-la'i-tans. 

A  jmrty  or  sect  in  the  churches  of  Ephesus 
and  Pergamos  whose  practice  and  doctrine 
are  severely  censured.  They  held  the  doc- 
trine of  Balaam,  and  taught  that  Christians 
were  free  to  eat  things  oti'ered  to  idols  and 
commit  the  excesses  of  heathenism  (Rev.  ii. 
6,  14,  15).  Presumably  the  Nicolaitans  were 
the  followers  of  some  heresiarch  called 
Nicolas.  There  is  no  {>roof  that  he  was  the 
man  of  that  name  elected  as  one  of  the  first 
seven  deacons  :  although  one  tradition  makes 
the  deacon  lapse  into  impurity  and  then  be- 
come the  head  of  an  immoral  sect ;  and  an- 
other describes  him  as  using  unguarded  lan- 
guage, which,  though  in  itself  innocent,  was 
capable  of  being  jjcrverted  to  evil  ends,  and 
thus  nnwittingly  originating  an  immoral 
party  with  which  he  had  no  sympathy.  A  sect 
of  Nicolaitans  existed  among  the  Gnostics, 
which  may  have  grown  out  of  these  corrupt 
Christians  of  the  apostolic  age. 

Nic-0-la'us,  in  A.  V.  and  E.  R.  V.  Nic'o-las 
[victor  over  the  people]. 

A  ]n-oselyte  of  Antioch,  who  was  one  of 
the  seven  elected  at  the  instance  of  the  apos- 
tles to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  widows  and  apparently  the  Chris- 
tian poor  in   general  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ni-cop'o-lis  [city  of  victory]. 

A  place  at  which  Paul,  when  he  wrote;  the 
Epi.stle  to  Titus,  hoped  to  winter  (Titus  iii. 
12).  The  note  appended  to  the  epistle  makes 
it  sent  from  Nicopolis  of  Macedonia,  but  it  is 
of  no  authority.  The  place  referred  to  in 
this  postscript  was  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Nestus,  which  was  the  boundary 
line  between  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  It  is 
now  called  Nikopi.  But  the  probability  is 
that  the  Nicopolis  at  which  Paul  meant  to 
winter  was  the  town  in  Epirus,  4  miles  from 
Actium,  which  Augustus  founded  in  30  B.  c.  to 
commemorate  his  victory.  Herod  the  Great 
built  a  number  of  its  public  edifices  (Anticj. 
xvi.  5,  3).     Its  ruins  remain  at  Prevcsa. 

Ni'ger  [black]. 

A  Latin  surname  of  Simeon,  a  prophet 
and  teacher  in  the  church  of  Antioch  (Acts 
xiii.  1). 

Night. 

The  period  of  darkness  (Gen.  i.  5).  It  was 
divided  into  three  watches:  sunset  to  mid- 
night, midnight  to  cock-crow,  cock-crow  to 
sunrise  (Lam.  ii.  19;  Judg.  vii.  19;  Ex.  xiv. 
24).  The  Greek  and  Roman  division  into 
four  watches  was  in  use  in  N.  T.  times  (Luke 


Night  Hawk 


541 


Nimrim 


xii.  .38;  Mark  vi.  48).  At  this  period  tbe 
night,  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  was  divided 
into  twelve  hours  (cp.  Acts  xxiii.  23). 

Night  Hawk. 

The  rendt'riuff  of  the  Hebrew  Tamnsh,  vio- 
h'ut  one:  an  unclean  bird  mentioned  in  Lev. 
xi.  l(j  ;  Dent.  xiv.  15.  It  is  dou))tful  what 
l)ir(l  is  meant.  The  English  versions  make 
it  the  night  hawk,  which  is  another  name  for 
the  night  jar,  better  known  as  the  goat- 
sucker (Caprimnlgus  europxus),  or  some  s}>e- 
cies  akin  to  it.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
identify  it  with  the  owl. 

NigM  Mon'ster. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  LiUtli  (Is. 
xxxiv.  14,  K.  V.  Margin  ;  in  A.  V;  screech 
owl).  The  word  in  Hebrew  means  simply  noc- 
turnal, and  may  denote  any  female  nocturnal 
bird  or  beast.  In  Assyrian,  it  was  applied  to 
a  nocturnal  demon.     See  under  Satyk. 

NUe. 

The  great  river  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxiii.  3,  in 
A.  V.  Sihor ;  .Ter.  ii.  18,  nuirgin  of  K.  V.)  ; 
in  Hebrew  Shihor,  dark,  turV)id,  and  Y'or, 
stream.  Its  waters  covered  so  vast  an  ex- 
panse, especially  during  the  inundation,  that 
it  is  sometimes  called  a  sea  (Nab.  iii.  8).  The 
ultimate  sources  of  the  river  are  the  streams 
which  feed  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  equa- 
torial Africa.  But  the  Nile  in  a  narrower 
sense,  as  it  presents  those  peculiarities  which 
have  made  it  famous,  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  White  and  the  Blue  Nile  at 
the  town  of  Khartum  ;  from  which  point  to 
its  principal  mouths  at  Damiettaand  Rosetta, 
a  distance  of  upwards  of  1800  miles,  it  trav- 
erses an  absolutely  barren  country  and  re- 
ceives one  tributary  only,  the  Atbara,  on  the 
east  side,  about  180  miles  below  Khartum. 
The  banks  rise  several  hundred  feet  and  at 
places  to  upwards  of  1000  feet,  resembling 
two  large  canal  embankments,  and  wall  the 
valley  all  the  way  to  Cairo,  where  they  di- 
verge abruptly  toward  the  east  and  north- 
west and  face  the  ])rotruded  delta.  A  short 
distance  above  Assnan,  the  ancient  Syene.  a 
ridge  of  granite,  extending  for  180  miles  from 
east  to  west,  lies  athwart  the  river's  course. 
The  stream  breaks  through  this  barrier, 
])lunges  down  the  rocks  of  the  last  or.  on  as- 
cending the  river,  first  cataract,  and  enters 
the  bounds  of  ancient  Egypt.  All  a])ove  that 
cataract  was  Ethiopia  ;  all  below  was  p]gypt. 
The  granite  of  this  transverse  ridge  is  col- 
ored :  it  is  the  well-known  light-brown  stone 
of  which  so  many  of  the  polished  statues  of 
the  Pharaohs  are  made.  Below  Cairo  the 
river  divides  and  seeks  the  sea  by  several 
great  channels.  These  mouths  are  now  two, 
the  Damictta  and  the  Eosetta  ;  but  lornu'rly 
they  numbered  seven,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  the  eastern  or  Pelusiac.  the 
western  or  Canopic.  and  the  middle  or  Seben- 
nytic  (Herod,  ii.  17). 

.\s  the  river  pursues  its  tortuous  course 
through  thirsty  laud,  much  of  its  water  is 


consumed  by  evaporation  and  infiltration, 
and  still  more  by  tlie  extensive  .system  of  if 
rigatiiig  canals.  The  lo.ss  at  the  'time  of  the 
inundation  withiu  Egypt  proi)er  is  about  one- 
third  of  the  total  volume. 

This  annual  overflow  is  the  famous  feature 
of  the  Nile.  Its  occurrence  iu  a  rainless  re- 
gion was  mysterious  to  the  ancients  (Herod, 
ii.  19-25).  It  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
all  the  sources  of  the  Nile  lie  withiu  tlu'  region 
ef  abundant  periodical  rains.  These  fall  co- 
piously on  the  sources  of  the  White  Nile 
about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  and  iu 
Abyssinia  a  little  later.  The  Aby.ssiniau 
rains,  being  nearer  the  uH)utii,  cau.se  a  first 
rise,  which  readies  Kgyid  al)out  the  middle 
of  June.  This  is  followed  iu  the  course  of  a 
month  by  a  sudden  increase,  due  to  the  in- 
flux of  the  rising  waters  of  the  White  Nile, 
when  the  river  begins  to  swell  steadily  iu 
volume  with  a  resulting  inundation  which 
commences  in  the  latter  i)art  of  August. 
Toward  the  end  of  September  the  watei 
ceases  to  ri.se,  remaining  at  about  the  same 
height  for  a  fortnight  or  more  ;  but  during 
the  first  half  of  October  it  rises  again  and 
attains  its  highest  level.  During  a  good  in- 
undation it  reaches  a  height  of  40  feet  at  As- 
suan  and  of  23  to  27  at  Cairo.  About  the  end 
of  November  most  of  the  fields  are  left  dry 
and  covered  with  a  fresh  layer  of  rich  brown 
slime  ;  this  is  the  time  when  the  lands  are 
put  under  culture.  Occasionally  inundation 
does  not  take  place.  Tradition  was  current 
and  found  record  in  an  inscription  on  the 
rocks  at  Sahel,  an  island  of  the  tirst  cataract, 
that  iu  the  reign  of  Toser  or  To.ser-Sa,  a 
Pharaoh  of  the  third  dynasty,  the  inunda- 
tion failed  for  seven  years  and  a  sore  famine 
resulted.  It  failed  lor  seven  years  in  the 
time  of  Jo.seph  (Gen.  xli.  54) ;  and  it  failed 
likewise  for  seven  years  in  the  reign  of  the 
caliph  el-Mustansir,  the  resulting  famine 
reaching  its  height  A.  D.  1070. 

In  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  the  Egyptian 
agricultural  year  was  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  ;  the  period  of  the  iuundatiou 
(from  the  end  of  .June  to  the  end  of  October), 
that  of  the  growing  of  the  crojjs  (from  the  end 
of  October  to  the  end  of  Eebruary ),  and  that 
«f  the  harvest  (from  the  end  of  February  to 
the  end  of  June). 

Nlm'rali  [limpid  and  wholesome  water]. 

An  abbreviation  of  Beth-nimrah  (cp.  Num. 
xxxii.  ;>  with  36)  ;  see  Bkth-ni.mkah. 

Nim'rim  [perhaps,  a  plural  of  Nimrah, 
Iini]iid  waters,  or  an  abnormal  plural  for 
leopards]. 

A  locality  in  ^loab,  noted  for  its  waters 
(Is.  XV.  (>  ;  .ler.  xlviii.  :>1).  Ojjinion  as  to  its 
identification  is  divided  between  Beth-nim- 
rah in  the  Jordan  valley  and  the  wady 
Nemeirah,  near  the  southern  end  of  the 
Dead  .Sea,  where  the  ruins  of  a  town  Nemei- 
rah, the  leopard,  exist.  Tristram  locates 
the  site  higher  up  the  valley,  where  it  is  said 


Nimrod 


542 


Nineveh 


there  is  an  old  Moabite  city  witli  tlie  name 
Springs  of  Nemeiraii.  It  has  many  well- 
watered  gardens  still  in  cultivation. 

Nim'rod. 

A  Cushite,  a  mighty  hunter  and  a  potent 
monarch,  the  beginning  of  whose  original 
kingdom  embraced  Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and 
C'alneh,  cities  in  the  land  of  Sliinar  (Gen.  x. 
H-10;  Mic.  V.  f)).  The  only  ancit  iit  king  of 
Babylonia  known,  who  lits  tliis  dt'scrii)tion, 
and  was  at  the  same  time  celebrated  in  tradi- 
tion and  song,  was  Izdubaror,  as  there  is  reason 
to  pronounce  his  name,  Gilgamesh.  He  freed 
Babylonia  from  the  opiiixssive  rule  of  the 
Elamites  and  became  king  of  Erech.  He 
was  a  slayer  of  wild  beasts,  and  his  encoun- 
ters with  animals,  not  less  than  his  exploits 
in  war,  were  emliodied  in  a  poem,  and  formed 
a  favorite  sul)ject  for  engraver  and  sculptor. 
His  life  became  embellished  with  legend,  and 
he  Was  occasionally  addressed  in  prayer  by 
men  of  after  ages;  but  through  all  the  attri- 
butes which  accumulated  about  him  the  fact 
remained  clearly  discerned  that  he  was  a 
mortal  man.  There  is,  however,  no  proof 
that  Nimrod  and  Gilgamesh  are  identical, 
and  the  attempt  to  establish  a  relationship 
between  their  names  has  thus  far  proved 
fruitless. 

Nim'shi  [perhaps,  drawn  out,  or  active, 
lively]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xix.  16;  2 
Kin.  ix.  2).  who  was  generally  designated 
the  son  of  Nimshi. 

Nin'e-veh. 

The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  The 
Hebrews  embraced  the  entire  population 
which  was  collected  about  the  capital,  and 
occujiied  the  district  at  the  continence  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Upper  Zab  under  the  designa- 
tion of  Nineveh  the  great  city  (Gen.  x.  11. 
12;  Jon.  i.  2;  iii.  3;  Judith  i.  1).  Nineveh 
in  the  narrower  sense  stood  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
tributary  which  is  now  known  as  the  Khosr, 
about  27  miles  above  the  confluence  of 
the  Zab  with  the  main  stream.  It  was 
built  by  a  people  of  Babylonian  origin 
(<!en.  X.  11).  Its  tutelary  deity  was  the  god- 
dess Ishtar,  to  whom  from  a  very  early 
]>eriod  a  temi)le  had  existed  in  the  place. 
This  sanctuary  engaged  the  attention  of 
Shamshiramman  about  1800  i?.  r..  and  after 
falling  into  decay,  was  rebuilt  with  sjjlendor 
by  .\sburuliallit  about  1400  n.  c.  Asshur,  60 
miles  south  of  Nineveh  and  on  the  o])posite 
bank  of  the  river,  was  the  ancient  seat  of 
government;  but  Shalmaneser  erected  a  pal- 
ace at  Nineveh  al)out  1300  I5.  t'.,  and  made  it 
his  capital,  and  from  that  ]ieriod  it  was 
looked  ui)o!i  as  the  chief  city  of  Assyria. 
Ashurnasiri)al  and  his  successor  Shalmaneser, 
whose  united  reigns  extended  from  about 
h<,s.")  to  82."),  had  ])alaces  in  both  Nineveh  and 
('alab,  and  resided  sometimes  in  one  jilace, 
.sometimes   in    the   other.      Their  successors 


dwelt  in  Nineveh  in  the  broad  sense ;  but 
the  palace  was  not  always  in  Nineveh  proper, 
but  was  often  erected  in  one  of  the  suburbs, 
as  Calah  or  Dur-sharrukin  or  Tarbisu.  The 
Assyrians  were  great  warriors,  and  the  spoils 
of  the  conquered  cities  and  nations  were 
brought  to  the  capital  and  used  to  embellish 
it.  It  was  also  the  center  of  some  literary 
activity.  About  650  B.  c.  Ashurbanipal  gath- 
erwl  a  great  li))rary,  consisting  of  documents 
inscribed  on  clay  tablets,  which  related  to 
history,  ritual,  incantation,  astronomy,  math- 
ematics. It  was  composed  for  the  most  part 
of  copies  of  older  works,  which  had  been 
brought  from  Babylonia.  The  prophet  Na- 
hum  calls  Nineveh  the  bloody  city  (iii.  1), 
both  because  of  the  wars  which  it  had  waged 
for  centuries  with  the  surrounding  nations, 
and  because  of  the  cruelty  which  was  prac- 
ticed by  the  victors.  Ashurnasirpal,  for  ex- 
ample, was  accustomed  after  his  victories  to 
cut  oH'  the  hands  and  feet,  and  the  noses 
and  ears,  and  jiut  out  the  eyes  of  his  cap- 
tives, and  to  raise  mounds  of  human  heads. 
In  625  B.  c,  when  the  Assyrian  empire  began 
to  decline  in  vigor,  Nabopolassar,  governor 
of  Babylon,   declared  himself  independent, 


and  about  606  B.  c.  the  Umman-raanda,  tierce 
nomadic  peojiles  of  the  far  northeastern 
lands,  acting  in  confederation  with  Naboim- 
lassar,  descended  upon  the  plain  and  by  their 
own  might  captured  and  destroyed  Nineveh. 
They  were  greatly  aided  by  a  sudden  rise  of 
the  Tigris,  which  carried  away  a  great  pai't 
of  the  city  wall  and  rendered  the  place  inde- 
fensible.     So  complete  was  the   desolation 


Nineveh 


543 


Noadiah 


that  in  classic  times  the  departed  Nineveh 
became  like  a  myth.  Yet  all  the  while  part 
of  the  city  lay  buried  luuler  mounds  of  ap- 
jiarent  rubbish.  Rieli,  Eiif^lish  resident  at 
Bagdad,  inspected  the  mound  called  Kou- 
yunjik,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  in 
1820,  and  became  convinced  that  it  concealed 
the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  In  1843  Botta,  French 
consul  at  Mosul,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  began  to  make  excavations.  He  was 
soon  diverted  to  Khorsabad,  10  miles  off,  the 
site  of  Dur-sharrukin.  Between  1845  and 
1850  Layard  commenced  ojjcrations  at  Nim- 
roud,  18  miles  south  of  Kouyunjik;  then 
he  made  excavations  at  the  latter  place  itself, 
which  proved  to  be  the  site  of  Nineveh. 
George  Smith  conducted  further  excavations 
at  the  place  from  1873  to  1876,  and  after  his 
death  the  work  was  taken  up  and  extended 
to  other  mounds  by  Eassam.  The  walls  of 
Nineveh  have  been  traced,  and  indicate  a 
city  3  miles  in  length  by  less  than  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  breadth,  containing  an  area  of 
about  1800  English  acres.  But,  as  already 
said,  the  Hebrews  and  perhaps  other  foreign- 
ers were  accustomed  to  include  under  the 
name  of  Nineveh  the  complex  of  cities 
which  included  besides  Nineveh  C'alah,  18 
miles  south,  Eesen  between  C'alah  and  Nine- 
veh, and  Eehoboth-Ir,  broad  places  or  suburb 
of  the  city,  which  is  perhaps  identical  with 
Kebit  Nina,  suburb  of  Nineveh,  which  lay 
to  the  northeast  of  the  city.  These  are  the 
four  places  which  are  enumerated  in  Gen.  x. 
11, 12  as  comjiosing  the  great  city.  But  they 
were  not  the  only  towns  which  sprang  up  in 
the  environs  of  Nineveh.  Yarimja,  on  the 
river  directly  south  of  Nineveh,  marks  an 
ancient  site,  and  near  the  Tigris,  3  miles 
above  Nineveh,  was  Tarbisu,  with  a  royal 
palace,  beginning  the  imposing  line  of  habi- 
tations and  walled  towns  which  extended 
along  the  river  southward  to  C'alah.  Back 
from  the  river,  northeast  of  Nineveh  and  be- 
yond Eebit  Nina,  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern 
mountains,  was  Dur-sharrukin  or  Sargon's 
burg,  a  town  about  as  large  as  C'alah,  built 
about  707  B.  c.  and  containing  a  great  palace. 
Seven  miles  southeast,  and  also  at  the  foot  of 
the  eastern  mountain,  was  another  town 
scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  C'alah.  Its  ancient 
name  is  unknown,  but  it  is  situated  hard  by 
Baasheihah.  It  was  one  of  a  series  of  towns 
which  extended  to  C'alah.  Birtelleh,  6 
miles  south,  probably  marks  the  site  of  an 
ancient  town,  and  Keremlis.  3  miles  far- 
ther on,  is  known  to  do  so.  Imgurbel,  with 
its  palace  and  temple  which  Ashurnasirpal 
adorned,  was  6  miles  south  of  the  latter 
place,  ajid  was  9  miles  from  Calah.  Other 
towns  and  villages  dotted  the  plain  within 
the  bounds  which  have  been  thus  defined. 
It  may  be  that  Diodorus  Siculus,  of  the  first 
century  B.  C,  is  citing  an  authentic  tradi- 
tion wiien  he  states  that  Nineveh  formed  a 
quadrangle  measuring  150  stadia  by  90,  or 
480  in  circuit,  about  ttO  miles.     Strabo,  a  few 


years  later,  says    that  it  was   much   larger 
than  iiabylou. 

Ni'san  [.\ssyrian  ?slsamiu,  probably  open- 
ing, beginning]. 

The  name  given  after  the  captivity  to 
Abib,  the  first  month  of  tlie  year  (Xcli.  ii.  1  ; 
Esth.  iii.  7).  It  nearly  corresponds  to  Marcli. 
See  Yk\k. 

Nis'rocli. 

A  god  worshiped  by  Sennacherib.  It  was 
in  the  temi)le  of  Nisroch  at  Nineveh  tliat  he 
was  assassinated  (2  Kin.  xix.  37;  Is.  xxxvii. 
38).  Nisroch  is  the  Hebrew  pronunciation 
of  the  name.  Perhaps  it  represents  the  .\s- 
syrian  god  Nusku,  or  is  composite  and  con- 
tains the  name  of  the  god  Ashur. 

Ni'ter. 

Saltpeter,  potassium  nitrate;  but  among 
the  ancients  sodium  carbonate  and  potassium 
carbonate.  It  is  an  alkali  (Prov.  xxv.  20), 
and  in  solution  was  used  in  washing  clothes 
(Jer.  ii.  22). 

No  and  in  E.  V.  once  No-amon  (Nah.  iii.  8) 
[Egyptian  im-da,  the  large  city,  or  na-anieii, 
Anion's  city]. 

The  Egyptian  city  of  Thebes,  often  called 
by  this  name  on  the  monuments.  Herodotus 
found  its  distance  from  On  to  be  a  voyage  of 
nine  days  up  the  river  (ii.  9).  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Hyk.sos  from  Egypt,  Aahmes 
I.,  the  founder  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  reorganization 
and  imjn-ovementof  the  kingdom,  and  among 
other  works  embellished  Thebes.  The  city 
at  once  rose  to  chief  importance  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  new  empire,  and  became  large, 
splendid,  and  populous.  Homer  speaks  of 
its  hundred  gates  (Iliad  ix.  381).  Its  tutelary 
divinity  was  Anion,  and  the  high  priest  of 
Anion  was  second  only  to  the  king.  It  re- 
mained the  center  of  I^gyptian  civilization 
and  power  until,  first,  Esarhaddon,  king  of 
Assyria,  conquered  Egypt,  in  672  B.  c,  and, 
afterwards,  Ashurbanipal,  his  sou  and  suc- 
cessor, subjugated  the  country  and  j)lundered 
the  city  in  664  B.  c.  (Nah.  iii.  8).  But  even 
after  that  disaster.  Thebes  long  remained  a 
place  of  impoitance  (.Jer.  xlvi.  25 ;  Ezek. 
XXX.  14-16 :  Herod,  ii.  3 ;  iii.  10).  It  was 
finally  destroyed  utterly  by  the  Eonian  pre- 
fect, Cornelius  Gallus,  for  its  participation  in 
the  revolt  of  Upper  Egypt  in  30-29  B.  c. 
against  oppressive  Roman  taxation.  Si)lendid 
remains  of  the  city,  consisting  of  temi)les, 
obelisks,  sphinxes,  etc.,  still  exist  at  Luxor 
and  Karnak,  on  the  eastern,  and  Knrna  and 
Medinet-Habu,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
river.  West  of  wiiat  was  the  site  of  the 
city  thare  is  a  gorge  cut  into  the  lower  lime- 
stone which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
Theban  kings. 

No-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  met]. 

1.  Son  of  Binnui.  He  was  one  of  those 
who  took  charge  of  the  gold  and  silver 
vessels  brought  by  Ezra  and  the  returned 
captives  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  .33J. 


Noah 


544 


Noah 


2.  A  prophetess  whose  evil  vaticinations 
were  intended  to  frighten  Nehemiiih  (Neh. 
vi.  14). 

No'ah  I.,  in  A.  V.  of  JEatthow  and  Luke 
Noe  [rest]. 

Son  of  Lamech  of  the  posterity  of  Sotli 
(Gen.  V.  28,  29).  The  reason  for  bestowing 
tiie  name  Noali  is  stated  in  words  which 
hear  some  re.semldance  to  the  name  in 
sound.  He  called  him  Noah,  saying:  "This 
same  shall  comfort  us  (i/nah''meHH)  for  our 
work  and  for  tlic  toil  of  our  hands,  because 
of  the  ground  which  the  Lord  hath  cursed." 
This  method  is  one  of  several  which  are  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  refer- 
ences to  the  years  of  Noah's  life  are  capable 
of  several  explanations,  in  accordance  with 
ancient  methods  of  statement  and  of  con- 
structing genealogical  registers.  Several 
methods  are  mentioned  in  the  art'cle  on 
C'HKONOLOCiY.  The  ap])lication  of  the  first 
two  of  these  to  the  data  referring  to  Noah  is 
simple  and  needs  no  explanation.  The  third 
method  is  more  intricate,  but  is  also  appli- 
cable. According  to  it,  in  the  family  of 
Lamech,  182  years  after  it  succeeded  to  the 
position  of  prominence  among  the  children 
of  Seth  and  became  the  family  through 
which  the  church  descended,  a  son  was  born 
whom  his  father  called  Noah,  saying  :  "  This 
one  shall  comfort  us."  Long  afterwards, 
among  the  descendants  of  this  child  of  hope, 
who  are  collectively  called  Noah,  just  as  the 
descendants  of  Israel  were  frequently  called 
Israel,  appeared  one  in  whom  the  hopes  were 
realized,  who  proved  a  comforter,  whose  con- 
duct and  worship  were  rewarded  by  God's 
promise  not  to  curse  the  ground  again  for 
wicked  man's  sake  nor  to  smite  any  more 
everything  living,  who  built  the  ark  and 
who  was  the  family's  head  and  representa- 
tive. He  is  referred  to  by  the  tribal  name. 
IHs  eldest  son  was  about  100  years  old  when 
the  flood  came.  This  event  occurred  in  the 
six  hundredth  year  of  Noah,  that  is,  600 
years  after  the  family  which  was  spoken  of 
as  Noah  had  attained  to  leadership.  If  the 
third  method  is  the  true  one,  such  is  its  ap- 
lilication  to  the  record  concerning  Noah. 

Noah  was  a  just  man  and,  like  Enoch, 
walked  with  God  (Gen.  vi.  9).  But  it  was  a 
time  of  almost  universal  apostasy.  It  was 
an  age  of  religious  indiflerence,  when  even 
the  sons  of  God  bad  become  worldly  and  in 
contracting  marriage  cliose  l)y  the  outward 
aiipcarance  rather  than  )>y  the  disposition  of 
the  heart  (vi.  2),  and  when  men  generally 
were  living  for  the  present  moment,  eating 
and  drinking,  marrying  and  giving  in  mar- 
riage (Mat.  xxiv.  :58).  It  was  also  an  age 
that  was  defiant  of  God :  there  was  secret 
hostility  of  the  heart;  men  formed  their 
])lans  without  regard  to  God,  every  imagina- 
tion and  device  of  man's  heart  was  evil 
(Gen.  vi.  5);  there  was  o])en  defiance  also: 
the  earth  was  filled  with  violence,  the  strong 


oppressed  the  weak  (11).  The  age  was  so 
corrupt  that  God  purposed  to  destroy  man- 
kind ;  but  a  respite  apparently  of  120  years 
was  given  (3).  By  his  exemplary  life  at 
least,  Noah  was  a  preacher  of  righteousness 
(2  Pet.  ii.  5).  To  him  God,  the  creator  and 
judge  of  all,  revealed  his  purpose  to  destroy 
man,  and  commanded  him  to  build  an  ark 
to  save  himself  and  his  family  and  keep 
alive  the  various  kinds  of  animals,  lV)r  a 
Hood  of  waters  was  to  overwhelm  the  land. 
Noah  did  so.  When  the  ark  was  finished, 
Jehovah,  God  of  redemption,  bade  Noah 
enter  the  ark  with  his  family  and  provide 
for  their  tise  the  clean  animals  which  they 
needed  for  food  and  sacrifice ;  and  he  who 
had  created  the  beasts  and  the  birds  had 
them  also  go  by  pairs  into  the  vessel  for  the 
preservation  of  their  species.  The  same  God 
of  redemption  shut  Noah  in.  Then  the  flood 
broke  in  all  its  violence.  See  Flood.  When 
at  length  the  judgment  purposed  by  the 
creator  and  governor  of  the  universe  was  ac- 
complished he  remembered  Noah  and  made 
the  waters  to  assuage.  After  catching  the 
first  glimpse  of  the  mountain  tops,  Noah 
waited  the  same  length  of  time  as  the  storm 
had  raged,  and  then  sent  forth  birds  to 
discover  whether  the  waters  were  abated 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  When  he 
learned  that  they  were,  he  tarried  yet  in  the 
ark,  waiting  until  God  should  bid  him  dis- 
embark. On  New  Year's  day  he  removed 
the  covering  and  saw  that  the  ground  was 
dry,  but  it  was  eight  weeks  longer  before 
God  bade  him  go  forth.  Then  he  built  an 
altar  and  ofiered  burnt  oft'erings  to  the  God 
of  his  redemption,  who  accepted  the  worship 
and  purposed  in  his  heart  not  to  curse  the 
ground  again  and  smite  every  living  thing 
on  account  of  man's  wickedness.  God  jtro- 
ceeded  to  reveal  this  purpose.  As  he  bad 
blessed  Adam  when  he  created  him  and  had 
commanded  that  he  be  fruitful  and  nniltiply, 
so  now  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  world  lie 
blessed  Noah  and  bade  him  be  fruitful.  He 
also  laid  injunctions  on  the  head  of  the  new 
race;  but  of  the  seven  precepts  of  Noah,  as 
they  are  called,  which  were  regarded  by  the 
Jews  as  antecedent  to  the  law  and  the  ob- 
servance of  which  was  required  of  all  jn-os- 
elytes,  three  only  are  expressly  mentioned 
here  :  the  abstinence  from  blood,  the  i)rohihi- 
tion  of  nuirder,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
civil  authority  (Gen.  ix.  4-(i).  The  remain- 
ing four,  the  prohibition  of  idolatry,  blas- 
phemy, incest,  and  theft,  rested  on  the  gen- 
eral sense  of  mankind.  God  further,  in 
revealing  his  purpose  not  to  curse  the  ground 
again  for  man's  sake,  pledged  himself  not  to 
cut  off  all  fiesh  again  by  the  waters  of  a 
flood  and  adojited  the  rainbow  as  the  sign  of 
the  engagement  by  which  he  had  bound 
himself  (S-17). 

Noah  naturally  devotinl  himself  to  agri- 
culture. Among  other  works  he  planted  a 
vineyard,  and   he  drank   himself  drunk  on 


Noah 


545 


Number 


the  wine.  His  sou  Ham  mocked  at  his  dis- 
grace, but  the  other  sous  souglit  to  protect 
their  fatlier.  Wlieu  Noah  recovered,  aud 
learued  what  had  occnrr(>d,  witli  insight  iuto 
character,  aud  with  that  knowledge  wliich 
lie  had  derived  before  the  flood  of  God's 
ordinatiou  that  the  evil  propensities  of 
parents  descend  to  children-  and  that  God 
I)lessed  the  righteous  in  their  generations 
(Ex.  XX.  5,  6),  he  foretold  degradation  among 
the  posterity  of  Ham,  for  some  reason 
singling  out  one  only  of  Hum's  sous,  pre- 
dicted the  subjection  of  this  branch  of  the 
tribe  to  the  descendants  of  the  high-minded 
and  godly  brothers,  pronounced  the  divine 
blessing  on  the  families  of  Shem  and  .7ai)heth, 
and  announced  especially  their  united  ser- 
vice of  Jehovah,  God  of  Shem  (Gen.  ix.  20- 
27) ;  see  Can.\an,  Japhkth,  and  Shem. 

Noah  lived,  or  the  family  which  he  re])re- 
sented  continued  its  leadersliiii,  for  .i.")()  years 
after  the  flood  (Gen.  ix.  2H).  Then  the  Semites, 
as  distinguished  from  the  other  descendants 
of  Noah,  became  the  leading  family  and  the 
line  in  which  the  church  descended.  The 
flood  seems  to  be  referred  to  in  Ps.  xxix.  10, 
where  mabhuJ,  the  sjiecial  word  for  the  flood, 
is  used.  Isaiah  (liv.  9)  and  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14) 
both  allude  to  Noah.  Our  Lord  com])ares 
the  days  of  Noah  to  those  which  .should  pre- 
cede his  own  second  coming  (Mat.  xxiv.  37) ; 
the  patriarch's  faith  is  commended  in  Heb. 
xi.  7,  and  Peter  twice  alludes  to  the  eight 
saved  from  the  deluge  when  it  overwhelmed 
the  ungodly  (1  Pet.  iii.  20;  2  Pet.  ii.  5).  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  had  a  story  about  a  flood 
from  which  only  two  people  were  saved, 
Deucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha;  and  this 
Deucalion  may  be  Noah  under  a  diflerent 
name.  However  this  may  be,  the  Baby- 
lonians at  any  rate  jireserved  a  tradition  of 
the  .same  flood  of  which  the  Hebrews  had 
knowledge.  They  called  the  hero  of  it 
Sitnapishtira  and  Atrahasis.     See  Flood. 

No 'ah  II.  [amoving,  wandering]. 

A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33  , 
xxvii.  1 ;  xxxvi.  11 ;  Jo.sh.  xvii.  3). 

No-a'mon.     Sec  No. 

Nob  [elevation]. 

A  town  of  the  priests  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19),  in 
the  territory  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  32),  on 
the  north  and  apparently  within  sight  of 
Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  32).  After  the  capture  of 
the  ark,  the  tabernacle  was  for  a  time  i)itclied 
at  Nob,  with  Ahimelech  as  high  iiriest.  He 
was  ignorant  of  the  variance  between  Saul 
aud  David,  and  when  the  latter  came  to  Nob, 
Ahimelech  allowed  him  and  his  men  to  eat 
the  showbread  and  gave  him  the  sword  of 
Goliath.  This  act  was  reported  to  Saul,  who 
summoned  the  priests  aud  had  them  slain, 
aud  smote  Nob,  men,  women,  and  children 
with  the  sword.  Abiathar,  however,  escajud 
and  told  David  (1  Sam.  xxi.,  xxii.).  The 
place  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
32),  but  its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
35 


Robinson  contents  himself  with  locating  it 
'•somewliere  upon  the   ridge  of   the  mount 
of  Olives,  northeast  of  the  city." 
No'bah  [harking]. 

1.  A  Mana.ssite,  presumably,  who  captured 
the  town  of  Keuath,  on  the  western  shjjH! 
of  the  Jel)el  Hauran,  and  gave  it  his  own  name 
(Num.  xxxii.  42).  The  old  name  was  prob- 
ably ere  long  restored.     See  Kknath. 

2.  A  town  nKmtioned  in  (Hmiu'ction  with 
the  Gadite  town  of  Joghchah.  A  road  lead- 
ing to  the  country  of  the  nomads  passed 
on  the  east  (Judg.  viii.  11).  The  .site  of 
Nobah  is  accordingly  to  be  sought  near  the 
boundary  between  Gad  and  the  Arabian 
desert. 

No'bai,  in  A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.  Ne- 
bai,  which  is  the  traditional  pronunciation. 

One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Neliemiah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  19). 

Nod  [in  Hebrew,  wandering,  exile]. 

A  district  on  the  east  of  Eden  to  which 
Cain  went  aud  there  abode  (Gen.  iv.  1(5). 
Not  identified. 

No'dab  [nobility]. 

An  Arab  tribe  of  the  Syrian  desert,  to 
judge  from  their  allies  (1  Chrou.  v.  19). 

No'e.     See  Noah. 

No'gah  [brilliance]. 

A  son  of  David  (1  CJhron.  iii.  7 ;  xiv.  (i)- 

No 'bah  [rest]. 

The  fourth  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chrou.  viii. 
2),  who,  however,  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal 
family.  He  is  not  mentioned  among  those 
who  accompanied  Jacob  into  Egypt,  probably 
because  he  was  born  after  the  migration  into 
Egyi)t.  Keil  offers  a  different  explanation. 
He  supposes  that  Nohah  either  is  another 
name  for  Shephupham  (Num.  xxvi.  39,  R.  V.), 
or  else  was  a  celebrated  chief  who  was  de- 
scended from  Shei)huphanx  aud  whose  name 
supplanted  Shephupham  as  the  designation 
of  the  family. 

Non.    See  Nun. 

Noph.     See  Memphls. 

No'phah  [possibly,  a  breeze].  > 

A  Moaliite  town'(Num.  xxi.  30),  not  else- 
where mentioned.  The  text  is  open  to  ques- 
tion. 

Nose  Jew'el. 

A  j(>wel  inserted,  generally  by  means  of 
a  ring,  iuto  the  side  of  the  nostril  for  orna- 
ment (Is.  iii.  21,  R.  v.). 

Nose  Ring. 

A  ring  worn  as  an  ornament,  especially  by 
women  (R.  V.  of  Gen.  xxiv.  17  ;  Ezek.  xvi. 
12).  It  was  inserted  through  the  partition 
between  the  nostrils  or  in  the  side  of  the 
nose. 

Num'ber  aud  Nu'mer-al. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  ancient  He- 
l)rewsusc(l  figures  todeuote  numbers.  The  nu- 
merals wliicii  occur  in  the  jjresent  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  the  Siloam  inscnp-Jon. 


Numbers 


546 


Numenius 


and  on  the  Moabite  stone,  are  spelled  in  full. 
The  Hebrews  employed  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  to  represent  numerals  as  early  as 
Maccabaeau  times,  using  aleph  for  one,  beth 
for  two.  This  practice  is  exhibited  on  the 
coins  of  Simon ;  see  Money.  In  the  Na- 
bathsean  inscriptions  of  the  first  century  the 
numerals  are  generally  spelled,  but  they  are 
occasionally  represented  by  signs,  upright 
strokes  for  the  smaller  units,  a  figure  like  5 
without  the  upper  horizontal  arm  for  five, 
and  other  marks.  In  the  Aramaic  inscrip- 
tions of  the  same  period  at  Palmyra  signs  are 
also  used.  On  the  lion  weights,  which  were 
used  by  Aramtean  traders  in  Nineveh  in  the 
eighth  century  b.  c.  the  vieight  is  indicated 
l)y  upright  strokes  for  the  units  and  a  hori- 
zontal stroke  for  ten.  In  yet  earlier  cen- 
turies the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  used 
cuneiform  signs  to  indicate  number. 

Numbers  were  used  symbolically  and  con- 
ventionally. Three  had  ajiparently  no  sym- 
bolism ;  but  emphasis  was  cimventionally  ex- 
pressed by  it;  as  "The  temple  of  the  Lord, 
the  temple  of  the  Lord,  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  are  these"  (Jer.  vii.  4),  "O  earth, 
earth,  earth"  (xxii.  29),  "I  will  overturn, 
overturn,  overturn  it"  (Ezek.  xxi.  27), 
"  Holy,  holy,  holy  "  (Is.  vi.  3),  and  the  triple 
blessiiig  (Num.  vi.  24-26).  The  threefold 
character  of  the  baptismal  formula  and  the 
apo.stolic  benediction  resulted  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  (Mat.  xxviii.  19 ;  2  Cor. 
xiii.  14).  Four  does  not  play  an  important 
l)art.  Four  corners  or  quarters  of  the  earth 
were  recognized,  north,  south,  east,  and  west 
(Is.  xi.  12),  and  hence  four  winds  (Dan.  vii. 
2),  and  four  chariots  (Zech.  vi.  1,  5).  Seven 
was  early  a  sacred  number  among  the  Sem- 
ites (Gen.  ii.  2 ;  iv.  24  ;  xxi.  28).  It  did  not 
derive  its  character  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
equal  to  three  plus  four.  Not  arithmetical, 
but  religious  considerations  were  involved  ; 
see  Sabbath.  Ten  was  recognized  as  a  com- 
plete number,  and  was  constantly  used  as 
such  ;  there  were  ten  commandments  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  28),  ten  antediluvian  and  ten  post- 
diluvian patriarchs  (see  Chronology),  and 
a  tenfold  division  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
Twelve  was  the  basis  of  the  duodecimal  sys- 
tem of  the  Babylonians,  and  as  a  result  found 
employment  in  common  life.  Something  of 
it  was  probably  inherited  by^  the  Hebrews, 
and  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  tribes 
of  Israel  were  twelve.  Forty  was  a  round 
number  much  in  vogue  (Ex.  xxiv.  18  ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  8  :  Jonah  iii.  4  ;  Mat.  iv.  2  ;  and  Chro- 
nology III. 

Num'bers. 

The  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  In 
tlie  Hebrew  Scrijitures  it  is  named  "  In  the 
wilderness"  (see  Num.  i.  1).  Its  modern 
designation  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators, and  was  chosen  on  account  of  the  two 
<'numerations  of  tlie  peo|)le  which  the  book 
relates;  the  first  at  Sinai  in  the  second  year 


of  the  exodus,  the  second  on  the  Jordan  in 
the  fortieth  year. 

It  may  be  divided  into  three  main  sections  : 

1.  In  the  wilderness  at  Sinai  ii.  1-x.  11). 
Census  of  the  people,  exclusive  of  the  Le- 
vites,  with  assignment  of  a  place  for  each 
tribe  in  the  encampment  (i..  ii.);  census  of 
the  Levites,  their  location  in  the  camp,  and 
specific  duties  (iii.,iv.)  The  unclean  re- 
moved from  the  camp  (v.  1-4).  Law  that 
the  restitution  for  a  trespass  go  to  the  priest 
in  case  the  person  wronged,  to  whom  it  or- 
dinarily went,  has  died  and  is  without  heirs 
(5-10).  Laws  about  jealousy  and  Nazirites, 
and  form  of  the  priest's  blessing  (v.  11-vi.). 
Oflfering  of  the  princes  at  the  dedication  of 
the  tabernacle  (vii.).  The  place  of  the  seven 
lamps  (viii.  1-4).  Consecration  of  the  Levites 
(5-22),  and  the  age  of  entering  service  (23- 
26) ;  see  Levites.  Observance  of  the  pass- 
over  and  law  of  the  supplementary  celebra- 
tion (ix.  1-14).  The  guiding  pillar  of  cloud 
(15-23)  and  silver  signal  trumpets  (x.  1-10  . 

2.  On  the  way  from  Sinai  to  the  Jordan 
(x.  11-xxi.  35").  Order  of  march  (x.  11-28). 
Hobab  invited  to  go  with  Israel  (29-32).  A 
stage  of  the  journey  (33,  34).  Words  used 
when  the  ark  set  forward  and  when  it  rested 
(35,36).  Murmurs  against  the  manna,  seventy 
elders  to  aid  Moses,  descent  of  quails  (xi.). 
Miriam's  leprosy  (xii.).  At  Kadesh :  the 
spies  and  their  report,  the  people  faithless 
and  condemned  to  die  in  the  wilderness 
(xiii.,  xiv.).  Supplementary  legal  specifica- 
tions (xv.).  Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram  ;  and  related  events  (xvi.,  xvii.) ; 
in  consequence,  duties  and  privileges  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  atfirmed  (xviii.).  Law 
for  purification  of  those  defiled  by  contact 
with  a  dead  body  (xix.).  Return  to  Kadesh  : 
death  of  Miriam,  sin  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
embassy  to  Edom  (xx.  1-21).  Death  of  Aaron, 
journey  from  mount  Hor  around  Edom  to 
plains  of  Moab,  fiery  serpents,  conquest  of 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  (xx.  22-xxi. 
35).  3.  At  Shittim  opposite  Jericho  (xxii.  1- 
xxxvi.  13).  Balaam  (xxii. -xxiv.).  Sin  of 
Baal-peor  (xxv.).  Census  of  the  new  gener- 
ation (xxvi.).  Laws  regarding  inheritance 
by  daughters  (xxvii.  1-11).  Public  announce- 
ment of  Joshua  as  Moses'  successor  (12-23). 
Further  regulation  of  the  daily  ofieringsand 
of  vows  (xxviii. -XXX.).  War  with  Midian 
(xxxi.).  Assignment  of  the  conquered  coun- 
try east  of  Jordan  to  the  Reubenites,  Gadites, 
and  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (xxxii.).  Itiner- 
ary from  Egypt  to  Shittim  (xxxiii.).  Bound- 
aries of  the  land  and  a  commission  on  allot- 
ment (xxxiv.).  Laws  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(xxxv.).  Supplementary  law  concerning  in- 
heritance by  daughters  (xxxvi.). 

The  book  of  Numbers  is  recognized  by  all 
schools  of  criticism  to  reflect  the  same  social 
conditions  and  laws  as  Leviticus. 

Nu-me'ni-us  [pertaining  to  the  ncwmoon], 
A  Jew,  son  of  Antiochus  and  t\  memberof 


Nun 


0-17 


Oath 


the  senate  (Autiq.  xiil.  5.  8),  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Rome  and  Sparta  in  144  B.  c.  by  Jona- 
than Maccabsens,  and  dispati-hcd  a  second 
time  to  Rome  by  Simon  in  140  b.  c.  (1  Mac. 
xii.  16  ;  xiv.  24  ;  xv.  15). 

Nun,  in  A.  V.  and  Hebrew  text  ojiee  Non 
(1  Chron.  vii.  27)  [tisb]. 

1.  Father  of  Joshua,  the  military  leader 
(Ex.  xxxiii.  11 :  Josh.  i.  1 ),  descended  through 
Tahan  and  perhaps  Beriah  from  Kphraim 
(1  Chron.  vii.  27). 

2.  The  fourteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  N  has  the  same  origin 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  heads  the  fourteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix., 
in  which  section  each  verse  of  the  original 
begins  with  this  letter. 

Nurse. 

1.  A  wet  nurse,  meneketh,  emj)loyed  to 
suckle  an  infant  (Ex.  ii.  7-9;  2  Kiu.  xi.  2). 
Deborah,  who  had  nursed  Rebekah,  remained 
an  honored  servant  in  the  family  (Gen.  xxiv. 
59 ;  XXXV.  8),  as  was  frequently  the  case 
(Odyssey  xix.  15,  251). 

2.  A  male  or  female  attendant,  'omen,  who 
acted  as  nui-se,  i.  e.,  had  the  care  of  small 
children,  either  when  infants  (Num.  xi.  12; 
Ruth  iv.  16)  or  when  older  but  still  helpless 
(2  Sam.  iv.  4). 

Nuts. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Boinim, 
pistachio  nuts  (Gen.  xliii.  11,  R.  V.  margin). 
The  true  pistachio  tree  (Pistaciarera)  belongs 
to  the  order  Anacardiacete  (anacards  or  tere- 
binths). Its  leaves  have,  as  a  rule,  three  or  four 
leaflets.  Its  fruit,  which  is  a  little  less  than 
an  inch  in  diameter,  consists  of  a  bony  shell 
surrounded  bj'  a  dry  covering  and  enclosing 
a  sweet,  somewhat  oily  kernel.  The  nuts  are 
eaten  like  almonds  or  used  for  making  con- 
fectionery. It  is  a  native  of  western  Asia, 
from  which  it  has  been  introduced  into 
southern  Europe.  It  is  not  now  common  in 
Palestine.  Jacob  sent  some  of  its  fruit, 
with  other  vegetable  produce,  as  a  present  to 
the  Egyjitiau  prime  minister  (Gen.  xliii.  11). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
"f/os.  walnut  (Song  vi.  11).  The  walnut  tree 
{Juglans  reqia),  in  America  distinguished  as 
the  English  walnut,  is  native  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  mountains  of  northern  India. 
It  is  cultivated  in  Galilee  and  along  the 
slopes  of  Lebanon  and  of  Hermou. 

Nym'phas  [sacred  to  the  muses]. 
A   Christian   at    Laodicea    or    Colossse,   to 
whom  Paul  sent  salutation  (Col.  iv.  15). 


0. 


Oak. 

1.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Elah, 
a  strong  tree.  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
fifteen  passages  of  the  O.  T.  In  three  of 
tliese  it  serves  as  a  geographical  designation 
and  is  treated  as  a  i)roper  name,  valley  of 


Elah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  19;  xxi.  9;  R.  V.  mar- 
gin, terebinth  .  In  two  passages,  where  it  is 
associated  with  anotiu-r  word,  \ill<ni,  which 
is  rendcnnl  oak,  it  is  translated  ter('l)inth  iir 
R.  v.,  ))Ut  teil  tree  and  elms  in  A.  V.  (Is.  vi. 
i:];  Hos.  iv.  115).  In  tjie  reniuiniiig  ten  pas- 
sages it  is  rendered  oak,  with  tereltinth  on 
the  margin  of  R.  V. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Ilelircw  'Eton,. 
strong  one,  in  the  text  of  nine  ])a.ssages  of 
the  R.  v.,  terebinth  being  ]ilaced  on  the 
margin.  The  A.  V.,  following  the  Targums 
and  Vulgate,  uniformly  renders  'don,  by 
l)lain,  but  on  the  margin  of  Judg.  ix.  6  it 
substitutes  oak.  There  were  tlie  oak  of 
Moreh  ((ien.  xii.  6:  Dent.  xi.  .30),  the  oak  of 
Mamre  (({en.  xiii.  18 ;  xiv.  13;  xviii.  1),  the 
oak  in  Zaauannim  (Judg.  iv.  11),  the  oak  of 
the  j)illar  that  was  in  Shechem  (ix.  6),  the 
oak  of  the  augurs  (ix.  .37,  R.  V.  margin),  and 
the  oak  of  Tabor  (1  Sam.  x.  3). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  ^El, 
strong  tree,  in  Is.  i.  29. 

4.  The  uniform  and  doubtless  correct  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  word  'Allon.  It  occurs 
in  eight  passages,  and  was  a  species  of  oak 
a,ssociated  with  Bashan  (Is.  ii.  13;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  6  ;  Zech.  xi.  2).  Under  a  tree  of  this 
species  near  Bethel  Deborah,  Re bekah's  nurse, 
was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8).  It  was  probably 
the  prickly  oak  (Quercus  coccifera)  ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  Abraham. 

5.  The  rendering,  probably  correct,  of  the 
Hebrew  word  'Allah  (Josh.  xxiv.  26). 

Oak  is  the  meaning  of  'alhn,  for  it  was  a 
characteristic  tree  of  Bashan.  'EInh  differed 
from  it  (Is.  vi.  13  ;  Hos.  iv.  13),  and  hence  is 
probably  the  terebinth  ;  and  the  three  re- 
lated words,  'elah,  'el,  and  'elov,  may  denote 
three  kinds  of  terebinth.  They  may,  how- 
ever, designate  any  large  tree,  and  not  spec- 
ify the  terel)inth  in  particular.  Several 
species  of  oak  grow  in  Palestine.  Qiieirii,H 
sessUiJiora  grows  high  up  on  Lebanon  and  in 
the  Hauran.  Four  varieties  of  the  prickly 
evergreen  oak  {Q.  coccifera)  occur:  one  is  Q. 
pseudococcifera,  and  is  found  on  Carmel,  in 
Gilead,  and  in  Bashan,  often  being  of  mag- 
nificent growth ;  another  is  Q.  cdiliprinoK, 
which  is  found  in  Lebanon,  on  Tabor,  and  in 
Gilead.  Valonia  oak  {Q.  wijilops)  is  decidu- 
ous.    It  is  common  in  tialilee  and  Gilead. 

Oath. 

An  appeal  to  God  in  attestation  of  the 
truth  of  a  statement  or  of  the  binding  char- 
acter of  a  promise  ((Jen.  xxi.  23;  xxxi.  53; 
Gal.  i.  20:  Heb.  vi.  16).  Its  violation  was 
an  oflTense  against  God  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  13; 
Ezek.  xvii.  13,  18).  Sometimes  tlie  appeal 
was  to  the  sovereign  or  other  sacred  object 
(Gen.  xlii.  15;  2  Sam.  xi.  11  ;  Mat.  v.  33; 
xxiii.  16-22).  Jehovah  condescended  to  con- 
firm his  i)romise  to  the  jiatriarch  by  an  oath, 
swearing  by  himself  (Gen.  xxii.  16  ;  Heb.  vi. 
13-20).  An  oath  was  commonly  made  by 
lifting    the   hand    unto  God    ((U'n.   xiv.  22; 


Obadiah 


548 


Obadiah 


Ezek.  XX.  5,  6 ;  Kev.  x.  5 ;  Homer,  Iliad  xix. 
254),  but  it  was  sometimes  made  by  placiug 
the  hand  under  the  thigh  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  promise  was  made  (Gen.  xxiv.  2; 
xlvii.  29),  probably  as  an  invocation  of  the 
l)ost«3rity,  which  should  proceed  from  tlie 
loins,  to  guard  the  oath  and  avenge  its  viola- 
tion. The  oath  was  occasionally  taken  before 
the  altar  (1  Kin.  viii.  31).  Abraham  gave 
Abimelech  seven  ewe  lambs  as  witness  of  the 
oath  (Gen.  xxi.  27-31).  An  oath  was  some- 
times intensified  by  slaying  an  animal,  divid- 
ing it  into  two  parts,  and  passing  between  the 
pieces  (xv.  8-18).  Each  party  to  the  oath  in- 
voked npon  himself  the  fate  of  the  victim  if  he 
broke  the  covenant.  By  the  Mosaic  law,  in 
certain  judicial  investigations,  a  man  to  clear 
himself  was  required  to  swear  an  oath  of  the 
Lord  (Ex.  xxii.  11  ;  Num.  v.  19-22).  Any 
man  swearing  an  oath  or  making  a  vow  to 
God  was  required  to  carry  out  his  promise, 
as  was  a  woman,  if  being  a  virgin  her  liither 
did  not  disallow  her  oath  when  she  uttered 
it,  or  being  married  her  husband  did  not  in- 
terfere. If  she  was  a  widow,  or  iiad  been 
divorced,  her  oath  stood  (Num.  xxx.).  If 
anyone  swore  falsely  by  the  name  of  the  true 
God,  he  profaned  the  divine  name  (Lev. 
vi.  3;  xix.  12;  cp.  Is.  xlviii.  1  ;  Jer.  xii.  16; 
Mai.  iii.  5) ;  and  no  one  was  under  any  circum- 
stances to  swear  by  a  false  god  (Josh,  xxiii. 
7).  The  man  is  commended  in  Ps.  xv.  4  who 
does  not  change,  although  he  has  sworn  to 
his  hurt.  Our  Lord  condemned  the  use 
of  oaths,  even  when  taken  with  the  best  in- 
tention, declaring  that  whatever  went  be- 
yond "yea,  yea,  or  nay,  nay,"  was  of  the 
evil  one  (Mat.  v.  33-37).  He  was  delivering 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  and  correcting 
various  perversittns  of  the  law  which  the 
.scribes  had  introduced  ;  and  among  other 
evils,  he  condemned  swearing  in  ordinary 
communications  between  man  and  man.  But 
the  judicial  oath  is  lawful;  for  it  was  en- 
joined by  God  (Ex.  xxii.  11),  and  Christ 
liimself  did  not  hesitate  to  answer  when  he 
was  put  upon  his  oath  by  the  high  priest 
(Mat.  xxvi.  ()3).  The  oath  was  recognized  as 
lawful  by  the  apostles  also,  for  they  called  on 
God  to  witness  to  tlietrutli  of  what  they  said 
(2  Cor.  xi.  31;  Gal.  i.  20).  The  mischief 
wliicli  may  arise  from  a  rash  oath  was  well 
ilhistrated  in  that  of  Herod  the  tetrarch, 
which  made  hiiri  against  his  will  the  niur- 
derer  of  Jolui  tlie  Baptist  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12). 

O-ba-di'all  [worshiper  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  of  Jssachar,  family  of  Tola,  house 
of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  vii.  3). 

2.  A  Gadite  hero  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

3.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  Zebnlunites 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

4.  A   descendant  of    Jonathan    (1   Chron. 
viii.  38  ;   ix.  44). 

5.  The   governor   of    Ahab's   palace,    wlio 
during  the  persecution  of  Jehovah's  projihets 


by  queen  Jezebel,  hid  a  hundred  prophets,  in 
two  companies  of  fifty,  in  a  cave  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  3,  4).  He  was  sent  by  his  royal  master 
to  look  for  grass  for  the  horses  and  mules 
during  the  great  drought,  and  while  so  en- 
gaged fell  in  with  Elijah,  who  persuaded  him 
to  announce  to  the  king  the  presence  of  the 
prophet  (5-1(5).  Elijah's  interview  with  the 
king  led  to  the  contest  at  C'armel,  which  was 
followed  by  the  slaughter  of  Baal's  prophets. 

6.  One  of  the  princes  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to 
teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7). 

7.  A  projjhet  of  Judah  (Obad.  1).  Jo- 
sephns  believed  that  he  was  the  God-fearing 
Obadiah  of  Ahab's  palace,  but  the  prophet 
probably  lived  at  least  a  century  after  Ahab. 

The  book  of  Obadiah  is  the  fourth  of  the 
minor  prophets.  It  consists  of  a  solitary 
chapter,  and  foretells  the  destruction  of 
Edom  (1-9)  aud  the  reason  of  it.  namely, 
Edom's  unbrotherly  attitude  toward  the 
children  of  Jacob  (10,  11),  warns  Edom  ac- 
cordingly not  to  exult  over  the  children  of 
Judah  in  their  distress  (12-16),  aud  predicts 
the  deliverance  and  enlargement  of  Israel 
(17-21).  The  entire  prophecy  derives  its  in- 
centive and  strength  from  the  great  truth, 
clearly  discerned  by  other  holy  men  of 
God  as  well  as  by  Obadiah.  that  the  day  of 
Jehovah  is  coming  upon  all  nations  (15)  to 
the  destruction  of  every  foe,  native  and  for- 
eign, of  God's  rule  on  earth  ;  aud  the  king- 
dom shall  be  Jehovah's  (21 ;  cp.  Is.  ii.  12,  17, 
20,  21 ;  X.  12-19 ;  Joel  iii.  12-21 ;  Amos  v. 
18  ;  ix.  8-15;  Micah  iv.  11-13). 

Much  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the  date  of 
the  prophecy.  I.  It  is  very  generally  as- 
cribed to  the  Chaldean  period,  when  Jeru- 
salem was  alternately  subject  to  the  kir.g  of 
Egypt  and  the  king  of  Babylon,  and  was 
finally  captured  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in-  587 
B.  c,  razed  to  the  ground,  and  its  inhab- 
itants carried  into  captivity.  This  view  is 
based  on  the  description  of  Judah's  calamity 
(10-16),  and  the  fact  is  appealed  to  that 
Edom  gave  its  sympathy  to  Babylon  at  this 
crisis  (Ps.  cxxxvii.  7)  and  prophets  of  the 
time  severely  denounced  Edom  (Jer.  xlix. 
7-22;  Ezek.  xxv.  12-14;  xxxv.).  II.  The 
prophecy  may,  however,  be  much  earlier,  for 
1.  No  allusion  is  made  to  the  striking  feat- 
ures of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  the  burning  of 
the  temple,  the  raz  ng  of  the  walls,  and  an- 
nihilation of  the  city.  2.  The  relation  of 
verses  1-9  to  Jer.  xlix.  7-22.  It  is  generally 
cojiceded  that  the  unity  and  movement  of 
Obadiah's  thought  and  the  general  nature  of 
the  resemblance  between  the  tw'o  jtassages 
indicate  Jeremiah's  dependence  on  Obadiah. 
3.  The  hostile  attitude  of  Edom  was  of  long 
standing  (Ezek.  xxxv.  5),  and  the  feeling 
against  Edom  expressed  by  Obadiah  was 
voiced  by  Amos  more  than  a  century  before 
the  C'haidean  invasion  (Amos  i.  6,  9,  espe- 
cially 11,  12;  ix.  12;  cp.  Joel  iii.  19).  4.  Par- 
ticular historical  conditions,  which  are  pre- 
supposed by  the  prophet,  existed  as  early  as 


Obal 


549 


Oblation 


the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Jerusalem  had  been 
plundered  several  times;  it  had  been  en- 
tered and  ravaged  by  Arabians  and  Pliilis- 
tines  in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
Ifi,  17;  ep.  Amos  i.  6);  and  in  the  reign  of 
Amaziah,  who  slaughtered  tlie  Edomites,  the 
king  of  Israel  entered  Jerusalem,  broke 
down  the  northern  portion  of  tlie  city  wall, 
plundered  temple  and  palace,  and  carried  off 
hostages  (2  Kin.  xiv.  14,  17;  2  Chron.  .\xv. 
11,  12,  23.24).  These  events  may  we'll  have 
called  forth  those  manifestations  of  Edom's 
unbrotherly  spirit,  which  Obadiah  rebukes. 
In  that  case  the  prophecy  would  date  from 
about  791  B.  c,  and  antedate  Joel  (cp.  Obad. 
17;  Joel  ii.  32;  see  Joel)  ;  but  if  it  does,  its 
position  after  Joel  is  a  marked  departure 
from  the  prevailiug  chronological  order  of 
the  minor  prophets.  III.  The  book  may, 
however,  be  approximately  in  its  proper 
chronological  place,  and  accordingly  date 
from  the  time  of  Ahaz.  For  calamities  befell 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz:  the  king  of 
Damascus  wrested  Edom  from  Judah,  the 
king  of  Israel  ravaged  to  the  gates  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  Pliilistines  took  the  cities  of  the 
lowland,  and  .\haz  stripped  the  temple  of  its 
treasures  to  buy  aid  from  the  king  of  Assyria, 
did  homage  to  this  foreigner,  and  made 
Judah  a  vassal  state,  Israelites  also  were 
carried  into  captivity  (Ol)ad.  20;  Amos  i  6, 
9;  cp.  1  Chron.  v.  2(i) ;  then  the  Edomite  did 
violence  to  his  brother  .Jacob,  refrained  from 
extending  aid,  and  became  as  one  of  Judah's 
enemies  i2  Chron.  xxviii.  17;  2  Kin.  xvi.  6, 
R.  V.  7uargin';  01)ad.  10.  11).  Tlie  year  731 
B.  C.  or  slightly  earlier-,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
wlien  Judah  was  so  deeply  humiliated,  was 
an  appropriate  time  for  Obadiah  to  take  up 
his  prophecy  against  the  Edomites,  rebuke 
them  for  their  indifference  to  Judah's  woes 
and  for  their  open  hostilitj^  in  the  past  and 
present,  and  warn  them  not  to  exult  over 
Judah's  pre*ient  distress,  for  their  own  time 
of  punishment  is  coming. 

8.  A  Levite,  one  of  tlie  overseers  over  the 
workmen  who  repaired  the  temple  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

9.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

10.  A  descendant  of  Joab.  He  came  from 
Babylon  with  Ezra  {Ezra  viii.  9). 

11.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  made  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  5). 

12.  A  Levite,  apparently  founder  of  a 
family  of  porters  (Neh.  xii.  25).  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  Levite  Obadiah,  son  of  She- 
maiah  (1  Chron.  ix.  16),  called  Abda  in  Neh. 
xi.  17. 

O'toal  [corpulence]. 

A  iieople  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
28).  'Abil  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest 
tribes  of  Arabia  (Delitzscb)  and  of  a  district 
in  Yemen  (Halevy).  Bochart  suggests  Pliny's 
Avalitaj  on  the  African  coast,  near  the  straits 


of  Bab  el-Mandeb.  In  1  Chron.  i.  22  the 
name  is  written  Ebal.  jod  being  u.sed  iUhUad 
of  vau.  These  letters  were  often  confused 
by  copyists. 

O'bed  [server,  worshijier]. 

1.  Son  of  E])hlal,  of  the  house  of  Jerah- 
meel,  tribe  of  .ludali  (1  Cliron.  ii.  .37). 

2.  Son  of  Hoaz  and  Kutli,  and  grandfather 
of  David  (Kuth  iv.  17,  21,  22). 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron. 
xi.  47). 

4.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  doorkeepers,  son 
of  Shemaiah,  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  7). 

5.  The  father  of  a  certain  Azariah,  in  the 
time  of  Athaliah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

O-bed-e'dom  [serving  Edom,  or  Edom  is 
serving]. 

1.  A  Gittite,  that  is  a  native  either  of  the 
Philistine  Gath,  and,  if  so.  pr(il)al)Iy  a  mem- 
ber of  David's  bodyguard,  or  else  of  the  Ix^- 
vitical  city  of  Gath-rimmon  in  Dan.  He 
lived  between  Kirjath-jearim  ami  Jerusiilem, 
near  the  spot  where  Uzzah  was  striu'k  dead 
for  touching  the  ark.  The  ark  was  there- 
fore taken  to  his  house  by  David's  order, 
where  it  remained  three  months,  blessings 
attending  him  and  his  familj-  for  giving  it 
accommodation  (2  Sam.  vi.  10-12;  1  Cliron. 
xiii.  13,  14 ;  xv.  25).  If  a  Levite,  he  is 
doubtless  identical  with  Obed-edom  the  Kor- 
ahite  (.see  number  3).  The  Korahites  were  a 
division  of  the  Kohathite  family  to  which 
Gath-rimmon  was  assigned,  and  the  state- 
ment that  (Tdd  blessed  him  ( 1  Chron.  xxvi.  5) 
seems  to  refer  to  1  Chron.  xiii.  14  and  2  Sam. 
Yi.  11. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  .second  degree,  who 
with  others  acted  as  doorkee])er  for  the  ark, 
and  was  moreover  a  musician  who  played 
the  harp  at  the  removal  of  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  erected  for  the  ark  (1  Chron.  xv.  18, 
21  ;  xvi.  5). 

3.  A  Levite,  who  as  doorkeeper  marched 
in  front  of  the  ark  at  its  removal  to  Jerii-sa- 
leni  (1  Cbroii.  xv.  24).  He  is  j>robably  one 
with  Obed-edom,  sou  of  Jedutliun,  a  door- 
keeper for  the  ark  in  the  tent  at  Jerusalem 
(xvi.  38),  and  wIki  is  generally,  tlmugh  on 
uncertain  grounds,  held  to  be  the  person 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  clause  of  the 
verse.  He  appears  to  be  01)ed-edom  the 
Korahite  (xxvi.  1,  4;  cj).  also  10  with  xvi. 
38),  whose  sons  and  grandsons,  with  their 
brethren,  sixty-two  in  number,  were  among 
the  ninety-three,  of  whom  the  courses  were 
formed  in  David's  reign  (xxvi.  8).  Tlieir 
station  was  at  the  southern  gate  (15).  The 
family  was  still  on  duty  in  the  reign  of 
Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  24). 

O'bil  [a  camel  keeper]. 
An  Ishmaolite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
camels  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 
Ob-la'tion.     See  OFKEKixci. 


Oboth 


550 


Offerings 


O'botli  fwater  skins]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  before  their 
arrival  in  the  desert  east  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  10,  11  ;  xxxiii.  43,  44).  Situation  un- 
known. 

Och'ran,  in  A.  V.  Ocran  [troubled]. 

An  Asherite,  father  of  Pagiel  (Num.  1. 
13). 

O'ded  [he  hath  restored]. 

1.  Father  of  the  prophet  Azariah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  1).  In  ver.  8  the  text  is  evidently  cor- 
rupt. 

2.  An  Israelite  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
Pekah.  Meeting  the  army  of  the  northern 
kingdom  returning  from  battle  with  many 
captives  of  Judah,  the  prophet  remonstrated 
with  them  on  their  unbrotherly  conduct, 
and  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  called  on  them 
to  send  the  captives  home.  His  words  pro- 
duced a  great  effect.  Some  of  the  leading 
men  in  Samaria,  persuaded  by  him  as  to  the 
path  of  duty,  refused  to  allow  the  army  to 
bring  the  prisoners  inside  the  city.  They 
then  clothed  the  naked,  fed  the  hungry,  and, 
mounting  the  feeble  on  asses,  took  them  to 
Jericho,  and  handed  them  over  to  their 
countrymen  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  9-15). 

Od-o-me'ra,  in  A.  V.  Od-o-nar'kes. 

Chief  of  a  nomad  tribe,  or  possildy  an 
officer  under  Bacchides,  whom  Jonathan 
Maccabfeus  smote  (1  Mac.  ix.  66). 

Of  fer-ings. 

Offerings  to  God  of  various  kinds  can  be 
traced  from  the  dawn  of  human  history.  In 
the  O.  T.  alone  there  are  mentioned  among 
others  of  early  times  the  vegetable  offering 
(Gen.  iv.  3),  the  sacrifice  of  the  firstling  of 
the  flock  (iv.  4),  the  burnt  offering  (viii.  20; 
Ex.  X.  25),  the  sacrificial  meal  (Gen.  xxxi. 
54),  and  the  drink  offering  (xxxv.  14).  An 
elaborate  ritual  of  sacrifice  existed  among 
the  great  nations  of  antiquity,  notably  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  long  before  the  days 
of  Moses. 

Offerings  of  many  kinds  to  God  con.stituted 
a  marked  feature  of  the  Israelitish  worship. 
Extended  information  on  the  subject  is  found 
in  Lev.  i.-vii.,  but  not  there  exclusively. 
Otterings  were  of  two  classes,  public  and 
private,  according  as  they  were  ofl'ered  at 
the  expense  of  the  nation  or  of  an  individ- 
ual, and  they  were  of  three  kinds:  drink 
offerings,  vegetable  or  meal  offerings,  and 
animal  ofl'erings  or  sacrifices.  The  shedding 
of  blood  was  a  necessary  accompaniment  of 
every  offering  made  in  accordance  with  the 
religion  of  .lehovali.  Without  it  there  is  no 
remission  of  sins  ;  'ind  hence  a  bloodless  offer- 
ing could  not  l)e  accepted  from  man,  for  man 
by  nature  and  practice  is  a  sinner  and  has  no 
right  to  approach  God.  It  is  true  that  in 
certain  cases,  such  as  extreme  poverty,  a 
bloodless  (tfi'cring  was  permitted  ;  but  it  was 
made  and  accepted  only  in  connection  with 
the  blood  of  the  great  public  altar  (Lev.  ii.  2, 
8 ;  V.  11-13). 


The  drink  offering  was  not  independent 
under  the  law.  It  was  made  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  meal  offering  which  accom- 
panied all  burnt  offerings,  except  perhaps 
that  of  Lev.  xii.  6,  and  all  peace  offerings 
which  were  Nazirite,  votive  or  freewill 
(Num.  vi.  17  ;  xv.  1-12).  It  was  excluded 
from  sin  and  trespass  offerings. 

The  vegetable  offering,  called  meat  offer- 
ing in  A.  V.  and  meal  ofl'ering  in  R.  V.,  con- 
sisted of  white  meal,  or  of  unleavened  bread, 
cakes,  wafers,  or  of  ears  of  grain  roasted, 
always  with  salt  and,  except  iu  the  sin  offer- 
ing, with  olive  oil  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4,  13,  14  ;  v. 
11).  It  might  form  an  independent  offering : 
and  part  might  be  placed  on  the  altar  and 
the  rest  belong  to  the  priest,  as  in  private 
voluntary  offerings  (ii.),  and  when  accepted  as 
a  sin  offering  from  the  very  poor  in  lieu  of  an 
animal  (v.  11-13)  ;  or  else  the  whole  might  be 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  this  latter  case  it 
corresponded  to  the  burnt  ofl'ering;  and  was 
made  at  the  consecration  of  the  high  priest 
and  at  the  cleansing  of  the  leper  (vi.  19-23  ; 
xiv.  10,  20).  Or  the  vegetable  offering  might 
be  subordinate,  an  accominuiinient  of  a  sacri- 
fice. It  was  thus  the  invarial)le  concdiniTant 
of  the  burnt  offering,  except  jierhaps  that  of 
Lev.  xii. ;  and  of  peace  offerings,  except  those 
obligatory  at  the  feast  of  weeks.  In  these 
cases,  according  to  tradition,  it  was  entirely 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  other  cases,  part 
was  placed  on  the  altar  and  the  rest  went  to 
the  priest ;  namely,  the  wafers  at  the  conse- 
cration of  priests  (viii.  26-28),  in  the  thank 
offering  (vii.  12-15),  and  at  the  release  of  the 
Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  13-20). 

Animal  ofl'erings  or  sacrifices  called  for 
cattle,  sheep  and  goats  of  both  sexes,  rarely 
for  doves.  The  animal  was  required  to  be 
free  from  blemish  and  at  least  eight  days 
old.  Sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds,  in  each 
of  which  the  blood  made  atonement  (Lev.  1. 
4;  xvii.  11).  1.  The  burnt  ofl'ering,  for 
which  a  male  lamb,  ram,  goat,  or  bullock 
was  prescribed.  The  case  in  1  Sam.  vi.  14 
was  extraordinary.  The  blood  was  sprinkled 
round  about  upon  the  altar,  and  the  entire 
animal  was  consumed  on  the  altar.  It  was 
expressive  of  the  entire  self-dedication  of 
the  ofl'erer  to  Jehovah.  2.  The  sin  ofl'ering 
and  the  trespass  or  guilt  ofl'ering  ;  for  the  for- 
mer of  which  a  bullock,  a  male  or  female  goat, 
a  female  lamb,  a  dove,  or  a  pigeon  was  used 
(Lev.  iv.  4,  23,  28,  32  ;  v.  7),  while  for  the 
latter  a  ram  was  prescribed  or,  iu  the  case  of 
the  leper  and  the  Nazirite,  a  male  lamb  (vi. 
6  ;  xiv.  12,  21  ;  Num.  vi.  12).  The  blood  was 
symbolically  displayed,  but  in  difl'erent  ways. 
In  the  sin  ofl'ering  a  portion  of  the  blood  was 
sprinkled  before  the  Lord  and  smeared  on  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  incense,  and  the  rest 
was  poured  out  at  the  base  of  the  altar  of 
burnt  ofl'ering,  when  the  sin  had  been  com- 
mitted by  the  high  priest  or  the  nation  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  other  sinners,  a  part  was  put 
on  the  altar  of  burnt  ofleriug,  and  the  rest 


Offerings 


551 


OU 


was  poured  out  as  before  (Lev.  iv.  6,  7,  17,  18, 
25,  30,  34).  In  the  trespjiss  offering  all  the 
blood  wa.s  scattered  over  tlie  altar.  The  fat 
only  was  burnt  on  the  altar.  The  flesh  of  those 
sin  oflerings  of  which  the  blood  was  taken 
into  the  sanctuary  was  burnt  without  the 
camp,  whereas  the  flesh  of  other  sin  offer- 
ings and  of  trespass  offerings  belonged  to  the 
priests  (Lev.  vi.  26,  30  ;  vii.  C,  7 ;  ep.  Ex. 
xxix.  14;  Lev.  iv.  3,  12,  1.3,  21;  xvi.  27; 
Heb.  xiii.  11,  12).  No  part  of  these  offerings 
■was  eaten  by  the  offerer,  as  in  the  peace  offer- 
ings ;  for  the  sacrificer  came  as  one  unworthy 
of  communion  with  God,  and  these  offerings 
were  for  purposes  of  expiation.  The  sin 
offering  was  made  for  sins  of  wliich  the  ef- 
fect terminates  primarily  on  the  sinner ;  the 
trespass  offering  for  sins  of  which  the  effects 
terminate  primarily  on  another,  and  for 
■which,  in  addition  to  the  sacrifice,  restitution 
was  made  through  the  hands  of  the  priest  to 
the  person  injured  or,  in  case  of  his  death 
without  heirs,  to  the  priest  i  Lev.  v.  IH  ;  vi.  .5 ; 
Num.  v. 7, 8).  Butsins  committed  deliberately 
and  for  which  the  penalty  was  death  could 
not  be  expiated  (Num.  xv.  30,  31).  Atone- 
ment could  be  made  for  unintentional  sins  ; 
for  non-capital  sins,  like  theft,  for  which 
punishment  had  been  endured  and  restitu- 
tion made  ;  and  for  sins  which  the  guilty 
one  voluntarily  confessed  and  for  which  he 
made  compensation  when  possible.  3.  The 
peace  offering.  Three  kinds  are  distin- 
guished :  the  thank  offering  in  recognition  of 
•unmerited  and  unexpected  blessings ;  the 
votive  offering,  in  payment  of  a  vow ;  and 
the  freewill  offering,  probably  not  in  grati- 
tude for  a  special  favor,  but  as  an  expression 
of  irrepressible  love  for  God  (Lev.  iii.).  Peace 
ofierings  might  also  be  prompted  by  the  felt 
need  of  renewing  peaceful  communion  with 
■God  (Judg.  XX.  26  ;  xxi.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  25). 
Any  animal  authorized  for  sacrifice,  of  either 
sex,  might  be  used,  but  no  bird.  The  blood 
was  sprinkled  ;  the  fat  was  consumed  on  the 
altar  ;  and,  when  the  offering  was  private, 
the  breast  and  shoulder  went  to  the  priests, 
and  the  rest  of  the  flesh  was  eaten  by  the 
offerer  and  his  friends  before  the  Lord  at  the 
place  of  the  sanctuarv  (Lev.  iii.,  vii.  11-21  : 
cp.  22-27  ;  Ex.  xxix.  20-28;  Deut.  xii.  7,  18  ; 
1  Sam.  ii.  15-17) ;  see  Wave  Offering.  The 
meal  before  Jehovah  was  a  eucharistic  feast. 
It  signified  that  Jehovah  was  present  as  a 
guest. 

The  sacrificial  acts  were  five  :  1.  Presenta- 
tion of  the  sacrifice  at  the  door  of  the  sanc- 
tuary by  the  offerer  himself  as  his  personal 
act.  2.  Laying  on  of  hands.  The  offerer 
placed  his  hands  on  the  victim's  head,  there- 
by dedicating  it  to  God  and  making  it  his 
own  representative  and  substitute  (cp.  Lev. 
xvi.  21)  ;  see  Laying  on  of  Hands.  3.  Slay- 
ing the  animal  by  the  offerer  himself,  who  thus 
symbolically  accepted  the  ])unishment  due  for 
his  sin.  In  later  times  the  priests  slew  the  ani- 
•nial.     4.  Symbolic  application  of  the  blood. 


The  priest  sprinkled  or  smeared  it  on  the  al- 
tar ana  poured  it  out  at  the  base.  In  specified 
cases  a  ]>art  was  jmt  on  the  offerer,  or  it  was 
sprinkled  before  the  veil  of  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  iv.  0),  or  carried  into  thi^  lioly  i>lace 
(vi.  30),  or  even  into  the  holy  of  holies  (xvi. 
14).  5.  Burning  the  sacrifice,  the  whole  of 
it  or  its  fat  only,  e-i  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing, whereby  its  essence  and  flavor  ascended 
to  God. 

Og. 

A  king  of  the  Amorites  of  Bashan  (Deut. 
iii.  1,8),  whose  rule  extended  from  the  Jabbok 
to  mount  Hermon  (8,  10  with  Num.  xxi.  23, 
24).  He  had  residences  at  both  Ashtarotli 
and  Edrei  (Josh.  xii.  4,  5;  xiii.  12).  He  was 
huge  of  stature,  the  last  of  the  Rephaim; 
and  had  an  iron  bedstead  or  sarcoi)hagus  of 
ironstone,  9  cubits  long  by  4  broad,  of  course 
longer  and  wider  than  its  occupant.  This 
relic  was  preserved  in  Rahhath  Aminoii 
(Deut.  iii.  11).  After  the  Israelites  had  con- 
quered Sihon,  they  left  their  families  and 
their  cattle  at  the  .secure  camj)  at  Pisgah,  and 
marched  against  Og.  They  defeated  and 
slew  him  at  Edrei  and  took  ])ossession  of  his 
country  (Num.  xxi.  20,  32-35;  Deut.  iii.  14). 
This  territory  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  13). 

O'had. 

A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15). 
He  did  not  found  a  tribal  family. 

O'hel  [a  tent]. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

O-ho'lah,  in  A.  V.  Aholah  [her  tent]. 

Samaria  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel  per- 
sonified as  a  woman  of  bad  character  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  1-49).  Her  name  typified  her  infidelity 
to  Jehovah. 

O-ho'li-ab,  in  A.  V.  Aholiab  [father's tent]. 

An  artificer  of  the  tril)e  of  Dan,  who  as- 
sisted Bezalel  in  making  furniture  for  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  6;  xxxv.  34,  35). 

0-hol'i-bah,  in  A.  V.  Abolibah  [my  tent 
is  in  her]. 

Jerusalem  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah  per- 
sonified  as  a  woman  of  bad  character  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  1-49),  although  possessing  Jehovah's 
tent. 

O-bol-i-ba'mah,  in  A.  V.  Aholibamab  [my 
tent  is  a  high  place]. 

A  wife  of  Esau,  daughter  of  Anah  the 
Hivite  I  Gen.  xxxvi.  2).  She  gave  name  to 
an  Edoinite  family,  organized  under  a  chief 
(41).  She  was  also  called  Judith,  the  praise- 
worthy (xxvi.  34;  cp.  Anah). 

Oil. 

The  oil  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  was 
chiefly  olive  oil.  The  fruit  of  the  olive 
ripens  in  the  autumn.  It  was,  and  is  still, 
obtained  by  shaking  the  tree  or  beating  it 
(Deut.  xxiv.  20;  and  Is.  xvii.  6;  xxiv.  13. 
K.  V.  text  and  margin).  The  oil  was  ex- 
|)ressed  from  the  berries  by  treailing  them 
with  the  foot  (Deut.  xxxiii.  24;  .Mic.  vi.  15), 


Oil  Tree 


552 


Old  Testament 


often  in  a  shallow  cavity  hewn  in  the  native 
rock,  or  by  crushing  them  in  a  basin  or  cir- 
cular trough  under  a  wheel,  collecting  the 
outUcwing  oil,  and  then,  in  order  to  secure 
every  drop  that  the  berries  contained,  squeez- 
ing the  pulj)  in  a  i)ress  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  expressed  oil  was  collected  in 
a  rock-hewn  vat  or  in  ajar,  and  the  impuri- 
ties were  allowed  to  settle.  The  fresh  oil 
was  specifically  known  to  the  Hebrews  as 
yishar  (cp.  Joel  ii.  24,  Hebrew  text).  Pure 
beaten  olive  oil  (Ex.  xxvii.  20  ;  xxix.  40)  was 
the  finest  in  quality.  Leaves,  twiss,  and 
dirt  having  been  removed,  the  olives  were 
beaten  to  pieces  and  crushed,  and  put  into  a 
basket,  and  the  oil  was  allowed  to  flow  out 
of  itself.  It  was,  as  it  were,  a  sort  of  first 
fruit,  obtained  before  the  pulp  was  placed 
under  the  press. 

Oil  was  so  important  a  product  of  Pal- 
estine that  oil  and  wine  are  frequently 
mentioned,  w'ith  or  even  without  grain, 
as  the  chief  harvest  gain  (Num.  xviii. 
12 ;  Dent.  vii.  i;^ ;  Neh.  x.  39 ;  xiii.  5, 
etc.).  Oil  was  used  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses, being  burned  in  lamps  (Ex.  xxv. 
G;  Mat.  xxv.  3).  Pure  beaten  olive  oil  was 
jirescribcd  for  the  continual  light  in  the  sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xxvii.  20).  Oil  was  used  for  food 
(lChron.xii.40  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  13).  It  was  mixed 
with  meal  and  made  into  bread  (1  Kin.  xvii. 
12) ;  and  cakes  of  fine  flour  mingled  with 
oil,  or  with  oil  poured  upon  them,  were  part 
of  the  meal  ofiFering  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4-7),  the  oil 
being  prescribed  probably  on  account  of  its 
common  use  in  food.  Oil  was  used  in  medi- 
cine for  mollifying  wounds  (Is.  i.  6;  Mark 
vi.  13).  Sometimes  wine  was  added  to  the 
oil,  as  was  done  by  the  good  Samaritan  in  the 
case  of  the  wounded  Israelite  (Luke  x.  34). 
Herod  was  put  in  a  bath  of  warm  oil  in  the 
hope  of  alleviating  his  disease  (War  i.  33,  5). 
Oil  was  used  as  a  cosmetic  for  anointing  the 
body,  especially  after  a  bath,  and  for  render- 
ing the  hair  smooth  (Ps.  xxiii.  5  ;  civ.  15  ;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  2).  Olive  oil  was  used  for  anoint- 
ing kings  (1  Sam.  x.  1  ;  xvi.  1,  13  ;  1  Kin.  i. 
39;  2  Kin.  ix.  1,  6)  ;  and  was  called  holy  be- 
cause employed  in  behalf  of  God  (Ps.  Ixxxix. 
20).  A  holy  oil  of  composite  and  expensive 
character  was  used  for  the  anointing  of  high 
priests.  The  tabernacle,  the  ark,  the  table, 
the  candlestick,  the  altar,  the  laver  and  its 
foot  were  also  anointed  with  the  same  pre- 
cious compound  (Ex.  XXX.  22-33). 

Oil  Tree. 

The  literal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
'Es  shemen,  tree  of  oil,  in  Is.  xli.  19.  The 
words  are  translated  olive  wood  (1  Kin.  vi. 
23.;  in  A.  V.  olive  tree)  and  wild  olive  (Neh. 
viii.  15;  in  A.  V.  pine  branch).  From  its 
wood  the  two  cherubim  in  the  oracle  of  Sol- 
omon's temple  were  made,  each  of  which 
was  ten  cubits  high  (1  Kin.  vi.  23,  26),  and 
also  the  doors  of  the  oracle  and  the  door 
posts  for  the  entrance  of  the  temple  (31-33). 
It  is  generally   believed  to  l)e  tlie  oleaster 


(Elxaftnus  hortensis),  sometimes  called  the 
wild  olive,  but  which,  though  it  has  a  certain 
superficial  resemblance  to  the  true  olive,  is 
not  really  akin  to  it.  The  oleaster  is  a  shrub 
or  tree.  It  yields  an  oil,  but  much  inferior 
to  that  of  the  olive.  It  is  abundant  in 
Palestine,  especially  near  Hebron,  Samaria, 
and  mount  Tabor.  Other  investigators  iden- 
tify the  oil  tree  with  Balavites  legi/ptiaca, 
which  is  called  saklum  by  the  Arabs,  and 
from  which  they  extract  an  oil.  But  it  now 
grows  around  the  Dead  Sea,  and  not  on  the 
mount  of  Olives  (Neh.  viii.  15). 

Oint'ment. 

Fragrant  ointments  were  highly  prized 
among  the  Hebrews  (Eccl.  vii.  1).  They  were 
used  in  dressing  the  hair  and  in  purifying  and 
perfuming  the  skin  (Esth.  ii.  12;  Eccl.  ix.  8i, 
and  Jesus  was  several  times  anointed  with 
ointment  brought  by  women  who  regarded 
him  with  adoration  (j\Iat.  xxvi.  6-13 ;  Luke 
vii.  36-50).  Ointments,  with  other  spices, 
were  employed  on  the  dead  body  and  in  em- 
balming (Luke  xxiii.  56).  Balm  of  tiilead 
and  eye  salve  were  used  in  medicine  (Jer. 
viii.  22;  Eev.  iii.  18).  In  the  ritual  an  oint- 
ment or  holy  oil  was  used,  composed  of 
myrrh,  cassia,  cinnamon,  calamus,  and  olive 
oil  (Ex.  XXX.  25).  In  Palestine  the  usual 
ointment  consisted  of  perfumed  olive  oil. 
The  Hebrew  word  for  oil  is  sometimes  ren- 
dered ointment  in  A.  V.  (2  Kin.  xx.  13),  and 
this  rendering  is  allowed  to  stand  in  E.  E.  V. 
in  Prov.  xxvii.  9;  Ecc.  vii.  1;  ix.  8;  x.  1; 
Song  i.  3;  iv.  10;  Is.  Ivii.  9;  Amos  vi.  6. 
See  Perfumery. 

Old  Tes'ta-ment. 

The  first  of  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  The  title 
was  borrowed  from  the  apostle  Paul,  who  in 
2  Cor.  iii.  14,  says:  "For  until  this  day  re- 
maineth  the  same  veil  untaken  away,  in  the 
reading  of  the  O.  T."  [in  E.  V.  covenant]. 
The  O.  T.  consists  of  thirty-nine  books 
which,  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in 
the  English  Bible,  naturally  divide  into 
three  classes  :  seventeen  historical  books 
(Genesis  to  Esther),  five  poetical  books  (Job 
to  Song  of  Solomon),  and  seventeen  projiheti- 
cal  books.  Poems  and  fragments  of  poems 
occur  in  the  historical  books  (Gen.  iv.  23,  24  ; 
ix.  2.V27  ;  xlix.  2-27  ;  Ex.  xv.  1-18;  Judg.  v.) ; 
projjhecy  also  is  found  in  the  historical  l)ooks 
(Gen.  iii.  15  ;  ix.  11-16 ;  2  Sam.  vii.)  and 
history  in  the  prophetical  books  (Is.  vii.; 
Jer.  xxvi.  ;  xxxvii.  11-xxxix.  14  ;  xl.  7-xliii. 
8)  ;  and  poetry  abounds  in  the  prophetical 
books.  The  Hebrew  Bible  contains  all  these 
books  and  no  more  ;  but  there  is  a  diflerence 
in  the  arrangement  and  in  the  classification. 
See  Canon.  The  English  Bible  has  adopted 
the  arrangement  of  the  old  versions. 

The  whole  of  the  O.  T.  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew,  excepting  only  Ezra  iv. 
8-vi.  18;  vii.  12-26;  Jer.  x.  11;  Dan.  ii.  4- 
vii.  28,  which  are  in  Aramaic.     The  letters 


Old  Testament 


553 


Old  Testament 


of  the  Hebrew  and  Arauiaic  alphabets  were 
simihir.  A  primitive  form  of  them  was  in 
use  ill  Phoenicia  as  far  back  as  150U  B.  c.  An 
early  form  is  seen  on  the  Moabite  stone,  iu 
the  Siloam  inscription,  and  on  Maccaba^an 
coins.  They  passed  throngh  various  ehanfjes 
of  form  until  they  ultimately  became  the 
familiar  square  character  of  the  extant 
Hebrew  manuscripts  and  ])rinted  editions  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  The  books  of  the  O.  T. 
were  written  in  the  older  script ;  but  in  the 
course  of  their  multiplication  by  manuscript 
copies,  the  older  characters  were  gradually 
transliterated  into  the  square. 

In  writing  the  Hebrews  made  use  of  con- 
sonants only,  leaving  the  vowels  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  reader.  But  between  the  sev- 
enth and  the  tenth  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era  Jewish  scholars,  resident  chieflj'  at  Ti- 
berias in  Palestine,  supplied  vowel  points 
which  indicated  the  proper  vocalization 
and  followed  the  traditional  jironunciation. 
These  vowel  signs  gave  greater  fixity  to  the 
meaning  of  the  texts.  These  men  are  called 
Masoretes  or  ISIassoretes,  from  mdsorah  or 
better  jnassora/i,  tradition;  and  the  text,assui)- 
plied  with  vowels  and  otherwise  improved,  is 
known  as  the  Masoretic  text.  They  also  added 
a  system  of  accents  to  indicate  the  i)r((i)er 
accentuation  of  the  words  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  to  be  conjoined  or  disjoined. 
In  the  Jewish  schools  of  Babylonia  a  differ- 
ent method  of  indicating  the  vowels,  but 
yielding  substantially  the  same  pronuncia- 
tion, was  iu  vogue.  The  Babylonian  punctu- 
ation was  written  above  tlie  lines  of  the  text. 

At  an  early  period  the  words  were  often 
.separated  by  a  dot  or  spacing  (cp.  the  dot, 
Moabite  Stone  ;  Siloam  In.scription ;  the  spac- 
ing, Carpentras  Stele,  probably  4th  century 
B.  c. ) ;  and  hence  Hebrew  manuscripts  not  im- 
probably existed  which  were  spaced  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner.  The  Talmudic  rules  for  copying 
manuscripts  directed  that  a  space  equal  to 
the  width  of  a  letter  be  left  after  each  word. 

At  an  early  date  also  the  Jews  divided  the 
Hebrew  text  into  sections  and  verses.  The 
sections  were  intended  to  mark  off  the  divi- 
sions of  the  discourse.  They  were  of  two 
kinds,  major  and  minoi%  or  main  divisicnis 
and  subdivisions,  technically  called  open  and 
closed,  and  indicated  by  the  letters  pe  and 
.samech  respectively.  For  example,  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis  an  open  section  is  as- 
signed to  each  day.  And  one  open  section 
conbiins  the  narrative  of  the  flood  (vi.  9-ix. 
17),  which  is  subdivided  into  the  four  closed 
sections,  vi.  9-12,  introduction;  vi.  13-viii. 
14  the  ark  and  the  flood  ;  viii.  15-ix.  7,  Noah 
leaves  the  ark,  sacrifices,  and  receives  God's 
blessings  and  commands  ;  ix.  8-17,  the  cove- 
nant of  the  rainbow.  The  sections  an;  for  the 
most  part  appropriate,  and  show  a  correct 
understanding  of  the  text  on  the  part  of 
those  by  whom  they  were  made.  As  regards 
the  verses,  they  were  first  nunibered  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  in  Bomberg's  edition  of  1547, 


in  which  the  number  was  noted  on  the 
margin  opposite  every  fifth  verse  by  the  ap- 
propriate letter  of  llie  Hcbicw  alphabet  used 
numerically.  Arias  MoiManus,  in  his  Hebrew 
Bible  with  interlinear  La(in  translation,  jjub- 
lished  at  Antwerj)  in  ir)71,  was  the  first  actu- 
ally to  break  up  the  Hebrew  te.xt  into  chaji- 
tcrs.  To  number  the  verses,  he  ;ulded  the 
Arabic  numerals  in  the  margin.     See  Bibi.p:. 

The  Hebrew  text  of  the  O.  T.  lias  come 
down  practically  unchanged  since  at  least 
the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
From  this  form  all  existing  niaiiuscri])fs  are 
derived.  The  preservation  of  this  slandanl 
text,  in  its  integrity  and  with  freedom  from 
errors,  during  its  transmission  through  two 
thousand  years  has  been  due  to  the  existence 
of  jn-ofessional  scribes  to  whom  its  cojiying, 
pronunciation,  and  inteipretation  were  en- 
trusted and  to  the  elaborate  rules  adopted 
for  their  guidance  which  rendered  mistakes 
in  copying  unlikely  to  occur  and  made  the 
detection  of  a  chance  error  almost  certain. 
Aaron  ben  Moses  ben  Asher,  who  floui-islied 
in  the  earlier  half  of  the  tenth  century, 
prepared  an  edition  conformed  to  the  original 
according  to  the  minute  tradition  of  the 
scribes.  This  work  of  ben  Asher  was  highly 
prized  for  its  accuracy,  and  from  it  all  west- 
ern manuscripts  are  descended. 

But  duplicate  pa.ssages,  such  as  Gen.  x.  4 
and  1  Chron.  i.  7  or  2  Kin.  viii.  26  and  2 
Cliron.  xxii.  2,  reveal  the  existence  of  occa- 
sional errors  that  got  into  the  standard  text 
before  the  second  Christian  century.  They 
occur  more  in  numbers  and  in  proper  names 
than  in  narratives,  and  they  are  chiefly  due 
to  transcribers  mistaking  one  Hebrew  char- 
acter for  another  that  closely  resembled  it 
(see  Beth,  D.\leth),  improperly  uniting 
two  words  into  one  or  separating  one  woid 
into  two  (.see  Mole  2),  attaching  an  initial 
letter  to  the  preceding  word,  or  accidentally 
reiieating  or  omitting  letters  or  words.  Not 
all  differences,  however,  are  errors.  Some, 
as  in  Ps.  xiv.  and  liii.,  are  the  result  of  a  re- 
vision undertaken  by  the  author  himself  or 
by  others  in  order  to  adajit  the  work  to  a 
new  purpose;  or  like  Is.  ii.  2-4  and  Jlic.  iv. 
1-3,  are  due  to  freedom  of  quotation.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  N.  T..  three  aids  exist  for 
biblical  critics  who  attenijit  to  eliminate 
copyists'  errors  and  restore  the  text  to  its 
primitive  jnirity.  They  are,  first,  the  colla- 
tion of  Hebrew  manuscii|)ts,  which  has  been 
carried  on  with  perseverance,  jiortions  of 
from  1.^00  to  2000  manuscripts  having  been 
used  in  the  comparison  ;  second,  the  ex;im- 
ination  of  early  versions  made  from  the  He- 
brew into  other  languages  before  the  Maso- 
retic text  was  established  ;  and  third,  the 
study  of  passages  quoted  or  alluded  to  in 
the  Apocryiiha,  the  N.  T.,  or  other  writing.s. 

It  is  believed  that  the  original  manuscripts 
of  the  O.  T.  books  were  written  on  skins; 
see  Book.  That  many  of  them  were,  is  cer- 
tain (Ps.  xl.  7 ;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14,  23).     The  ex- 


Olive 


55i 


Olives,  Mount  of 


istiiig  manuscripts  are  usually  of  parchiuent 
or,  in  the  East,  of  leather.  They  are  not 
old.  In  tiie  British  Museum  is  a  manuscript 
of  the  Law,  written  on  vellum,  which  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  penned  before  A.  D.  850; 
and  in  the  Karaite  synagogue  at  Cairo  is  a 
codex  of  tlie  former  and  latter  prophets, 
without  vowels,  which  was  written  A.  d.  895, 
if  it  is  correctly  dated.  The  oldest  extant 
manuscript  of  which  the  date  can  be  affirmed 
with  certainty  is  a  manuscript  of  th(i  latter 
prciphcts  (  Major  and  Minor),  punctuated  after 
the  Ba))yh)uian  system.  It  was  brought  from 
the  Crimea,  is  dated  a.  d.  916,  and  is  now  kept 
in  the  imperial  library  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Tlie  oldest  manuscript  of  the  entire  O.  T.  is 
dated  A.  D.  1010.  It  too  is  at  St.  Petersburg. 
The  scarcity  of  ancient  Hebrew  manuscripts 
is  to  a  large  extent  due  to  the  practice  of  the 
Jews,  which  is  alluded  to  in  the  Talmud,  of 
burying  all  sacred  manu.scripts  which  became 
defective  through  wear  or  otherwise  faulty. 
After  the  invention  of  printing,  the  book 
of  P.salras  was  put  in  type  and  published  in 
1477.  Eleven  years  later,  in  1488,  the  wliole 
])rinted  Hebrew  Bible  was  issued  in  folio 
from  a  press  at  Sonciuo  in  the  duchy  of 
Milan.  A  printed  manual  edition  was  first 
issued  by  Bomber^:  in  1517.  The  great  rab- 
binic Bible  of  .Jacob  ben  Hayyim,  published 
by  D.uiiel  Bomberg  at  Venice  in  1524---i5  iu 
four  volumes,  is  based  upon  a  careful  colla- 
tion of  manuscripts  and  faithfully  repro- 
duces the  standard  text  of  the  scribes  at 
Tiberias.  Van  der  Hooght's  edition  of  the  He- 
brew text  was  first  published  at  Amsterdam 
in  1705.  It  has  held  its  ground  on  account 
of  its  accuracy,  being  reprinted  with  minor 
corrections  by  Aug.  Halm  in  1831  and  by  C. 
G.  G.  Theile  in  1849.  It  has  about  ioOO 
marginal  readings,  most  of  them  of  consid- 
erable antiquity.  Yet  more  important  is  the 
edition  of  the  Masoretic  text,  with  critical 
and  Masoretic  appendices,  prepared  by  S. 
Baerand  Franz  Delitzsch.  Genesis  appeared 
in  18G9,  and  other  books  have  followed  at 
intervals.  This  edition  and  that  of  Ginsburg, 
issued  at  London  in  1891,  are  revisions  of  the 
text  of  Jacob  ben  Hayyim,  designed  to  con- 
form it  more  closely  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Massora.  Kittel's  edition,  ])rinted  at  Leipzig, 
li)0(i,  reproduces  tlie  text  of  .facob  ben  Hay- 
yim,and  gives  in  footiioti's  t  iu'more  important 
variants  of  the  manuscripts  and  versions. 

Ol'ive. 

.\  tree  largely  cultivated  in  Palestine  in 
olive  yards  (Ex.  xxiii.  11;  Josh.  xxiv.  13; 
Judg.  XV.  5;  1  Sam.  viii.  14).  It  grew  also 
in  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xviii.  32).  Strabo  men- 
tions it  among  tiie  trees  of  .Armenia,  and  it 
is  sup]H)sed  to  be  indigenous  in  nortiiern 
India  and  otlier  teini)erat(^  regioTis  of  Asia. 
The  wood  was  used  for  timber  (1  Kin.  vi.  23, 
31,  32,  33).  A  valuable  oil  was  obtained  from 
the  berries,  and  had  extensive  use;  see  Oil. 

Plants  grown  from  the  drupe  or  from  slips 


cut  from  below  the  grafted  branches,  and  the 
shoots  which  spring  up  around  the  trunk, 
are  of  the  wild  variety  and  require  grafting. 
And  a  good,  fruitful  olive  tree,  if  its  culti- 
vation is  ueglected,  deteriorates  and  becomes 
wild.  The  wild  olive  is  a  shrub  or  low  tree ; 
and  any  berries  which  it  may  produce  are 
small  and  of  no  value.  The  process  of  graft- 
ing a  cutting  from  the  wild  olive  tree  into 
one  of  the  cultivated  kind  is  alluded  to  in 
fiom.xi.  17,  24  to  illustrate  the  grafting  of  the 
gentile  converts  on  what  hitherto  had  been 
the  Jewish  church.  In  gardening  the  process 
was  different ;  it  was  the  grafting  of  a  cutting 
from  the  cultivated  tree  into  a  stock  of  the 
wild  olive  to  alter  and  improve  its  nature. 

Froman  olive  tree  thedove  plucked  the  leaf 
when  the  flood  was  subsiding  (Gen.  viii.  11). 
An  olive  branch  is  now  an  emblem  of  peace. 
The  olive  was  also  a  symbol  of  prosjierity 
and  divine  blessing,  of  beauty  and  strength 
(Ps.  lii.  8  ;  Jer.  xi.  16 ;  Hos.  xiv.  6).  The  aged 
olive  tree  is  often  surrounded  by  young  and 
thrifty  shoots  ( Ps.  cxxviii.  3).  Women  some- 
times adorned  themselves  with  garlands  of 
olives  on  festal  occasions  (Judith  xv.  13),  and 
at  the  Olympic  games  in  Greece  the  victor's 
crown  was  composed  of  olive  leaves. 

The  olive  tree  of  Palestine  is  the  common 
Olea  europiea.  It  has  lanceolate,  entire, 
leathery,  evergreen  leaves  of  a  dusty  color, 
and  small  whitish,  monupetalous  flowers. 
The  nearest  a])proach  to  it  of  familiar  garden 
plants  is  the  privet.  The  olive  is  still  culti- 
vated through  nearly  every  part  of  Palestine. 

Ol'ives,  Mount  of,  and  Ol'i-vet,  the  latter 
word  being  a  Latin  form,  borrowed  from  the 
Vulgate,  and  meaning  a  place  where  many 
olive  trees  grow. 

A  hill  which  is  before  Jerusalem  on  the 
east  (Zech.  xiv.  4),  separated  from  it  by  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  14,  23,  30). 
Its  summit  with  the  farther  slope  was  reck- 
oned as  a  Sabbath-day's  journey  from  the 
city  (Acts  i.  12),  or,  according  to  Josephus,  at 
5  or  6  stades  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  6  ;  War  v.  2,  3i. 
David,  barefoot  and  with  covered  head,  went 
up  its  ascent  when  he  fled  from  Absalom. 
On  its  summit  God  was  wont  to  be  worshiped 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32).  The  glory  of  the  Ijord  ap- 
peared there  to  Ezekiel  in  a  vision  i  Ezek.  xi. 
23 >,  and  Zechariah  prophetically  portrayed 
Jehovah  standing  on  the  mountain  to  inter- 
pose in  behalf  of  his  people  (Zech.  xiv.  4). 
Jesus  went  often  to  the  motint  of  Olives 
(Luke  xxi.  37;  xxii.  39.  John  viii.  1).  He 
was  descending  its  slope  when  the  multitude 
welcomed  him  to  the  city  with  hosannas 
(Luke  xix.  37,  38).  He  had  crossed  its 
summit  when  Jerusalem  burst  into  full 
view,  and  he  wept  over  the  fate  which  h<^ 
knew  awaited  the  city  (41-44K  He  was  sit- 
ting on  the  mount  with  his  disciples  gazing 
across  the  valley  at  the  splendid  temple  and 
the  city,  when  he  prophesied  the  destructiori 
ofboth<Mat.  xxiv.  3:  Mark  xiii.  3).     After 


'<,'^, 


^^^y 

J^*!!**' 


'-'*r^*^^^ 


The  cypress  trees  in  the  Gartli 


AT  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  iMOU.XT  OF  OLIVES 

n  of  Gethseinane  are  seen  in  the  center  of  the  pi.ture.  and  h,»er  ilown  is  a  brid  > 
Ividron  near  the  reputed  tonil.  of  Absalom  ^ 


Olives,  Mount  of 


555 


Omri 


liis  last  passover  he  retired  to  the  mount  of 
Olives  (Mat.  xxvi.  30;  Mark.  xiv.  26).  The 
ji.irdeu  of  (Tethsemaue  was  to  the  west  of  it, 
cither  at  its  base  or  some  small  distance  uji 
its  ascent.  Bethany  and  Bethphage  were  on 
the  eastern  side  (Mat.  xxi.  1;  Mark  xi.  1; 
Luke  xix.  29).  It  was  near  the  former  of 
these  villages  that  our  Lord's  ascension  took 
|)lace  (xxiv.  50).  The  mount  of  Olives  is  un- 
questionably the  eminence  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jebel  et-T6r,  east  of  Jerusalem. 
Properly  speaking,  it  is  a  chain  of  hills  rising 
into  three  or,  as  some  reckon,  four  summits, 
and  with  two  lateral  spur.s.  One  spur  runs 
westward,  startingat  the  bend  of  the  Kidron, 
about  a  mile  north  of  .ferusalem,  and  attains 
an  elevation  of  2737  feet  above  the  sea. 
This  northern  spur  is  generally  identified 
with  Josephns'  hill  of  Scopus,  or  the  watch- 
man (War  ii.  19,  4).  The  other  spur  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  ridge  by  tlie  Kidron. 
It  also  rurs  westward,  and  faces  the  city  on 
the  south.  It  has  been  designated  the  hill 
of  Evil  Counsel,  from  the  late  and  worthless 
tradition  that  Caiaphas  had  a  country  place 
on  its  summit  and  in  his  house  the  chief 
priests  met  and  consulted  about  putting 
Jesus  to  death  (John  xi.  47-53).  Its  altitude 
is  2549  feet. 

Of  the  four  peaks  into  which  the  range  of 
Olivet  rises,  the  most  northerly  one,  called 
Karem  es-Seiyad,  is  the  highest,  being  2723 
feet  above  sea  level.  It  was  formerly  called 
(lalilee,  either  because  Galilaeans  encamped 
there  when  they  came  to  Jerusalem  to  the 
festivals,  or  because  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  believed  to  be  the  place  of  the 
ascension  where  the  angels  addressed  the  dis- 
ciples as  men  of  Galilee.  The  second  peak 
is  called  the  Ascension.  As  early  as  A.  d. 
315  it  was  regarded  as  the  spot  whence  Jesus 
ascended  to  heaven,  and  Constantine  crowned 
it  with  a  rotunda  and  a  basilica.  The  latter 
has  been  replaced  bj-  a  succession  of  churches 
of  the  Ascension.  This  is  the  mount  of 
Olives  proper.  It  stinds  directly  ojijiosite 
to  the  eastern  gate  of  .lerusalem,  and  rises 
to  2643  feet  above  the  h>vel  of  the  ocean,  371 
above  the  bed  of  the  Kidron,  and  208  over 
the  temple  jjlateau.  The  third  hill  is  called 
the  Prophets',  from  what  are  called  the 
prophets'  tombs  on  its  side.  Tlie  fourth  hill 
is  named  the  mount  of  Offense,  from  the 
belief  that  Solomon  there  built  the  idolatrous 
shrines  for  his  heathen  wives.  The  Ascen- 
sion hill  and  the  hill  of  the  Prophets  are  so 
slightly  dissevered  that  some  reduce  the  four 
summits  to  three. 

At  the  foot  of  the  mount  of  Olives  proper, 
at  the  traditional  site  of  (iethsemane,  the 
road  forks,  including  the  garden  in  its 
crotch.  One  branch  runs  south,  rises  by  a 
gradual  ascent,  winds  round  the  southern 
shoulder  of  the  mountain,  and  continues  on 
to  Bethany  and  Jericho.  It  was  built  in  the 
seventh  century  \.  D.  by  the  calif  Abd-el- 
Melek.     The  northern  fork  runs  east,  and  at 


the  distance  of  about  fifty  yards  divides  into 
three.  The  middle  one,  steep  and  rugged, 
leads  u]>  the  face  of  the  mountain.  cro.sses  it 
near  the  summit,  and  goes  on  i)ast  the  so- 
called  stone  of  Betlii)hage  to  P>ethany.  As 
early  as  the  fourth  century  the  Christians  of 
Jerusalem,  when  celebrating  the  triumphal 
entry  of  Jesus  into  the  city,  used  to  come  in 
procession  over  this  road.  The  two  branches 
on  either  side  of  this  stee|>  middle  road  also 
reach  the  top  of  the  mountain,  but  Ihey  fol- 
low a  more  gradual  a.scent.  Farther  up  the 
Kidron  valley  a  Koman  road  to  the  Jordan 
clindied  the  western  slope  of  the  ridg(^  near 
'Ain  es-Suwan,  crossed  the  crest  about  half 
a  mile  north  of  the  toj)  of  Olivet,  in  the  de- 
pression north  of  Karem  es-Seiyad,  de- 
scended into  the  wady  and  crosse(l  it  near 
the  ruin  Bukei'dan  and,  keeping  the  wady 
Euabeh  hard  b,v  on  the  north,  continued  on 
to  the  .Jordan. 

Ol'i-vet.     See  Olives,  Mount  of. 

0-lym'pas. 

A  Roman  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

O'mar. 

A  descendant  of  E.sau  through  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11),  and  chieftain  of  a  tribe 
of  the  name  (15). 

0-me'ga. 

The  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
hence  used  figuratively  for  the  last  or  for  the 
end  (Rev.  1.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6;  xxii.  13). 

O'mer. 

A  measure  for  dry  articles.  It  contained 
a  tenth  part  of  an  ejjhah  (Ex.  xvi.  .'{(i),  and 
was  one  hundredth  of  a  homer  (Ezek.  xlv 
11).  The  omer  contained  nearly  6  pints. 
See  Measure. 

Om'ri  [untaught  or  impetuous  or  like  a 
sheaf ] . 

1.  A  man  of  Benjamin,  family  of  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez  (1 
Chron.  ix.  4). 

3.  Son  of  Michael  and  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Issachar  in  David's  reign  ( 1  Chron.  x.^^vii.  18). 

4.  A  king  of  Israel.  Before  gaining  the 
throne  he  was  (commander  of  the  Isnielite 
army  in  the  reign  of  l"]lah  and  not  unlikely 
in  that  of  Baasha  also  ;  and  he  may  have 
subjugated  Moab  at  this  time  (Moabite  Stone 
7,  S).  He  was  conducting  the  siege  of  (iib- 
beth(m,  which  belonged  to  the  Philistines, 
when  news  arrived  that  Zimri  had  murdered 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  army  at 
once  proclaimed  Omri  king  of  Israel.  He 
accepted  the  honor,  and  led  his  troojjs  against 
the  town  of  Tirzah.  the  national  capital, 
where  Zimri  was.  The  latter,  despairing  of 
his  ability  to  hold  the  throne,  conmiitted 
suicide  (IKin.  xvi.  1,5-20).  But  th(^  nation 
was  divided.  One  half  adhered  to  Omri  and 
the  other  half  supported  the  claims  of 
Tibui ;   and  it  was  not  until   the  death  of 


On 


556 


Ono 


Tibni  five  years  later  that  Oini'i  became  the 
undisputed  sovereign  of  all  Israel  (21-23). 
The  statement  of  ver.  23,  "in  the  thirty-first 
year  of  Asa  began  Omri  to  reign  over  Israel  " 
(in  Hebrew  simply  '"Omri  reigned"),  re- 
fers, not  to  the  time  of  liis  proclamation 
by  the  soldiery  and  his  assumption  of  the 
royal  title  (although  the  twelve  years  of  his 
reign  are  counted  from  this  event),  but  to  his 
attainment  of  the  sole  authority  in  the  king- 
dom (cp.  ver.  15,  29).  He  transferred  the 
seat  of  government  from  Tirzah  to  Samaria, 
which  he  built  for  the  purpose  (24).  He  fol- 
lowed the  idolatries  of  Jeroboam  and  acted 
in  other  respects  more  wickedly  than  any  of 
his  predecessors  on  the  throne  of  the  ten 
tribes  (26 ;  Mic.  vi.  16).  He  died  about  874 
B.  c,  and  was  buried  in  Samaria.  His  son 
Ahab  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  28).  Omri  made  an  impression  on  hi.s- 
tory  outside  of  Israel.  Not  only  did  the 
Moabites  remember  his  name;  but  after  his 
death  and  the  annihilation  of  his  family  the 
Assyrians  for  a  time  still  attached  his  name, 
which  they  wrote  Humri,  to  tlie  reigning 
monarch  and  land  of  Israel. 

On,  I.  [strength]. 

A  Reubenite  chief  who  took  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  (Num.  xvi.  1) ;  see  KoRAH. 

On,  II.  [Egyptian  An,  light]. 

An  old  and  renowned  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  east  of  the  Nile,  in  the  delta,  sev- 
eral   miles   from    the    river  and    19    miles 


Elected  by  Vb 


Obelisk  at  Heliopolis. 

itesen.  second  king  of  the  twelfth  dyna.^ty. 


north  of  Memphis.  It  was  the  principal  seat 
of  the  worshiji  of  the  sun  ;  hence  called 
Heliopolis  by  the  Creeks  ((•().  Ex.  i.  11,  Sc])- 
tiiagint)  and  P.etli-slicnicsh  by  Jeremiah 
(xliii.  13).  Ai)i)arently  Isaiah  had  this  city 
in  mind  ;  and  by  a  .slight  change  in  the 
first  letter  of  the  name  turned  city  of  the 
sun  into  city  of  destruction,  to  denote  the 
overtlirow  of  idolatry  (Is.  xis.  18  ;  cp.  margin). 


With  the  temple  of  the  sun  were  connected 
a  training  sciiool  for  priests  and  a  medical 
school,  and  these  institutions  were  visited  by 
all  the  (Ireek  philosophers  who  went  to 
Egypt  to  study.  In  Herodotus'  day  the 
priests  of  On  were  esteemed  the  mo.st  learned 
in  history  of  all  the  Egyptians  (ii.  3).  It 
was  the  daughter  of  a  priest  of  On  whom 
Pharaoh  gave  to  Joseph  to  wife  (Gen.  xli. 
45,  50 ;  xlvi.  20). 

O'nam  [strong,  wealthy]. 

1.  A  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  26,  28). 

O'nan  [strong]. 

A  son  of  Judah  by  a  Canaanite  woman. 
He  sinned,  and  was  cut  ofl"  by  a  divine  judg- 
ment, leaving  no  posterity  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
4-10;  xlvi.  12;  Num.  xxvi.   19). 

0-nes'i-mus  [useful,  profitable]. 

A  slave  of  Philemon,  whom  Paul  was  the 
means  of  converting  at  Rome,  and  wliom  he 
sent  back  to  his  Christian  master  requesting 
that  he  might  be  received,  not  as  a  servant, 
but  as  a  brother  beloved  (Philem.  10-19).  He 
was  a  man  of  Colossse,  and  with  Tychicus 
carried  from  Rome  to  that  city  the  epistles  to 
the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon  (Col.  iv.  7-9). 

On-e-siph'o-rus  [bringing  advantage]. 

A  Christian  whose  home  was  pnjbably  at 
Ephesus  (2  Tiin.  i.  18).  When  he  was  at 
Rome  he  sought  out  the  apostle  Paul,  then  a 
prisoner,  and  showed  him  great  kindness 
(16).  The  members  of  his  household  were 
with  Tiraothy,  and  Paul  sent  them  his  salu- 
tations (iv.  19). 

O-ni'as,  in  A.  V.  once  0-ni'a-res  (1  Mac. 
xii.  19)  [Greek  for  perhaps  Coniah].  The 
form  Oniares  is  an  old  corruption,  in  which 
the  two  names  Onias  Arius  are  blended  (cp. 
Antiq.  xii.  4,  10). 

A  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  who  held  office 
from  about  323  to  300  B.  c.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Arius,  king  of  Sparta,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  265  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii. 
7,  in  A.  Y.  Darius,  a  corru])tion  of  Arius  ;  19, 
20).  Onias  succeeded  Jaddua,  and  was  the 
father  and  ])redecessor  of  Simon  the  Just 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  7;  xii.  2,  5).  He  is  probably 
referred  to  in  Ecclus.  1.  1.  Josephus  errs  in 
regarding  Onias  III.,  a  later  pontiff,  as  the 
recipient  of  the  letter  from  Arius. 

For  others  of  the  name,  see  High  Prikst. 

On'ion. 

A  plant,  the  bulbous  root  of  which  wns 
much  used  in  Egypt  as  an  article  of  food 
(Num.  xi.  5  ;  Herod,  ii.  125).  It  is  Alliiun 
cepn,  called  in  Hebrew  br^el,  in  Arabic  hasal. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  an  early  period 
in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the  east. 

O'no  [strong]. 

A  town  of  Heujaniin  (Neh.  xi.  35),  in  a 
plain  of  considerable  size  (vi.  2),  built  or 
rather  rebuilt  by  a  Benjamite  called  Shamed 


Onycha 


557 


Ophrah 


(1  Chrou.  viii.  12).  Some  of  its  inhabitants 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  33;  Neh.  vii.  37).  It  i.s  considered 
to  have  been  at  Kefr  'Ana,  about  7  miles  in- 
land east  by  south  from  Joppa. 

On'y-cha. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ^Mieleth  (Ex. 
XXX.  34).  It  was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  a 
perfume  made  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle. It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  oper- 
culum (lid)  of  a  shell  mollusc  called  stromb 
or  wing-shell,  which  being  burnt  gave  out  a 
certain  perfume. 

O'nyx  [a  finger  nail,  an  onyx]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shoham. 
The  Hebrew  word  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(Job  xxviii.  16,  E.  V.  margin  beryl ;  Ezek. 
XX viii.  13).  It  was  found  in  the  land  of 
Havilah  (Cien.  ii.  12).  Two  of  tliese  stones, 
each  graven  with  the  names  of  six  Israelite 
tribes,  were  put  on  the  shoulder  pieces  of  the 
high  priest's  ephod  (Ex.  xxviii.  9.  12),  and 
another  was  the  second  stone  in  the  fourth 
row  on  his  brea.stplate  (xxviii.  20).  David 
gathered  such  stones  for  the  service  of  the 
future  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix.  2).  The  onyx 
is  a  cryptocrystalline  variety  or  subvariety  of 
quartz.  It  is  in  layers  of  different  colors, 
which  alternate  with  each  other  and  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  white  and  flesh-col- 
ored bands  of  the  finger  nail. 

O'phel  [a  swelling,  a  hill]. 

The  southern  and  lower  portion,  or  per- 
haps originally  only  an  eminence  on  this 
southern  portion,  of  the  eastern  or  temple 
hill  at  Jerusalem,  enclosed  by  the  city  walls. 
This  general  locality  is  indicated  by  the 
proximity  of  the  pool  of  Shelah,  i.  e.  doubt- 
less Siloam,  the  court  of  the  guard,  the  water 
gate,  and  the  horse  gate  (Neh.  iii.  15-27:  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  the  walls)  ;  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  the  eastern  court  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  the  Kidron  valley  (War  v.  4,  1  and 
2;  6,  1).  Jotham  built  much  on  its  walls, 
and  Manasseh  increased  their  height  (2 
Chron.  xxvii.  3  ;  xxxiii.  14).  After  the  ex- 
ile, if  not  before,  the  Nethinim  had  their 
residence  in  this  quarter,  because  of  its  con- 
venience to  the  temple  (Xeh.  iii.  2(i :  xi.  21). 
Sir  Charles  Warren,  in  the  course  of  his  ex- 
cavations on  tliis  portion  of  the  ridge,  came 
upon  a  wall  more  than  70  feet  high,  which 
he  felt  disposed  to  identify  with  that  of  Jla- 
nasseh. 

O'phir. 

A  tribe  descended  from  .Toktan  ((ieu.  x. 
29;  1  Chron.  i.  23),  and  the  country  which 
they  inhabited.  This  region  was  celebrated 
for  its  gold  (xxix.  4;  .Tob  xxii.  24  ;  xxviii. 
16;  Ps.  xlv.  9;  Is.  xiii.  12).  to  obtain  which, 
Hiram,  in  conjunction  with  Solomon,  sent  a 
navy  from  Ezion-geber  (1  Kin.  ix.  28).  The 
ships  brought  back  algum  or  almug  trees 
as  well  as  gold  (x.  11),  and  probably  also 
silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks  (22 ;  cp. 
xxii.  48).     jehoshaphat  attempted  to  imitate 


the  enterprise,  but  his  ships  were  wrecked  at 
Ezion-geber  ixxii.  48).  As  this  port  was 
on  thegulf  of  Akaha,  the  route  to  Opliir  was 
by  the  Ked  Sea  and  not  l)y  tlu'  .Mediterranean. 
The  voyage  out  and  hack  in  the  shijis  (jf  that 
day,  with  the  peculiar  winds  of  tlie  Red  Sea, 
and  including  the  lying  in  i)ort,  lasted,  it  may 
be  judged,  three  years  (x.  22;  cp.  xxii.  48)'; 
see  Red  Sex.  Three  opinions  exist  as  to  its 
situation  :  1.  Ophir  was  at  Sofala,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of 
Madagascar.  In  favor  of  this  view  is  tlio 
fact  that  it  was  formerly  an  emporium  for 
gold.  But  when  it  is  noted  that  the  algum 
or  almug  tree  is  aiii)arently  the  sandalwood, 
which  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  not  be- 
lieved to  occur  either  in  Arabia  or  Africa,  and 
that  other  products  of  Ophir  brought  l)y  the 
seamen  had  also  Indian  names,  it  is  ]irobable 
that  Ophir  was  in  India,  or  else  was  a  mart 
of  exchange  for  Indian  goods.  2.  Joseiihus 
says  that  it  was  the  Golden  Land  in  India 
(Antiq.  viii.  G,  4),  perhaps  on  the  river 
Cophen  (i.  6,  4)  ;  and  hence  it  has  been  con- 
jecturally  located  at  Abhira,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus.  3.  Ophir  was  in  southern  or 
southeastern  Arabia.  This  opinion  is  prol)- 
ably  correct ;  for  the  majority  of  the  Jok- 
tanites,  perhaps  all  of  them,  settled  in  Arabia. 
Moreover,  Ophir  is  mentioned  between  Sheba 
and  Havilah. 

Oph'ni  [perhaps,  the  musty  or  the  Oph- 
nite].     The  Hebrew  uses  the  definite  article. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  24). 
Robinson  suggests  its  identitj-  with  Gophna, 
on  the  highway  from  Samaria  to  .Jerusalem, 
a  day's  march  north  of  Gibeah  (War  v.  2,  1)  ; 
the  modern  Jufiia.  3  miles  northwest  by  north 
of  Bethel.  This  identification  assumes  that 
the  boundary  of  Benjamin  turned  northward 
near  Bethel,  for  Bethel  was  on  the  northern 
boundary. 

Oph'rah  [hind]. 

1.  A  son  of  Menothai,  of  the  tribe  of  .ludah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  14). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  sviii.  23), 
evidently  nortii  of  Michmashll  Sam.  xiii. 
17).  According  to  the  Onomastikon,  of  the 
fourth  century  a.  v.,  it  was  a  village  then 
called  Ephraim,  five  miles  to  the  east  of 
Bethel.  Kobinsou  doubtfully  identified  it 
with  et-Taiyibeh,  on  a  conical  hill  4  miles 
northeast  by  east  of  Bethel,  with  a  splen- 
did view  from  its  summit,  which  he  felt 
could  not  have  been  left  unoccupied  in  an- 
cient times.  His  o])inion  has  been  widely 
accepted,  although  the  place  seems  far  north 
for  a  town  of  Benjamin. 

3.  A  village  west  of  the  Jordan,  occupied 
by  the  Abiezrites,  a  family  of  Mana.s.seh 
(.tudg.  vi.  11,  15;  cp.  .Tosh.  xvii.  1,  2).  It 
was  the  home  of  (iideon,  wlK>re  he  was  called 
to  his  mission  and  built  an  altar,  where  lie 
made  an  ejihod  to  the  ensnaring  of  Israel, 
and  where  he  was  buried  (Jndg.  vi.-viii.). 
Conder.   jxjinting  out  that  according  to  the 


Orator 


558 


Ossifrage 


SanidiifnH  Chronicle,  Ophrah  was  the  ancient 
name  of  Fer'ata,  6  miles  west  by  south  of 
Shechem,  suggests  this  village  as  its  site. 
Fer'ata  is,  however,  commonly  regarded  as 
Pirathon  (q.  v.). 

Or'a-tor. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lcihash,  an 
incantation,  preceded  l)y  n'bun,  skillful  in  en- 
chantment (Is.  iii.  '.i).  The  R.  V.  accurately 
translates  the  phrase  by  skillful  enchanter. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Rhetor,  pub- 
lic speaker,  pleader,  in  Acts  xxiv.  1,  applied 
to  Tertullus.  He  was  a  professional  advo- 
cate engaged  by  Paul's  Jewish  enemies  to 
prosecute  the  apostle  before  the  Koman  proc- 
urator. 

Or'cliard.     See  Garden. 

O'reb  [a  raven]. 

1.  One  of  two  Midianite  princes  defeated, 
captured,  and  put  to  death  by  Gideon.  He 
was  slain  at  a  rock,  which  came  to  be  called 
in  consequence  the  rock  of  Oreb  (Judg.  vii. 
25;  viii.  3;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11:  Is.  x.  26). 

2.  A  rock  on  which  the  Midianite  prince 
Oreb  was  killed  by  Gideon  (Judg.  vii.  25 ; 
Is.  X.  26).  Exact  situation  unknown  ;  but 
doubtless  it  was  west  of  the  Jordan  near  the 
river  (Judg.  vii.  25  ;  viii.  4). 

O'ren  [a  species  of  pine  tree]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  25). 

Or'gan.     See  Pipe. 

O-ri'on. 

A  constellation  (Job  ix.  9 ;  xxxviii.  31 ; 
Amos  V.  8),  in  Hebrew  K'sil,  a  man  without 
understanding,  an  irreligious  person,  a  fool. 
The  ancient  versions  unite  in  this  identifica- 
tion. The  Targums  and  the  Syriac  version 
render  the  word  by  giant,  and  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate  employ  the  name  Orion.  In  the 
classic  mj'thology  Orion  is  represented  as  a 
man  of  great  strength,  celebrated  as  a  worker 
in  iron  and  as  a  hunter.  Being  killed  by  the 
goddess  Diana,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
heavens  and  bound  to  the  sky  (cp.  Job 
xxxviii.  31),  and  became  the  constellation 
Orion. 

The  constellation  is  visible  in  all  latitudes. 
It  disputes  with  the  Great  Bear  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  finest  constellation  of 
the  sky.  Two  of  its  stars — Betelgeuse  at 
the  upper  part  of  his  right  arm  as  he  faces 
the  spectator,  and  Kigel  at  his  uplifted  left 
foot — are  of  the  first  magnitude.  About  100 
stars  in  the  constellation  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  and  2000  or  nu)re  may  be  seen 
under  the  telescope. 

Or'na-ments. 

Orientals  adorn  themselves  witli  orna- 
ments to  an  extent  deemed  excessive  by 
occidental  taste.  It  has  ever  been  so.  He- 
brews, Egyptians,  Midianites.  Syrians,  botli 
men  and  women,  were  fond  of  wearing  orna- 
ments (Gen.  xxiv.  22 ;  Ex.  iii.  22 ;  xi.  2  ;  xxxii. 


2;  Num.  xxxi.  50).  Women  wore  beads  and 
pearls,  and  articles  of  gold,  silver  and  brass 
(Song  i.  10,  11 ;  1  Tim.  ii.  9)  ;  earrings,  nose 
rings,  pendants,  necklaces,  chains,  brazen 
mirrors,  armlets,  bracelets,  finger  rings, 
anklets  (Gen.  xxiv.  22,  47;  xxxv.  4;  Ex. 
XXXV.  22;  Num.  xxxi.  50;  Is.  iii.  18-23). 
Men  of  all  clas.ses  except  the  poorest  wore 
seal  rings  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  which  were 
useful  in  business  as  well  as  ornamental. 
Nor  did  they  regard  rings  for  the  arms  as 
effeminate.  Saul,  like  the  kings  of  Assyria, 
wore  a  ring  about  the  arm  or  wrist  (2  Sam. 
i.  10).  It  was  a  national  custom  with  the 
Ishmaelites  for  the  men  to  wear  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  25,  26),  and  men  among  the  He- 
brews sometimes  did  so  (Ex.  xxxii.  2).  Men 
of  high  rank  wore  a  gold  chain  as  badge  of 
office  (Gen.  xli.  42;  Dan.  v.  29). 

Ornaments  were  laid  aside  in  time  of 
mourning  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4-6). 

Or'nan  [perhaps,  piny].     See  Araunah. 

Or'pali  [neck,  mane]. 

The  wife  of  Chilion,  and  the  sister-in-law 
of  Ruth.  She  consented  to  remain  in  her 
uative  country,  Moab,  when  Ruth,  drawn  by 
afiection  to  her  mother-in-law,  Naomi,  in- 
sisted on  accompanying  her  to  Palestine 
(Ruth  i.  4,  14,  15  ;  cp'.  iv.  10). 

Or-tho-si'a,  in  A.  V.  Orthosias. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  between 
Tripoli  and  the  river  Eleutherus  (1  Mac.  xv. 
37;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  v.  17). 

Os-nap'per.     See  Asnapper. 

Os'pray,  olisolete  form  of  Osprey. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ozniyyah 
(Lev.  xi.  13;  Deut.  xiv.  12),  an  unclean  bird. 
It  is  either  a  species  of  eagle  or  more  vaguely 
the  eagle  genus.  The  Septuagint  translates 
it  'aliaietos,  that  is,  Pandion  haliaetus.  It 
is  a  dark  brown  eagle  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  frequenting  seacoasts, 
and  living  on  fish.  In  Palestine  it  occurs 
along  the  Mediterranean,  especially  in  the 
lagoons  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kishon. 

Os'si-frage  [bone  breaker]. 

The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Peres,  breaker.  It  was  an  unclean  bird  (Lev. 
xi.  13;  and  Deut.  xiv.  12).  The  R.  V.  trans- 
lates it  gier  eagle.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
lammergeyer,  or  bearded  eagle  (Gijpaetnsbar- 
hatiis).  The  English  name  ossifrage  and  the 
Hebrew  2)eres  both  refer  to  the  fact  that 
the  bird  delights  in  l)outs,  snakes,  and  tor- 
toises, which  it  breaks.  This  it  sometimes 
does  by  taking  them  up  to  a  great  height  in 
the  air  and  drop])ing  them  on  a  stone.  The 
ossifrage  is  3i  feet  liigh  ;  the  expansion  of 
its  wings  is  about  9  feet.  Its  claws  are  not 
adapted  tor  carrying  off  living  prey,  and  its 
disposition  is  cowardly.  In  Palestine  the 
ossifrage  is  rare  and  tending  to  extinction, 
its  chief  haunts  being  the  ravines  of  the 
Arnon,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 


Ostrich 


559 


Owl 


Os'trich. 

1.  The    rendering  of   the   Hebrew    Ya'eii, 
fi'niinine     Yn'"ii<th,    jirobably    the    voracious 


Ostrich. 

bird.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
Hi;  Deiit.  xiv.  lo),  makes  a  mournful  sound 
(Mic.  i.  8),  inhabits  the  wilderness  (Is.  xiii. 
'21 ;  xxxiv.  13),  and  was  believed  to  forsake 
its  eggs  (Lara.  iv.  3).  The  A.  V.  traiislates 
the  masculine  form  by  ostrich,  the  feminine 
form  by  owl. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rnnaii, 
utterer  of  tremulous  sounds  (Job  xxxix.  IH, 
in  A.  V.  peacock).  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  on  the  ground  to  be  warmed  in  the  dust ; 
and  it  was  commonly  snpjjosed  that  she 
abandoned  thera  to  their  fate,  forgetting 
that  the  foot  might  crush  them  or  tliat  the 
wild  beast  might  trample  them  (14,  1.")).  The 
speed  of  the  ostrich  is  such  that  it  distances 
a  man  on  horseback  (18). 

3.  The  A.  V.  inaccurately  renders  Nomh 
by  ostrich  in  Job  xxxix.  13.  It  means  a 
feather,  as  in  Ezek.  xvii.  3,  7. 

Tlie  ostrich  (SUntthio  camelus)  belongs  to 
the  aberrant  subclass  or  division  called 
Ratitx,  or  struthious  birds.  They  are  among 
the  largest  in  size  of  the  class,  but  are  not 
able  to  fly,  the  deprivation  being  compen- 
sated by  great  power  of  running.  The  com- 
mon ostrich  is  6  or  8  feet  high.  The  ostrich 
feathers  which  are  used  for  ladies'  hats  are 
the  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail. 
The  bird  preimres  a  nest  by  rolling  in  the 
sand  and  scooping  out  a  hole  about  (i  feet  in 


diameter.  An  egg  is  laid  every  other  day, 
until  the  eggs  number  ten,  twelve,  or  more. 
Each  egg  is  about  three  pounds  in  \veij;ht. 
They  appear  to  be  hatched  parlly  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  hut  mainly  by  incubation,  the 
male  bird  sitting  on  them  for  about  twenty 
hours  to  the  hen's  four.  The  male  takes 
charge  of  the  young  brood.  At  night  the  bird 
utters  a  hoarse,  complaining  cry,  alluded  to 
in  Mic.  i.  8.  The  ostrich  is  diHused  over  the 
greater  part  of  Africa.  It  still  occurs  in 
Arabia,  but  its  area  there  seems  to  Jiave  been 
diminished  since  O.  T.  times. 

Oth'ni  [probably,  lion  of  (God)]. 
A  porter,  the  .son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
XX vi.  7). 

Oth'ni-el  [lion  of  C!od,  powerful  one  of 

({odj. 

A  son  of  Kenaz  and  brother  or  half  brother 
of  Caleb,  son  of  Je])hunneh  the  Kenizzite 
(Josh.  XV.  17:  1  Chron.  iv.  13);  see  Calkb. 
Caleb  promised  to  give  his  daughter  Achsah 
in  marriage  to  any  hero  who  took  the  town 
of  Debir  or  Kirjath-sepher.  Othniel  etfected 
its  capture  and  received  Achsah  (Josh.  xv. 
15-17  ;  Judg.  i.  11-13).  He  subsequently  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  tyranny  of 
Cushan-rishathaim,  king  of  Mesopotamia,  and 
became  judge,  and  the  land  had  rest  forty 
years  (ii'i.  8-11). 

Ov'en.     See  Bread. 

Owl. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bath 
hai/ya^'iiah  (Lev.  xi.  16,  A.  Y.).  See  Ostrich  1. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kos,  a 
cup,  an  owl.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  17;  Deut.  xiv.  1(5,  little  owl),  and 
frequented  waste  places  (Ps.  cii.  6).  Prob- 
ably the  southern  little  owl  (Afheue  glai(.r)  is 
intended,  which  is  universally  distributed 
through  Palestine,  occurring  in  olive  yards, 
rocks,  thickets,  and  among  ruins  and  tombs. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yaushiiph. 
It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  17; 
Deut.  xiv.  11),  great  owl)  and  frequented 
waste  places  (Is.  xxxiv.  11  ;  R.  V.  margin, 
bittern).  It  is  rendered  ibis  in  the  Septua- 
gint  and  Vulgate,  and  owl  in  the  Targums 
and  the  Syriac  version.  Tristram  believes 
that  the  species  was  the  Egyjitian  eagle  owl 
(Bubo  asrnlnphiis).  It  lives  in  caves  and 
among  ruins,  and  is  common  about  Petra 
and  Beer-sheba. 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Thinhemeth 
(Lev.  xi.  18  ;  in  A.  V.  swan).  The  Sejituagint 
renders  it  heron,  and  the  \'ulgate  swan. 

5.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  I.ililh, 
nocturnal  specter  (Is.  xxxiv.  14;  in  A.  V. 
screech  owl,  in  Jl.  V.  night  monster).  The 
.screech  or  barn  owl  (S:trix  fl(iiiimea)  is  found 
in  Palestine  frequenting  ruins. 

6.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kippoz 
(Is.  xxxiv.  1.");  in  R.  Y.  arrow  snake).  The 
corresponding  word  in  Arabic,  kiffdza,  de- 
notes the  arrow  snake. 


Ox 


560 


Paint 


Little  Owl  of  Palestine. 


Ox. 


The  male  of  the  species  Bos  taxnts,  though 
ox  frequently  signifies  any  animal  of  the 
kind,  without  respect  to  sex  (Ex.  xx.  17), 
and  the  plural  oxen  is  often  synonymous 
with  cattle  (Gen.  xii.  IH).  The  ox  M'as  early 
domesticated.  Abraham  had  sheep  and  oxen 
(Gen.  xii.  Ifj;  xxi.  27) ;  so  had  his  contempo- 
rary Ahimelech  (xx.  14),  and  the  Egyptians  at 
the  time  of  the  ten  plagues  (Ex.  ix.  3).  The 
ox  was  used  for  plowing  (1  Kin.  xix.  19), 
for  dragging  carts  or  wagons  (Num.  vii.  3  ; 


Egyptian  Oxen  treading  out  Grain. 

2  Sam.  vi.  G,  etc.),  and  for  treading  out  grain 
(Deut.  XXV.  4).  They  were  eaten  (1  Kin.  i. 
2.");  cp.  Mat.  xxii.  4),  and  w(>re  largely  sacri- 
ficed, especially  in  connection  with  the  burnt 
offerings  (Num.  vii.  87,  88  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  22; 
2  Chron.  v.  6 ;  vii.  5,  etc.).  A  yoke  of  oxen 
was  two  oxen  designed  to  be  yoked  together 
for  the  plow,  for  a  cart,  or  for  anytliing  simi- 


lar. Tristram  says  that  the  common 
cattle  of  southern  and  central  Pales- 
tine are  small  in  size,  tho.se  of  north- 
ern Palestine  are  larger.  The  largest 
herds  are  now  beyond  the  .Jordan. 

The  word  Vo,  rendered  wild  ox 
(Dent.  xiv.  5,  A.  V.)  and  wild  bull 
(Is.  li.  20,  A.  v.),  is  translated  in  E. 
V.  by  antelope  (q.  v.).   See  Unicoen. 

Ox'goad.     See  Goad. 

O'zem. 

1.  A  son  of  Jesse  (1  Chron.  ii.  15). 

2.  A  son   of  Jerahmeel   (1  Chron. 

ii.  '2r>). 

0-zi'as.     See  Uzziah. 

Oz'ni  [eared,  attentive]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  16).  He 
was  either  called  al.so  Ezbon  (Gen. 
xlvi.  16),  or  else  on  Ezbon's  death  he 
took  his  place  and  founded  a  tribal 
family,  as  did  Hezron  and  Hamul  in 
Judaii  (Num.  xxvi.  19-21). 


Pa'a-rai. 

(jne  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
35,  most  probably  a  diverse  reading  of  1  Chron. 
xi.  37). 

Pad'dan  and  Pad-dan-a'ram,  in  A.  V. 
Pa'dan  and  Pa-dan-a'ram  [plain,  plain  of 
Aram,  i.  e.,  Syria]  ;  see  Aram  2  (1). 

Pa'don  [freedom,  redemption]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  44  ;  Neh.  vii.  47). 

Pa'gi-el  [a  meeting  with  God]. 

Head  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  i.  13;  ii.  27;  vii.  72,  77;  x.  26). 

Pa-hath-mo'ab  [governor  of  Moab] . 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezraii.  6;  viii.  4;  Neli.  vii.  11).  Some  of 
them  married  heathen  wives,  from  whom 
Ezra  x>ersuaded  them  to  separate  (Ezra  x.  30). 
The  representative  of  the  fiimily  signed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  14),  and  Hashub,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  fiiinily,  rebuilt  or  replaced  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  11). 

Pa'i.   See  Pau. 

Paint. 

In  ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  the  custom 
of  ])ainting  a  black  rim  around  the  eyes  pre- 
vailed among  tlie  women.  The  Hebrews 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  practice  as  a  mere- 
tricious art,  unworthy  of  a  woman  of  high 
character  (2  Kin.  ix.  30;  Jer.  iv.  30;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  40;  War  iv.  9,  10).  The  eyeball  under 
the  lids  and  the  edge  of  the  lids,  and  some- 
times the  eyebrows,  were  blackened.    Doubt- 


Palace 


561 


Palestine 


less  various  dye  stuffs  were  used  for  the 
purpose.  Antimony,  burnt  to  blackness  and 
pulverized,  was  employed  (Septuagint). 
Probably  lead  also  was  used,  as  it  is  in  Per- 
sia. The  ordinary  kohl,  which  is  used  by 
women  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day,  is  a  pow- 
der obtained  from  almond  shells  or  by  burn- 
ing a  fragrant  resin.  The  powder  was  kept 
in  small,  covered  jars  ;  and  was  applied,  both 
dry  and  moistened  with  oil,  by  means  of  a 
probe  made  of  wood,  silver,  or  ivory,  and 
blunt  at  the  end. 

For  cosmetics  applied  to  otlier  parts  of  the 
body,  see  Henna;  and  for  pigments  used  to 
color  walls  and  other  objects,  see  Colors. 

Pal'ace. 

David  occupied  a  royal  residence  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  V.  9 ;  vii.  1.  2),  but  Solomon's 
commodious  and  magnificent  abode  was  the 
first  in  Jerusalem  to  be  constructed  on  a 
grand  scale  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12).  It  was  thir- 
teen years  in  course  of  erection,  whereas  the 
temple  was  completed  in  seven  years  (vi.  38  ; 
vii.  1).  It  contained  the  house  of  the  forest 
of  Lebanon  (2-5),  which  took  its  name  from 
its  numerous  cedar  pillars.  This  house  was 
100  cubits  or  150  feet  long,  50  cubits  wide, 
and  30  cubits  high.  Its  walls  were  of  solid 
masonry.  Within  were  four  rows  of  cedar 
pillars.  Probably  one  row  ran  parallel  with 
each  wall,  and  the  four  rows  formed  the  four 
sides  of  a  rectangular  court,  about  30  by  80 
cubits  in  dimension  :  or  else  the  pillars  were 
disposed  in  two  double  rows  parallel  to  the  long 
sides  of  the  building  and  left  a  court  in  the 
center.  Beams  extended  from  the  pillars  to 
the  walls  and  supported  tliree  tiers  of  cham- 
bers. These  chambers  looked  down  into  the 
court.  This  building  was  at  once  armory 
and  treasure  house  (x.  17,  21 ;  Is.  xxii.  8), 
and  may  have  served  other  purposes  as  well. 
A  hall  of  pillars  was  the  reception  and  wait- 
ing room  of  the  palace  (1  Kin.  vii.  6).  It  was 
50  cubits  in  length  and  30  cubits  in  breadth, 
and  had  a  portico  in  front  of  its  portal.  This 
portico  was  not  unlikely  the  main  entrance  to 
the  palace.  Next  came  the  hall  of  judgment 
(ver.  7),  open  in  front,  but  probably  closed  on 
the  other  three  sides  by  solid  walls  pierced  by 
doors  only.  It  was  the  throne  room.  The 
great  ivory  throne  overlaid  with  gold  stood 
there  (x.  18-20).  These  three  buildings  y)rob- 
ably  opened  on  a  rectangular  court,  the  sides 
of  which  were  the  portal  in  the  central  part 
of  the  inner  long  wall  of  the  house  of  the 
forest  of  Lebanon,  the  inner  doors  and  wall 
of  the  hall  of  pillars,  and  the  open  front  of 
the  throne  room.  Behind  the  throne  room 
was  the  inner  court  where  the  king  dwelt. 
The  principal  entrance  to  it  was  probably 
through  the  throne  room,  so  that  the  king  pro- 
nounced judgment  and  granted  audiences  in 
the  gate  of  his  palace.  This  court  was.  of 
course,  adorned  with  flowers  and  fountains, 
and  surrounded  by  cloisters.  The  palace  of 
Pharaoh's  daughter  (vii.  8)  was  next  to  the 
36 


throne  room,  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq. 
viii.  5,  2).  Solomon's  palace  was  constructed 
on  the  general  model  wliicli  prevailed  in 
western  Asia,  and  which  is  now  familiar  from 
the  remains  of  the  royal  abodes  unearthed 
in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia.  Some 
conception  of  its  elegance  and  beauty  may 
be  formetl  from  casual  references  in  the  Book 
of  Esther  to  the  palace  of  the  Persian  king 
at  Shushan  (Esth.  i.  .5,  6,  9  ;  ii.  3,  14  ;  v.  1,  2 ; 
vii.  7).  See  House;  Asmon^ans,  Palace 
OF  the;  Herod's  Palace;   and  Pr.'etor- 

lUM. 

Pa'lal  [a  judge,  or  he  hath  judged]. 

A  son  of  Uzai.  He  helped  to  rebuild  tlie 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Pal-an-quin'. 

A  covered  conveyance,  arranged  both  for 
sitting  and  reclining,  and  carried  by  means 
of  poles  on  the  shoulders  of  two,  four,  or  six 
men  or  borne  as  a  litter  between  two  camels, 
horses,  or  mules.  The  royal  palanquin,  pro- 
vided by  Solomon  for  his  bride,  consisted  of 
a  frame  made  of  cedar,  with  small  orna- 
mental pillars  of  silver,  a  bottom  of  gold, 
costly  coverings  of  purple  for  the  seat,  and 
perhaps  embroideries  lovingly  made  by  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (Song  iii.  9,  in  A.  V. 
chariot ;  by  Ewald  and  Delitzsch  rendered 
bed  of  state). 

Pal'es-tine  (Joel  iii.  4)  and  Pal-es-ti'na 
(Ex.  XV.  14  ;  Is.  xiv.  29,  31),  in  R.  V.  always 
Philistia. 

In  the  O.  T.  the  name  denotes  the  country 
of  the  Philistines  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  89).  The 
name  now  designates  a  country  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  Asia,  constituting  the  southern 
portion  of  Syria,  and  which  for  a  long  time  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  Hebrews.  That  portion 
of  this  territory  which  lies  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan the  ancient  Hebrews  called  Canaan  as 
distinguished  from  the  land  of  Gilead  on  the 
east  of  the  river.  After  the  conquest  the  en- 
tire country  became  known  as  the  land  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19 ;  1  Chron.  xxii.  2 ;  Mat. 
ii.  20),  but  after  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
this  name  was  often  given  to  the  northern 
realm.  In  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  9) 
it  is  called  the  land  of  promise.  Soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  (ireekand 
Latin  writers  denominate  it  Paltfstina.  lu 
the  Middle  Ages  it  became  known  as  the 
Holy  Land  (cp.  Zech.  ii.  12;  2  Mac.  i.  7). 

1.  Boundnries  and  Extent  nf  Pnh.tfinr.  Tlie 
Hebrews  occujiied  the  region  from  Kadesh- 
barnca  and  the  wady  el-'Arisli  on  the  south 
to  mount  Hermon  on  the  north,  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west  to  the 
desert  on  the  east,  except  the  j^lain  of  the  Phi- 
listines and  the  country  of  ^loab.  In  pros- 
perous reigns  powerful  kings  extended  their 
sway  beyond  these  limits  and  held  dominion 
over  Hamath  and  Damascus  and  beyond,  as 
far  as  the  river  Euphrates,  and  over  Ammon, 
Moab,  and  Edbm.  The  Hebrews  themselves 
were  accustomed  to  say  that  their  country 


Palestine 


562 


Palestine 


extended  from  Dan  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 
of  150  miles.  The  southern  boundary  was 
then  the  wady  el-Fikreh  and  the  river  Arnon. 
These  limits  included  the  thickly  populated 
portion  of  the  land.  Taking  the  smaller 
limits,  which  exclude  most  of  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Simeon  and  part  of 
that  occupied  by  Naphtali.  the  boundaries 
form  a  parallelogram,  the  altitude  of  which, 
measured  by  the  latitudes  of  Dan  and  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  145 
miles,  and  the  base  70  miles.  The  area  is 
10,150  square  miles.  This  includes  the  Phi- 
listine country,  which,  at  its  utmost  extent 
from  Carmel  to  Beer-sheba,  had  an  area  of 
1765  square  miles,  leaving  8385  square  miles 
as  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Hebrews. 
The  survey  assigns  to  eastern  Palestine,  from 
Hermon  to  the  Arnon,  about  3800  square 
miles ;  and  to  western  Palestine,  as  far  south 
as  Beer-sheba  and  including  Philistia,  6040 
square  miles. 

2.  Population  of  Palestine.  The  Hebrews 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest  numbered  600,- 
000  males  above  twenty  years  of  age,  which 
represents  a  total  population  of  2,160,000. 
They  were  distributed  over  something  more 
than  8300  square  miles.  Massachusetts,  with 
an  area  of  8315  square  miles,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  2,238,943  in  1890,  and  New  Jersey, 
with  an  area  of  7815  square  miles,  had  a 
population  of  1,444,933.  David  took  the 
census  of  a  much  larger  region.  The  present 
population  is  estimated  at  600,000.  That  it 
was  formerly  much  larger  is  evident  from  the 
statements  of  the  Bible  and  Josephus,  and 
from  the  numerous  ruins  of  former  towns. 
Scarcely  a  hilltop  of  the  nniltitudc  always 
in  sight  but  is  crowned  with  a  city  or  village, 
inhabited  or  in  ruins. 

3.  The  Geology  of  Palestine.  A  band  of 
Nubian  or  Petra  sandstone  extends  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  along  part 
of  the  wall  of  rock  flanking  the  Jordan  val- 
ley on  the  east,  and  appears  on  the  western 
slopes  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  It  is 
generally  of  a  dark  red  or  blackish  color. 
Above  this  lies  the  most  important  geological 
formation  in  Palestine,  the  cretaceous  lime- 
stone which  constitutes  the  main  part  of  the 
table-land  of  the  country  both  east  and  west 
of  the  .Jordan.  At  Jerusalem  there  are  two 
beds  of  the  limestone,  an  upper  or  harder 
layer,  called  by  the  inhabitants  misseh.  and 
an  inferior  soft  one,  denominated  meleh'h. 
The  reservoirs,  sepulchers.  and  cellars  under 
and  around  the  city  have  been  excavated  in 
the  soft  melekeh,  while  the  foundations  of 
the  buildings  are  on  the  hard  mi.tseh.  The 
large  quarries  near  the  Damascus  gate  are  in 
the  melekeh.  From  them  came  the  stone  of 
which  the  temple  walls  were  constructed. 
These  beds  of  cretaceous  limestone  underlie 
a  newer  series  which,  commencing  at  mount 
Carmel,  runs  nearly  south  to  Beer-sheba,  from 
which  it  then  cvirves  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean.    Out- 


liers of  it  exist  also  northeast,  east,  and 
southwest  of  Jerusalem  and  around  Shechem. 
From  the  abundance  in  them  of  the  little 
foraminifera  called  nummulites,  the  beds  are 
named  the  nummulitic  limestone.  They  be- 
long to  the  Eocene  Tertiary,  and  probably  to 
the  Middle  Eocene.  This  rock  is  so  connected 
with  the  cretaceous  limestone  that  the  two 
are  generally  held  to  constitute  but  a  single 
formation,  called  the  cretaceo-nummulitic 
series.  Flanking  the  nummulitic  limestone 
on  the  west  a  long  continuous  band  of  cal- 
careous sandstone  extends  through  the  Phi- 
listine country  and  appears  in  scattered 
patches  farther  north,  to  near  mount  Car- 
mel. As  a  rule,  it  is  porous  and  soft,  and  as 
it  easily  weathers  away,  it  exposes  the  harder 
limestone  of  the  table-land  which  dips  be- 
neath it,  and  makes  the  descent  from  the 
uplands  to  the  lowlands  of  Judfea  and 
Samaria  more  abrupt  than  it  otherwise 
would  be.  Between  this  sandstone  and  the 
Mediterranean  lie  raised  beaches  belonging 
to  the  upper  Pliocene,  or  to  recent  times. 
All  these  are  sedimentary  beds.  A  few 
igneous  rocks,  however,  exist  in  the  land. 
A  minute  patch  of  very  old  igneous  rocks, 
an  outlier  of  the  great  mass  of  granite, 
porphyry,  diorite,  and  felsite,  which  occurs 
farther  south  in  the  Arabah  and  especially 
at  Sinai,  is  combined  with  the  carboniferous 
rocks.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
nearly  all  the  way  from  the  roots  of  mount 
Hermon  to  south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
east  and  southeast  to  the  Hauran,  beyond 
the  limits  of  Palestine,  the  country  is  over- 
spread by  an  immense  mass  of  volcanic 
material,  basalt,  dolerite,  felsite,  none  of  it 
older,  and  some  of  it  apparently  more  re- 
cent, than  the  Pliocene  Tertiary.  There  are 
detached  portions  of  the  same  volcanic  rocks 
in  western  Palestine,  west  and  northwest  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  with  fragments  in  other 
quarters.  Along  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
Palestine,  wherever  the  ground  is  low  and 
level,  there  is  a  row  of  sand  dunes,  some 
rising  200  feet  in  height.  Those  on  the 
southwest  of  the  country  may  have  been  at 
least  partly  formed  by  the  blowing  of  sand 
from  the  Egyptian  and  Sinaitic  deserts.  Those 
farther  north  obtained  the  sand  from  the 
weathering  of  the  calcareous  sandstone  of 
Philistia.  They  tend  to  encroach  upon  the 
cultivated  parts  adjacent,  the  wind  continu- 
ally blowing  particles  from  them  inland. 
Palestine  lies  in  one  of  the  lines  in  which 
eartnquake  action  is  potent;  and  both  in 
ancient  times  and  more  recently  ]iortions  of 
the  country  have  been  seriously  convulsed. 
To  recapitulate,  the  geological  structure  of 
Palestine  consists  of  a  layer  of  red  sandstone 
over  the  primitive  rocks;  then  comes  the 
chalky  limestone  which  forms  the  mass  of 
the  tour»ry,  overlaid  with  nunmuilite  lime- 
stone and  alluvial  soil ;  and  lastly  in  the 
northeast  appear  colossal  erupted  masses  of 
volcanic  rock. 


Palestine 


o(;,'; 


Palestine 


4.  The  Physical  Geography  of  Palestine. 
The  physical  divisions  of  Palestine  are  five  : 
the  maritime  plaiu,  the  low  country  or 
Shephelah,  the  central  mountain  range,  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  the  eastern  table-land. 
These  form  parallel  zones,  and  with  certain 
modifications  extend  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
They  are  broken  only  by  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  which  lies  athwart  the  mountain 
range  and  connects  the  seacoast  with  the 
Jordan  vallej'.  1.  The  maritime  plain  lies 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  for 
the  entire  length  of  the  country,  being 
broken  only  by  mount  Carniel.  North  of 
Carmel  it  is  quite  narrow,  but  south  of  that 
mountain  it  is  6  miles  wide  and  increases  in 
width  southward.  It  is  an  undulating  plain 
100  to  200  feet  above  sea  level,  and  very 
fertile.  Between  Carmel  and  the  'Aujah, 
which  empties  into  the  sea  north  of  Joppa, 
it  was  called  Sharon,  south  of  Joppa  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Philistines.  2.  The  low 
country  or  Shephelah  is  a  region  of  low  hills 
situated  between  the  maritime  plain  south 
of  Carmel  and  the  high  central  range.  It 
forms  a  terrace  with  an  elevation  of  about 
500  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  name  is 
applied  almost  exclusively  to  that  part  of  the 
low  hilly  country  which  extends  from  the 
latitude  of  Joppa  southward  to  Beer-sheba, 
and  which  is  sharply  separated  from  the 
central  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  running 
north  and  south.  3.  The  central  mountain 
range  is  a  continuation  of  the  Lebanon 
mountains.  South  of  the  river  Leontes  the 
lofty  ridge  drops  to  a  high  plateau  which 
reaches  southward  as  far  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  Acre.  This  is 
Upper  Galilee.  It  contains  a  number  of  hills 
between  2000  and  3000  feet  in  elevation ; 
while  several  rise  considerably  above  that 
height,  like  Jebel  Jermuk  which  is  3934  feet. 
Lower  Galilee  is  triangular,  having  the  sea 


nSOOOFut 


of  the  sea  of  Galilee.    Southwest  of  the  sea  is 
mountTabor,  1843  feet  high  ;  and  farther.south 


mount  Gil  boa,  with  one  peak  1(J9S  feet  and 
another  1648  feet.  The  southern  part  of 
Lower  Galilee  de.scends  into  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  most  of  the  places  in  which  do  not 
exceed  200  or  300  feet  in  height.  South  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  the  range  is  broken  by 
many  wadies,  mountains  are  scattered  into 
groups,  and  its  inner  recesses  are  accessible 
from  the  maritime  plain,  Esdraelon,  and  the 
Jordan  valley.  Carmel  is  thrust  out  as  a 
spur  toward  the  northwest.  The  average 
watershed  is  2000  feet  high.  But  mount  Ebal 
rises  3077  feet  and  its  companion  Gerizim 
2849.  This  was  Samaria.  From  Bethel  to 
Hebron  and  almost  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 
of  about  45  miles,  the  range  forms  one  com- 
pact mass  with  precipitous  sides  on  the  east 
and  west  and  with  an  average  height  of  2200 
feet.  Bethel,  however,  has  an  elevation  of 
2930  feet  above  sea  level,  the  highest  part  of 
Jerusalem  2598,  Bethlehem  2550,  and  Hebron 
3040.  About  15  miles  south  of  Hebron  it 
slopes  down  to  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
The  summit  of  the  range  is  the  narrow 
table-land  which  was  occupied  by  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Judah.  4.  The  Jordan 
valley  is  a  remarkable  chasm  which  begins 


Cross  Sections  of  I'alestiue  on  the  Parallels  of  Hebruii,  Jerusalem,  and  Shiloh. 


of  Galilee  and  the  Jordan  as  far  as  Beth- 
shean  on  its  eastern  side  and  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  on  the  southwestern  side.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  low  ridges  running  east 
and  west.  Its  elevation  is  considerably  less 
than  that  of  Upper  Galilee,  many  of  its  hills 
being  only  400.  500,  or  600  feet  high,  though 
there  are  a  few  loftier  peaks  immediately  west 


at  the  foot  of  mount  Hernion.  1700  feet 
above  sea  level,  but  with  lofty  mountains  on 
each  side,  and  grows  rapidly  deeper  as  it  goes 
southward  until  at  the  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea  it  is  1290  feet  lower  than  sea  level :  .^ee 
Dead  Se.\  and  Jordan.  Though  not  an 
impassable  barrier,  it  prevented  free  inter- 
course between  the  peoples  who  dwelt  east 


Palestine 


564 


Palestine 


of  it  south  of  the  Jabhok  as  fsir  as  Edom, 
and  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Beujauiin  ou 
the  west.  5.  The  eastern  table-laud  is  a 
great  fertile  plain,  much  of  it  more  than 
3000  feet  in  elevation,  stretching  from  the 
blutfs  which  overlook  the  Jordan  valley  to 
the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  cut  in  twain  by  the 
gorge  of  the  Jabbok  and  the  northern  por- 
tion is  further  cleft  by  the  Yarmuk,  imme- 
diately south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

5.  I'he  Principal  Roads  of  Palestine.  The 
physical  structure  determined  the  course  of 
travel.  The  great  commercial  and  military 
highway  between  Egypt  and  the  empires  of 
the  east  passed  through  Palestine.  It  crossed 
the  wady  el-'Arish  near  its  mouth,  followed 
the  seacoast  to  Gaza,  where  it  was  met  by  a 
road  from  Elath  and  Arabia,  and  continued 
through  the  plain  of  the  Philistines  to  Ash- 
dod.  Beyond  Ashdod  it  forked.  One  branch 
followed  the  coast  by  Joppa  and  Dor,  and 
avoided  mount  Carmel  by  keeping  to  the  sea- 
shore at  the  base  of  the  headland  ;  but  the 
way  is  only  600  feet  wide  under  the  head- 
land, and  is  broken  by  rocks.  The  other 
branch,  and  the  main  line  of  travel,  continued 
from  Ashdod  through  Ekron  and  Lod  and 
crossed  the  mountains  to  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon  by  one  of  tliree  passes.  The  western 
road  emerged  by  Tell  Keimun  and  led  to 
Acre,  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  the  north.  The  cen- 
tral road  crossed  to  el-Lejjun  (Megiddo), 
traversed  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  Lower 
Galilee  to  the  plain  of  Gennesaret,  followed 
the  Jordan  northward,  and  by  one  branch 
entered  the  valley  of  tlie  river  Litany  be- 
tween Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  led 
to  Hamathand  tlu;  north.  The  other  branch 
crossed  the  Jordan  between  the  waters  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  went 
northeastward  to  Damascus.  The  third  and 
most  frequented  route  from  the  maritime 
plain  passed  through  the  plain  of  Dothan  to 
En-gannim,  where  it  divided,  one  branch 
joining  the  aforementioned  road  across  Lower 
Galilee,  and  the  other  leading  to  Beth-shean, 
and,  dividing  again,  continuing  to  Gilead  or 
to  Damascus.  By  any  of  the  northern  routes 
Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  might  be 
reached.  There  was  another  road  from  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  to  Egypt.  It  traversed 
the  hill  country,  passing  by  Samaria,  Shc- 
chem,  Bethel,  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Hebron, 
and  Beer-sheba.  At  this-  point  the  road 
branched,  and  there  was  a  choice  of  routes ; 
the  highway  along  the  seacoast  might  be 
gained  by  diverging  to  the  west,  or  the 
journey  might  be  continued  by  way  of  Re- 
lioboth  and  'Ain  Muwcileh,  and  thence  across 
the  desert  to  Egypt.  A  route  from  Beth- 
shean  to  Edom,  which  was  al.so  u.sed  by  trav- 
elers to  Jerusalem,  passed  down  the  Jordan 
valley  to  .Jericho,  where  jiersons  going  to  Je- 
ru.saleni  took  the  steej)  road  up  the  mountains 
to  the  capital.  From  Jericho  the  road  (con- 
tinued along  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead 
i3ea  to  En-gcdi,  where  it  was  joined  by  a  road 


from  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem,  and  thence 
continued  to  Edom  and  Elath  at  the  head  of 
the  Eed  Sea,  where  it  joined  the  caravan 
routes  from  Egypt  and  Gaza  to  southern 
Arabia.  East  of  the  Jordan  a  caravan  route 
led  from  Damascus  along  the  edge  of  the 
desert  southward  to  Arabia  ;  see  Decapolis. 
It  was  joined  by  roads  running  from  Beth- 
shean  across  Gilead  ;  by  a  road  from  Shechem 
down  the  wady  Far'ah  to  the  ford  of  the 
Jordan  below  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
thence  across  Gilead  to  Rabbath  Ammon ; 
and  by  another  from  the  ford  at  Jericho  by 
way  of  Heshbon.  West  of  the  Jordan  Gali- 
lee was  crossed  by  a  road  running  almost 
due  east  from  Acre,  which  joined  the  road 
to  Damascus  near  the  point  where  it  crossed 
the  Jordan,  midway  between  the  waters  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  high 
table-land  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Benjamin 
and  Judah  was  not  easy  of  access  from  the 
maritime  plain.  A  way,  however,  led  from 
the  plain  of  Sharon  and  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah 
at  Eas  el-'Ain  (Antipatris)  southeastwardly 
into  the  hill  country,  and  joined  the  road 
from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem  at  a  point  two 
miles  southwest  of  Bethel.  From  the  sea- 
port of  Joppa  a  road  led  to  Jerusaleth  by  the 
valley  of  Aijalon  and  Beth-horon.  From 
Ashdod  the  capital  was  most  readily  reached 
by  wady  es-Surar  and  Beth-shemesh  ;  but  a 
route  to  Jerusalem  and  also  to  Bethlehem 
was  aiForded  by  the  wady  es-Sunt  jjast  Socoh. 
Access  to  the  hill  country  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hebron  was  had  through  the  wady  el-'Afranj 
by  Beit  Jibrin,  and  by  the  wady  el-Hesy  by 
Lachish. 

6.  The  Meteorology  of  Palestine.  The  great 
contrasts  in  physical  features  have  given  Pal- 
estine a  remarkable  range  of  climate,  from  the 
I)erpetual  snow  on  mount  Hermon  to  the 
tropical  heat  of  the  Jordan  valley  at  Jericho 
and  En-gedi.  The  average  temperature  at 
Jerusalem  in  January,  which  is  the  coldest 
month,  is  about  49.4°  F.,  and  the  greatest 
cold  28°.  In  August  the  average  is  79.3°, 
and  the  greatest  heat  is  92°  in  the  shade. 
See  also  Year. 

7.  The  Botany  of  Palefttine.  In  consequence 
of  the  great  diversity  of  surface  and  climate, 
the  flora  is  extensive  and  plants  of  many 
latitudes  flourish.  Tristram  showed  that  of 
3002  flowering  plants  and  ferns  known  to 
exist  in  Palestine,  a  large  number  for  so 
small  a  country,  2563  are  Palsearctic,  and 
most  of  them  belong  to  its  Mediterranean 
section  ;  161  are  Ethiopian,  27  Indian,  and 
251  peculiar.  In  the  region  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Taurus  mountains  and  the  south- 
ern point  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Syrian 
desert.  Dr.  Post  has  found  850  genera  and 
about  .3500  species. 

8.  The  Zooloii;/  of  Palestine.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  several  sjiecies  of  animals  essential- 
ly agrees  with  that  of  the  Palestinian  plants. 
Of  113  mammalia  known  to  occur  in  Pales- 


Palestine 


-jOo 


Palestine 


tine,  Tristram  found  55  to  belong  to  the 
Palsearctic  region,  the  same  to  which  our 
European  species  belong  ;  34  were  Ethiopian, 
16  Indian,  and  V.i  peculiar  to  the  land.  The 
same  species  somctinii's  belongs  to  two  regions. 
Of  348  si)ecics  of  liinls,  271  were  Pahearctic,  40 
Ethiopian,  7  Indian,  and  30  peculiar.  Of  the 
91  reptiles  and  amphibians,  49  were  Palae- 
arctic,  27  Ethiopian,  4  Indian,  and  11  pecu- 
liar. Of  43  fresh -water  fishes,  H  were  Palse- 
arctic,  2  Ethiopian,  7  Indian,  and  26  pecu- 
liar. In  the  case  of  both  plants  and  animals, 
the  African  and  Indian  types  come  chiefly 
from  the  low-lying  region  around  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  to  a  less  extent  from  the  low  valley 
of  the  Jordan. 

9.  The  Ethnolotjy  of  Palestine.  The  aborig- 
inal inhabitants  of  Palestine  were  a  tall,  stal- 
wart race,  consisting  of  Anakim  (Josh.  xi.. 
21,  22),  Rephaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  Emim,  Zam- 
zummini,  and  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  10-23).  Traces 
of  the  primitive  population  continued  to  ex- 
ist as  late  as  the  time  of  the  monarchy 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  16-22).  When  Abraham  arrived, 
the  country  was  occupied  chiefly  by  the 
Amorites  and  other  smaller  tribes  of  Canaan- 
ites,  but  Philistines  and  Phcenicians  were  .set- 
tled on  the  seacoast  and  Hittites  dwelt  on  the 
northern  border  and  at  Hebron.  The  Hit- 
tites are  regarded  as  a  Turanian  people  from 
the  Taurus  mountains.  The  Philistines  came 
from  the  west.  The  Canaanites,  including 
the  Phcenicians,  either  belonged  to  the  Ham- 
itic  race  by  blood  or  became  incorporated 
with  it  (Gen.  x.  6,  15-20).  They  early  spoke 
a  Semitic  language.  These  various  jieoples 
were  conquered,  but  not  utterly  extermi- 
nated, by  the  Hebrews  under  the  leadership 
of  Moses  and  Joshua.  The  occasional  intro- 
duction of  Edomites,  Ammonites,  and  Moab- 
ites  by  conquest  and  immigration  did  not 
bring  a  new  strain  into  the  blood,  for  these 
peoples  were  Semitic  and  like  the  Hebrews 
descended  from  Abraham.  The  conquest  of 
Aramaean  tribes,  so  far  as  it  resulted  in  add- 
ing foreigners  to  the  commonwealth  of  Israel, 
added  Semites.  After  the  fall  of  Samaria, 
the  Assyrians  dejiorted  the  northern  and 
eastern  tribes  of  the  Israelites  and  intro- 
duced colonists  from  Hamath,  Babylonia, 
and  Elam  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Ezra  iv.  9).  They 
were  largely  Semites  and  Aryans.  A  large 
immigration  of  Greeks  followed  in  the  wake 
of  the  conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
colonized  Ptolemais,  built  the  Greek  towns 
of  the  Decapolis,  and  introduced  the  (Ireek 
language,  customs,  and  culture.  Later.  Roman 
officials  and  a  Roman  army  of  occui)ation 
were  in  the  country,  and  ultimately  Roman 
colonists  came.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the 
seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era  the 
country  was  subjugated  by  the  ISIohanuned- 
ans,  and  in  many  of  the  towns  and  villages 
Arabian  military  colonies  were  planted.  The 
Turks  made  their  appearance  as  conquerors 
in  western  Asia  A.  D.  1086,  and  excejit  for 
short  periods  Palestine  has  ever  since  been 


under   their  rule ;    but    people    of   Turkish 
descent  are  very  few  in  the  country. 

10.  I'he  Histori/  of  Pali'slitie.  Tlie  early 
history  of  Palestine,  before  the  arrival  of 
Abraham,  is  involved  in  obscurity.  The 
succession  of  races  who  injiabited  the  coun- 
try may  be  gathered  from  the  Hebrew  records, 
as  already  pointed  out.  The  kings  of  Haby- 
lonia  early  began  their  invasions  of  the  west, 
and  the  cami)aign  of  Chedorlaomer  in  eastern 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  .\braham  is  described 
in  Gen.  xiv.  Tlie  liabylonians  inijjressed 
their  culture,  including  their  conijiiicatcd 
scrijit  and  their  language  as  a  medium  of 
international  conwnuuication,  ujioti  the  in- 
habitants. After  the  expulsion  of  the  siiep- 
herd  kings  from  the  country  of  tlie  Nile,  the 
great  Pharaohs  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
extended  their  sway  far  into  Asia.  Thothmes 
III.  conquered  Canaan  and  exacted  tribute 
from  the  nations  dwelling  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates.  During  the  reigns  of  Amen- 
ophis  III.  and  IV.,  who  succeeded  him  after 
an  interval,  Canaan  was  garrisoned  by  Egyj)- 
tian  troops  and  governed  by  Egyptian  of- 
ficials. But  in  the  latter  reign  the  grasp  of 
Egypt  was  evidently  weakening.  The  Hit- 
tites were  threatening  the  northern  frontier, 
lawlessness  prevailed  in  various  parts  of  the 
land,  travel  was  insecure,  individual  states 
were  in  a  foment  of  discontent  or  in  rebellion, 
and  various  tribes  were  extending  their  ter- 
ritory at  the  expense  of  EgjT)t.  Under  the 
succeeding  dynasty  Seti  I.  passed  through 
Palestine  and  waged  war  with  the  Hittites 
on  the  Orontes;  Ramses  II.  invaded  Pales- 
tine and  penetrated  beyond  ;  and  Meneptah's 
armies  ravaged  southern  Palestine  and  the 
coast  of  Philistia,  and  wasted  the  crops  of  the 
Israelites,  who  were  jierhaps  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  the  wandering  near  Kadesh-barnea  ; 
see  Egypt  and  Ph.\raoh.  Ramses  III.,  of 
the  twentieth  dynasty,  overran  Palestine 
while  the  Israelites  were  still  in  the  desert. 
When  the  power  of  the  country  had  been  re- 
duced by  these  wars,  the  Hebrews  apjieared 
on  the  scene.  Under  the  leadership  of  Moses, 
they  conquered  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  ; 
and  in  the  following  year,  under  .losbua, 
they  crossed  the  river,  and  after  repeated 
camjiaigns  took  ])ossession  of  Canaan.  From 
this  time  onward,  until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
history  of  Palestine  is  largely  the  history  of 
the  Hebrew  people.     See  History. 

11.  The  Topoij in phy  of  Palestine.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  estimated,  622  towns  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan are  mentione<l  in  the  Bible  and  the  Ajioc- 
rypha.  Other  early  documents  relV'r  to  many 
of  these  towns  by  name.  In  1874  Mariette  Bey 
j)ublished  geograjihical  lists  taken  from  tab- 
lets round  the  necks  of  the  figures  of  caj)- 
tives  represented  on  the  great  gateway  of  the 
temple  at  Karnak.  They  belong  to  the  reign 
of  Thothmes  III.  There  are  118  n-ames.  of 
which  no  fewer  than  one-third  throw  light 
on  the  topography  of  Palestine  and  the  Book 


Pallu 


566 


Palm 


of  Joshua.  Rcfereuces  to  towns  of  Palestine 
in  tlie  time  of  Amenopbis  III.  and  IV.  oc- 
cur in  tlie  letters  which  were  discovered  at 
Tell  el-Aniarna.  Later  references  are  found 
iu  contenjporary  records  of  Assyria,  especial- 
ly in  documents  which  relate  to  campaigns 
conducted  in  Palestine.  Eusebius,  bishop  of 
Csesarea  in  the  tir.st  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  wrote  a  tract  con- 
cerning the  names  of  places  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  It  was  translated  and  enlarged 
by  Jerome,  resident  at  Bethlehem  a  century 
later.  The  work  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome.  The 
notices  regarding  the  situation  of  ancient 
places  in  Palestine,  according  to  the  informa- 
tion possessed  by  the  learned  authors,  are 
often  valuable,  sometimes  absurd.  Tlie  in- 
formation gathered  by  Reland  and  published 
by  him  in  1714,  and  the  travels  of  Seetzeu 
and  Burckhardt,  especially  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, iu  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  systematic,  scien- 
tific investigation  conducted  by  Dr.  Robinson. 
He  visited  Palestine  in  1838,  accompanied  bj-  a 
former  pui)il  of  his,  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  Amer- 
ican missionary  at  Beirut,  who  greatly  aided 
the  inquiry  by  his  knowledge  of  Arabic. 
They  found  by  asking  the  natives  what  cer- 
tain ruins  or  yet  inhabited  villages  were 
called,  that  they  often  bore  the  old  Hebrew 
names  still,  a  little  modified  as  pronounced 
by  Arab  lips.  Their  discoveries  in  the  to- 
pography of  Palestine  were  very  important, 
and  were  given  to  the  world  by  Prof.  Robin- 
son in  1841  in  three  octavo  volumes.  Return- 
ing from  America,  Dr.  Robinson  resumed  his 
researches  in  Palestine  iu  1852,  accompanied 
again  by  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  and  others.  He 
made  fresh  discoveries,  embodied  iu  his  Later 
Biblical  Researches,  1856.  Dr.  Robinson 
brought  to  bear  on  his  inquiry  not  merely 
keen  observation  and  a  sound  judgment,  but 
great  learning  ;  and  his  conclusions,  many 
of  them  disputed  at  the  time,  are  now  much 
more  largely  accepted.  On  June  22,  1865,  a 
society  named  The  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  was  formed  in  England  to  prosecute 
in  a  scientific  spirit  all  branches  of  inquiry 
regarding  the  Holy  Land.  Since  then  it  has 
conducted  an  ordnance  survey  of  a  great 
part  of  Palestine,  and  constructed  a  superb 
niaj)  of  the  country  in  twenty-six  sheets. 
This  result  is  a  permanent  and  splendid 
achievement.  The  society  has  also  carried 
on  excavations,  especially  at  Jerusalem  and 
Ijachish.  Asa  resultof  allpastinvestigations, 
aluiiit  one-half  of  the  biblical  sites  have  been 
identified  with  certainty  or  great  probability. 

Pal'lu,  in  A.  V.  once  Phallu  (Gen.  xlvi.  9) 
[distinguished]. 

A  son  of  Reuben,  a»id  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  !) ;  Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num. 
xxvi.  5). 

Palm. 

A  tree,  cali'^l  in  Hebrew  tamar,  (immorah, 


and  tomer,  and  iu  Greek  phoinix.  It  is  a  tall 
tree  (Song  vii.  7,  8),  straight  and  upright  (Jer. 
x.  5).  It  is  a  fruit  tree  (Joel  i.  12),  aud  suffi- 
ciently ornamental  to  have  been  carved  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Solomon's  temple  and  other  sane- 


Date  Palm. 

tuaries  (1  Kin.  vi.  29,  32,  35  ;  Herod,  ii.  169). 
Its  great  leaves  were  used  as  tokens  of  victorji 
and  peace  (1  Mac.  xiii.  51 ;  2  Mac.  x.  7  ;  John 
xii.  13  ;  Rev.  vii.  9  ;  imitated  in  2  Esdr.  ii. 
43-47).  These  leaves  are  often  popularly 
called  branches ;  and  this  designation  is  em- 
ployed in  the  English  versions  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40;  Neh.  viii.  15;  John  xii.  13),  but  is  not 
botanically  correct.  Scarcely  any  palms  have 
branches  at  all ;  and  the  date  palm,  the  spe- 
cies grown  iu  parts  of  Palestine,  is  not  one  of 
the  few  exceptions  to  the  rule.  The  leaves  are 
large  and  feathery,  from  4  to  6  feet  in  length ; 
they  are  quite  accessible,  as  there  are  gener- 
ally a  number  of  young  plants  around  the 
foot  of  the  parent  stem.  Palm  trees  flour- 
ished on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  They  gi-ew 
at  Elim,  in  the  wilderness  near  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  27),  and  in  Edom  (Virgil,  Georg.  iii. 
12).  They  grew  in  various  parts  of  Judsea 
also  (Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  v.  14)  ;  as  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  at  Jericho,  and  En-gedi,  and 
on  the  coast  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Gen.  xiv. 
7,  in  the  proper  name ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3 ; 
Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  Antiq.  ix.  1,  2  ;  War  i.  6,  6  ; 
iii.  10,  8) ;  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  31, 
49,  in  the  names  Sansannah  and  Kirjath-san- 
nah),  in  mount  Ephraim  near  Bethel  (Judg.  iv. 
5;  XX.  33),  near  Jerusalem  (Neh.  viii.  15  :  John 


Palmer-worm 


567 


Papyrus 


xii.  13).  They  grew  also  in  the  desert  east  of 
Damascus,  at  the  towu  named  from  them, 
Tadmor,  Tamar,  and  Palmyra.  They  flour- 
ished also  in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Tigrisand 
Euphrates  (Herod,  i.  193).  The  tree  was  re- 
garded by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  peculiar- 
ly characteristic  of  Palestine  and  the  neigh- 
boring regions.  Phoenicia  took  its  name  in 
Greek  from  the  date  palm ;  and  the  coin 
struck  at  Eome  to  commemorate  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  represented  a  woman,  emblem  of 
the  country,  sitting  disconsolate  under  a  date 
palm  ;  see  Jerusalem  and  Money.  The 
tree  which  was  once  so  common  has  almost 
disappeared  from  Palestine,  except  in  the 
maritime  plain  of  Philistia  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Beirut,  but  it  is  being  cultivated 
anew  near  Jericho.  The  palm  tree  in  Scrip- 
ture almost  always  means  the  date  palm 
(Phoenix  dacti/lifera),  which  gro^s  about  60  or 
80  feet  high,  having  a  single  upright  stem  of 
uniform  thickness  through  its  entire  length 
and  marked  by  the  scars  of  fallen  leaves. 
The  stem  terminates  above  in  a  circle  of 
great  feathery  leaves,  perennially  green. 
It  is  believed  to  attain  a  great  age,  from 
a  hundred  to  two  hundred  years.  The  do- 
mestic uses  of  the  palm  are  numerous.  The 
leaves  are  employed  for  covering  the  roofs 
and  sides  of  houses,  for  fences,  mats,  and 
baskets.  When  the  tender  part  of  the  spatha 
is  piei'ced,  a  sweet  juice  exudes,  from  which 
sugar  is  obti'ined  by  evaporation,  and  a  strong 
drink  called  arrack  by  fermentation  or  dis- 
tillation (War  iv.  8,  3  ;  Herod,  i.  193).  The 
fruit,  which  it  produces  annually  in  numer- 
ous clusters  and  great  abundance,  constitutes 
its  chief  value,  being  largely  used  as  au  arti- 
cle of  food.  Even  the  stony  seeds  are  ground, 
and  yield  nourishment  to  the  camel  of  the 
desert.  Another  palm  tree  may  have  been 
known  to  many  Israelites:  the  Palmyra, 
which  grows  at  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  Borassus  flabelliformis,  the  specific  name 
implying  that  it  has  fan-shaped  leaves. 

Palm'er-worm. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gazam,  de- 
vourer,  an  insect  which  devoured  vines,  fig 
trees,  olive  trees,  and  the  produce  of  the 
gardens  and  fields  generally  (Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  25; 
Amos  iv.  9).  Probably  a  kind  of  locust,  or 
a  locust  in  a  certain  stage  of  its  growth 
(R.  Y.  margin).  When  the  A.  Y.  was  made, 
palmer-worm  denoted  a  sort  of  hairy  cater- 
pillar which  has  no  fixed  abode,  but  wanders 
like  a  palmer  or  pilgrim  from  place  to  place. 

Pal'sy. 

A  partial  or  total  loss  of  sensibility,  volun- 
tary motion,  or  both,  in  one  or  more  parts  of 
the  body  (Mark  ii.  3,  9-12;  Acts  ix.  33-35). 
It  is  produced  by  disease  of  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  or  particular  nerves.  Under  this 
term  tlie  ancients  included  a  variety  of  dis- 
eases affecting  the  muscles. 

Pal'ti,  in  A.  Y.  once  Phalti  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44) 
[abbreviation  of  Paltiel,  deliverance  by  God]. 


1.  The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

2.  The  man  to  whom  Saul  married  Michal, 
David's  wife,  and  Inun  whom  she  was  later 
wrested  away  and  restored  to  David  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  44;  2  Sam.  iii.  15,  where  the  unab- 
breviated form  is  used). 

Pal'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Phaltiel  (2  Sam. 
iii.  15)  [deliverance  by  God]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tril)e  of  Issachar  and  a 
contemporary  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  2()). 

2.  The  same  as  Palti  2  (2  Sam.  iii.  15). 
Pal'tite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  an  inhabitant 
of  the  town,  of  Pelet  or  Palti.  To  judge 
from  2  Sam  xxiii.  26  compared  with  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  10,  the  Paltites  were  reckoned  to 
Epliraini. 

Pam-phyl'i-a  [popularly  interpreted  by 
the  Greeks  as  meaning  an  assemblage  of 
mingled  tribes]. 

A  stretch  of  coast  land  in  Asia  Elinor.  It 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pisidia  ;  on  the 
south  by  a  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  called 
the  sea  of  Pamphylia,  across  which  Paul 
sailed  (Acts  xxvii.  5)  ;  on  the  east  by  Cilicia  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Lycia  and  part  of  Phrygia. 
Pamphylia  contained  Jewish  communities 
(ii.  10).  Its  towns,  Perga  and  Attalia, 
were  visited  by  Paul  on  his  first  missionary 
journey  (xiii.  13;  xiv.  24,  25;  xv.  38). 

Pan'nag. 

A  product  of  Palestine  which  the  Tyrians 
purchased  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  The  R.  V.,  fol- 
lowing the  Jewish  Targum,  suggests  that 
perhaps  it  was  a  kind  of  confection. 

Pa'per.     See  Papyrus. 

Pa'per  Reed. 

Papyrus ;  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  'Arah,  nakedness  (Is.  xix.  7); 
see  Papyrus.  The  corresponding  word  in 
Arabic  means  an  open  place ;  and  R.  Y.  ren- 
ders the  Hebrew  word  by  meadow. 

Pa'phos. 

A  town  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
Cyprus,  near  cape  Zephyrion.  It  was  called 
Old  Paphos  to  distinguish  it  from  the  newer 
mercantile  town  some  miles  to  the  northwest. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Cyprus,  and  the  residence  of  the  proconsul. 
In  its  vicinity  was  a  celebrated  tem]>le  of  the 
C^Tirian  'N'enus  (Homer,  Odyssey  viii.  362). 
The  town  was  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
6-13).     It  is  now  called  Kuklia. 

Pa-py'rus. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Gome' ;  a 
plant  which  grows  in  mire  (Job  viii.  11,  R.  V. 
margin;  in  Is.  xxxv.  7  rendered  rush),  and 
of  which  the  tiny  ark  of  Moses  (  Ex.  ii.  3,  R. 
Y.  margin;  in  text,  bulruslies),  and  also  larger 
boats  (Is.  xviii.  2,  R.  Y.)  were  made.  The 
plant  referred  to  is  tiie  })aper  reed  I  Papyrus 
antiquoritm).  But  the  ijajiyrus  is  not  a  grass, 
as  the  word  reed  might  suggest  ;  nor  is  it  a 
rush.     It  is  a  giant  sedge,  with   a   triangu- 


Parable 


568 


Parable 


lar  stock  8  or  10  feet  high,  terminating  in  a 
ttift  of  flowers.  It  grows  in  the  plain  of 
Sharon,  near  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  in  the 
waters  of  the  Hnleh,  coninionly  thought  of 
as  Merom  ;  and  it  formerly  flourished  on  the 


Papyrus. 

Nile,  though  now  extinct  ujjon  that  river. 
Its  use  was  widespread  1 2  Esdr.  xv.  2;  'S  Mac, 
iv.  20).  The  Egyptians  made  shoes,  baskets. 
boats,  aud  other  articles  of  it;  and  used 
sheets,  formed  of  strips  of  the  pith,  as 
writing  paper.  On  such  material,  called  in 
Greek  chart es,  the  apostle  ,Tohu  wrote  his 
Second  Epistle  (2  John  12). 

Par'a-ble. 

A  method  of  speech  in  which  moral  or  re- 
ligious truth  is  illustrated  from  the  analogy 
of  common  experience.  The  comparison 
may  be  expressed,  as  by  the  word  like,  or  be 
imi>lied.  The  limits  between  the  ])arable 
and  simile  and  metaphor  are  not  well  de- 
fined. Often  there  is  .scarcely  any  difl'erence, 
except  that  the  simile  and  metaphor  are 
short  and  the  parable  comparatively  long. 
"Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world"  is  a  meta- 
phor; "  like  a  lamb  dumb  before  his  shear- 
er" is  a  simile;  but  "  tlu;  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  like  unto  leav<'n,  which  a  woman 
took,  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  till 
it  was  all  leavened,"  is  a  parable  (Mat.  xiii. 
33).  The  parable  has  certain  advantages. 
One  is,  that  this  means  of  conveying  truth 
makes  it  adhere  to  the  memory  much  more 
than  a  plain  didnctic  statement  would  do. 
For  instance,  no  didactic  statement  as  to  the 


willingness  of  our  Lord  to  receive  penitent 
sinners  would  have  had  an  efiect  at  all  equal 
to  that  i)roduced  by  the  parable  of  the  prodi- 
gal son  (Luke  xv.  11-32).  A  second  advan- 
tage in  a  parable  is  that  when  it  is  needful 
for  a  prophet  or  a  preacher  to  censure  a 
powerful  personage,  who  will  not  allow  him- 
self to  be  directly  found  fault  with,  it  is 
possible  by  a  skillfully  framed  parable  to 
make  him  not  merely  listen  patiently,  but 
condemn  himself  before  he  discovers  that  it 
is  himself  he  is  condemning.  This  was  done 
with  much  skill  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
when  he  went  to  reprove  David  for  his  great 
sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite. 

The  following  are  the  chief  ])arables  in 
the  O.  T.:  the  trees  anointing  a  king  (Judg. 
ix.  8-20),  the  ewe  lamb  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-14), 
the  widow,  one  of  whose  two  sons  slew  the 
other  (2  Sam.  xiv.  4-20),  the  soldier  who  let 
his  captive  escape  (1  Kin.  xx.  35-42),  the 
thistle  which  asked  for  the  cedar's  daughter 
as  a  wife  for  his  son  (2  Kin.  xiv.  9-11),  the 
vineyard  (Is.  v.  1-7),  the  two  eagles  and  a  vine 
(Ezek.  xvii.  1-10),  the  lion's  whelps  (xix.  1-9), 
Oholah  aud  Oholibah  (xxiii.  1-49),  the  boil- 
ing pot  (xxiv.  1-14). 

An  important  part  of  our  Lord's  teaching 
was  by  means  of  parables ;  and  when  Scrip- 
ture parables  are  spoken  of,  generally  those 
of  Jesus  are  meant.  Christ  used  the  para- 
bolic form  of  teaching  at  every  period  of 
his  public  ministry  (Mark  iii.  23 ;  Luke  vi. 
39 ;  vii.  40-50),  but  there  came  a  time  when 
a  distinct  change  took  place  and  he  gave  a 
larger  jtlace  to  parables  in  his  puldic  instruc- 
tion (Mat.  xiii.  3;  Mark  iv.  2).  Two  rea.sons 
are  assigned  why  he  adopted  to  such  an  ex- 
tent this  method  of  teaching.  One  given  by 
Matthew  is  that  it  was  prophesied  (Mat.  xiii. 
34,  35;  cp.  Ps.  xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2,  3).  ,The 
other,  emanating  from  our  Lord,  explains 
the  former.  He  used  parables  because  it  was 
not  given  unto  his  auditors  to  know  the 
mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  since 
seeing  they  saw  not  and  hearing  they  did 
not  understand  (Mat.  xiii.  10-1(3).  This 
statement  of  Jesus  has  been  interpreted  to 
mean  that  he  clothed  the  truths  of  the  king- 
dom in  images  in  order  to  make  them  more 
intelligible  to  his  hearers  and  to  impress 
them  indelibly  on  their  memory.  But  this 
was  true  of  a  certain  class  of  hearers  only  and 
in  many  cases,  even  in  respect  to  them,  only 
after  the  parable  had  been  explained.  Jesus 
rather  meant  that  his  auditors  generally 
were  unprepared  to  hear  and  heartily  be- 
lieve the  spiritual  truths  of  the  kingdom ; 
and  while  the  time  had  come  to  teach  these 
doctrines  to  his  followers  who  were  to  carry 
on  his  work  after  his  departure  (Mark  iv.  33, 
34),  the  truth  was  henceforth  hidden  from 
those  who  had  heard  without  repentance, 
was  cautiously  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  ob- 
durate enemies  who  were  watching  to  seize 
upon  his  words  and  employ  them  against 
him,  and  was  veiled  from  the  fickle  multi- 


Paraclete 


569 


Paran 


tude  who  would  refuse  to  listen  to  his  words 
if  they  perceived  the  full  import  of  them 
(Mark  iv.  11,  12). 

With  perhaps  only  one  exception  (Mat. 
xviii.  23-35),  the  recorded  parables,  which 
were  spoken  after  this  form  of  instruction 
became  prominent  in  Jesus'  pul)lic  teaching, 
fall  into  three  groups :  I.  Eight  illustrating 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Mat. 
xiii.  1-50  ;  Mark  iv.  26-29),  followed  by  one 
by  way  of  application  (Mat.  xiii.  51,  52). 
These  were  spoken  during  one  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (xiii.  1,  53).  They 
contain  five  fundamental  truths:  1.  Sower 
and  seed :  the  varied  reception  of  the  gospel 
by  different  classes  of  hearers.  2.  Tares  and 
wheat:  evil  springs  up  among  the  good.  3. 
Seed  growing  secretly,  mustard  seed,  and 
leaven  :  growth  of  the  church  imperceptibly, 
externally,  internally.  4.  Hid  treasure,  and 
pearl  of  great  price :  value  of  the  kingdom, 
necessity  of  sacrifice  to  obtain  it.  5.  Net 
gathering  all  kinds  of  fish  :  mixed  condition 
of  the  visible  church  until  the  end  of  the 
world.  II.  Nineteen,  or  thereabout,  illus- 
trating the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  the  indi- 
vidual life  (Luke  x.  25-xix.,  except  xiii.  18- 
21).  Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  were  delivered 
after  Christ's  departure  from  Galilee,  in  the 
interval  of  six  months  between  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  and  his  last  passover.  They  in- 
clude the  parables  of  the  good  Samaritan, 
the  friend  at  midnight,  the  rich  man  and  his 
barns,  the  waiting  servants,  the-  shut  door, 
the  chief  seat,  the  supper  and  excuses  for 
not  attending  it,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost 
money,  the  prodigal  son,  the  unjust  steward, 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  the  servant's 
duty,  the  importunate  widow,  the  Pharisee 
and  the  publican,  and  the  pounds.  III.  Five 
or,  with  Mat.  xxiv.  32-35,  six,  which  were 
delivered  during  the  last  week  at  Jerusalem, 
and  point  to  judgment  and  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  The  attitude  of  those 
called  is  illustrated  by  the  parables  of  the 
two  sons  and  the  wicked  husbandmen  (Mat. 
xxi.  28-46),  and  the  need  of  the  wedding 
piarment,  of  watchfulness,  and  of  fidelity  is 
shown  by  the  parables  of  the  marriage  of 
the  king's  son,  the  ten  virgins,  and  the  five 
talents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-14  ;  xxv.  1-30). 

In  interpreting  the  parables,  rigid  inquiry 
should  be  made  into  the  circumstances  in 
which  each  was  delivered  at  first,  and  the 
doctrine  or  argument  which  it  was  intended 
primarily  to  convey.  This  done,  it  is  at  once 
seen  that  the  teaching  of  the  parable  is  of 
universal  application,  suited  for  all  analo- 
gous circumstances  and  for  all  succeeding 
time. 

Par'a-clete  [Greek  parakletos,  a  legal  as- 
sistant, advocate,  or  intercessor]. 

The  word  occurs  in  R.  V.  on  the  margins 
of  John  xiv.  16,  26 ;  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  7,  where 
helper  or  advocate  is  given  as  the  English 
equivalent.     In  the  text   of   these  passages 


the  translation  is  comforter,  but  in   1  John 
ii.  1  it  is  advocate.     It  is  applied  to  : 

1.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Jle  was  the 
advocate,  l)y  implication  in  John  xiv.  16, 
who  guided,  counseled,  and  strengthened  the 
disciples  while  he  was  present  with  them, 
and  he  is  now  the  (liristian's  advocate  with 
the  Father,  and  pleads  the  believer's  cause 
with  God  (1  .John  ii.  1)  as  he  did  while  on 
earth  (Luke  xxii.  31,  32;  John  xvii.i. 

2.  The  H(jly  Spirit,  who  is  Christ's  advo- 
cate with  the  believer,  glorifying  Christ  and 
declaring  him  (John  xv.  26;  xvi.  14),  vindi- 
cating him  from  man's  unworthy  thoughts, 
showing  him  to  be  chief  among  ten  thousand 
and  altogether  lovely,  and  exhibiting  him  as 
man's  great  need ;  and  he  is  the  Spirit  of 
truth,  who  teaches  the  believer  and  guides 
him  into  the  truth  (xv.  26;  xvi.  13,  14),  con- 
victing of  sin,  righteousness,  and  judgment 
(ver.  8),  who  teaches  to  pray  and  makes  in- 
tercession with  groanings  that  cannot  be 
uttered  (Rom.  viii.  26,  27). 

Par'a-dise. 

A  pleasure  ground,  orchard,  or  park,  in 
Hebrew  pardes  (Ecc.  ii.  5;  Song  iv.  13,  R.  V. 
margin  ;  in  Neh.  ii.  8  rendered  forest).  Solo- 
mon's gardens  at  Etham  and  the  hanging 
gardens  at  Babylon  are  called  paradises  in 
the  Greek  text  of  Josephus  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3  ; 
con.  Apion.  i.  20),  and  the  garden  of  Eden 
is  called  the  paradise  ( paradeisos)  of  Eden  in 
the  Septuagint  (Gen.  ii.  8). 

Paradise  was  the  region  of  bliss  which 
man  had  lost,  and  it  naturally  came  to  be  a 
designation  for  the  place  of  the  righteous 
dead.  The  later  Jews  distinguished  between 
a  supernal  and  an  infernal  paradise,  the 
former  being  a  part  of  heaven,  the  latter  a 
division  of  hades  assigned  to  the  souls  of  the 
just. 

In  the  N.  T.  paradise  means  heaven  in 
two  instances  (2  Cor.  xii.  4;  cp.  2;  Rev.  ii. 
7;  cp.  xxii.  2) ;  see  Heavex.  Accordingly  it 
naturally  denotes  heaven  in  the  remaining 
instance  (Luke  xxiii.  43). 

Pa'rah  [heifer,  y()ung  cow]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23), 
commonly  identified  with  the  ruins  Farah  in 
the  wady  Farah,  oS  miles  northeast  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Pa'ran  [perhaps,  a  region  abounding  in 
caverns] . 

A  wilderness  between  mount  Sinai,  or  more 
exactly  between  Hazeroth,  several  days' 
march  from  SiTiai,  and  Canaan  (Num.  x.  12; 
xii.  16).  It  was  on  the  south  of  Judah 
(1  Sam.  xxv.  1-5).  In  it  Kadesh  was  situated 
(Num.  xiii.  26),  and  apparently  also  Elath  on 
the  Red  Sea  (Gen.  xiv.  6;  see  Ei,-i'.\.K.\x). 
It  lay  east  of  the  wildernesses  of  Beer-sheba 
and  Shur  (Gen.  xxi.  14,  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  9,  12- 
18  ;  xxviii.  9).  It  included  the  wilderness 
of  Zin.  or  insensibly  merged  itself  in  it 
without  a  sharply  defined  boundary  (Num. 
xiii.  26  with  xx.  11.     These  data  indicate  the 


Parbar 


570 


Parthians 


plateau  or  mountaiu  land  (Deut.  sxxiii.  2  ; 
Hab.  iii.  3),  lying  south  of  Canaan,  and 
bounded  on  the  other  sides  by  the  wilderness 
of  Shur,  the  curved  range  of  mountains 
known  as  Jebel  et-Tih  or  mountain  of  the 
wandering,  and  the  Arabah.  It  is  the  wil- 
derness where  the  Israelites  wandered  thirty 
and  eight  years.  Most  of  it  is  from  2000  to 
2500  feet  above  sea  level.  There  is  a  wady,  or 
valley,  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  called  wady 
Feiran,  which  looks  very  much  like  Paran 
altered.  Niebuhr  thought  that  they  might 
be  identified  ;  but  it  is  so  difficult  to  harmon- 
ize the  Scripture  location  of  the  place  with 
this  view,  that  Eobinson,  Stanley,  and  most 
inquirers,  decline  to  accept  the  identification. 
The  wady  Feiran  is  between  mount  Sinai 
and  the  Ked  Sea.  Paran  is  not  reached  till 
after  the  departure  from  Sinai  iu  the  opposite 
direction. 

Par'bar  [probably,  colonnade]. 

A  precinct  on  the  western  side  of  the  outer 
court  of  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  18).  It 
contained  chambers  for  officials  and  stalls  for 
cattle  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  11,  where  the  plural  is 
rendered  suburbs  and  precincts). 

Parch'ed  Corn. 

Roasted  grain  used  as  food  (Lev.  xxiii.  14 ; 
Euth  ii.  14 ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Thomson  de- 
scribes the  method  of  preparing  it  at  present 
in  vogue.  A  number  of  the  best  ears  of 
grain,  not  too  ripe,  are  plucked,  with  the 
stalks  attached.  After  being  tied  iu  small 
parcels,  a  blazing  fire  of  dry  grass  and  thorn 
bushes  is  kindled  under  them,  which  burns 
off  the  chaff  and  roasts  the  grain. 

Parch'ment. 

The  skin  of  sheep  or  goats  prepared  for 
use  as  a  writing  material  or  for  other  pur- 
poses. The  skin  is  first  soaked  in  lime  to 
remove  the  hair,  and  is  then  shaved,  washed, 
dried,  stretched,  and  smoothed.  Herodotus 
relates  that  the  ancient  lonians  used  the 
skins  of  goats  and  sheep,  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  papyrus  (Herod,  v.  .58).  In 
Herodotus'  own  time  papyrus  was  the  com- 
mon writing  material.  Parchment  was  first 
obtained  at  Pergamos ;  and  when  Ptolemy  for- 
bade the  export  of  papyrus,  Eumenes  II.,  king 
of  Pergamos,  adopted  parchment  for  the  books 
of  his  great  library,  and  such  skins  became 
known  as  chartse  perqamense,  whence  the  word 
parchment  isderived.  In  the  time  of  Josephus 
and  earlier,  parchment  was  used  by  the  .Tews 
for  the  manuscripts  of  their  sacred  writings 
(Antiq.  xii.  2,  11) ;  and  it  was  a  provision  of 
the  Talmud  that  the  law  should  be  written 
on  the  skins  of  clean  animals,  tame  or  wild, 
and  even  of  clean  birds.  Papyrus  was  a 
common  writing  material  (2  John  12,  in  E.  V. 
Iia])er),  but  Paul  refers  to  iiarchments  of  his, 
about  which  he  is  especially  solicitous  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13). 

Par'ents. 

The  fifth  commandment  inculcates  upon 
children     the     duty    of    reverencing    their 


parents  and  attaches  a  promise  to  its  ful- 
fillment (Ex.  XX.  12;  Deut.  v.  16;  Ephes.  vi. 
1,  2).  Upon  the  parents  rests  the  obligation 
of  bringing  up  the  children  in  the  fear  of 
the  Lord,  and  not  provoking  them  to  wrath 
(Gen.  xviii.  19;  Deut.  vi.  7;  Ephes.  vi.  4). 
According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  a  son  that 
smote  father  or  mother,  or  cursed  them,  was 
punished  with  death  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17 ;  Lev. 
XX.  9;  Deut.  xxvii.  16) ;  and  as  an  extreme 
measure,  parents  were  enjoined  to  bring  a 
stubborn  and  rebellious  son  before  the  elders 
for  trial  and  execution  (Deut.  xxi.  18-21). 
The  Mosaic  law  thus  regulated  the  power  of 
parents.  According  to  Roman  law,  as  set 
forth  iu  the  twelve  tables,  the  life  and  lib- 
erty of  children  were  iu  the  father's  hands. 
In  Hebrew  law  the  right  of  life  and  death 
did  not  rest  with  the  parents,  but  was  vested 
in  the  judicial  body.  Custom  permitted  an 
impoverished  parent  to  sell  a  daughter  to  be 
a  maidservant,  but  the  Mosaic  law  carefully 
guarded  her  rights  (Ex.  xxi.  7-11).  Israel- 
itish  custom  further  pei-mitted  a  creditor  to 
seize  a  bankrupt  debtor  and  enslave  his  wife 
and  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1 ;  Neh.  v.  5 ;  Is.  1. 
1 ;  Mat.  xviii.  25)  ;  and  in  cases  of  grave  sin 
the  entire  family  was  involved  iu  the  exter- 
mination of  the  offender  (Josh.  vii.  24). 

Parlor. 

Eglon's  summer  parlor  was  an  upper  cham- 
ber exposed  to  the  cool  breezes  (Judg.  iii.  20, 
cp.  R.  V.  margin).     See  House. 

Par-mash'ta  [probably,  a  Persian  uame, 
very  great,  superior]. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Par'me-nas  [probably,  faithful]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Greek-speaking  widows  and,  apparently, 
the  poor  and  financial  affairs  geuerally  in 
the  apostolic  church  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Par'nach. 

A  Zebulunite  (Num.  xxxiv.  25). 

Pa'rosh,  in  A.  V.  once  Pharosh  (Ezra  viii. 
3)  [a  flea] . 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  3;  viii.  3).  One  of  the  clan  was 
called  Pedaiah  (Neh.  iii.  25).  Other  mem- 
bers of  it  married  foreign  wives,  whom  Ezra 
induced  them  to  put  away  (Ezra  x.  25). 

Par-shan'da-tha  [a  Persian  name,  given 
to  Persia]. 

A  son  of  Haman  (E.sth.  ix.  7). 

Par'tM-ans. 

A  people  who,  when  first  heard  of,  occu- 
pied a  region  nearly  corresponding  to  the 
modern  Persian  province  of  Khorasan,  a 
considerable  distance  southeast  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  The  length  of  Parthia  proper  was 
about  300  miles,  its  breadth  from  100  to  120. 
its  area  about  33,000  square  miles,  or  slightly 
more  than  that  of  Scotland  and  nearly  that  of 
Indiana.  The  first  mention  of  the  Parthians  is 
in  the  inscriptions  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  They 


Partridge 


571 


Pashhur 


revolted  against  the  Persians,  521  b.  c,  but 
were  soon  subdued  again.  From  the  Per- 
sians, they  passed  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  then  to  his  eastern  successors,  the  Seleu- 
cidse.  About  256  b.  c.  Baetria  successfully 
revolted  against  Seleucidan  domination,  and 
Parthia,  under  Arsaces  I.,  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  example.  His  successors  are  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Arsacidae.  Mith- 
ridates  I.,  who  reigned  thirty-eight  years, 
from  174  to  136  B.  c,  raised  the  kingdom 
founded  by  Arsaces  into  an  empire,  extending 
1500  miles  from  east  to  west,  with  a  varying 
breadth  from  north  to  south  of  100,  300,  or 
400  miles.  The  western  boundary  was  the 
Euphrates.  The  chief  city  was  Ctesiphon 
on  the  Tigris,  opposite  Seleucia.  After  rid- 
ding themselves  of  the  Macedonian-Greek 
domination,  the  Parthians  came  into  frequent 
collision  with  the  Romans,  one  standing  bone 
of  contention  between  them  being  the  pos- 
session of  Armenia.  From  64  B.  c.  to  A.  D. 
225  they  set  limits  to  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  East.  In  40-37  b.  c.  their  armies  over- 
ran Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  took  and  plun- 
dered Jerusalem,  and  placed  Antigonus,  the 
last  of  the  Asmonseans,  on  the  throne  (Antiq. 
xiv.  13,  3;  War  i.  13,  1).  Jews  from  Parthia 
were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  may  have  carried 
the  gospel  to  Parthia  when  they  returned 
home.  After  wielding  power  for  nearly  500 
years,  the  Parthians  became  enervated  by 
luxury,  and  the  Persians  about  A.  d.  224, 
rose  in  revolt,  and  under  the  leadership  of 
Ardashir,  family  of  Sassau,  terminated  the 
Parthian  dominion,  substituting  the  second 
Persian  or  Sassaniau  empire  in  its  room. 

Par'tridge. 

A  wild  bird,  called  in  Hebrew  kore\  the 
crier  or  caller,  in  Greek  penlix,  which  was 


"X 


Greek  Partridge, 

hunted  on  the  mountains  of  Palestine  (1 
Sam.  xxvi.  20).  The  caged  partridge  was 
used  as  a  decoy  bird  (Ecclus.  xi.  30).  Jere- 
miah compares  the  amasser  of  ill-gotten 
wealth  to  the  partridge  which,  according  to 


the  belief  of  the  Israelites  of  his  time, 
gathers  young  which  it  has  not  brought  forth 
(Jer.  xvii.  11,  R.  V.),  or  sitleth  on  eggs  which 
it  has  not  laid  {R.  \.  margin).  Two  species 
are  found  in  Palestine,  the  desert  or  Hey's 
sand  partridge  (Ammopcrdi.c  liei/i),  whicli"  is 
the  only  species  at  En-gedi,  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  which  David  was  when  he  compared 
himself  to  a  hunted  i>artridge ;  and  the 
chukar  partridge  {Caccabis  clii(kar),  which  is 
abundant  in  all  the  hilly  i)arts  of  Palestine. 
It  has  richly  barred  fealliers  on  the  flanks, 
deep  red  legs  and  bill,  and  deep  black  gorget. 
It  is  a  large  and  tine  bird,  a  variety  of  the 
Greek  partridge  {Caccabissajrntilis),  but  larger, 
and  it  exceeds  the  chukar  partridge  of  India 
in  size. 

Pa-ru'ah  [flourishing]. 

The  father  of  Solomon's  purveyor  in  Issa- 
char  (1  Kin.  iv.  17). 

Par'va-im. 

A  designation  of  gold  used  for  the  orna- 
mentation of  Solomon's  temple  (2  Chron.  iii. 
6).  Gesenius  derived  it  from  Sanscrit  piirva. 
in  front,  eastward,  and  gave  it  the  sense  of 
j  eastern  or  oriental  gold  ;  but  most  investiga- 
I  tors  believe  that  it  denotes  a  locality  in 
Ophir. 

Pa'sach  [perhaps,  a  divider]. 
An  Asherite,  of  the  family  of  Beriah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  33). 

Pas-dam'mim.     See  Ephks-dammim. 
Pa-se'aL,  in  A.  V.  once  Phaseah  (Xeh.  vii. 
51)  [lame]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Che- 
lub  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jehoiada,  who 
repaired  the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii. 
6).  He  was  the  founder  of  a  family  of 
Nethinim,  members  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  49  ;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

Pash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Pashur. 

1.  Son  of  Malchiah,  and  one  of  several 
officials  who  had  influence  with  king  Zede- 
kiah  and  bitterly  opposed  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxxviii.  1,  4  ;  cp.  xxi.  9 
with  xxxviii.  2).  It  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  his  father  is  the  Malchiah  mentioned  in 
xxxviii.  6,  a  royal  jjrincc  into  whose  dungeon 
the  prophet  was  cast.  His  identity  with  the 
priest  Pashhur,  the  son  of  Malchijah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12),  is  doubtful  :  especially  as  to 
his  companion,  but  not  to  him,  is  given  the 
priestly  title  (.Ter.  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Immer,  a  priest.  He  put  Jere- 
miah in  the  stocks  on  account  of  his  discour- 
aging jiredictions  (Jer.  xx.  1-6). 

3.  The  father  of  an  opponent  of  Jeremiah 
named  Gedaliah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  The  founder  of  a  priestly  family,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  38  ;  Neh.  vii.  41,  and  ])er- 
haps  1  Chron.  ix.  12).  Some  of  his  descend- 
ants married  foreign  wives,  whom  Ezra  in- 
duced them  to  put  away  (E/.ra  x.  22). 


Passages,  The 


Patara 


5.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who,  with  others,  sealed  the  covenant, 
made  in  the  days  of  Neheniiah,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  to  forbid  the  intermari-iage  of 
their  children  with  foreigners  and  to  keep 
the  law  of  God  (Neh.  s.  3). 

Pas'sa-ges,  The.     See  Abarim. 

Pass'o-ver  [passing  over  (Ex.  sii.  23;  An- 
tiq.  ii.  14,  6)]. 

1.  The  first  of  the  three  annual  festivals 
.it  which  all  the  men  were  required  to  appear 
at  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xii.  43;  Dent.  xvi.  1), 
known  also  as  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread K 
(Ex.xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  16).  It  was  instituted 
in  Egypt  to  commemorate  the  culminating 
event  in  the  redemption  of  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
xii.  1,  14,  42  ;  xxiii.  1.5 ;  Deut.  xvi.  1,  3). 
Tliat  night  was  to  be  much  observed  unto 
the  Lord,  when  he  smote  all  the  firstborn  in 
the  land  of  Egypt,  but  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Israelites  where  the  blood  had 
been  sprinkled  and  the  inmates  were  stand- 
ing, staff  in  hand,  awaiting  the  deliverance 
promised  by  the  Lord,  ^he  festival  began 
on  the  fourteenth  of  Abib  at  evening,  that  is 
la  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  day,  with 
the  sacrificial  meal  (Lev.  xxiii.  5).  A  lamb 
or  kid  was  slain  between  the  evenings,  that  is 
towards  sunset  (Ex.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xvi.  6), 
between  the  nintli  and  eleventh  hours  (War 
vi.  9, 3 1.  It  was  roasted  whole,  and  was  eaten 
with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs  (Ex. 
xii.  8).  The  shed  blood  denoted  expiation, 
the  bitter  herbs  symbolized  the  bitterness  of 
Egyptian  bondage,  the  unleavened  bread  was 
an  emblem  of  purity  (cp.  Lev.  ii.  11 ;  1  Cor. 
v.  7,  8).  The  Israelites  pleading  the  blood, 
mindful  of  the  afflictions  from  which  they 
awaited  deliverance,  and  putting  away  wick- 
edness, were  the  people  of  the  Lord  in  holy, 
glad  communion  before  him.  The  supper  was 
partaken  of  by  the  members  of  every  house- 
hold. If  the  family  was  small,  neighbors 
joined  until  the  company  was  large  enough 
to  consume  the  entire  lamb  (Ex.  xii.  4).  The 
head  of  the  household  recited  the  history  of 
the  redemption.  At  the  first  institution  the 
participants  stood,  in  later  times  they  re- 
clined. Other  minor  features  were  intro- 
duced :  four  successive  cups  of  wine  mixed 
with  water,  to  which  there  is  no  reference  in 
the  law;  singing  of  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii.  (cp. 
Is.  XXX.  29 ;  Ps.  xlii.  4) ;  a  dish  of  fruits  re- 
duced with  vinegar  to  the  consistency  of 
lime  as  a  reminder  of  the^  mortar  used 
during  the  Egvptian  bondage.  The  paschal 
supper  was  tue  introductory  ceremony  and 
<'lii('f  feature  of  the  festival,  which  lasted 
until  the  twenty-fir.st  day  of  the  month  (Ex. 
xii.  18 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  5,  6  ;  Deut.  xvi.  6.  7). 
That  the  event  was  to  be  commemorated  by 
a  festival  of  seven  days'  duration  (Ex.  xii. 
14-20)  was  not  coniniiiiiic;U(>d  to  the  peojile 
until  the  day  of  the  fiiglit  (xiii.  3-10).  They 
were  directed  jTogarding  one  evening  only 
(xii.  21-23),  ana  informed  that  the  service  was 


to  be  kept  perpetually  (24,  2,")).  The  attend- 
ance of  the  pilgrims  was  required  at  the 
supper  only.  They  were  at  liberty  to  depart 
on  the  morrow  (Deut.  xvi.  7).  The  first  day, 
that  is  the  fifteenth,  was  kept  as  Sabbath 
and  likewise  the  seventh  ;  no  work  was  done 
and  there  was  a  holy  convocatio'i  (Ex.  xii. 
16  ;  Lev.  xxiii.  7  ;  Num.  xxviii.  _8,  25 ;  of 
which  only  the  last  is  empha.sized  in  Ex. 
xiii.  6  ;  Deut.  xvi.  8).  On  the  morrow  after 
the  Sabbath,  that  is  on  the  second  day  of  the 
festival,  a  sheaf  of  the  first  rijie  barley  was 
waved  bj'  the  priest  before  the  Lord  to  con- 
secrate the  opening  harvest  (Lev.  xxiii.  10- 
14  :  cp.  Josh.  V.  10-12,  E.  V.  margin ;  Septu- 
agint  of  Lev.  xxiii.  7,  11  ;  Antiq.  iii.  10.  5); 
see  Weeks,  Feast  of.  This  was  an  inci- 
dental feature  :  the  act  consecrated  the  open- 
ing harvest,  but  it  held  a  subordinate  place  ; 
the  second  day,  when  it  was  performed,  was 
not  observed  as  a  Sabbath ;  and  altogether 
the  relation  of  the  passover  to  the  agricul- 
tural year  was  less  marked  than  in  the  festi- 
"valsof  weeksand  tabernacles.  Duringthe pass- 
over  day  by  day  continually,  in  addition  to  the 
regular  sacrifices  of  the  sanctuary,  two  bul- 
locks, one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  were  otfered 
as  a  burnt  ofiering,  and  a  he  goat  as  a  ,siu  ofter- 
ing  (Lev.  xxiii.  8 ;  Num.  xxviii.  19-23). 
During  the  seven  days  also  unleavened  bread 
was  eaten.  They  had  no  leaven  in  their 
houses  on  the  night  of  the  passovei",  and 
consequently  the  dough  which  they  seized  in 
their  hurried  flight  was  unleavened  (Ex.  xii. 
8,  34,  39).  It  was  baked  thus.  Henceforth 
unleavened  bread  was  associated  in  their 
minds,  not  only  with  the  thought  of  sin- 
cerity and  truth,  which  was  the  essential 
idea,  but  also  with  that  of  the  hurried  flight 
from  Egypt  (Deut.  xvi.  3).  Celebrations  of 
the  passover  are  recorded  at  Sinai  (Num.  ix. 
1-14).  on  entering  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  11),  un- 
der Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxx.  1-27;  with 
reference  to  Solomon,  5,  26),  under  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  21-23;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1-19),  in 
the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  19-22).  See  also 
Mat.  xxvi.  17  seq. ;  Mark  xiv.  12  seq. ;  Luke 
xxii.  7  seq. ;  John  xviii.  28  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  9,  3; 
XX.  5,  3;  War  vi.  9,  3). 

2.  The  lamb  or  kid  killed  at  the  festival 
of  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  21 ;  Deut.  xvi.  2  ;  2 
Chron.  xxx.  17).  Christ  is  our  passover  (1 
Cor.  V.  7).  Like  the  paschal  lamb,  he  was 
without  blemish  (Ex.  xii.  5  with  1  Pet.  i. 
18,  19),  not  a  bone  was  broken  (Ex.  xii.  46 
with  John  xix.  36),  his  blood  was  a  token  be- 
fore God  (Ex.  xii.  13),  and  the  feast  was 
eaten  with  unleavened  bread  (18  and  1  Cor. 
V.  8). 

Pat'a-ra. 

A  maritime  city  on  the  southwest  of  Lycia. 
Paul  took  sliip  there  for  Phoenicia  on  his  last 
voyage  to  Palestine  (Acts  xxi.  1).  It  pos- 
sessed a  famous  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  still  ex- 
ists as  a  ruin  under  its  old  name,  though 
gradually  becoming  overwhelmed  by  moving 
saud  dunes. 


Pathros 


573 


Paul 


Path'ros  [land  of  the  soutli  (Gescniiis, 
Bniiisch),  house  of  the  goddess  Hathor  in  the 
south  (El)ers)]. 

The  country  of  southern  or  Upper  Egypt. 
It  is  mentioned  hetween  Egypt  and  Cush  (Is. 
xi.  11) ;  and  is  known  in  Egyjitian  texts  as 
Pa-to-ris.  vvitii  Tliehes  as  its  capital.  It  was 
the  original  seat  of  the  Egyptians  them.selves 
(Ezek.  xxix.  14)  ;  and  the  tirst  historical  king 
of  Egypt,  Menes,  is  reported  to  have  resided  in 
Upper  Egypt,  in  whose  time  all  the  lower  coun- 
try north  of  lake  ]Mceris  was  a  swamp  (Herod. 
ii.  4,  15,  99).  Lsaiah  foretold  the  dispersion 
of  Israel  to  the  remotest  regions  and  their 
eventual  return,  among  other  ]ilaces  from 
Pathros  (Is.  xi.  11 ;  cp.  vii.  IS).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  .lerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jews, 
]>robablv  refugees,  were  dwellers  in  Pathros 
(Jer.  xliv.  1,  2,  15). 

Path-ru'sim. 

One  of  seven  peoples  proceeding  from  Miz- 
raim.  Thev  are  the  inhabitants  of  Pathros 
(Gen.  X.  14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  12). 

Pat'mos. 

An  island  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
banished  for  the  word  of  God,  and  for  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  where  he  saw 
the  visions  recorded  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion (Rev.  i.  9|.  It  is  a  small,  rocky  island, 
one  of  the  Sporades,  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 


Ht'brew  race  and  nation.  It  is  applied  to 
Abraham  (Heb.  vii.  4),  to  the  twelve  sons 
of  Jacob  (.Vets  vii.  H,  9i,  and  to  king  David 
(ii.  29).  'I'he  title  is  commonly  given  to  the 
godly  men  and  heads  of  families,  whose 
lives  are  recorded  in  the  O.  T.  previous  to 
the  time  of  Moses,  as  the  antediluvian  patri- 
archs whose  lineage  is  given  in  (ieii.  v.  In 
the  patriarchal  system  the  government  of  a 
clan  is  regarded  as  the  paternal  right.  It 
resides  in  the  first  instance  in  the  i)rogenitor 
of  the  tribe,  and  descends  from  him  to  the 
firstborn  son  or  eldest  lineal  male  descendant. 
The  head  of  each  several  family,  into  which 
the  increasing  tribe  expands,  exercises  a 
similar  government  within  his  own  limited 
sphere.  , 

The  patriarchal  dispensation  was  the  period 
before  the  establishment  of  the  theocracy  at 
Sinai,  when  each  patriarclial  head  of  a  family 
was  the  jjriest  of  his  own  household,  and 
God  communed  with  him  as  such. 

Pat'ro-bas. 

A  Christian  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

Pa'u  [bleating  (of  sheep)]. 

A  town  of  Edom,  the  city  of  king  Hadar 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  39).  Site  unknown.  Called  iu 
1  Chron.  i.  50  Pai,  vau  and  jod  being  inter- 
changed ;  see  Vau. 


Patmos  and  the  Harbor  of  La  Scala. 


pelago,  and  is  now  called  Patino.  It  lies  off 
the  southwestern  coast  of  -Asia  IVIinor.  about 
30  miles  south  of  Samos ;  and  is  about  15  miles 
in  circumference,  and  generally  barren. 

Pa'tri-arch. 

The  father  or  cbiof  of  a  race ;  a  name 
given  in  the   N.   T.  to  the   founders  of  tlie 


Paul  (Greek  Pniilos,  from  Latin  Pnidns, 
little). 

The  great  apostle  to  the  gentiles.  His 
Jewish  name  was  Saul  (Ilobrew  Shn'iil.  Greek 
SdiiJon).  He  is  so  called  in  The  Acts  until 
after  the  account  of  the  conversion  of  Sergitis 
Paulus,    proconsul   of    Cyprus,    from   which 


Paul 


574 


Paul 


point  in  the  narrative  (Acts  xiii.  9)  the  name 
Paul  alone  is  given  him.  In  his  epistles  the 
apostle  always  calls  himself  Paul.  It  is  not 
strange  that  some  have  supposed  that  he 
took  the  name  Paul  from  the  i)roconsul.  But 
this  is  in  reality  quite  improbable  in  itself, 
and  fails  to  observe  the  delicacy  with  which 
Luke  introduces  the  apostle's  gentile  name 
when  his  work  among  the  gentiles,  by  whom 
he  was  known  as  Paul,  began.  It  is  more 
probable  that,  like  many  Jews  (Acts  i.  23 ; 
xii.  12;  Col.  iv.  11),  and  especially  in  the  dis- 
persion, the  apostle  had  from  the  beginning 
both  names.  He  was  born  in  Tarsus,  the 
chief  city  of  Cilicia  (Acts  ix.  11 ;  xxi.  39 ; 
xxii.  3),  and  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(Phil.  iii.  5).  It  is  not  known  how  the  family 
came  to  reside  in  Tarsus,  though  one  ancient 
tradition  represents  it  as  having  removed 
there  from  Gischala  in  (Talilee  after  the  latter 
place  had  been  captured  by  the  Komans.  It 
is  possible,  however,  that  the  family  had  at 
an  earlier  time  formed  part  of  a  colony  set- 
tled in  Tarsus  by  onp  of  the  Syrian  kings 
(Ramsay,  St.  Paul  the  Traveler,  ]>.  31),  or 
they  may  have  voluntarily  migrated,  as  so 
many  Jews  did,  for  commercial  purposes. 
Paul  seems,  however,  to  have  had  a  large 
and  even  influential  family  connection.  In 
Rom.  xvi.  7,  11  he  salutes  three  persons  as 
his  kinsmen,  two  of  whom,  Andronicus  and 
Junias  (R.  V.),  are  said  to  have  been  "of 
note  among  the  apostles,"  and  to  have  be- 
come Christians  before  Paul  did.  From  Acts 
xxiii.  16  we  learn  that  his  "  sister's  son," 
who  seems  to  have  resided,  perhaps  with  his 
mother,  in  Jerusalem,  gave  information  to 
the  chief  captain  of  the  plot  to  kill  Paul, 
from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
young  man  was  connected  with  some  of  the 
leading  families.  This  is  also  confirmed  by 
the  prominence  of  Paul,  though  himself  a 
young  man,  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  death. 
He  was  apparently  already  a  member  of 
the  council  (Atfts  xxvi.  10),  and  .soon  after- 
wards the  high  priest  intrusted  to  him  the 
work  of  persecuting  the  Christians  (ix.  1, 
2;  xxii.  5).  His  language  in  Phil.  iii.  4-7 
further  implies  that  he  occupied  originally  a 
po.sition  of  large  influence,  and  that  oppor- 
tunities of  honor  and  gain  had  ])een  open  to 
him.  His  family  connections,  therefore,  can- 
not have  been  obscure.  Though  he  was 
brought  up  in  the  strict  observance  of  the 
Hebrew  faith  and  traditions,  his  father  hav- 
ing been  a  Pharisee  (Acts  xxiii.  (5),  he  was 
born  a  free  Roman  citizen.  We  do  not  know 
by  what  means  his  ancestor  obtained  citizen- 
ship. It  may  have  been  for  service  to  the 
state  or  possibly  by  iiurdiase.  Its  possession 
may  have  had  some  ci)nn('cti()n  with  the 
apostle's  Roman  name  Paulus.  But,  liow- 
ever  acquired,  his  Roman  citizi'nship  became 
of  great  in^portance  in  the  jirosecution  of  his 
Christian  work  and  more  than  once  saved 
his  life.  Tarsus  was  one  of  tlw  intellectual 
centers  of  the  East,  and  the  seat  of  a  famous 


school  of  learning  in  which  Stoicism  was  the 
dominant  philosophy.  It  is  scarcely  prob- 
able, however,  that  Paul  came  under  these 
influences  when  a  boy,  for  his  parents  were 
strict  Jews,  and  he  was  early  sent  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  educated.  Like  other  Jewish  boys 
he  was  taught  a  trade,  which  in  his  case  was 
the  manufacture  of  tents,  such  as  were  used 
by  travelers  (xviii.  3).  But,  as  he  him- 
self says  (xxii.  3),  he  was  brought  up  in 
Jerusalem.  He  must,  therefore,  have  been 
sent  there  when  quite  young.  And  his  edu- 
cation in  Jerusalem  tended  to  deepen  the 
hold  upon  him  of  his  inherited  Pharisaic 
traditions.  He  was  instructed  "according  to 
the  perfect  manner  of  the  law  of  the  fathers" 
(ibid.).  He  had  for  his  teacher  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  distinguished  rabbis 
of  the  day.  This  was  Gamaliel,  the  grand- 
son of  the  yet  more  famous  Hillel.  It  was 
this  Gamaliel  whose  speech,  recorded  in  Acts 
V.  34-39,  prevented  the  sanhedrin  from  at- 
tempting to  .slay  the  apostles.  Gamaliel,  in- 
deed, had  some  leaning,  strangely  for  a  Phar- 
isee, toward  Greek  culture,  and  his  speech 
in  The  Acts  shows  the  reverse  of  a  bitter, 
persecuting  spirit.  But  he  was  famous  for 
rabbinical  learning,  and  at  his  feet  the  young 
man  from  Tar.sus  became  versed  not  only  in 
the  teaching  of  the  O.  T.,  but  in  the  subtle- 
ties of  rabbinical  interi)retation,  while  it  is 
plain  also  that  his  zeal  for  the  traditions  of 
the  fathers  and  his  narrow  Pharisaism 
burned  with  the  fiery  intensity  of  youth. 
Thus  the  future  ajiostle  grew  up  an  ardent 
Pharisee,  trained  in  the  religious  and  intel- 
lectual ideas  of  his  people,  and  from  his  per- 
sonal qualities,  his  course  of  education,  and 
probably  his  family  connections  prepared  to 
take  a  high  position  among  his  countrymen. 
He  first  appears  in  Christian  history  as  the 
man  at  whose  feet  the  witnesses  who  stoned 
Stephen  laid  their  clothes  (Acts  vii.  58).  He 
is  described  as  being  then  a  young  man. 
The  position  he  is  here  said  to  have  occupied 
was  not  an  ofiicial  one.  It  seems  to  imply, 
however,  especially  when  taken  with  the 
statement  (viii.  1)  that  he  "was  consent- 
ing unto  his  death,"  that  Paul  was  active 
in  the  persecution  of  the  first  Christian  mar- 
tyr. He  was  doubtless  one  of  the  Hellenists, 
or  Greek-speaking  .b'ws,  mentioned  in  Acts 
vi.  9  as  the  original  instigators  of  the  charge 
against  Stephen.  We  cannot  be  wrong  in 
supposing  that  Paul's  hatred  of  the  new  sect 
had  already  been  aroused  ;  that  he  not  only 
despised  their  crucified  Messiah,  but  regarded 
them  as  being  both  politically  and  religiously 
dangerous;  and  that  he  was  already  pre- 
pared, with  bitter  but  conscientious  fanati- 
cism, to  oppose  them  to  the  death.  So  we 
find  him,  immediately  after  Stejdien's  death, 
taking  a  leading  part  in  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  which  followed  (Acts  viii.  3 : 
xxii.  4  ;  xxvi.  10,  11 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  9  ;  Gal.  i.  13 ; 
Phil.  iii.  6 ;  1  Tim.  i.  13).  He  did  this  with 
the  fierceness  of  a  misguided  conscience.   He 


Paul 


57o 


Paul 


was  the  type  of  the  religious  inquisitor.  Not 
content  with  waging  the  persecution  in  Jeru- 
salem, he  asked  of  the  liigh  ])riest  Utters  to 
the  synagogues  in  Damascus  that  hv  might 
bring  from  thence  any  Christian  Jews  wlioni 
he  might  find  (Acts  ix.  1,  2).  Large  powers 
of  internal  administration  were  granted  to 
the  Jews  even  by  the  Romans,  and  in  Da- 
mascus, which  was  under  the  control  of 
Aretas,  king  of  the  Nabathaeans,  the  gover- 
nor was  particularly  favorable  to  them  (ix. 
23,  24  ;  2  Cor.  si.  32),  so  that  Paul's  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  is  not  in  the  least  in- 
credible. The  important  thing  to  observe, 
however,  is  that  according  to  the  express 
testimony  of  Luke  and  of  Paul  himself,  he 
was  filled  with  fury  against  them  up  to  the 
very  moment  of  his  conversion,  and  believed 
that  in  persecuting  them  he  was  rendering 
the  highest  service  to  God.  He  did  not  have 
a  doubt  as  to  the  righteousness  of  his  course, 
nor  did  his  heart  fail  hira  in  its  execution. 

It  was  on  the  way  to  Damascus  that  his 
sudden  conversion  occurred.  Paul  and  his 
companions,  probably  on  horseback,  had  been 
following  the  usual  road  across  the  desert 
from  Galilee  to  the  ancient  city.  Damascus 
had  been  nearly  reached.  It  was  the  hour 
of  noon  and  the  sun  was  blazing  in  the  zenith 
(Acts  xxvi.  13).  Suddenly  a  light  from 
heaven,  brighter  than  the  sun,  streamed 
round  about  them,  and,  overcome  by  its 
blinding  brilliance,  Paul  fell  upon  the  ground. 
His  companions,  too,  fell  to  the  ground 
(14),  though  they  appear  to  have  afterwards 
arisen,  while  he  remained  prostrate  (ix.  7). 
Out  of  the  light  he '  heard  a  voice,  say- 
ing in  the  Hebrew  language:  "Saul,  Saul, 
why  persecutest  thou  me?  it  is  hard  for 
thee  to  kick  against  the  goad"  (xxvi.  14 
E.  v.).  He  replied  :  "  Who  art  thou.  Lord  ?  " 
He  heard  in  answer :  "  I  am  Jesus  whom 
thou  persecutest"  (15).  "Arise,  and  go 
into  the  city,  and  it  shall  be  told  thee 
what  thou  must  do"  (ix.  6;  xxii.  10).  His 
companions  heard  the  sound  of  the  voice 
(ix.  7),  but  did  not  understand  what  was 
said  (xxii.  9).  Paul,  however,  was  found  to 
be  blinded  by  the  light,  so  they  led  him  by 
the  hand  into  Damascus,  where  he  lodged  in 
the  house  of  a  certain  Judas  (ix.  11).  For 
three  days  he  remained  blind  and  fasting, 
praying  (9,  11)  and  meditating  on  the  reve- 
lation which  had  been  made  to  him.  On  the 
third  day  the  Lord  commanded  a  certain 
Jewish  Christian,  named  Ananias,  to  go  to 
Paul  and  lay  his  hands  on  him  that  he  might 
receive  his  sight.  The  Lord  assured  Ananias, 
who  was  afraid  of  the  persecutor,  that  the 
latter  had  already  seen  him  in  a  vision  com- 
ing to  him.  Thereupon  Ananias  obeyed. 
Paul  confessed  his  faith  in  Jesus,  received 
his  sight,  accepted  baptism,  and  forthwith, 
with  his  characteristic  energy  and  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  Jews,  began  to  preach  in 
the  synagogues  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God  (ix.  10-22). 


Such  is  the  narrative  of  the  conversion  of 
Saul  of  Tarsus.  Three  recitals  of  it  are 
given  in  The  Acts;  one  by  Luke  (ix.  3-22)  ; 
one  by  Paul  himself  before  the  Jews  (xxii. 
1-16) ;  again  by  I'aul  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  (xxvi.  1-20).  The  three  accounts 
entirely  agree,  though  in  each  of  them  par- 
ticulars are  dwelt  on  wliich  arc  not  found  in 
tiic  otlicrs.  The  story  in  each  case  is  told 
with  special  regard  to  the  j)uriiose  of  the  nar- 
rator. Paul  in  his  epistles  also  freiiuently 
alludes  to  his  conversion,  attributing  it  to  the 
grace  and  power  of  (lod,  though  he  does  not 
describe  it  in  detail  (1  Cor.  ix.  1,  l(i ;  xv.  8- 
1(1;  Gal.  i.  12-16;  Eph.  iii.  1-H  ;  Phil.  iii.  .">-7 ; 
1  Tim.  i.  12-16;  2  Tim.  i.  9-11).  The  fact, 
therefore,  is  supported  by  the  strongest  possi- 
ble testimony.  It  is  certain  also  that  .Fcsus 
not  only  spoke  to  Paul,  but  visibly  ai)j)eared 
to  him  (Acts  ix.  17,  27;  xxii.  14  ;  xxvi.  16  ; 
1  Cor.  ix.  1).  While  tiie  form  in  which  he 
appeared  is  not  described,  we  may  be  sure 
that  it  was  a  glorious  one;  so  that  Paul  real- 
ized at  once  that  the  crucitied  Jesus  was  the 
exalted  Son  of  God.  He  himself  describes 
it  as  "the  heavenly  vision"  (Acts  xxvi.  19), 
or  spectacle,  a  word  elsewhere  used  only  in 
Luke  i.  22  and  xxiv.  23  to  describe  the  mani- 
festation of  angelic  beings.  There  is  no 
ground  therefore  for  the  allegation  that  it 
was  an  illusion  of  any  kind.  At  the  same 
time  tlie  mere  appearance  of  Christ  did  not 
c<mvert  Paul.  This  was  the  work  of  the 
Sjiirit  in  his  heart,  enabling  him  to  ai)pre- 
hend  and  accept  the  truth  which  had  been 
revealed  to  him  (see  especially  Gal.  i.  15). 
Ananias  also  was  evidently  made  use  of  in 
order  to  connect  Paul's  new  life  with  the 
already  existing  church.  The  various  ration- 
alistic attempts  which  have  been  made  to  ex- 
plain Paul's  conversion  without  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  objective  and  supernatural  in- 
terposition of  the  Lord  are  wrecked  upon 
the  testimony  of  Paul  himself  that  he  liad 
thought  up  to  the  time  of  his  conversion 
that  it  was  his  religious  duty  to  persecute 
Christianity,  and  that  his  change  was  due  to 
the  sovereign  exercise  of  God's  j)owcr  and 
grace.  The  expression,  "It  is  hard  for  thee 
to  kick  against  the  goad,"  does  not  imply 
that  he  had  been  an  unwilling  jiersecutor  or 
that  he  already  believed  that  Christianity 
might  be  True,  but  describes  the  folly  of  any 
resistance  to  the  purpose  of  God  with  him. 
At  the  same  time  his  previous  history  had 
been  an  unconscious  preparation  for  his  fu- 
ture work.  His  Roman  citizensbi|).  his  rab- 
binical training,  as  well  as  his  natural  (piaji- 
ties  of  mind  fitted  him  for  his  life  task. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  also  tliat  with  all 
his  zeal  he  had  not  found  spiritual  peace 
in  Judai.sm  (Rom.  vii.  7-25).  If  so,  the 
manner  of  his  conversion  must  have  made 
him  vividly  realize  that  ssilvation  is  alone 
through  the  grace  of  (iod  in  Christ.  His  re- 
ligious experience  therefore  was  also  part  of 
his    preparation    to    become    the  great  ex- 


Paul 


576 


Paul 


pounder  of  the  gospel  as  providing  justifica- 
tion for  the  sinner  on  the  ground  of  Christ's 
merits  received  through  faith  alone.  As 
soon  as  he  was  converted  Paul  began  evan- 
gelistic work.  This  was  partly  due  to  his 
natural  energy,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  it 
had  been  revealed  to  him  that  God's  purpose 
in  calling  him  was  to  make  him  a  mission- 
ary and  apostle  (Acts  ix.  15  :  xxvi.  l()-20 ; 
Gal.  i.  15,  16).  He  began  work  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  Damascus  and  pursued  it  with  suc- 
cess. This  raised  against  him  persecution  from 
the  Damascene  Jews,  who  were  aided  by  the 
governor  of  the  city  {2  Cor.  xi.  32)  ;  so  that  he 
was  compelled  to  flee  secretly,  being  let  down 
by  his  disciples  in  a  basket  from  a  window  in 
the  city's  wall  (Acts  ix.  23-25;  2  Cor.  xi.  33). 
Instead  of  returning  to  Jerusalem,  however, 
he  went  to  Arabia  and  afterwards  returned 
to  Damascus  (Gal.  i.  17).  We  do  not  know 
where  he  went  in  Arabia,  nor  how  long  he 
stayed,  nor  what  he  did  there.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  time  was  mainly  spent  in 
meditation  upon  the  great  change  which  had 
come  over  his  life  and  the  truth  as  it  had 
now  been  revealed  to  him.  But  three  years 
after  his  conversion  he  determined  to  leave 
Damascus  and  visit  Jerusalem  again.  He 
tells  us  (Gal.  i.  18,  19)  that  his  main  purpose 
was  to  visit  Peter;  that  he  remained  in  Je- 
rusalem only  fifteen  days  ;  and  that  of  the 
apostles  he  saw  Peter  only,  though  he  men- 
tions that  he  also  saw  James,  the  Lord's 
brother.  Luke,  however  (Acts  ix.  26-29), 
gives  further  particulars.  It  appears  that 
the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  were  afraid  of 
him  because  of  his  former  re])utation  and 
did  not  believe  he  was  really  a  disciple  ;  but 
that  Barnabas,  with  that  generosity  of  mind 
which  was  ever  characteristic  of  him,  took 
Paul  to  the  apostles  and  related  the  story  of 
his  conversion  and  subsequent  changed  life. 
We  are  also  told  that  Paul  preached  as  fear- 
lessly in  Jerusalem  as  he  had  done  at  Damas- 
cus and  directed  his  efibrts  especially  toward 
his  old  friends,  the  Greek-speaking  Jews  (ix. 
28,  29).  The.se,  too,  plotted  at  once  against  his 
life.  The  threatening  danger  caused  the 
brethren  to  send  him  away,  so  they  took  him 
to  CffiSiirca  and  sent  him  from  there  to  Tar- 
sus (29,  30;  Gal.  i.  21).  He  departed  the 
more  willingly  because  in  the  temple  the 
Lord  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision  bidding 
him  go  and  telling  him  distinctly  that  his 
mission  was  to  the  gentiles  (Acts  xxii.  17-21). 
The  two  accounts  in  The  Acts  and  Galatians 
of  this  visit  to  Jerusalem  have  sometimes  been 
tliought  inconsistent,  but  they  may  be  natur- 
ally harmonized.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
Paul  would  want  to  visit  Peter  in  order  that 
his  work  might  proceed  in  unison  with  that 
of  the  original  apostles,  of  whom  Peter  was 
.the  most  i)rominent.  It  is  e<iually  natural 
that  the  Jerusalem  Christians  should  be  at 
first  afraid  of  him;  and  the  conduct  of  Bar- 
nabas, who  was,  like  Paul,  a  Hellenistic 
Jew,  is  in  keeping  with  his  action  through- 


out the  whole  history.  Fifteen  days,  more- 
over, are  not  too  short  a  time  for  the  events 
described  in  The  Acts.  It  is,  in  fact,  confirmed 
by  the  Lord's  command  to  Paul  to  dejiart 
quickly  (xxii.  18).  Nor  is  Luke's  statement 
that  Barnabas  brought  Paul  "  to  the  apostles  " 
inconsistent  with  Paul's  statement  that  he 
saw  Peter  only,  together  with  James.  The 
reception  of  the  new  convert  even  by  Peter 
alone,  not  to  speak  of  James,  who  occupied 
almost  an  apostolic  position  (see  Gal.  ii.  9), 
was  equivalent  to  apostolic  recognition  of  him, 
and  this  is  all  that  Luke's  expression  was 
meant  to  describe.  It  is  further  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  it  was  now  realized  fully,  both  by 
Paul  and  the  leaders  in  Jerusalem,  that  the 
new  convert  was  a  chosen  apostle  of  Christ, 
and  that  his  mission  was  to  the  gentiles.  At 
the  same  time  the  question  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  raised  of  what  would  be  the  re- 
lation of  gentile  converts  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
Neither  did  any  foresee  how  important  Paul's 
mission  was  to  become.  His  commission, 
however,  was  admitted,  and  he  was  sent 
forth  to  Tarsus  to  engage  in  such  work  as 
might  open  before  him. 

Paul's  stay  in  Tarsus  is  nearly  a  blank  to 
us.  It  probably  lasted  six  or  seven  years  ;  see 
below  on  the  chronology  of  Paul's  life.  No 
doubt  he  engaged  in  missionary  work,  and 
probably  founded  the  churches  of  Cilicia, 
which  are  mentioned  incidentally  in  Acts 
XV.  41.  If  at  any  time  he  felt  the  intellec- 
tual influences  of  Tarsus,  this  must  have 
been  the  period.  As  already  remarked.  Tar- 
sus was  one  of  the  centers  of  the  Stoic  phil- 
osophy, and  Paul's  appreciation  of  Stoicism 
plainly  appears  in  his  speech  at  Athens.  But 
we  must  be  content  with  the  little  informa- 
tion that  has  been  given  us.  While  doubt- 
less not  inactive,  Paul  was  waiting  for  the 
Lord  by  his  providence  to  make  plain  the  way 
in  which  his  chosen  ambassador  was  to  go. 

At  length,  however,  the  purpose  of  God 
began  to  appear.  Some  of  the  Greek-speak- 
ing Jewish  Christians  who  had  been  driven 
from  Jeru.salem  by  the  persecution  Mhich 
followed  Stephen's  death  came  to  the  great 
city  of  Antioch  in  Syria.  It  was  situated  on 
the  Orontes.  north  of  the  Lebanon  range, 
had  been  the  capital  of  the  Syrian  king- 
dom, and  was  then  *:heresidenceof  the  Roman 
governor  of  the  province.  It  was  rated  as 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire.  Its 
mixed  population  and  its  extensive  com- 
merce made  it  a  center  of  wide  influence. 
Lying  just  outside  of  Palestine  and  at  the 
entrance  to  Asia  Minor,  connected  also  hy 
traftic  and  politics  with  the  whole  empire,  it 
formed  a  natural  base  of  operations  from 
which  the  new  faith,  if  it  was  to  be  sejiarated 
from  Judaism,  could  go  forth  to  the  conquest 
of  the  world.  In  Antioch  the  (^hrif^tian  ref- 
ugees began,  we  are  told  (Acts  xi.  20),  to 
preach  to  the  gentiles  (A.  V.  Grecians;  R. 
V.  Greeks).  There  is  a  difficult  question  of 
the    text   in  the  original ;    but  tlie   context 


Paul 


577 


Paul 


leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  work  was 
among  gentiles.  Many  were  converted,  so 
that  a  distinctively  gentile  church  sprang 
up  in  the  metropolis  of  Syria.  When  the 
fact  was  reported  at  Jerusalem,  Barnabas  was 
sent  to  investigate.  With  noble  breadth  of 
view,  he  saw  the  Lord's  hand  in  the  new  de- 
velopment in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  con- 
verts were  uncircumcised.  He  also  seems  to 
have  realized  that  this  was  the  divine  open- 
ing for  Paul ;  for  he  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek 
him  and  brought  him  to  Antioch.  Together 
they  labored  for  a  year  in  Antioch.  Many 
more  gentiles  were  converted,  and  the  non- 
Jewish  character  of  the  church  was  signal- 
ized by  the  fact  that  to  the  disciples  in  Anti- 
och was  the  name  Christians  first  given,  evi- 
dently by  their  heathen  neighbors.  Thus 
began  Paul's  connection  with  Antioch.  Thus 
also  arose  on  the  i)age  of  church  history  the 
first  gentile  Christian  organization.  It  was 
to  be  the  starting  point  for  Paul's  mission  to 
the  pagan  world. 

While  Paul  was  at  Antioch,  a  prophet  from 
Jerusalem,  named  Agabus,  predicted  in  the 
Christian  assembly  that  a  famine  was  soon  to 
occur.  This  was  seized  upon  by  the  brethren 
at  Antioch  as  an  occasion  for  evincing  their 
love  to  and  fraternity  with  the  Christians  of 
Judaea.  The  fact  is  a  remarkable  proof  of 
the  sense  of  obligation  which  these  gentiles 
had  to  those  from  whom  they  had  received 
their  new  faith,  as  well  as  of  the  extent  to 
which  the  gospel  broke  down  at  once  the 
barriers  which  had  existed  between  races 
and  classes.  Contributions  for  the  relief  of 
the  Judsean  Christians  were  made  at  Anti- 
och, and  the  same  were  sent  to  the  elders  at 
Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul  (Acts  xi.  29,  30).  This  visit  of  Paul 
to  Jerusalem  probably  occurred  in  \.  D.  44, 
or  shortly  after.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Paul  in  Galatians,  no  doubt  because  he  did 
not  see  any  of  the  apostles.  Some  writers 
indeed  have  tried  to  identify  it  with  the 
visit  recorded  in  Gal.  ii.  1-10 ;  but  that 
plainly  occurred  after  the  dispute  concerning 
the  circumcision  of  gentiles  had  sprung  up, 
and  Luke  distinctly  assigns  the  rise  of  that 
controversy  to  a  later  date  (Acts  xv.  1).  The 
purpose  of  Paul  in  Galatians  was  to  recount 
the  opportunities  he  had  had  of  obtaining 
his  gospel  from  the  older  apostles  ;  and  if  on 
this  occasion,  as  Luke  intimates  (xi.  30),  he 
met  only  the  elders  of  the  church,  and  if  the 
brief  visit  was  purely  on  a  matter  of  charity, 
his  argument  in  Galatians  did  not  require 
him  to  mention  the  journey.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  soon  returned  to  Antioch,  taking  with 
them  John  Mark  (xii.  25). 

The  time  had  at  length  arrived  when 
Paul's  historic  missionary  work  to  the  gen- 
tiles was  to  begin.  It  was  indicated  by  the 
Spirit  to  the  prophets  belonging  to  the 
church  in  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  1-3).  They  were 
directed  to  set  apart  two  of  their  number, 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  for  the  work  to  which 
37 


God  had  called  them.  Thus  by  divine  direc- 
tion and  under  the  auspices  of  the  ('hurch  at 
Antioch, the  apostle's  first  missionary  Journey 
began.  Its  exact  date  is  uncertain.  We  can 
only  assign  it  to  the  years  between  a.  V. 
45-50  ;  perhaps,  46-48.  Neither  is  there  any 
clear  indication  how  lt)ng  a  time  it  occupied. 
Barnabas,  who  was  the  older,  is  mentioned 
as  the  leader;  but  Paul  speedily  took  the 
chief  place  through  his  ability  in  speaking. 
John  Mark  also  went  as  their  helper.  The 
party  went  from  Antioch  to  Seleucia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and  thence  sailed 
to  Cyprus,  the  original  home  of  Barnabas. 
Landing  at  Salamis,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Cyprus,  they  began  work,  as  was  natural,  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues.  Then  they  moved 
through  the  island  from  place  to  place  until 
they  reached  Paphos  on  the  southwest  coast. 
Here  they  attracted  the  notice  of  Sergius  Pau- 
lus,  the  Roman  proconsul,  and  were  violently 
opposed  by  a  Jewish  sorcerer,  Bar-jesus, 
who  called  himself  Elymas,  learned  one, 
and  who  had  previously  won  the  patronage 
of  the  proconsul  (Acts  xiii.  6,  7).  Paul,  with 
much  indignation,  rebuked  the  sorcerer  and 
smote  him  with  blindness ;  and  the  eUect 
of  the  miracle  and  of  the  missionaries' 
teaching  was  the  conversion  of  Sergius  (8- 
12).  Then  leaving  Cyprus,  the  party,  of 
whom  Paul  was  now  the  recognized  head 
(13),  sailed  north  toward  Asia  Minor  and 
came  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  There  John 
Mark,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  left 
them  and  returned  to  Jeru.salem.  Nor  do 
Paul  and  Barnabas  appear  to  have  remained 
in  Perga,  but  journeyed  northward  into 
Phrygia  until  they  reached  Antioch,  called 
Pisidian  because  it  lay  toward  Pisidia. 
This  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Roman  i)rov- 
ince  of  Galatia.  There  they  entered  the 
Jewish  synagogue  and,  on  invitation  of  the 
rulers  of  the  synagogue.  Paul  made  the  great 
address  recorded  in  Acts  xiii.  16-41,  the  first 
recorded  specimen  of  his  i)reaching.  After 
rehearsing  the  divine  leading  of  Israel  with 
a  view  to  the  coming  ^Messiah,  he  related  the 
testimony  of  the  Baptist  and  the  rejection 
of  Jesus  by  the  Jewish  rulers,  but  declared 
that  God  had  raised  him  from  the  dead,  that 
in  him  the  ancient  promises  to  Israel  were 
being  fulfilled,  and  that  only  through  faith  in 
hiui  could  men  be  justified.  He  also  warned 
the  Jews  not  to  repeat  the  crime  of  their 
rulers  in  Jerusalem.  The  speech  aroused 
the  enmity  of  the  leading  Jews:  but  it  made 
an  impression  on  some  others,  and  yet  more 
on  those  gentiles  who  were  already  under 
the  influence  of  the  synagogue  and  who 
ever  formed  the  coiniecting  link  for  Paul  be- 
tween the  synagogue  and  tlu'  jiagan  world. 
The  next  Sabbath  the  break  took  place  be- 
tween the  missionaries  and  the  synagogue, 
and  the  former  began  to  address  their  work 
directly  to  the  gentiles.  The  chief  pe<)])le 
of  the  city,  however,  were  excited  by  the 
Jews  against  the  Christians,  and   Paul  and 


Paul 


578 


Paul 


Barnabas  were  expelled  (Acts  xiii.  50).  From 
Antioch  they  went  to  Iconium,  another  city 
of  Phrygia,  where  many  converts,  both 
Jewish  and  gentile,  were  made  (51).  But 
the  Jews  again  succeeded  in  raising  per- 
secution, and  the  missionaries  pas.sed  on  to 
Lystra  and  Derbe,  important  cities  of  Ly- 
caonia  (xiv.  1-6).  At  Lystra  the  miracu- 
lous cure  of  a  lame  man  by  Paul  led 
to  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  heathen 
populace  to  offer  worship  to  the  missionaries, 
calling  them  Jupiter  and  Mercury  ;  and  this 
occasioned  the  second  recorded  speech  of 
Paul  (15-18),  in  which  he  reasoned  against 
the  folly  of  idolatry.  At  Lystra  Timothy 
was  probably  converted  (see  Acts  xvi.  1  ; 
2  Tim.  i.  2;  iii.  11).  The  brief  popularity 
of  the  apostle  was,  however,  soon  followed 
by  renewed  persecution  under  Jewish  in- 
stigation (Acts  xiv.  19),  so  that  he  was 
stoned,  dragged  out  of  the  city,  and  left  for 
dead.  When  he  revived  be  departed  with 
Barnabas  to  Derbe,  which  was  probably  at 
the  southeastern  limit  of  the  province  of 
Galatia  (20).  It  would  have  been  possible  for 
the  missionaries  to  cross  the  mountains  into 
Cilicia,  and  so  go  directly  by  way  of  Tarsus, 
back  to  Syrian  Antioch.  Their  route  had 
followed  a  rough  circle.  But  they  would  not 
return  until  they  had  placed  the  new  churches 
on  a  firm  basis.  Hence  they  returned  from 
Derbe  to  Lystra,  from  Lystra  to  Iconium,  from 
Iconium  to  Pisidian  Antioch,  and  from  An- 
tioch to  Perga,  in  each  place  organizing  the 
church  and  encouraging  the  disciples.  At 
Perga  they  preached,  as  they  had  seemingly 
not  done  at  the  former  visit ;  then,  going  to 
its  seaport,  Attalia,  they  returned  to  Antioch 
in  Syria  (Acts  xiv.  21-26).  Thus  the  first 
missionary  tour  of  the  apostle  was  com- 
pleted. It  covered  the  regions  next  toward 
the  west  of  those  already  occupied  by  the 
gospel.  His  method  was  to  offer  the  gospel 
first  to  the  Jews  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
He  found  a  large  number  of  the  latter 
already  influenced  by  Judaism,  and  there- 
fore somewhat  ])vej)ared  to  receive  Chris- 
tianity. His  method  was  to  found  churches 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  his  journeys  were 
focilitated  by  the  fine  roads  which  the 
Roman  government  had  made  between  her 
military  posts.  The  Greek  language  also 
was  everywhere  understood.  Providence 
had  thus  prepared  tlie  way  for  the  i>repared 
herald  of  the  gospel  to  the  world.  [On  the 
missionary  Journeys  of  Paul,  the  student 
sliould  consult  ('ony])eare  and  Howson's 
Life  and  Epistles  of  l^f.  Paid;  and,  especially 
for  the  first  jourTiey,  the  first  part  of  Eam- 
say's  Church  in  ihe  Romnu  Empire.'] 

Tlie  success  of  Paul's  work  aiiioiig  the 
gentiles  led,  however,  to  (■(introvcrsy  witliin 
the  church.  Certain  strict  .K^wish  (!liristians 
from  Jerusalem  went  to  Antioch  and  de- 
clared that  unless  the  converted  gentiles 
were  circumcised,  they  could  not  be  saved 
(Acts  XV.  1).    Some  years  before  this  time  God 


had  revealed  to  the  church  through  Peter 
that  gentiles  were  to  be  received  without 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  (x.  1-xi.  18). 
But  the  strict  Jewish  party,  made  up 
mostly  of  converted  Pharisees  (xv.  5),  would 
not  abide  by  this  teaching;  and  the  an- 
nouncement of  their  doctrines  in  Antioch 
so  disturbed  the  church  there  that  the 
brethren  determined  to  send  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas, with  others,  to  Jerusalem  to  consult 
with  the  apostles  and  elders  about  this  ques- 
tion. This  is  the  visit  described  in  Acts  xv. 
and  Gal.  ii.  1-10.  Both  accounts  are  entirely 
harmonious,  though  written  from  different 
points  of  view.  Paul  tells  us  that  a  revela- 
tion from  God  directe'd  him  to  go  (Gal.  ii.  2). 
It  was  a  great  crisis.  The  whole  future  of 
the  new  religion  was  depending  on  the  issue. 
But  the  result  was  a  triumph  of  Christian 
loyalty  and  charity.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
pi'oclaimed  to  tiie  mother  church  what  God 
had  done  through  them.  When  the  strict 
Jewish  Christians  opposed  them,  a  council 
was  held  of  the  apostles  and  elders  (Acts  xv. 
6-29).  Peter  reminded  the  church  of  God's 
will  as  shown  in  the  case  of  Cornelius ;  Paul 
and  Barnabas  related  the  mighty  attestations 
which  God  had  given  to  their  mission; 
James,  the  Lord's  brother,  pointed  out  that 
prophecy  had  foretold  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles.  It  was  resolved  to  heartily  recog- 
nize the  uncircumcised  converts  as  brethren, 
but  to  direct  them  to  avoid  certain  practices 
which  were  specially  oflensive  to  the  Jews. 
Paul  tells  us  in  Galatians  that  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  stood  by  him  against  the  "false 
brethren  ;  "  and  also  that  James,  Peter,  and 
John  gave  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship, 
he  to  go  to  the  gentiles,  they  to  the  Jews. 
Thus  Paul  retained  fellowship  with  the  other 
apostles  while  at  liberty  to  go  on  his  own 
divinely  appointed  mission.  How  bitter  the 
controversy  was  on  the  part  of  the  Judaizers 
is  shown  by  their  subsequent  hatred  and  hos- 
tility to  Paul.  But  he  bad  gained  his  point. 
The  unity  of  the  church  was  preserved. 
The  liberty  of  the  gentiles  was  preserved.  A 
practical  adjustment  was  made  by  which 
reasonable  Jewish  prejudice  was  conciliated, 
while  the  way  was  open  for  the  carrying  of  the 
gospel  to  all  peoples,  unencumbered  by  Jew- 
ish ceremonialism.  A  brief  reminder  of  the 
controversy  occurred  indeed  soon  after  in 
Antioch  which  ought  to  be  mentioned  (Gal. 
ii.  11-21).  Peter  had  gone  there  and,  being 
in  entire  agreement  with  Paul,  had  lived  in 
free  association  with  the  gentiles.  But  when 
Jews  from  Jerusalem  came  to  Antioch,  Peter 
and  even  Barnabas  withdrew  from  this  asso- 
ciation. This  led  Paul  publicly  to  rebuke 
Peter,  and  in  his  rebuke  he  outlined  the 
doctrinal  ground  on  which  he  rested  the 
rights  of  the  gentiles  in  the  church.  Salva- 
tion is  by  fiiith  alone,  he  said,  because  the 
believer  has  died  with  Christ  to  the  law  ;  i.  e 
(Jhrist  by  dying  has  met  all  the  obligations 
of   the  law   for    his  people,   and   therefore 


Paul 


579 


Paul 


nothing  more  than  faith  in  Christ  can  be 
made  the  condition  of  any  one's  becoming  a 
Christian.  We  thus  see  that  the  rights  of 
the  gentiles  in  the  church  involved  for  Paul 
much  more  than  a  question  of  church  unity. 
He  saw  that  it  involved  the  essential  priucijile 
of  the  gospel.  By  his  defense  of  this  prin- 
ciple, as  well  as  by  his  missionary  work, 
Paul  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  establish- 
ment of  universal  Christianity. 

The  council  at  Jerusalem  was  probably 
held  in  a.  d.  50  ;  see  the  chronology  below. 
Not  long  after  it  Paul  proposed  to  Barnabas 
a  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  xv.  36). 
He  was  unwilling,  however,  that  John  Mark 
should  again  go  with  them,  and  this  led  to 
the  final  separation  of  the  two  great  mis- 
sionaries. Paul  thereupon  took  with  him 
Silas :  see  Silas.  They  first  visited  the 
churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  then 
passed  northward,  through  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains, to  the  churches  which  had  been 
founded  on  Paul's  first  journey.  They  thus 
came  first  to  Derbe,  then  to  Lystra.  At  the 
latter  place  Paul  determined  to  take  Timothy 
with  him,  and  circumcised  him  to  prevent 
giving  otfense  to  the  Jews,  for  Timothy's 
mother  was  a  Jewess.  Paul  thus  showed 
willingness  to  conciliate  Jewish  prejudice  ; 
though  he  would  not  yield  an  inch  when 
the  ])rinciples  of  the  gospel  were  at  stake. 
From  Lystra  they  appear  to  have  gone  to 
Iconium  and  Pisidian  Antioch.  Their  move- 
ments here,  however,  are  much  disputed  by 
scholars.  Ramsay  and  others,  who  believe 
that  the  churches  of  the  first  journey  were 
the  "  churches  of  Galatia  "  to  which  the  epis- 
tle with  that  name  was  afterwards  written 
(see  Galatia,  Galatians,  Epistle  to  the), 
hold  that  Paul  went  directly  north  from 
Pisidian  Antioch  through  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  but  without  preaching,  since 
he  was  "forbidden  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
preach  the  word  in  Asia"  (Acts  xvi.  6)  ;  that 
when  they  came  "over  against  Mysia"  (7, 
R.  V.)  they  attempted  to  go  into  Bithyn- 
ia,  but  were  again  forbidden  ;  then  passing 
by  (or,  as  the  original  may  mean,  neglect- 
ing) Mysia  they  turned  westward  through  or 
alongside  of  Mysia  to  Troas.  The  commoner 
view  is  that  from  Pisidian  Antioch  the 
travelers  moved  northeastward  into  Galatia 
proper;  that  on  the  way  Paul  was  for  a 
while  disabled  by  sickness,  and  that  this  led 
him  to  improve  the  opportunity,  sick  though 
he  was,  of  preaching  in  Galatia  and  so  of 
founding  the  "churches  of  Galatia"  (Gal. 
iv.  1.3-15)  ;  that  this  movement  to  the  north- 
east from  Pisidian  Antioch  was  due  to  the 
command  not  to  preach  in  Asia  ;  that  when 
his  work  in  Galatia  proper  was  done,  he  at- 
tempted to  enter  Bithynia,  but  was  again 
forbidden  ;  and  so,  as  on  the  former  theory, 
he  turned  west  through  or  alongside  of 
Mysia  to  Troas.  This  whole  period  is  very 
briefly  described  by  Luke.  The  Spirit 
was  directing  the  missionaries  to   Europe, 


and   Luke's  narrative  likewise  hastens  for- 
ward. 

At  Troas  there  appeared  the  vision  of  the 
man  of  Macedonia  (.\cts  xvi.  J))  ;  in  response 
to  whose  call  the  missionaries,  now  joined  by 
Luke  himself,  took  shi])  for  Kurojie,  and 
landing  at  Neapolis,  went  forward  to  the  im- 
portant city  of  Philip])!.  Here  a  church  was 
founded  (xvi.  11-4U),  which  ever  remained 
specially  dear  to  the  apostle's  heart  (see  Pliil. 
i.  4-7;  iv.  1,  15).  Here,  too,  Paul  first  came 
into  conflict  with  Roman  magistrates  and 
found  that  his  citizensliip  was  a  protection 
for  his  work  (Acts  xvi.  '20-24  ;  87-;W).  From 
Philippi,  where  Luke  remained.  Paul,  Silas, 
and  Timothy  went  on  to  Thessalonica.  The 
brief  account  in  Acts  xvii.  1-9  of  the  work 
done  there  is  supplemented  by  the  allusions 
made  to  it  in  his  two  epistles  to  that  church. 
He  had  much  success  among  the  gentiles;  he 
laid  with  great  care  the  foundations  of  the 
church ;  and  he  gave  the  example  of  indus- 
try and  sobriety  by  supporting  himself  by 
his  trade  while  preaching  the  gospel  (1  Thes. 
ii.,  etc.).  But  persecution  arose,  instigated 
by  the  Jews,  so  the  brethren  sent  Paul  to 
Bercea,  and  from  there,  after  marked  success 
even  in  the  synagogue,  to  Athens.  His  so- 
journ at  Athens  was  rather  disappointing, 
and  is  memorable  chiefly  for  the  address  be- 
fore the  philosophers  on  Mars'  hill  (Acts 
xvii.  22-31),  in  which  Paul  showed  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  truths  which  the  gospel  had  in 
common  with  Stoicism,  while  he  yet  faithfully 
])roclaimed  to  a  critical  audience  their  duty 
to  God  and  what  God  required  them  to  be- 
lieve. At  Corinth,  on  the  contrary,  to  which 
he  next  went,  he  remained  eighteen  months, 
and  his  work  was  most  successful.  Here  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  and  abode  with  them  (xviii.  1-3).  At  first 
he  preached  in  the  synagogue,  hut  afterwards, 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Jews,  in  the 
house  of  a  gentile,  Titus  Justus,  who  lived  next 
to  the  synagogue  (5-7,  R.  Y.).  Li  both  The 
Acts  (xviii.  9,  10)  and  1  Cor.  (ii.  1-5)  there  are 
allusions  to  the  great  anxiety  of  mind  with 
which  the  apostle  prosecuted  his  mission  in 
Corinth,  and  to  his  earnest  determination  to 
proclaim  in  Greece  as  elsewhere  the  simple 
gospel  of  the  Crucified  ;  while  1  Cor.  amply 
testifies  both  to  his  success  and  to  the  many 
temptations  to  which  tlie  (Miristiansof  Corinth 
were  ex])oscd,  and  which  from  the  ])eginning 
occasioned  the  apostle  special  solicitude.  The 
needs  of  other  churches  also  pressed  ujion 
him,  so  that  from  Corinth  he  wrote  the  two 
epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  for  the  purpose 
of  warning  against  certain  doctrinal  and 
practical  perils  by  which  that  church  was 
tlireatened.  The  hostility  of  the  Jews  also 
did  not  cease,  and,  on  the  coming  to  Corinth 
of  the  new  proconsul,  (xallio,  they  accused 
Paul  of  violation  of  the  law.  But  the  pro- 
consul properly  decided  that  the  matter  per- 
tained to  the  synagogue  itself  and  that  the 
apostle  had  broken  no  law  of  which  the  gov- 


Paul 


r^HO 


Paul 


ernment  could  take  cognizance.  The  empire 
thus  at  this  period  protected  the  Christians 
from  Jewish  violence  by  identifying  them 
with  the  Jews,  and  Paul  was  permitted  to 
continue  his  work  unmolested.  His  mission 
to  Corinth  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  in 
the  history  of  the  early  Christian  church. 
At  length,  however,  Paul  turned  his  face 
again  to  the  east.  From  Corinth  he  sailed  to 
Ephesus.  He  did  not  remain  there,  however, 
but,  promising  to  return,  sailed  to  Csesarea, 
made  apparently  a  hasty  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and,  having  saluted  the  church  there, 
returned  to  Antioch,  whence  he  had  orig- 
inally started  (Acts  xviii.  22).  Thus  was 
completed  his  second  missionary  journey.  Its 
result  had  been  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Europe.  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
had  been  evangelized.  The  gospel  had 
thereby  taken  a  long  step  forward  toward 
the  conquest  of  the  empire.  After  remain- 
ing some  time  at  Antioch,  Paul,  probably  in 
A.  v>.  .54,  began  his  third  journey.  He  first 
traversed  "  the  region  of  Galatia  and  Phry- 
gia  in  order,  stablishing  all  the  disciples " 
(23),  and  then  settled  in  Ephesus.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  previous  divine  prohibition 
to  preach  in  the  province  of  Asia  had  been 
removed.  Ephesus  was  the  capital  of  Asia 
and  one  of  the  most  influential  cities  of  the 
East.  Hence  the  apostle  for  3  years  made  it 
his  center  of  operations  (xix.  8,  9  ;  xx.  31).  For 
3  months  he  taught  in  the  synagogue  (xviii. 
8),  and  then  for  2  years  in  the  school  or 
lecture  hall  of  a  certain  Tyrannus  (9).  His 
work  in  Ephesus  was  marked  by  great 
thoroughness  of  instruction  (xx.  18-31)  ;  by 
the  exercise  of  astonishing  miraculous  power 
(xix.  11,  12)  ;  by  great  success,  so  that  "all 
they  which  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word  of 
the  Lord  "  (10),  and  even  some  of  the  chief 
officers  of  Asia  became  Paul's  friends  (31)  ; 
yet  also  by  constant  and  fierce  opposition 
(23-41 ;  1  Cor.  iv.  9-13  ;  xv.  32) ;  and  finally, 
by  the  care  of  all  the  churches  (2  Cor.  xi.  28). 
This  period  of  the  apostle's  life  is  especially 
rich  in  incidents.  Much  occurred  of  which 
The  Acts  tells  nothing.  Here  Paul  heard  of 
attacks  made  on  him  and  his  doctrine  by  Ju- 
daizing  teachers  in  Galatia  ;  and  in  reply  he 
wrote  the  famous  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  in 
which  he  defends  his  apostolic  authority, 
and  gives  the  first  formal  statement  and 
proof  of  the  doctrines  of  grace.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Corinthians  also  occasioned  him 
much  anxiety.  In  reply  to  intiuiries  from 
Corinth  he  wrote  a  letter,  now  lost,  concern- 
ing the  relations  of  believers  to  the  pagan 
society  about  them  (1  Cor.  v.  9).  But  later 
reports  showed  that  more  s(^rious  troubles 
had  arisen.  Hence  our  1  Cor.  was  written, 
an  epistle  which  finely  exhibits  the  apostle's 
practical  wisdom  iii  the  instruction  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  infant  churches.  Even  so, 
however,  the  seditious  elements  in  the  Co- 
rinthian church  would  not  yield.  Many 
think  that  Paul,  after  writing  1  Cor.,  him- 


self made  a  hurried  visit  to  Corinth  for  dis- 
ciplinary purposes  (cp.  2  Cor.  xii.  14  ;  xiii. 
1).  At  any  rate,  before  leaving  Ephesus  he 
sent  Titus  to  Corinth,  probably  with  a  let- 
ter, to  secure  the  discipline  of  a  refractory 
member  of  the  church.  Titus  was  to  rejoin 
him  in  Troas.  When  he  failed  to  do  so,  Paul 
passed  on  in  much  anxiety  to  Macedonia, 
whither  Timothy  and  Erastus  had  preceded 
him  (Acts  xix.  22).  At  length,  however, 
Titus  rejoined  him  (2  Cor.  ii.  12-14;  vii.  5- 
16),  with  the  good  news  that  the  Corinthian 
church  had  obeyed  the  apostle  and  were 
loyal  in  their  love  for  him.  Whereupon  Paul 
wrote  our  2  Cor.,  the  most  biographical  of 
all  his  epistles,  in  which  he  rejoices  in  their 
obedience,  gives  directions  concerning  the 
collection  he  was  making  for  the  Judgean 
saints,  and  once  more  defends  his  authority 
as  an  apostle  of  Christ.  From  Macedonia  he 
himself  went  to  Corinth  and  passed  the  win- 
ter of  A.  T>.  57-58  there.  No  doubt  he  com- 
pleted the  discipline  and  organization  of  the 
Corinthian  church ;  but  the  visit  is  most 
memorable  because  he  then  wrote  the  Epistle 
to  the  Eomans.  In  it  he  states  most  com- 
pletely the  doctrine  of  the  way  of  salvation. 
He  evidently  regarded  Eome  as  the  place 
where  his  laliors  should  culminate.  He  could 
not,  however,  go  there  at  once,  because  he 
felt  it  necessary  to  return  to  Jerusalem  with 
the  gifts  of  the  gentiles  to  the  mother  church. 
Christian  work  had  already  been  begun  at 
Eome,  and  was  being  carried  on  mainly  by 
Paul's  own  friends  and  disciples  (cp.  Eom. 
xvi.).  Hence,  he  sent  the  epistle  from  Cor- 
inth that  the  Christians  of  the  capital  might 
possess  complete  instruction  in  the  gospel 
which  Paul  was  proclaiming  to  the  world. 
Paul  now  set  out  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  He  was  accompanied  by  friends 
who  represented  various  gentile  churches 
(Acts  XX.  4).  The  apostle's  work  among  the 
gentiles  had  been  much  opposed  by  Juda- 
izers,  and  even  the  ordinary  .Jewish  Christians 
often  regarded  him  and  it  with  distrust. 
Hence  arose  his  scheme  of  proving  the  loy- 
alty of  the  gentile  churches  by  inducing 
them  to  .send  a  liberal  oflering  to  the  poor 
Christians  of  Judgea.  It  was  to  carry  this 
ofl'ering  that  he  and  his  friends  left  Corinth 
for  Jerusalem.  His  plan  had  first  been  to 
sail  direct  to  Syria,  but  a  plot  of  the  Jews 
led  him  to  change  his  route  and  to  return  by 
way  of  Macedonia  (xx.  3).  He  lingered  at  Phi- 
lippi  while  his  companions  went  on  to  Troas, 
but  he  was  rejoined  at  that  place  by  Luke 
(5).  After  the  passover  he  and  Luke  went 
on  to  Troas,  where  the  others  were  waiting 
for  them  and  where  all  remained  seven  days 
(()).  A  church  had  grown  up  at  Troas,  and 
an  interesting  account  is  given  by  Luke  of 
the  events  of  the  apostle's  interview  with  it 
on  the  day  and  night  before  he  left  it  (7-12). 
J'rom  Troas  Pa-ul  went  by  foot  about  twenty 
miles  to  Assos.  whither  his  companions  had 
already   gone    by   boat    (13).      Thence   they 


Paul 


'.SI 


Paul 


sailed  to  Mitylene,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  then,  coasting 
southward,  they  passed  between  the  main- 
land and  the  island  of  (,'hios,  touched  the 
next  day  at  the  island  of  Samos,  and  the 
day  following  reached  Miletus  (14,  1.')).  The 
A.  V.  states  (Acts  xx.  !'•>)  that  they  "  tarried 
at  Trogyllium  "  after  leaving  SamoS ;  see  Tko- 
GYLLIUM.  The  R.  V.  with  the  best  manu- 
scripts omits  this  clause.  Miletus  was  about 
36  miles  from  Ephesus,  and  as  Paul  was  in 
haste,  he  determined  not  to  go  to  Ephesus, 
but  to  send  for  the  elders  of  the  church.  At 
Miletus  he  took  leave  of  them  in  the  affec- 
tionate address  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  18-3.5. 
No  words  could  more  strongly  exhibit  the 
apostle's  devotion  to  his  work,  and  his  love 
for  his  converts,  and  his  realization  of  the 
spiritual  perils  to  which  they  would  be  ex- 
posed. Leaving  Miletus,  the  ship  weut  with 
a  straight  course  to  Cos  (Acts  xxi.  1,  in  A. 
v.,  Coos),  an  island  about  40  miles  to  the 
south  ;  then,  the  next  day,  Rhodes,  an  island 
and  city  about  50  miles  southeast  of  Cos,  was 
reached ;  and  from  Rhodes  the  course  lay 
eastward  to  Patara,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia  (Acts 
xxi.  1).  At  Patara  a  ship  for  Phoenicia  (Syria) 
was  found  and  the  party  went  on  board  {2), 
and,  passing  west  of  Cyprus,  reached  Tyre 
(3).  There  they  remained  a  week,  and  the 
disciples  of  Tyre  urged  Paul  not  to  go  to 
Jerusalem  (4) ;  but  after  an  affectionate  fare- 
well he  sailed  (5,  6)  to  Ptolemais,  the  modern 
Acre,  and  came  the  next  day  to  Ciesarea 
(7,  8).  At  Csesarea  the  company  abode  with 
Philip  the  evangelist.  There  too  the  prophet 
Agabus,  who  at  an  earlier  time  had  foretold 
the  famine  (xi.  28),  bound  his  own  hands  and 
feet  with  Paul's  girdle,  and  predicted  that  so 
would  the  Jews  bind  Paul  and  deliver  him 
to  the  gentiles.  But  in  spite  of  this  warning 
and  the  lamentation  of  the  brethren,  Paul 
insisted  on  going  forward  (xxi.  11-14).  So, 
in  company  with  a  number  of  the  disciples, 
he  went  on  to  Jerusalem,  thus  completing 
what  is  known  as  his  third  missionary 
journey. 

The  prediction  of  Agabus  was  soon  fulfilled. 
Paul  was  at  first  indeed  well  received  by  the 
brethren  in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing his  arrival  went  in  to  James,  the 
Lord's  brother,  and  the  elders  of  the  church. 
When  he  had  related  his  work  among  tlie 
gentiles,  they  glorified  God.  At  the  same 
time  they  reminded  him  that  many  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  had  heard  evil  reports 
about  him  and  doubted  his  fidelity  to  Moses. 
It  was  proposed,  tlierefore,  that  he  should 
give  an  ocular  proof  that  he  still  held  the 
Jewish  customs  in  honor.  He  was  to  join 
with  four  men.  who  at  that  time  were  per- 
forming a  Nazirite  vow  in  the  temple.  To 
this  Paul  assented,  for  he  was  ever  anxious 
not  to  give  needless  offense  to  the  Jews,  and 
the  observance  proposed  was  probably  little 
more  than  what  he  had  done  of  his  own  will 
at  Corinth  (xviii.  18).     While  Paul  insisted 


that  no  gentile  should  observe  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  while  he  maintained  that  no  Chris- 
tian Jew  was  bound  to  observe  it,  he  found 
no  fault  with  Jews  who  cho.se  to  observe  it, 
and  held  himself  at  liberty  to  ob.serve  its 
regulations  or  not  as  circumstances  might 
seem  to  make  expedient.  His  assent  to  this 
proposal,  therefore,  was  not  inconsistent  with 
his  action  on  other  occasions.  But  the  ex- 
jjcdient  iiroved  unavail'ing  for  the  i>ur[iose 
for  which  it  was  intended.  Certain  Jews 
from  Asia  saw  him  in  the  temple  and  raised 
a  tumult.  They  falsely  charged  him  with 
having  brought  gentiles  into  the  temple,  and 
declared  to  the  populace  that  he  had  every- 
where taught  men  to  dishonor  botli  the  tem- 
ple and  the  law  (xxi.  27-29).  A  riot  speedily 
ensued  in  which  Paul  would  probably  have 
been  slain,  had  not  the  commander  of  the 
Roman  garrison,  Claudius  Lysias,  hastened 
with  soldiers  to  quell  the  uproar.  He  was 
leading  Paul,  bound  with  two  chains,  into 
the  castle  for  examination  and  the  Jews  were 
following  with  many  outcries,  when  the 
apostle  desired  liberty  to  speak.  The  com- 
mander was  surprised  that  the  prisoner  could 
use  Greek,  for  he  had  taken  him  to  be  an 
Egyptian  insurrectionist  who  had  recently 
given  trouble  to  the  government  (38).  When 
Paul  explained  that  he  was  a  Tarsian  Jew, 
Lysias  allowed  him  to  address  the  multitude. 
He  did  so  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  (xxii.  2).  He 
related  his  early  life  and  the  story  of  his 
conversion.  They  heard  him  till  he  uttered 
the  word  "gentiles,"  when  the  uproar  was 
renewed,  and  Lysias  Mithdrew  him  into  the 
castle  for  safety  and  further  examination. 
The  examination  would  have  been  by  scourg- 
ing, had  not  Paul  remarked  to  the  centurion 
that  he  was  a  Roman  citizen  (25).  When 
this  was  reported  to  Lysias,  he  unbound 
Paul  and,  feeling  that  the  matter  was  a  seri- 
ous one,  directed  the  priests  to  convoke  the 
sanhedrin  on  the  following  daj-  that  the 
prisoner  might  be  tried. 

The  appearance  of  Paul  before  the  council 
led,  however,  to  another  tumult  (Acts  xxiii. 
1-10).  The  a]iostle  was  now  fighting  for  his 
life.  He  had  no  hope  of  justice,  and  should  the 
council  condemn  him,  Lysias  might  give  him 
over  to  execution.  With  much  shrewdness 
he  succeeded  in  dividing  his  enemies.  He 
claimed  to  be  a  Pharisee,  and  to  be  on  trial 
for  teaching  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  This  was  true,  as  far  as  it 
went,  and  it  served  Paul's  purjtose.  The 
hatred  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  for 
each  other  was  greater  than  their  hostility  to 
Paul,  and  the  two  sects  (juickly  arrayed 
themselves  on  opposite  .sides.  The  com- 
mander feared  that  Paul  would  be  jiulled  to 
pieces  between  his  defenders  and  his  oppo- 
nents, so  by  his  orders  the  soldiers  removed 
the  prisoner  again  to  the  castle. 

That  night  tlu'  I^ord  apjieared  to  Paul  in 
a  vision  and  liade  liini  be  of  good  <-heer, 
since  he  was  certainly  to  bear  his  testimony 


Paul 


582 


Paul 


at  Eome  (Acts  xxiii.  11).  This  consumma- 
tion was  to  be  effected,  however,  in  an  unex- 
pected way.  Some  of  the  Jews  formed  a 
plot  to  kill  Paul  and,  to  accomplish  this,  it 
was  determined  to  request  the  commander 
to  bring  the  prisoner  once  more  before  the 
council.  But  Paul's  nephew  heard  of  the 
plot  and  managed  to  inform  his  uncle  and 
the  commander  (12-22).  Thereupon  Lysias 
sent  Paul  under  a  strong  guard  to  Csesarea 
with  a  letter  to  Felix,  the  procurator,  re- 
ferring the  case  to  him.  When  Felix  learned 
that  the  accused  was  from  Cilicia,  he  declared 
that  he  would  wait  until  the  accusers  came, 
and  meanwhile  placed  Paul  for  safe  keepiug 
in  Herod's  palace,  which  was  used  as  the  pra?- 
torium  or  residence  of  the  procurator.  Then 
followed  two  years  of  imprisonment  in  Csesa- 
rea.  When  the  Jews  appeared  before  Felix, 
they  made  a  general  accusation  against  Paul 
of  sedition  and  especially  of  profanation  of 
the  temple,  complaining  of  the  violence  with 
which  Lysias  had  taken  their  prisoner  out 
of  their  hands  (Acts  xxiv.  1-9).  To  this 
Paul  replied  by  an  explicit  denial  and  a 
demand  that  witnesses  should  be  produced 
against  him  (10-21).  Felix  appears  to  have 
been  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  matters 
in  dispute  to  perceive  that  Paul  had  not  com- 
mitted any  crime  worthy  of  punishment. 
He  dismissed  the  accusers  on  the  plea  that 
he  must  learn  further  particulars  from  Lysias, 
and  directed  that  Paul  should  be  kept  in  con- 
finement, but  that  his  friends  should  be 
allowed  to  visit  him  freely.  Felix  and  his 
wife  Drusilla  were  also  much  impressed  by 
what  Paul  had  said  and  "heard  him  con- 
cerning the  faith  in  Christ"  (24).  In  fact, 
the  apostle  seems  to  have  exercised  a  strange 
fascination  over  the  procurator,  who  trembled 
before  his  solemn  preaching  and  promised  to 
send  for  him  again.  He  hoped  also  that 
Paul  would  pay  for  his  liberty  (25,  26).  But 
the  apostle  would  not  bribe  the  procurator, 
and  the  latter  deferred  decision  of  the  case, 
so  that  when,  after  two  years,  Porcius  Festus 
succeeded  Felix,  Paul  was  still  a  prisoner 
(27). 

The  Jews  hoped  that  the  new  governor 
would  prove  more  favorable  to  their  desires 
than  Felix  had  been.  But  Festus  refused  to 
send  Paul  to  Jerusalem  for  trial,  and  re- 
quired his  accusers  to  confront  him  again  in 
Csesarea  (Acts  xxv.  1-6).  Again,  however, 
they  were  unable  to  prove  any  crime  against 
him,  while  he  persistently  maintained  his 
innocence  (7,  8).  Festus,  however,  willing  to 
please  the  Jews,  asked  Paul  if  he  would  go  to 
Jerusalem  to  be  tried.  Paul  knew  that  such 
a  course  would  probably  prove  fatal  to  him. 
He  availed  himself,  therefore,  of  his  right  as  a 
Eoman  citizen  and  appealed  unto  Caesar  (9- 
11).  This  took  the  case  out  of  the  procurator's 
hands  and  necessitated  the  prisoner'.s  trans- 
mission to  Rome.  Before  he  could  be  sent, 
however,  Agrippa  II.  and  his  sister  Bernice 
eame  to  visit  Festus,  doubtless  to  congratu- 


late him  on  his  Recession  to  office ;  and  the 
procurator,  who  was  not  well  versed  in 
Jewish  disputes  and  yet  was  bound  to  send 
to  the  emperor  a  full  account  of  the  case, 
related  the  matter  to  Agrippa,  who  expressed 
his  desire  to  hear  what  the  prisoner  had  to 
say.  Forthwith  it  was  arranged  that  Paul 
should  state  his  cause  before  the  assembled 
company.  Agrippa's  familiarity  with  Jewish 
aflairs  would  be  of  service  to  the  procurator 
in  preparing  his  report  to  the  emperor  (12-27). 
Paul's  defense  before  Agrippa  forms  one 
of  his  most  uotable  speeches.  In  it  he  dis- 
played the  courtesy  of  a  gentleman,  the  elo- 
quence of  an  orator,  and  the  fearlessness  of 
a  Christian.  He  reviewed  his  life  in  order  to 
show  that  he  had  been  governed  only  by  the 
wish  to  obey  the  God  of  Israel,  and  main- 
tained that  his  course  as  a  Christian  had  not 
only  been  determined  by  God's  direction, 
but  had  been  the  fulfillment  of  the  Hebrew 
prophecies  themselves  (Acts  xxvi.  1-23). 
When  Festus  interrupted  him  with  the  ex- 
clamation that  he  was  mad,  Paul  appealed 
earnestly  to  Agrippa.  But  the  king  was  not 
disposed  to  be  more  than  an  observer  and  critic 
of  what  he  deemed  a  new  fanaticism.  He 
replied  with  some  contempt :  "  With  but  little 
persuasion  thou  wouldest  fain  make  me  a 
Christian"  (28,  R.  V.).  Nevertheless  he  ad- 
mitted that  Paul  had  done  no  crime,  and 
might  have  been  set  at  liberty  if  he  had  not 
appealed  unto  Csesar  (31,  32).  In  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year,  a.  t>.  60  (see  chronology  be- 
low), Paul  was  sent  to  Rome.  He  was  com- 
mitted, with  other  prisoners,  to  the  care  of  a 
centurion,  Julius,  of  the  Augustan  band  or 
cohort.  He  was  accompanied  by  Luke  and 
Aristarchus,  a  Thessalonian  (xxvii.  1,  2). 
The  account  of  the  voyage  is  related  by 
Luke  with  singular  detail  and  accuracy  (see 
James  Smith,  The  Voyage  and  Shipwreck  of  St. 
Paul).  The  apostle  was  treated  also  with 
notable  courtesy  by  the  centurion.  Leaving 
Csesarea  in  a  coasting  ship  of  Adramyttium, 
they  touched  at  Sidon  and  then  sailed  to 
Myra  in  Lycia.  There  they  were  transferred 
to  an  Alexandrian  merchant  ship  bound  for 
Italy.  The  wind,  however,  was  not  favor- 
able. They  were  compelled  at  first  to  keep 
coasting  northwestward  until  over  against 
Cnidus  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  Then  putting 
southward,  they  rounded  with  difficulty 
cape  Salmone,  on  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Crete,  and  managed  to  reach  Fair  Havens,  a 
port  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  same  island 
(Acts  xxvii.  3-8).  It  was  now  after  the  Fast, 
i.  e.  the  10th  of  Tishri  or  day  of  atonement  (9), 
when  the  season  of  navigation  was  drawing  to 
a  close.  The  weather  also  continued  threaten- 
ing. Paul  counseled  against  sailing  further, 
but  the  centurion  followed  the  advice  of  the 
master  and  the  owner  of  the  ship,  who  wished 
to  go  on  to  Phaniix,  further  west  on  the 
coast  of  Crete,  where  there  was  a  better 
harbor  (9-12).  But  when  they  had  left  Fair 
Havens,  a  fierce  northeast  wind  came  down 


Paul 


583 


Paul 


upon  them  and  drove  them  to  the  south. 
Passing  south  of  Cauda  (or  Clauda  A.  V.,  the 
modern  Gozzo),  and  liaviug  lightfuod  the 
ship,  they  were  driven  for  fourteen  days  l)e- 
fore  the  gale  in  a  westerly  direction.  '  Paul 
alone  maintained  his  courage  and  that  of  the 
rest,  for  an  angel  of  the  Lord  assured  him 
that  no  life  would  be  lost  (13-2(J).  On 
the  fourteenth  night  the  sounding  lead 
told  of  their  approach  to  land  ;  and,  casting 
four  anchors,  they  waited  for  the  day.  When 
daylight  came,  they  perceived  in  the  un- 
known land  a  small  Isay  with  a  beach ;  so 
cutting  otf  their  anchors,  they  hoisted  the 
foresail  to  the  wind  and  made  for  the  beach 
(27-40,  R.  v.).  The  ship,  however,  grounded, 
and  soon  began  to  break  up  under  the  vio- 
lence of  the  waves.  Thereupon  the  whole 
company  cast  themselves  overboard  and,  as 
Paul  had  jiredicted,  all  reached  land  in  safety 
(41-44).  In  this  thrilling  adventure,  which 
Luke  relates  with  so  much  detail,  the  conduct 
of  Paul  beautifully  illustrates  the  courage  of 
the  Christian  and  the  influence  over  others 
which  a  man  of  faith  can  exercise  in  times 
of  peril. 

The  land  on  which  they  had  been  cast  was 
the  island  of  Melita,  the  modern  Malta,  which 
lies  58  miles  south  of  Sicily.  The  inhabitants 
kindly  received  the  shipwrecked  company, 
and  Paul  by  his  works  gained  special  honor 
among  them  (Acts  xxviii.  1-10).  After  three 
month.s,  however,  they  were  put  on  board 
another  Alexandrian  ship,  which  had  win- 
tered in  the  island,  and,  after  touching  at 
Syracuse  and  Rhegium,  arrived  at  Puteoli,  a 
harbor  of  southwestern  Italy.  There  Paul 
found  Christian  brethren  with  whom  he 
tarried  seven  days  (11-14).  Meanwhile  word 
of  his  arrival  had  reached  the  Christians  in 
Rome,  so  that  some  of  them  went  to  meet 
him  at  the  Market  of  Appius  and  the  Three 
Taverns,  two  places  distant  from  Rome  about 
43  and  33  miles  respectively  (1.5,  R.  V.).  Ac- 
cording to  the  A.  V.  (16)  the  centurion  deliv- 
ered his  prisoners  to  the  captain  of  the 
guard,  and  this  has  been  usually  understood 
to  mean  the  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard, 
who  at  this  time,  A.  D.  61,  was  the  celebrated 
Burrus.  The  R.  V.,  however,  with  the  best 
manuscripts,  omits  this  statement.  Mommsen, 
followed  by  Ramsay,  thinks  that  the  prison- 
ers were  delivered  to  the  captain  of  another 
corps,  to  which  Julius  the  centurion  him- 
self belonged,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to 
superintend  the  transportation  of  grain  to 
the  capital  and  to  perform  police  duty.  We 
really  cannot  tell  to  whose  custody  Paul  was 
delivered.  We  only  know  that  he  was  held 
in  militarv  confinement,  chained  to  a  soldier 
(xxviii.  16;  Phil.  i.  7,  13),  but  allowed  to 
lodge  by  himself.  Appeals  to  Cfesar  were 
slow  processes.  Paul  soon  hired  a  dwelling 
and  continued  in  it  for  two  years  (Acts 
xxviii.  30). 

So  began  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in 
Rome.     The  Acts  closes  with  an  account  of 


how  after  three  days  he  summoned  the  chief 

of  the  Jews,  related  the  reason  of  his  ])res- 
ence  in  the  cajiital,  and  on  an  appninled  day 
exjjounded  to  them  the  gospel  ;  but  that  wheix 
they,  like  their  countrymen  elsewhere,  dis- 
believed, Paul  again  declared  that  he  would 
turn  to  the  gentiles.  His  imprisonment, 
therefore,  did  not  i)revent  his  missionary  ac- 
tivity. The  last  verses  of  The  Acts  relate  that 
for  two  whole  years  he  received  all  who  came 
to  him  and  preached  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  the  things  conceruiug  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  without  hindrance  from  the  authori- 
ties (xxviii.  17-31).  Hut  still  more  light  is 
thrown  on  this  period  of  Paul's  life  by  the 
ejjistles  which  he  wrote  during  it.  They  are 
those  to  the  Colossians,  to  Philemon,  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  to  the  Philiiijiiaus.  The  first 
three  were  probably  written  iu  the  earlier 
part  of  the  period  and  that  to  the  Philiji- 
pians  toward  its  close.  These  epistles  show 
that  the  apostle  in  Rome  had  many  faithful 
friends  working  with  him.  Among  these 
were  Timothy  (Col.  i.  1 ;  Phil.  i.  1  ;  ii.  19 ; 
Philem.  i.),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21  ;  Col.  iv.  7), 
Aristarchus  (Col.  iv.  10  ;  Philem.  24),  John 
Mark  (Col.  iv.  10  :  Philem.  24),  and  Luke  (Col. 
iv.  14  ;  Philem.  24).  His  friends  had  unhin- 
dered access  to  him  ;  they  acted  as  his  mes- 
sengers to  the  churches  and  also  as  his  co- 
workers in  Rome  ;  and  they  made  the  im- 
prisoned apostle  the  center  and  head  of  the 
gentile  Christian  work  throughout  the  em- 
pire. The  epistles  further  show  the  personal 
activity  of  the  apostle's  life.  With  great 
zeal  and  success,  in  spite  of  his  bonds,  did 
he  preach  the  gospel.  He  was  an  amba.s.sador 
in  bonds  (Eph.  vi.  20).  He  desired  his  friends 
to  pray  that  God  would  open  for  him  a  door 
of  utterance  (Col.  iv.  3).  In  Onesimus,  the 
runaway  slave,  we  see  an  example  of  the 
fruit  of  his  labors  (Philem.  10).  As  time  went 
on  the  success  of  his  work  increased.  He 
wrote  to  the  Philippians  (i.  12,  1.3,  R.  V.)  that 
the  things  which  had  happened  unto  him  had 
fallen  out  unto  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  so 
that  his  bonds  were  manifest  in  Christ 
throughout  the  whole  pr.netorian  guard  and 
to  all  the  rest.  He  sent  greetings  also  (iv. 
22)  from  them  of  Csesar's  household.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  opposed  even  by  some  of 
the  Christians,  probably  of  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tian type  (i.  1.5-18).  But  he  regarded  their 
opposition  with  e(|uanimity,  and  was  confi- 
dent that  lie  would  be  finally  released  ( Phil.  i. 
2.J  ;  ii.  17,  24  :  Philem.  22).  His  imprisonment 
was  only  God's  way  of  enabling  his  ambassa- 
dor to  fulfill  to  the  uttermost  his  chosen 
mission.  Finally,  the  epistles  testify  to  the 
apostle's  continued  superintendence  of  the 
churches  throughout  the  em])ire.  New  her- 
esies had  arisen  in  Asia.  In  the  epistles  of 
the  imprisonment  Paul  gave  his  ripest  in- 
structions concerning  the  person  of  Christ 
and  the  eternal  purpose  of  God  revealed  in 
the  gospel,  while  the  practical  directions 
which  they  contain  di.sclose  the  breadth  of 


Paul 


584 


Paul 


his  grasp  on  Christian  duty  and  the  fervor  of 
his  own  Christian  life. 

Although  the  book  of  The  Acts  leaves  Paul 
a  prisoner  at  Eome.  there  is  abundant  reason 
to  believe  that  he  was  released  after  two 
years'  confinement  and  resumed  his  mission- 
ary journeys.  The  evidence  for  this  may  be 
summarized  as  follows  :  (1)  The  closing  verse 
of  The  Acts  accords  better  with  this  view 
than  with  the  supposition  that  the  imprison- 
ment which  has  been  described  ended  in  the 
apostle's  condemnation  and  death.  Luke 
emphasizes  the  fact  that  no  one  hindered  his 
work,  thus  certainly  giving  the  impression 
that  the  end  of  his  activity  was  not  near. 
Moreover  (2)  Paul  fully  expected  to  be  released 
(Phil.  i.  25  ;  ii.  17,  24 ;  Philem.  22),  and  this 
expectation  was  fully  justified  by  the  treat- 
ment which  he  had  always  received  at  the 
hands  of  Roman  officials.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  Nero's  persecution  of  the 
Christians  had  not  yet  begun ;  that  it  was  a 
sudden  outbreak,  preceded  by  no  official  ill- 
treatment  of  them  ;  and  that  in  the  view  of 
Roman  law,  the  Christians  were  as  yet  only 
a  sect  of  the  Jews,  whose  liberty  to  maintain 
their  religion  was  fully  recognized.  It  is, 
therefore,  altogether  probable  that,  when 
Paul's  case  came  before  the  imperial  tri- 
bunal, he  was  acquitted  of  any  crime  of 
which  Roman  law  could  take  cognizance. 
No  doubt  also  the  report  of  Festus  was  a 
favorable  one  (see  Acts  xxvi.  31),  nor  do  the 
Jews  appear  to  have  sent  any  accusers  to 
Rome   to   appear   against   him    (xxviii.    21). 

(3)  The  tradition  that  he  was  released  and 
resumed  his  journeys,  and  was  again  arrested 
dates  from  an  early  period.  Clement  of 
Rome,  A.  D.  96,  seems  clearly  to  imply  that 
Paul  went  to  Spain,  for  he  says  that  in 
his  journeys  "  he  reached  the  limit  of  the 
west."  His  journey  to  Spain  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  so-called  Muratori  Fragment, 
A.  v>.  170.  With  this  agrees  the  history  of 
Eusebius,  A.  D.  324,  which  reports,  as  the 
common  tradition,  that  "after  he  [Paul]  had 
made  his  defense,  the  apostle  was  sent  again 
on  the  ministry  of  preaching,  and  a  second 
time  having  come  to  the  same  city  [Rome], 
he  suflfered  martyrdom."  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  this  trjwditional  evidence  is  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  be  absolutely  demon- 
strative ;  but  it  is  early  and  strong  enough  to 
confirm  the  rest  of  the  evidence,  and  no  suf- 
ficient   counter-evidence    can    be    adduced. 

(4)  The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  may 
be  proved  to  be  Pauline  by  abundant  ex- 
ternal and  internal  evidence.  No  place  for 
them,  however,  can  be  found  in  the  history 
of  Paul  related  in  The  Acts.  They  mu.st, 
therefore,  have  been  M'ritten  later,  and  that 
fact  compels  us  to  accept  the  tradition  given 
by  Eusebius. 

We  must,  therefore,  believe  that  Paul's 
appeal  from  Festus  to  Ciesar  resulted  in  his 
release.  His  subsequent  movements  can  only 
be  inferred  from  the  allusions  contained  in 


the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  and  from 
tradition.  We  may  suppose  that  after  his  re- 
lease he  went,  as  he  had  intended  (Phil.  ii.  24  ; 
Philem.  22).  to  Asia  and  Macedonia.  From 
1  Tim.  i.  3  we  learn  that  he  had  left  Timothy 
in  charge  of  the  churches  about  Ephesus 
when  he  himself  went  to  Macedonia.  Where 
he  was  when  he  wrote  1  Tim.  is  not  clear, 
but  he  hoped  soon  to  be  able  to  return  to 
Ephesus  (1  Tim.  iii.  14).  From  Titus  we 
learn  that  he  had  left  Titus  in  charge  of  the 
churches  of  Crete,  and  expected  to  winter  in 
Nicopolis  (Titus  iii.  12).  There  were,  how- 
ever, three  cities  by  that  name  to  which  this 
reference  may  apply,  one  in  Thrace,  near 
Macedonia,  another  in  Cilicia,  and  a  third  in 
Epirus  ;  so  that  the  name  does  not  help  us 
much  to  fix  the  apostle's  locality.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  Nicopolis  in  Epirus  was 
the  one  referred  to.  If  we  accept  the  early 
tradition  that  Paul  went  to  Spain  (see  above), 
we  may  sujjpose  that  he  did  so  after  having 
been  in  Asia  and  Macedonia  ;  that  after  that, 
on  his  return  from  Spain,  he  stopped  at  Crete 
and  left  Titus  on  that  island  ;  then  that  be 
returned  to  Asia,  from  which  i)lace  he  doubt- 
less wrote  the  Epistle  to  Titus.  We  learn 
from  2  Tim.  iv.  20  that  he  had  passed  through 
Corinth  and  Miletum,  the  one  in  Greece,  the 
other  in  Asia.  There  is  nothing  to  show 
whether  he  carried  out  his  intention  of  win- 
tering in  Nicopolis.  Many  suppose,  how- 
ever, that  he  did  go  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus, 
and  was  there  rearrested  and  sent  to  Rome. 
But  while  the  apostle's  movements  during 
this  closing  period  of  his  life  are  somewhat 
uncertain,  the  epistles  then  written  show 
that  he  occupied  himself,  in  addition  to 
evangelizing  new  regions,  with  the  perfect- 
ing of  the  organization  of  the  already  exist- 
ing churches.  He  evidently  felt  that  his 
career  must  soon  close,  and  that  the  churches 
would  be  exposed  to  new  dangers,  from  both 
without  and  within.  Hence  the  pastoral 
epistles,  as  they  are  called,  round  out  the 
apostle's  instruction  of  the  churches  by  solid- 
ifying their  organization  and  practically 
equipping  them  for  their  future  work. 

The  release  of  Paul  from  his  first  Roman 
imprisonment  probably  occurred  in  A.  D.  63, 
and  his  subsequent  activity  lasted  about  four 
years.  According  to  Eusebius,  his  death 
took  place  in  A.  T>.  67;  according  to  Jeiome, 
in  A.  D.  68.  How  he  came  to  be  rearrested 
we  do  not  know.  There  are  a  few  slight 
hints  furnished,  however,  by  the  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  which  was  written  from 
Rome  shortly  before  bis  death.  We  should 
remember,  moreover,  that  in  A.  D.  64  Nero's 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Rome  broke 
out ;  and  it  was  doubtless  followed  by  sporad- 
ic outbreaks  against  them  in  the  ])rovinces 
(1  Pet.  iv.  13-19).  It  may  be,  as  some  have 
supposed,  that  Paul  was  informed  against  as 
a  leader  of  the  now  proscribed  sect  by  the 
Alexander  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv.  14.  At  any 
rate,  and  wherever  he  was  arrested,  he  was 


Paul 


585 


Paul 


sent  to  Rome  for  trial,  either  because,  as  before, 
lie  appealed  to  Caesar,  or  because  he  was 
charged  with  a  crime  committed  in  Italy, 
perhaps  with  complicity  in  the  burning  of 
Eome,  or  because  the  provincials  wished  to 
gratify  Nero  jjy  sending  so  notable  a  prisoner 
to  the  capital.  Only  Luke,  of  his  former 
friends,  was  with  him  when  2  Tim.  was  writ- 
ten (2  Tim.  iv.  11).  Some  had  even  deserted 
him  (i.  15 ;  iv.  10,  16),  while  others  had  gone 
away  on  various  errands  (10,  12).  Yet  when 
arraigned  before  the  tribunal  he  was  at  first 
not  condemned  (17),  though  he  continued  to 
be  held  on  some  other  charge.  Possibly  he 
was  able  to  disprove  a  charge  of  criminal 
conduct,  but  was  retained  in  custody  because 
he  was  a  Christian.  He  speaks  of  him.self  as 
a  prisoner  (i.  8)  in  bonds  (16),  as  if  an  evil- 
doer (ii.  9),  and  regards  his  fate  as  sealed 
(iv.  6-8).  No  doubt  he  was  finally  con- 
demned to  death  simply  because  he  was  a 
Christian,  in  accordance  with  the  policy 
begun  by  Nero  in  a.  d.  64.  Tradition  relates 
that  the  ajtostle  was  beheaded,  as  becam*?  a 
Roman  citizen,  on  the  Ostian  Way. 

In  giving  this  outline  of  the  life  of  the  apo.s- 
tle  Paul,  we  have  necessarily  followed  the  ex- 
press testimony  of  The  Acts  and  epistles.  But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  many  other 
events  occurred  in  his  active  and  checkered 
career.  To  some  of  these  allusions  are  made 
in  his  epistles  (Rom.  xv.  18,  19 ;  2  Cor.  xi. 
24-33).  Yet  the  well-known  events  of  his 
life,  taken  with  his  epistles,  make  plain  the 
character  of  the  man  and  the  supreme  value 
of  his  work.  It  is  ditticult  to  gather  into  one 
picture  the  many  features  of  his  versatile 
character.  He  was  by  nature  intensely  re- 
ligious and  his  religion  controlled  his  whole 
being.  This  was  true  of  him  even  as  a  Jew, 
much  more  after  his  conversion.  Keenly 
intellectual,  he  grasped  truth  at  its  full  value 
and  logically  wrought  out  its  implications. 
Yet  truth  possessed  his  heart  equally  with 
his  intellect,  and  his  emotions  were  as  fervid 
as  his  logical  processes  were  vigorous.  At 
the  same  time  the  practical  aspects  of  truth 
were  seen  by  him  no  less  than  its  theoretical 
side.  If  on  the  one  hand  he  fully  wrought 
out  dialectically  the  content  of  his  doctrinal 
ideas,  on  the  other  hand  he  applied  Christi- 
anity to  life  with  the  wisdom  and  complete- 
ness of  a  practical  man  of  affairs.  He  was 
intense  in  his  affections,  at  times  ecstatic  in 
his  religious  experiences,  ever  progressive  in 
his  statements  of  truth,  capable  of  soaring  to 
the  loftiest  heights  of  religions  thought,  and 
of  emhiidying  in  action  tlie  truth  for  which 
he  stood.  This  versatility,  intensity,  purity, 
breadth  of  mental  and  spiritual  life,  when 
used  by  the  all-controlling  Spirit  of  God, 
fitted  Paul  for  the  work  for  which  the  provi- 
dence of  God  intended  liini. 

And  that  work  consisted  in  authoritatively 
interpreting  to  the  gentile  world,  in  action 
and  in  written  statement,  the  mission  aiid 
message  of   Christ.     How   Paul  did  this  in 


action  is  narrated  in  the  book  of  The  Acts. 
Through  his  agency  the  universalisni  of 
Christianity,  its  independence  of  the  Jewish 
ritual,  its  adaj)tation  to  all  mankind,  was 
historically  established.  Otlier  men  als(»  con- 
tributed to  tlie  result.  Hut  it  was  PauTs 
divinely  given  task  to  bear  the  burden  of 
this  achievement,  and  to  him,  as  to  no  other 
man,  Christianity  owes  its  possession  of  a 
worldwide  destiny.  All  this  was  done,  of 
course,  in  accordance  with  the  i)urpose  of 
Christ  and  under  his  direction.  J5ut  the 
student  of  Cliristian  history  must  recognize 
in  Paul  the  i)riucipal  agent  used  to  accom- 
plish the  result.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
epistles  of  Paul  disclose  in  written  state- 
ment the  doctrinal  and  ethical  interpretiition 
of  Christ's  word  and  work,  which  accompa- 
nied Paul's  missionary  activity  and  made  it 
profound  and  permanent.  It  is,  tlierelore, 
to  Paul  as  a  theologian  that  we  rightly  look 
with  the  greatest  admiration.  His  theology 
took  shape  from  the  peculiar  exi)erience  of 
his  own  conversion.  By  that  sudden  transi- 
tion he  was  made  to  realize  the  impossil)ility 
of  man's  saving  himself,  the  dependence  of 
the  sinner  on  the  sovereign  grace  of  (iod, 
and  the  com]>leteness  of  the  redeeming  work 
which  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  had  done 
through  death  and  resurrection.  It  followed 
that  only  by  union  with  Christ  through  faith 
can  any  man  be  saved.  Salvation  consists  in 
justification  of  the  sinner  by  (iod  on  tlie 
ground  of  Christ's  obedience,  and  when  thus 
justified  the  sinner,  being  united  to  Christ, 
is  made  to  partake  of  all  the  sj)iritual  l)ene- 
fits,  external  and  internal,  in  heaven  and  on 
earth,  which  Christ  has  purchased  for  iiiin. 
The  Spirit  inspired  Paul  to  set  forth  on  this 
foundation  the  truth  of  Christ's  whole  work 
and  person.  In  the  epistles  to  the  Galatians 
and  Romans  the  way  of  salvation  itself  is 
most  fully  elaborated,  while  in  the  epistles 
of  the  imprisonment  the  exalted  dignity  of 
Christ,  and  the  whole  breadth  and  end  of 
God's  eternal  purpose  of  grace  in  Christ  and 
his  church  find  their  full  expression.  Be- 
sides these  iiriiicijial  themes,  almost  every 
phase  of  Christian  truth  and  duty  is  touclied 
ujion  in  his  epistles.  His  is  emiihatically 
the  theology  of  grace.  He  sound('<l  tlie 
depths  of  this  truth.  He  interjireted  tlie 
Hebrew  Messiah  to  the  gentile  worM.  H<> 
was  raised  up  to  exi)lain  to  the  world  the 
Saviour  in  whom  it  was  invited  to  believe 
and  the  work  which  the  Saviour  bad  done. 
Paul  was  jireeminently  the  theologian  of  the 
apostles  as  well  as  the  most  aggressive  mis- 
sionary. It  is  not  possible  to  understand 
Christianity,  unless  we  unite  with  the  teach- 
ing and  work  of  Jesus  Clirist  the  interpreta- 
tion thereof  furnished  by  his  aiiostle  Paul. 

Chroiiolori!/  of  Pdiil's  lift'.  While  the  order 
of  events  in  Paul's  life  and  the  rehitive  dates 
of  his  epi.stles  are  in  the  main  quite  clear, 
there  is  some  dispute  concerning  the  precise 
years  to  which  both  events  and  epistles  are 


Paul 


586 


Paul 


to  be  assif^ued.  In  the  book  of  Tlie  Acts  two 
dates  may  be  remmli'd  as  certain,  viz.,  the 
ascension  of  C'hrist  in  a.  d.  ;J()  (though  some 
sciiolars  assign  this  to  A.  D.  29)  and  tlie  death 
of  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  23),  which  all  ad- 
mit to  have  taken  i>lace  in  A.  1).  44.  Neither 
of  these  dates,  however,  is  of  much  assistance 
in  determining  the  absolute  chronology  of 
Paul's  life.  That  depends  mainly  on  the 
date  assigned  to  the  accession  of  Festus  as 
l)rocurator  of  Judaea.  According  to  the 
common  and  nu)st  i>robal)le  opiniori  Festus 
became  governor  (x.xiv.  27)  in  A.  D.  60. 
Josephus  assigns  nearly  all  the  events  during 
the  governorship  of  Felix  to  the  reign  of 
Nero,  which  began  in  October,  A.  T>.  54,  and 
Paul  (10)  speaks  of  Felix  as  having  been 
"of  many  years  a  .judge  untt)  this  nation." 
It  is  hardly  po-ssible,  therefore,  to  assign 
Paul's  arrest  when  he  appeared  before  Felix 
to  a  date  earlier  than  A.  i>.  58.  Then  Paul 
was  kept  two  years  in  confinement  in 
Ciesarea,  which  would  make  the  accession 
of  Festus,  who  then  succeeded  Felix,  to  have 
taken  place  in  A.  D.  (iO.  It  can  hardly  have 
been  later,  since  Festus  was  succeeded  by 
Albinus  in  A.  d.  62,  and  the  events  recorded 
of  him  imply  that  he  was  governor  for  more 
than  a  j^ear.  But  if  Festus  became  governor 
in  A.  D.  fiO,  Paul  Avas  sent  to  Eome  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year,  and  arrived  at  Eome 
in  the  spring  of  a.  d.  (il,  having  sjient  the 
winter  on  the  way.  Then  the  close  of  The 
Acts,  and  ]irobably  the  apostle's  release  from 
his  first  Roman  imprisonment,  are  to  be  dated 
in  A.  D.  ()3  (xxviii.  30). 

For  the  earlier  events  of  Paul's  life,  we 
date  back  from  the  accession  of  Festus.  As- 
suming the  latter  to  have  been  in  a.  d.  60, 
then  Paul's  arrest,  which  occurred  two  years 
before  (Acts  xxiv.  27),  was  in  a.  d.  58.  This 
was  at  the  close  of  his  third  journey.  The 
winter  preceding  his  arrest  he  had  sj)ent  in 
Corinth  (xx.  3),  the  ]ireceding  autumn  in 
Macedonia  (2),  and  Ijcfore  that,  for  three 
years,  lie  had  been  in  Ei)hesus  (31),  to  which 
he  had  gone  from  Antioch  after  a  rai)id  tour 
through  (ialalia  and  Phrygia  (xviii.  23). 
Hence  four  yi'ars  must  be  allowed  for  the 
third  jonrn(>y.  If  he  was  arrested  in  Jeru- 
salem in  i\w  s])ring  of  A.  i).  58,  he  nmst  have 
begun  this  journey  in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  54. 
The  third  journey  followeil  the  second  by  a 
moderate  interval  (23),  and  for  the  latter  at 
least  two  years  and  a  half  must  be  allowed, 
since  eighteeen  months  were  spent  at  Corinth 
(11),  and  the  jireceding  events  of  the  tour 
may  fairly  be  snpi)ose(l  to  have  occupied  a 
year  more  (xv.  3(i-xvii.  .34).  If,  therefore, 
the  .second  journey  closed  in  tlu>  autumn  of 
A.  i>.  53,  it  i)robably  began  in  the  s]iring  of 
A.  I).  51.  The  second  journey  in  turn  began 
some  days  (xv.  36)  after  the  council  of  .Jerusa- 
lem. This  latter  epoch-making  event  nuiy, 
therefore,  be  assigned  to  the  year  A.  D.  50. 
The  first  missionary  journey  can  only  be 
roughly  located  between  A.  D.  44,  the  date 


of  Herod's  death  (xii.),  and  A.  D.  50,  the  date 
of  the  council  (xv.).  We  may  probably  assign 
it  to  the  years  a.  d.  46-48,  though  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  how  long  a  time  it  consumed. 
For  the  date  of  Paul's  conversion,  we  must 
combine  the  results  given  above  with  his 
statements  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatiaus. 
In  Gal.  ii.  1  he  says:  "  Then  fourteen  years 
after  I  went  up  again  to  Jerusalem  with 
Barnabas."  This  visit  is  undoubtedly  the 
one  to  the  council  which  we  have  located  in 
A.  D.  50.  But  from  what  event  are  these 
fourteen  years  to  be  counted?  According  to 
some  commentators,  they  are  to  be  reckoned 
from  his  conversion  mentioned  in  Gal.  i.  15. 
If  so.  his  conversion  was  in  A.  d.  36  or  37, 
according  as  we  count  the  fourteen  years  ex- 
clu.sively  or  inclusively  of  the  first  one  of 
them.  But  in  Gal.  i.  18  Paul  notes  that  he 
first  visited  .Jerusalem  three  years  after  his 
conversion.  Hence  it  is  more  natural  to  date 
the  fourteen  years  of  Gal.  ii.  1  from  the  close 
of  the  previously  mentioned  three  j-ears.  In 
that  case,  according  as  we  reckon  exclusively 
or  inclusively,  his  conversion  was  in  A.  d.  33 
or  35.  It  is  most  in  accordance  with  Hebrew 
custom  to  reckon  inclusively.  Hence  we 
may  assign  his  conversion  to  A.  D.  35,  his  first 
subsequent  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  i.  18)  to 
A.  D.  37,  and  the  fourteen  years  after  (ii.  1) 
to  A.  D.  50.  As  already  remarked,  all  of 
these  dates  are  disputed.  Some  assign  the 
accession  of  Festus  to  a.  d.  55,  and  therefore 
push  back  all  the  other  dates  five  years  ear- 
lier than  those  given  above.  Other  critics 
vary  on  special  points.  Some  assign  Paul's 
death  to  A.  D.  64,  supposing  that  he  died  in 
the  first  year  of  Nero's  persecution.  But  the 
dates  given  above  appear  to  be  by  far  the 
most  probable.  They  yield,  with  some  other 
details,  the  following  table  : 

Death,  resurrection,  and  ascension 

of  Christ A.  D.  30 

Conversion  of  Paul "    35  (?) 

First  subsequent  visit  to  Jerusalem 

(Gal.  i.  18) "37 

Paul  at  Tarsus "    37-43 

Visit  to  .JerusMleni  with  the  gifts 

from  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  30)  .   .  "44 

First  missiciHiiry  journey "    tr)-48  (?) 

Council  at  .Icrusaiem "50 

Second  missionary  journey    ....  "    51-53 

1  and  2  Thessalonians "52 

Third  missionary  journey "    .54-58 

Galatiaus     "55 

1  Corinthians "    5fi  or  57 

2  "  "     ,57 

Romans "    .57-58 

Arrest "    ,58 

Imprisonment  in  (^a'sarcn "    .'18-6O 

Accession  of  Festus "60 

Paul  arrives  at  Rome "61 

Colossians,  Philemon,  Kpliesians  "    61  or  62 

Philippians     •   •   .   .  "    62  or  63 

RelcMsi'  from  first  Itoiiuin  inipris- 

oiniient     ...  "63 

1  Tiniotliv "     64  or  65 

Titus "    65  or  66 

Hebrews,  if  by  Paul "    66  or  67 

2  Timothy    .    ." "67 

Death  of  Paul "67 

G.  T.  P. 


Pavement 


Pekah 


Pave'ment.     See  (iABBATHA. 
Pe. 

The  seventeenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet. It  comes  from  the  same  source  as 
English  P,  but  was  pronounced  like  j)  or  ph, 
according  to  its  position.  It  is  accordingly 
represented  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names, 
though  too  often  arbitrarily,  by  either  p  or 
ph.  It  heads  the  seventeenth  section  of  Ps. 
ciix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Copyists  sometimes  experienced  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  pe  from  beth  (q.  v.j. 

Peace   Of  fer-ing.    See  Offerings. 

Pea'cock. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Tukki.  The  rendering  is  doubtless  correct, 
for,  along  with  ivory  and  apes,  tukki i/i/ini 
were  imiwrted  by  Solomon  in  ships  of  Tar- 
shish  (1  Kin.  x.  22;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  Now 
the  words  for  ivory  and  ape  are  of  Indian 
origin,  and  tukki  also  finds  a  satisfactory 
origin  in  Malabar  toijei,  Old  Tamil  tokei, 
togei,  a  peacock.  The  peacock  {Pavo  cnstatus) 
is  a  native  of  India,  where  it,  maj^  be  found 
in  the  jungles,  generally  running  pretty  rap- 
idly away  when  disturbed.  As  the  natives 
do  not  allow  it  to  be  molested,  it  often  makes 
its  way  into  the  villages. 

2.  See  Ostrich  2. 
Pearl. 

A  precious  article  of  commerce  (Mat.  xiii. 
45,  46  ;  Rev.  xxi.  21 ;  also  Job  xxviii.  18,  in 
R.  V.  crystal),  used  as  an  ornament  by  women 
(1  Tim.  ii.  9;  Rev.  xvii.  4).  Pearls  are  found 
inside  the  shells  of  several  species  of  MoUnsca. 
They  consist  of  carbonate  of  lime  interstrati- 
fied  with  animal  membrane,  and  are  formed 
by  the  deposit  of  the  nacreous  substance 
around  some  foreign  body  within  the  mantle 
lobes,  such  as  a  grain  of  sand,  which  acts  as 
an  irritant  and  serves  as  a  nucleus.  This 
sub.stance  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  pearl, 
which  forms  the  lustrous  inner  lining  of  the 
shell.  Pearls  of  large  size  and  fine  quality 
are  yielded  by  the  pearl  oyster  (Melenqrina 
margarififera),  which  abounds  in  the  Indian 
seas,  especially  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  near 
Ceylon.  It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  10 
or  12  inches. 

Ped'a-hel  [God  hath  saved]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv.  28). 

Pe-dah'zur  [a  rock,  i.  e.,  God.  hath  saved]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  Manasseh  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  10;  ii.  20). 

Pe-da'iah  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  The  father  of  Joel,  prince  of  Manasseh 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

2.  A  citizen  of  Rumah  and  maternal  grand- 
father of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36). 

'.J.  A  brother  of  Shealtiel  or  possibly,  though 
not  probably,  his  son  (1  (^hron.  iii.  18,  19). 
See  Zebubbabel. 

4.  A   descendant  of   Parosh.      He  rebuilt 


and  rei)aired  i)art  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Nell.  iii.  2.">i. 

5.  One  of  those.  pn>l)ably  ]iriest«,  who 
stood  on  Kzia's  left  hand  wlien  he  addressed 
the  i)eople  (Xeh.  viii.  4). 

6.  A  Benjamite  of  the  family  of  Jeshaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

7.  A  Levite;  one  of  those  apjiointed  by 
Nehemiah  over  the  treasures  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Pe'kah  [an  opening  (of  the  eyes),  deliver- 
ance] . 

Son  of  Remaliah.  He  was  a  captain  under 
Pekahiah  ;  but  he  con.spired  against  his  king, 
slew  him,  and  reigned  in  his  stead.  He  ad- 
hered to  the  calf  worshij)  of  Jeroboam  I.  (2 
Kin.  XV.  j25-28).  When  Jotham's  reign  was 
drawing  to  a  close,  Pekah  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  against  Judah. 
They  purposed  to  dethrone  the  king,  an  1 
place  the  crown  on  a  ci-eature  of  their  own. 
The  allied  kings  began  their  great  invasion 
of  Judah  just  as  the  reins  of  government 
passed  from  Jotham  into  the  hands  of  Aha/.. 
The  Syrians  advanced  through  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan  to  Elath,  intending  to 
rendezvous  at  Jerusalem.  Pekah  led  his 
army  directly  toward  the  capital  of  .Tudah, 
burning  and  ]iillaging  as  he  went.  The  in- 
habitants of  Jerusalem  were  greatly  alarmed. 
Isaiah,  however,  was  directed  to  encourage 
the  king  and  the  people  with  the  assurance 
that  the  plan  of  the  enemy  would  fail,  and 
to  exhort  them  to  put  their  trust  in  .Tehovah. 
Ahaz  spurned  the  advice,  preferring  to  trust 
to  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  purchased  the 
aid  of  Tiglath-pileser.  The  advance  of  the 
Assyrian  army  through  Galilee  (2  Kin.  xv. 
29)  to  Philistia,  in  734  B.  c,  coin]ielled  the 
allied  kings  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
Judah  in  order  to  protect  their  own  domin- 
ions. Pekah  carried  ofl"  a  nmltitude  of  cap- 
tives as  he  dei^arted  ;  but  on  the  remonstrance 
of  the  prophet  Oded.  he  clothed  and  fed  them 
and  sent  them  home  (2  Kin.  xvi.  .5-9;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  5-15;  Is.  vii.  1-13).  During 
the  next  two  years  Tiglath-pileser  was  at 
Damascus,  doubtless  leading  his  army  across 
the  territory  of  Israel  as  he  marched  from 
Philistia.  From  Damascus  detachments  of 
the  Assyrian  army  were  sent  forth,  whicli 
overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
carried  ofl"  many  Israelites  ca])tive  (1  Chron. 
V.  26).  In  730  B.  c.  Hoshea  murdered  Pekah 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  his  stead  (2  Kin. 
XV.  30).  This  deed  was  accomplished  with 
the  connivance  of  Tiglath-pileser,  as  the  As- 
.syrian  records  relate.  The  i)resent  Hebrew 
text  assigns  twenty  years  to  the  reign  of 
Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  27).  It  is  impossible  that 
he  occupied  the  throne  of  Samaria  during  all 
these  years,  for  Menahem.  a  predecessor  of  his, 
was  on  the  throne  about  7.")8  B.  c,  in  the  reign 
of  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  19).  Critics 
of  all  schools  accordingly  admit  that  twenty 
years  are  much  too  long.  There  is  a  bare 
possibility,  however,  that  the  Hebrew  writer, 


Pekahiah 


588 


Pelican 


when  be  summarizes  the  reign  of  Pekah, 
and  states  that  "in  the  fifty-second  year  of 
Uzziah  Pekah  reigned  over  Israel  in  Samaria 
- — twenty  years,"  does  not  mean  that  Pekah 
reigned  all  of  these  twenty  years  in  Samaria. 
Pekah  was  associated  with  Gileadites  (2  Kin. 
XV.  2')).  It  is  just  possible  that  he  set  up  bis 
authority  in  northern  Gilead  and  Galilee  in 
749  B.  c,  during  the  confusion  which  accom- 
panied the  death  of  Jeroboam  II.,  and  main- 
tained his  power  during  the  greater  part  of 
Menabem's  reign,  being  the  cause  of  Mena- 
hem's  feeling  of  insecurity  until  Tiglath- 
pileser  invaded  the  north  and  established 
Menabem's  sway  over  the  whole  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19).  Then  Pekah,  like  Abner 
before  him,  abandoned  opposition,  professed 
loyalty,  and  was  given  a  high  military  posi- 
tion in  the  service  of  the  king  to  whom  he 
had  hitherto  refused  obedience.  After  INIen- 
ahem's  death  and  in  the  absence  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  and  perhaps  backed  by  Eezin,  he 
seized  the  throne  in  the  fifty-second  year  of 
Uzziah  and  again  reigned.  See  Chro- 
nology. 

Pek-a-M'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  sight  or 
delivered]. 

Son  and  successor  of  Menahem  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel.  He  came  to  the  throne  about 
737  B.  c,  and  reigned  two  years,  adhering  to 
the  calf  worship  of  Jeroboam  I.  He  was 
assassinated  in  bis  palace  at  Samaria  by 
Pekah,  a  captain  of  his,  who  then  usurped 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv.  23-26). 

Pe'kod. 

A  locality  in  Babylonia  and  its  inhabitants 
(Jer.  1.  2l';  Ezek.  "xxiii.  23);  doubtless  the 
Pukudu,  a  Babylonian  people. 

Pe-la'iah  [Jehovah  bath  made  illustrious]. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  who  with  Ezra 
caused  the  peo])le  to  understand  the  law 
(Neb.  vJii.  7)  and  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

2.  A  man  of  Judab,  descended  from  Shec- 
aniab  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

Pel-a-li'ah  IJehovah  bath  judged]. 
A  priest  descended  from  Malchijab  (Xeh. 
xi.  12). 
Pel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

1.  One  of  the  Simeonite  captains  in  the 
successful  war  between  that  tribe  and  the 
Anialekites  (1  Chron.  iv.  42). 

2.  A  prince  of  Israel,  and  son  of  Benaiah. 
He  misled  the  ])eoi)le.  In  vision  PZzekiel  .saw 
him,  and  be  ])ro])besied  against  bini,  and 
Pelatiah  suddenly  died  (Ezek.  xi.  1  13:  cp. 
viii.  1,  3;  xi.  24). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  grandson  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Cliron.  iii.  21).  Perhaps  be 
was  the  person  of  this  name  who  was  a  chief 
of  the  people  and  with  Nchemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neb.  x.  22). 

Pe'leg,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phalec  [division]. 

A  son  or  descendant  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  25; 
xi.  1(5).  He  takes  his  name  from  the  fact 
that  in  his  days  the  earth  was  divided.    The 


division  alluded  to  may  be  the  separation  of 
the  descendants  of  Arpachshad  from  the 
Joktanide  Arabs  (x.  24-29) ;  or  it  may  refer 
to  the  scattering  of  the  descendants  of  Noah 
in  consequence  of  the  confusion  of  tongues 
at  Babel. 

Pe'let  [liberation]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jahdai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  47). 

2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  while 
he  was  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Pe'leth  [swiftness]. 

1.  A  Eeubenite,  father  of  that  On  who 
joined  in  Korah's  rebellion  (Num.  xvi.  li. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  33). 

Pel'e-thites. 

Certain  members  of  David's  bodyguard. 
Apparently  they  were  from  the  Philistine 
country,  as  were  the  Cberethites  and  the 
men  of  Gath,  who  were  their  comrades  in 
arms.  They  were  faithful  to  David  during 
the  calamities  of  his  later  years,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  war  in  which  Absalom 
lost  his  cause  and  his  life  (2  Sam.  xv.  18-22). 
They  also  helped  in  the  fight  with  Sheba 
(xx.  7).  The  name  which  they  bear  is  doubt- 
less a  gentile  adjective,  like  those  with  which 
it  is  connected ;  but  it  is  not  a  contraction 
of  P'lisMi,  Philistine,  as  some  scholars  have 
supposed. 

Pel'i-can. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Ka'ath, 
probably  meaning  the  vomiter.  The  word  is 
twice  translated  cormorant  in  the  text  of 
A.  V.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11 ;  Zeph.  ii.  14) ;  but  else- 
where pelican,  as  everywhere  in  R.  Y.  The 
bird  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18  ; 


IVlk-an. 

Dent.  xiv.  17),  lived  in  the  wilderness  (Ps. 
cii.  6),  and  frequented  ruins  (Isa.  xxxiv.  11 ; 
Zepb.  ii.  14).  It  is  jirobably  the  common  or 
roseate  pelican  iPelecdiui.t  oiwcrotaJiin),  though 
rivers  and  lakes,  rather  than  ruined  cities,  un- 
less the  ruins  are  interspersed  with  marshes. 


Pelonite 


589 


Pentateuch 


are  its  appropriate  place  of  abode.  Its  four 
toes,  being  all  connected  by  large  webs,  adapt 
it  for  aquatic  life.  It  sometimes,  however, 
perches  on  trees.  Its  bill  is  large  and  fur- 
rowed, and  has  under  it  a  large  pouch  in 
which  the  bird  carries  the  fish  on  which  its 
young  feed.  Its  height  is  from  5  to  6  feet ; 
the  expansion  of  its  wings  12  or  13.  A  few 
individuals  are  found  on  the  sea  of  Galilee ; 
a  much  larger  number  on  the  shallow  lakes 
of  Egypt  and  on  the  Nile. 

Pel'o-nite. 

A  word  corresponding  in  1  Chron.  xi.  27 ; 
xxvii.  10  to  Paltite  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  26,  and 
in  1  Chron.  xi.  3(5  apparently  to  Gilonite  iu 
2  Sam.  XV.  12;  xxiii.  34.  In  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
10  the  person  who  is  designated  by  this 
epithet  is  further  said  to  be  of  the  children 
of  Ephraim.  No  person  or  place  is  known 
from  which  this  adjective  could  be  derived; 
certainly  not  from  Pallu,  who  wasa  Reubenite 
and  whose  descendants  were  called  Palluites 
(Num.  xxvi.  5).  In  view  of  these  circum- 
stances, Pelonite  is  not  unreasonably  believod 
to  be  either  a  corruption  of  the  text  or  else 
to  mean  "such  and  such  a  one,"  as  it  does 
iu  other  connection  (e.  q.  1  Sara.  xxi.  2),  and 
to  have  been  inserted  in  the  passages  men- 
tioned by  a  scribe  who  could  not  read  the  orig- 
inal word  in  the  text  which  he  was  copying. 

Pen. 

1.  A  stylus  or  graving  tool  made  of  iron 
and  used  by  writers  for  cutting  letters  on 
stone  (.Tob  xix.  24 ;  Ps.  xlv.  1 ;  Jer.  viii.  8 ; 
xvii.  1).  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  'e<  and  once 
heret  (Is.  viii.  1). 

2.  A  reed  pen  used  for  writing  with  ink  on 
papyrus  (3  John  13;  cp.  2  John  12).  The 
mention  of  a  penknife  or  knife  of  a  writer 
in  Jeremiah  xxxvi.  23,  and  of  a  roll  in  which 
the  prophet's  words  were  written,  imply  that 
reed  pens  had  been  introduced  among  the 
Israelites  by  the  time  of  Jehoiakim. 

The  Hebrew  words  reudered  pen  of  the 
writer  in  Judg.  v.  14,  A.  V.  mean  literally 
stafl'  of  a  marshal  or  scribe  (R.  V.). 

Pe-ni'el.     See  Penuel  2. 

Pe-nin'nah  [ruby  or  coral]. 
One  of   Elkanah's  two   wives,   the  other 
being  Hannah  (1  Sam.  i.  2-6). 

Pen'ny. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Denarion.  It 
was  the  denarius,  a  silver  coin  of  the  Romans 
(Mat.  xxii.  19-21),  worth  about  17  cents  in  the 
time  of  Christ  (xviii.  28,  R.  V.  margin).  See 
Money.  It  was  the  ordinary  pay  of  an 
agricultural  laborer  for  a  day  (Mat.  xx.  2,  9, 
13).  Two  were  given  to  the  innkeeper  by 
the  good  Samaritan  for  looking  after  the 
wounded  Jew,  though  he  promised  to  sup- 
plement this  sum  if  the  expense  should  ex- 
ceed it  (Luke  X.  3.>).  The  apostles  calculated 
that  200  would  be  needed  to  buy  sufficient 
bread  to  feed  .'5000  people  (.Mark  vi.  ,37). 
This  would  be  one  denarius  for  each  twenty- 


five,  or  two  thirds  of  a  cent  to  each  person. 
The  prices  in  Rev.  vi.  6  were  those  asked 
during  a  dearth. 

Pen'ta-teuch  [(ireek  pentatexchos,  consist- 
ing of  five  book.s]. 

The  first  five  books  of  the  O.  T.,  viz., 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy.  The  word  nowhere  occurs  in 
Scripture,  the  Israelites  calling  these  books 
collectively  the  law  (Josh.  i.  7 ;  Mat.  v.  17), 
the  law  of  Moses  (1  Kin.  ii.  3;  Ezra  vii.  <> ; 
Luke  ii.  22),  the  law  of  the  Lord  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  3;  Luke  ii.  23),  the  book  of  the  law 
(Josh.  i.  8),  the  book  of  Moses  (2  Chron.  xxv. 
3,  4),  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  (.Josh, 
viii;  31),  the  book  of  the  law  of  God  (Josh. 
xxiv.  26),  the  book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  9).  This  fact  suggests  that 
the  five  books  were  considered  as  one  ;  and 
they  still  are  so  iu  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
though  severally  cited  by  their  ojjening 
words.  The  division  into  five  distinct  books  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (con.  Apion.  i.  8).  It 
may  have  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators or  been  ancient.  But  whether  or  not 
the  Septuagiut  translators  adopted  or  origin- 
ated this  five-fold  division,  from  them  at 
least  emanated  the  modern  names  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy.* 

*  The  division  of  the  law  of  Moses  into  five 
books  furnished  the  model,  it  is  thought,  for  the 
similar  division  of  the  Psalter.  If  it  did,  it  is 
ancient;  for  the  Psalter  was  early  divided  into 
five  books.  Proof  that  it  did  is  sought  in  the 
alleged  discovery  that  the  contents  of  each 
book  are  so  arranged  that  the  opening  psalm 
shall  correspond  to  the  respective  book  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Ps.  i.,  with  its  comparison  of  the 
righteous  to  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water,  is  a  reminder  of  the  garden  of  Eden  in 
the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  Ps.  xlii.,  with 
which  the  second  book  of  the  Psalter  opens,  is 
the  cry  of  a  man  in  distress,  oppressed  by  the 
enemy,  and  thinkina:  liimsilf  forgotten  by  God, 
but  anticipatinsr  deliverance  out  of  all  his 
trouble.  It  recalls  the  atlliction  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  and  their  deliverance,  as  related  in  Ex- 
odus. In  Ps.  Ixxiii.,  with  which  the  third  Imok 
begins,  the  doubts  of  the  psalmist  reKanliiigtbe 
justice  of  (rod's  dealing  with  men  vanish  when 
he  CI  insiders  the  end  of  the  wicked.  The  psalm 
is  supposed  to  reflect  gratitude  fur  God's  good- 
ness in  giving  the  law  of  Leviticus,  which  was 
an  abiding  mercy.  Ps.  xc,  a  prayer  of  .Moses, 
in  which  God  is  besought  to  teach  its  to  number 
our  days,  corresponds  to  Ntmibers.  Ps.  cvii., 
which  begins  the  fifth  book,  speaks  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  Lord  in  the  days  of  trouble,  and  is 
thus  like  Deuteronomy,  which  recapitulates  the 
instances  of  God's  loving  kindness  to  Israel.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  corresjiondence  is 
rather  fanciful ;  and  if  an  editor  set  aliout  secur- 
ing correspondence,  it  is  strange  that  he  did  not 
adopt  a  more  ap]iro];riate  arrangeiiient.  Ps. 
viii.,  with  its  reference  to  tlie  heavens,  the  work 
of  God's  fingers,  to  the  moon  and  stars  whicli  he 
ordained,  and  to  man  whom  he  made  and  to 
whom  he  gave  dominion  over  all  creatures, 
would  have  better  corresponded  with  Gen.  i. 
Ps.  Ixvi.  of  the  second  book,  which  tells  of  the 
works  of  God,  how  he  turned  the  sea  into  dry 
land  for  the  people  to  pjiss  through,  and  how  he 
tried  the  Israelites,  laid  sore  burdens  on  them 


Pentateuch 


590 


Pentateucli 


The  events  recorded  in  the  first  book  of 
the  Pentateuch  were  transmitted  to  tlie  time 
of  Moses,  as  is  now  known,  by  tradition  oral 
and  written;  the  subsequent  occurrences 
fell  under  his  own  observation,  and  he  was 
himself  an  actor  in  the  most  stirring  events. 
Writing  was  practiced  long  before  the  time 
of  Moses.  It  was  common  in  Egypt,  where 
he  was  educated  ;  in  Arabia,  through  a  por- 
tion of  which  he  passed;  and  in  Canaan, 
where  his  ancestors  had  sojourned  and 
whither  he  was  leading  the  people.  And  the 
various  forms  of  literature  represented  in 
the  Pentateuch  were  familiar  literary  con- 
ceptions of  Moses'  time  (see  Moses).  Though 
the  five  books  themselves  are  not  attributed 
as  a  whole  to  Moses  in  any  verse  which  they 
contain,  yet  the  Pentateuch  testifies  e.^- 
pressly  to  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  its  con- 
tents. Two  passages  of  the  narrative  por- 
tion are  attributed  to  his  pen  ;  the  account 
of  tiie  victory  over  Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  14), 
and  the  itinerary  of  the  march  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt"  to  the  plains  of  Moab  oppo- 
site Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  2).  A  didactic 
song,  reciting  the  dealing  of  the  Most  High 
with  Israel,  is  declared  to  have  been  written 
and  uttered  by  Moses  (Deut.  xxxi.  19,22,30  ; 
xxxii.  44);  and  a  hymn  of  praise,  evoked  by 
the  deliverance  from  Pharoah  at  the  Eed  Sea, 
is  recorded  as  sung  by  Moses  (Ex.  xv.  1-18; 
cp.  21).  The  legal  portion  consists  of  three 
distinct  bodies  of  law.  The  first  is  entitled  the 
book  of  the  covenant,  and  comprises  the  ten 
commandments  wliich  formed  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  nation,  and  specific  regula- 
tions based  on  them  (Ex.  xx.-xsiii.).  This 
book  Moses  is  expressly  said  to  have  written 
(Ex.  xxiv.  4).  The  second  body  of  laws  pei'- 
tains  to  the  sanctuary  and  service  (Ex.  xxv.- 
xsxi.,  XXXV. -xl.,  Leviticus,  and  major  legal 
part  of  Numbers).  This  legislation  is  con- 
stantly declared  to  have  been  revealed  by  the 
Lord  to  Moses  (Ex.  xxv.  1,  etc.).  The  third 
body  of  legislation  expressly  and  repeatedly 
claims  to  be  the  address  of  Moses  to  the  new 
generation  of  people  on  the  eve  of  their  en- 
trance into  Canaan.  It  contains  a  brief  re- 
hearsal of  the  way  which  God  has  led  them  and 
then  repeats  sundry  portions  of  the  law  with 
the  special  ol)ject  of  exhibiting  its  sjiiritu- 
ulity,  emphasizing  the  features  which  are  of 
vital  religious  importance  in  the  new  circum- 
stances in  which  the  people  will  soon  be 
placed,  and  modifying  details  to  adapt  the 
laws  to  the  new  re(|niiements  of  the  sAttlod 
life  in  Canaan.  JIoscs  wrote  this  address 
and  delivered  it  into  the  custodv  of  the 
Levites  (Deut.  xxxi.  !),  24-2fi).  these  are 
the  explicit  claims,  scattered  throughout  the 

and  cnused  nicn  to  ride  over  their  heads,  and 
tluii  lirontrlit  ihem  out  into  a  wealtliy  place, 
shun  Id  have  ()])ened  the  hook.  It  has  an  obvicius 
refcitnce  to  the  events  recorded  in  Kxofhis, 
whereas  I's.  xlii.  has  not.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  or  Ixxviii. 
should  form  the  openiuK  of  the  third  book  in 
order  to  correspond  appropriately  to  Leviticus. 


Pentateuch  itself  to  its  Mosaic  authorship. 
The  remainder  of  the  O.  T.  i-efers  to  the  law 
as  the  work  of  Moses  and  written  in  a  book 
(Josh.  i.  7,  8;  Ezra  vi.  18;  Neh.  viii.  1,  18); 
and  abounds  in  explicit  references  to  the  law 
of  Moses  (Josh.  i.  7,  8;  viii.  :U-;iT;  Judg.  iii.  4  ; 
1  Kin.  ii.  3 ;  2  Kin.  xviii.  6,  12 ;  cp.  Deut. 
xxiv.  16  ;  2  Kin.  xxi.  7,  8  ;  Dan.  ix.  11,  13 ; 
Ezra  iii.  2 ;  vi.  18 ;  vii.  6  ;  Neh.  viii.  1,  18 ; 
Mai.  iv.  4).  One  feature  of  this  law,  namely, 
the  law  of  the  one  altar,  was  in  abeyance 
during  the  captivity  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark  after  the  Lord  had  forsaken  Shiloh 
(1  Sam.  iv.  11,  21,  22;  vi.  1;  vii.  2;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60;  Jer.  vii.  12-15;  xxvi.  6).  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  people  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Samuel  sacrificed  where  they  could 
(1  Kin.  iii.  2-4),  as  their  fathers  had  done 
in  the  olden  time  before  the  covenaiit  had 
been  entered  into  between  Jehovah  and  the 
Israelites,  of  which  the  law  and  the  ark 
were  the  sign  and  pledge.  Once  again  this 
specific  law  was  in  abeyance.  The  pious  Israel- 
ites of  the  northern  kingdom  were  prevented 
from  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  worship. 
They  had  to  choose  between  refraining  from 
sacrifice  altogether  or  worshiping  God  as  did 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  They  properly 
chose  the  latter  alternative.  All  other  cases 
of  sacrifice  oflered  elsewhere  than  at  the 
central  sanctuary  were  strictly  in  accord 
with  the  law  which  expressly  i)rovided  that 
wherever  Jehovah  manifested  his  name,  there 
sacrifice  was  fitting  (Ex.  xx.  24  ;  see  Judg.  ii. 
1,  5;  vi.  19-24;  xiii.  15-22;  and  Altah). 
The  law  of  Moses  was  known  and  its  au- 
thority acknowledged  even  in  the  northeri* 
kingdom.  The  prophets  Hosea  and  Amos, 
who  labored  among  the  ten  tribes,  although 
they  do  not  mention  the  name  of  Moses, 
constantly  refer  to  the  laws  recorded  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  use  its  very  language.  At 
a  still  later  time  the  temple  copy  of  tlie  book 
of  the  law  was  unused  and  cast  aside  during 
the  half  century  of  ]\Ianasseh's  reign  '.vhen 
the  religion  of  Jehovah  was  neglectc^l ;  but 
when  the  temple  was  being  repaired,  prepara- 
tory to  the  restoration  of  Jehovah's  worship, 
this  book  was  found,  or  so  much  of  it  at  least 
as  contained  Deuteronomy  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8  ; 
xxiii.  25);  or,  less  likely,  the  book  which  the 
high  priest  found  was  a  copy  of  the  law  of 
God  which  had  been  embedded  in  the  wall  of 
the  temple  as  a  record  at  the  time  of  building 
the  sanctuary.  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Neheniiah 
allude  to  the  written  law  of  Moses.  That 
Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  was 
the  opinion  of  the  Jews  of  Christ's  time 
(Mark  xii.  19  ;  John  viii.  5  ;  Antiq.  preface  4  ; 
con.  Apion.  i.  8).  Christ  and  the  evan- 
gelists call  the  Pentateuch  Moses  and  the 
book  of  Moses  (Mark  xii.  26  ;  Luke  xvi.  29 ; 
xxiv.  27,  44),  and  speak  of  its  having  been 
given  by  Moses  and  committed  to  writing  by 
Moses  (Mark  x.  5;  xii.  19;  John  i.  17:  v.  46, 
47;  vii.  19). 

The  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch 


.Pentateuch 


591 


Pentateuch 


is  impugned.  The  principal  ohioctinns  for- 
merly urged  against  it  were  several  verses 
in  which  reference  has  been  found  to  times 
subsequent  to  the  death  of  Moses.  1.  In 
Gen.  xii.  6  we  read:  "And  the  Canaanite 
was  then  in  the  land  "  (cp.  xiii.  7).  The 
meaning  assigned  to  these  words  is  that  the 
Canaanites  had  ceased  to  be  there  when  the 
writer  lived.  The  words,  however,  actually 
state  only  that  the  Canaanites  were  in  the 
country  when  Abraham  was  there,  and  were 
occupying  the  laud  promised  to  him.  2.  In 
Gen.  xiv.  14  we  read  that  Abraham  pursued 
the  defeated  confederates  to  Dan.  In  the 
patriarch's  time,  however,  the  place  was 
called  Laish,  the  name  Dan  not  having  been 
given  it  till  the  time  of  the  judges  (Judg. 
xviii.  29).  The  question  is,  however,  whether 
Dan  in  Genesis  is  the  place  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Judges.  If  it  is,  the  more 
familiar  name  may  have  been  substituted  in 
the  place  of  Laish  in  the  course  of  repeated 
transcription.  The  Hebrew  text  has  not 
been  preserved  in  absolute  purity.  3.  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  31  the  words  occur:  "Before 
there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of 
Israel,"  as  if  the  Hebrew  monarchy  under 
Saul  had  already  been  established  when  the 
author  wrote.  But  the  kings  of  Edom  who 
are  mentioned  in  ver.  32-43  reigned  before 
Moses ;  and  Moses  notes  that  the  descendants 
of  Esau  already  had  kings,  although  the  Isra- 
elites, to  whom  the  promise  had  been  given 
that  kings  should  arise  among  them  (Gen. 
xvii.6, 16;  XXXV.  11),  as  yet  had  none.  4.  Moses 
is  said  to  be  beyond  Jordan,  meaning  east  of 
the  river,  as  though  the  writer  himself  were 
in  Canaan  (Deut.  i.  1).  The  expression,  how- 
ever, does  not  imply  this.  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  spoke  of  that  region  as  "beyond 
Jordan,"  and  the  designation  became  a  fixed 
geograi>hical  term.  Moreover  that  country 
was  not  Canaan,  not  the  promised  land. 
Moses  was  still  beyond  Jordan.  No  matter 
on  which  side  of  the  river  the  people  were, 
they  designated  the  mountains  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  Abarim,  those  beyond,  and  in  later 
times  they  called  the  country  between  tlie 
Jabbok  and  the  Arnon  Peraa,  region  beyond. 
5.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  Deut.  xxxiv. 
5-12,  in  which  the  death  of  Moses  is  recorded 
and  comparison  made  between  him  and  proph- 
ets subsequently  raised  up  (.5, 10,  etc.),  cannot 
have  been  from  his  pen.  But  an  addition  of 
this  sort  does  not  militate  against  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole. 

The  orthodox  theologian  and  commentator 
Vitringa  expressed  the  opinion  in  1707,  in 
the  interest  of  the  credibility  of  Genesis, 
that  Moses  edited  and  supplemented  records 
left  by  the  fathers  and  preserved  among  the 
Israelites.  In  1753,  Jean  Astruc,  a  French 
physician  of  ability,  but  profligate,  attempted 
to  discriminate  two  leading  authors  in  Gene- 
sis, whose  writings  Moses  used  and  who  are 
distinguished  by  their  employment  respec- 
tively of  the  words  Elohim,  that  is  God,  and 


Jehovah.  Besides  the  writings  of  these 
two,  he  thought  he  could  deti'ct  ten  minor 
documents  relating  chiefly  to  Coreign  nations 
and  in  which  no  name  of  God  is  found.  This 
hypothesis  was  adopted  by  Eichhorn,  and 
elaborated  with  learning  and  ingenuity.  lie 
steadfastly  insisted  that  Moses  compiled  (Un- 
esis,  and  was  the  author  of  the  rest  of  the 
Pentateuch.  It  was  soon  discovered,  how- 
ever, that  the  principles  which  govern  the 
partition  of  Genesis  were  capable  of  being 
applied  with  similar  results  to  the  entire 
Pentateuch  ;  and  if  so,  the  original  docu- 
ments  covered  the  history  of  Moses'  own 
time,  and  were  scarcely  put  together  by 
Moses  to  form  the  present  Pentateuch.  The 
grounds  on  which  the  partition  is  made  are 
chiefly  four:  1.  The  alternate  use  of  the 
divine  names  God  and  Jehovah  in  successive 
paragraphs  or  sections.  2.  The  continuitj' 
of  each  so-called  document  when  t^iken  sei)a- 
rately.  3.  The  diversity  of  style,  diction, 
and  ideas  in  the  ditferent  documents.  4. 
Eepetitious  or  parallel  passages,  often  contra- 
dictory, indicative  of  distinct  documents. 
Starting  in  simple  form,  the  hypothesis  un- 
derwent constant  modification  under  careful 
criticism  in  order  to  remove  the  difficulties 
which  beset  it.  The  form  which  it  now  as- 
sumes is  that  four  principal  original  docu- 
ments were  used  by  an  editor  or  redactor  in 
compiling  the  Pentateuch  :  an  Elohistic,  in 
which  the  divine  title  is  Elohim,  and  wliich 
supplies  about  one-lialf  the  matter;  a  Jeho- 
!  vistic  and  another  Elohistic,  which  have 
I  many  mutual  likenesses  and  are  closely 
united  ;  and  finally  the  dociiment  of  the 
Deuteronomist.  The  second  and  third  docu- 
ments, referred  to  as  J  E,  are  regarded  as 
the  oldest  and  dated  about  1000-800  b.  c. 
The  greater  part  of  Deuteronomy  or  D  is  as- 
]  signed  to  the  year  621  B.  c.  or  half  a  century 
[  earlier  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8).  And  the  first  men- 
tioned, usually  denominated  P  to  indicate 
that  its  author  was  a  priest,  is  commonly 
j  dated  at  the  close  of  the  exile.  To  each  of 
I  these  main  divisions  there  is  a  code  of  law  ; 
to  J  E,  Ex.  xx.-xxiii. ;  to  D,  Deut.  xii.-xxvi. ; 
and  to  P  the  priestly  and  other  legislation 
of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  It  will 
be  observed  that  there  are  two  distinct 
matters  involved  in  the  modern  theory : 
first,  the  existence  of  documents  out  of 
which  the  Pentateuch  was  constructed,  and, 
second,  the  date  of  these  documents.  Well- 
hausen  dates  them  as  above,  holding  that  the 
legislation  of  Leviticus  is  later  than  that  of 
Deuteronomy.  But  1.  This  theory  Invidves 
the  denial  of  the  truth  of  the  historical  narra- 
tive in  the  O.  T.,  not  the  assertion  of  occa- 
sional or  minute  inaccuracies,  but  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  credibility  of  the  O.  T.  narrative 
almost  as  a  whole.  Wellhauscn  makes  no  con- 
cealment of  the  fact.  2.  FurthcrTuori'.  todate 
the  so-called  documents  so  late  is  forbidden  by 
the  fact  of  the  development  of  doctrine.  In 
the  Pentateuch,  the  conceptions  entertained 


Pentateuch 


592 


Pentateucli 


and  thedoctrine  taught  concerning  the  future 
state,  divine  retrihution,  the  spiritual  char- 
acter of  true  worship,  angels,  and  the  Mes- 
siah are  rudimentary.  They  appear  in  de- 
veloped form  in  late  books,  in  Job,  the  Psalms, 
and  the  prophets ;  a  strong  argument  that 
the  ■writer  of  the  Pentateuch  lived  at  an 
t'lirlicr  age  and  in  a  different  intellectual  en- 
vironment. Dillmann,  while  accepting  the 
existence  of  documents,  opposed  Wellhau- 
sen's  arrangement,  insisting  that  history  re- 
nuired  the  existence  of  the  Levitical  legisla- 
tion before  that  of  Deuteronomy,  and  so  far 
lie  is  more  in  accord  with  the  teaching  of 
Scripture.  3.  The  early  existence  of  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  Pentateuch  is  attested 
by  the  traces  of  them  in  the  writings  of  the 
early  prophets.  A  short  time  since,  it  was 
customary  to  admit  the  genuineness  of  the 
passages  where  these  traces  are  found,  but  to 
deny  that  they  were  derived  from  Deuter- 
onomic  or  priestly  documents.  Now  it  is 
universally  conceded  that  these  laws  and  in- 
stitutions were  in  full  force  when  the  pas- 
sages were  written  ;  but  the  logical  result  of 
this  concession,  namely  that  the  Pentateuchal 
law  and  organization  were  in  existence  in  the 
eighth  century  b.  c,  is  avoided  by  declaring 
that  these  references  are  late  interpolations 
in  the  genuine  writings  of  the  prophets.  As 
a  rule  no  proof  for  this  declaration  is  offered. 
The  decision  is  magisterial.  It  is  pronounced 
without  appeal  from  the  master's  mere  as- 
sertion. Believers  in  the  Mosaic  authorship 
of  the  Levitical  and  Deuteronomic  law  point 
with  confidence  to  the  evident  indissoluble- 
ness  of  these  references  from  the  context  and 
their  inseparable  connection  with  the  original 
argument,  which  show  that  they  are  not  in- 
terpolations, but  an  essential  part  of  the  dis- 
course of  the  proi)hets  of  the  eighth  century. 
4.  The  theory  of  the  late  origin  of  Israel's 
institutions  asserts,  as  a  fundamental  postu- 
late, that  the  law  and  the  elaborate  ritual  of 
Israel  were  the  result  of  a  gradual  develop- 
inent.  As  in  nature,  so  in  art,  law,  and 
ritual,  the  sim])le  ever  precedes  the  complex, 
and  the  rude  the  refined.  The  tliesis,  as  a 
general  i)rinciple,  is  demonstrable  and  is  uni- 
ver.sally  accepted  ;  and  it  is  true  also  in  the 
case  of  the  civil  law  and  the  worshij)  of 
Israel.  But  there  is  anotlier  truth,  to  speak 
of  ))ut  one,  namely,  that  Israel  was  tiie  lieir 
of  the  ages.  Development  in  law  and  in  the 
ritual  of  divine  worfiiip  had  been  going  on 
for  centuries.  The  Is-aelites  did  not  begin 
with  nolliiiig,  any  more  tlian  do  the  founders 
of  a  modern  state  or  i-iie  fraiiieis  of  a  modern 
constitution.  Tiiey  did  not  create  e.rnihilo. 
Under  Moses  they  ajiprojiriated  the  mature 
fruits  of  man's  lalior  and  man's  exjierience. 
Among  the  nations  witii  whom  they  wer(^  in 
close  toueli  in  the  Mosaic  era,  aiiioug  the 
Babylonians  from  tiie  midst  of  whom  their 
forefathers  liad  emigrated  and  the  Egyiitians 
with  whom  tliey  had  sojourned,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  forms  of  worship  had   reached 


maturity  in  an  elaborate  refinement ;  and 
tlie  legal  sense  of  the  Semites  had  developed 
so  far  as  to  discern  a  unity  underlying  mani- 
fold laws  and  to  adopt  the  principle  of  codifi- 
cation. The  statutes  organized  as  a  body  of 
law  and  incorporated  in  the  book  of  the 
covenant,  the  sanctuary  as  described  in 
Exodus,  and  the  ritual  that  is  outlined  in 
Leviticus  were  not  strange  novelties  to  the 
people  assembled  at  Sinai,  but  were  familiar 
conceptions  and  already  full  of  significance, 
appealing  to  the  sense  of  justice  and  appre- 
ciation for  the  rights  of  the  lowly  and  help- 
less which  the  Semites  possessed  long  before 
the  days  of  Moses,  representing  types  of  sacred 
architecture  and  ritual  approved  by  the  most 
refined  contemporary  peoples,  embodying 
lofty  ideals  possessed  in  common  with  the 
ethnic  religions  of  the  daj',  employing  a  sym- 
bolism that  was,  as  it  were,  the  universal  re- 
ligious speech  among  the  men  of  that  age, 
and  giving  expression  to  the  common  innate 
sense  of  propriety  in  the  worship  of  God. 
The  whole  was  molded  and  dominated  by 
the  truth  of  one  God  only,  holy,  gracious, 
and  spiritual.  The  civil  law  of  Israel  and 
tiie  sanctuary,  priesthood,  and  ritual,  rich, 
refined,  elaborate,  are  not  things  new  under 
the  sun ;  but  Moses,  a  statesman  and  re- 
ligious leader,  in  long  and  intimate  com- 
munion with  God  and  under  direct  divine 
teaching  and  control,  selected  suitable  mate- 
rials from  the  legal  and  ritualistic  wealth  of 
the  age  and  organized  them  into  a  vehicle 
that  was  a  perfect  expression  of  God's  will 
for  quickening,  fostering,  disciplining,  and 
guiding  the  moral  and  religious  conscious- 
ness of  Israel  and  giving  a  proper  and  in- 
telligible display  of  those  great  truths  con- 
cerning God  which  Israel  held  and  for  which 
Israel  was  to  bear  witness  among  men.  The 
law  and  worship  of  Israel  as  exhibited  iii  the 
legislation  at  Sinai,  however  long  the  period 
of  development  may  have  been  that  preceded 
them,  were  timely,  in  entire  harmony  with 
the  conceptions  of  the  Mosaic  age.  See  Moses, 
Altar,  Amraphel,  Priest,  Tabernacle, 
Theocracy. 

Turning  to  the  literary  aspect  of  the  ques- 
tion, what  are  the  objections  to  the  theory  of 
documents?  1.  The  impo.ssibility  of  separa- 
ting the  documents  from  each  other  in  strict 
adherence  to  the  principle  that  certain  words 
are  characteristic  of  the  several  writers.  To 
take  an  example  from  the  use  of  different 
divine  names,  which  is  the  starting  point  of 
the  hypothesis  and  the  phenomenon  most 
evident  to  English  readers,  the  name  Jehovah, 
which  in  A.  V.  is  generally  translated  Lord, 
betokens  J,  and  should  not  occur,  according 
to  the  theory,  in  tlie  book  of  Genesis  in  the 
documents  E  and  P.  But  in  fact  it  does  not 
occur  there  in  these  documents,  in  v.  29  ;  vii. 
If) ;  xiv.  22  ;  xv.  1,  2  ;  xvii.  1 ;  xx.  18  ;  xxi.  1  b, 
;5;5;  xxii.  11, 14,  15,  16;  xxviii.  21.  Nor  should 
the  name  of  God  appear  in  the  document  J  ; 
yet  it  does  in  iii.  1-5  ;  iv.  25 ;  vi.  2,  4  ;  vii.  9 ; 


Pentateuch 


593 


Pentecost 


ix.  26,  27;  xxxiii.  5,  11  ;  xliii.  14,  etc.  Here 
are  more  than  a  score  of  iustances  in  Genesis 
alone  and  in  respect  to  but  two  cliaractoristic 
words,  where  the  critical  priiiciide  fails. 
When  obstinate  facts  like  these  ojniose  the 
critical  theory,  they  are  exscinded.  The 
coni]>i]er  is  said  to  liave  introduced  the  awk- 
ward words  arbitrarily  or  from  another  docu- 
ment. In  some  cases  J  is  said  to  liave  used 
the  name  God  discriniinatinjily,  which  is  a 
virtual  abandoinnent  of  the  theory.  If  the 
writer  used  the  divine  name  discriminatiiiKly 
in  some  cases,  he  may  have  done  so  in  all,  as 
the  defenders  of  the  Mosaic  authorshij)  main- 
tain. On  the  theory  of  the  Mo.saic  authorship, 
these  words  are  in  place  ;  and  it  is  ordinarily 
apparent  that  they  are  discriminatingly  eni- 
jtloyed.  God  denotes  the  divine  being  in  his 
relation  to  the  universe  at  large  as  creator,  pre- 
server, and  governor  of  all  his  creatures  and 
all  their  actions.  Jehovah  denotes  God  as  he 
reveals  himself  to  man,  especially  in  grace. 
2.  The  asserted  continuity  of  the  documents 
when  taken  separately  is  fictitious.  J's  nar- 
rative ending  in  iv.  25,  26  is  continued  in  v. 
2S  b,  29;  vi.'  (1-4)  5-8.  These  passages  do 
not  relate  unbroken  history,  they  are  discon- 
nected fragments,  there  is  no  continuity.  J's 
narrative  in  vi.  5-8  is  continued  in  vii.  1-5. 
The  account  is  fragmentary  again,  not  con- 
tinuous. Whence  came  the  ark  into  which 
Noah  was  commanded  to  enter?  J's  nar- 
rative embraces  x.  21,  25-30  ;  xi.  (1-9),  28-30; 
xii.  1-4  a.  Who  was  Terah,  and  who  were 
Haran  and  Abram?  Where  is  the  smcwth- 
ness  of  continuous  narrative?  P  narrated  i. 
1-ii.  4  a,  concluding  with  the  emphatic  decla- 
ration that  God  saw  everything  that  he  had 
made  ;  and  behold,  it  was  very  good.  Then 
after  listing  the  genealogy  of  Adam  (v.  1-28  a, 
30-32),  he  suddenly  said:  "And  the  earth 
was  corrupt  before  God  "  (vi.  9-22).  How  did 
that  become  <?orrupt  which  God  had  pro- 
nounced very  good  ?  Again,  P's  uncouth  nar- 
rative of  the  early  history  of  Abraham  is  cut 
out  of  J's  account,  thus:  xi.  27,  31,  32;  xii. 
4  b,  ;  5  xiii.  6  a,  11  b,  12  a.  It  is  continued  in 
xvi.  1  a,  3,  15,  16  ;  xvii.  Over  against  this 
uncouthness  in  the  hypothetical  documents, 
believers  in  the  Mosaic  authorship  are  able 
to  show  unity  of  theme,  unbroken  continuity 
of  thought,  balanced  treatment  of  the  parts, 
and  progressive  narrative.  See  Genesis.  3. 
The  theory  that  there  are  parallel  accounts 
marked  by  difl'erence  of  style  fails  as  a  trust- 
worthy principle  in  the  only  case  where  it 
can  be  tested  by  external  evidence.  It  is 
asserted  that  in  the  narrative  of  the  flood 
the  storm  which  produced  the  deluge  is 
described  twice  in  three  successive  verses: 
"The  same  day  were  all  the  fountains  of 
the  great  deep  broken  up,  and  the  win- 
dows of  heaven  were  opened  "  (vii.  11,  I'), 
and  "  It  came  to  pass  after  the  seven  days 
that  the  waters  of  the  flood  were  upon  the 
earth,  and  the  rain  was  ujion  the  earth  forty 
days  and  forty  nights  "  (10, 12,  J).  It  is  urged 
3S 


also  that  there  are  two  literary  styles  ai)par- 
ent  here :  the  former  exuberant,  vivid, 
poetic,  tlie  latter  a  bald  statement  of  the 
facts  in  simple  pro.se.  But  the  account  of 
the  flood  was  also  handed  down  liy  the  Hal)y- 
loniaus  and  As.syrians;  and  when  "the  .Assyr'o- 
Babylonian  narrative  is  conijiared  with  the 
Hebrew  record,  it  is  found  to  show  the  same 
repetitions  Mhich  occurring  in  (ienesis  are 
called  parallel  narratives,  and  to  exhibit  like 
differences  of  style  ill  thecorn'siMiii(liiig])la(es 
The  narrator  dejiicts  the  breaking  and  raging 
of  the  storm  with  equal  iiictnrescjueness  and 
even  greater  exuberance  than  the  Ilelirew 
writer  ;  but  when  he  comes  to  state  how  long 
the  storm  lasted,  he  naturally  exjircsses  him- 
self .simply.  He  says  :  "Six'days  and  nights 
wind,  storm  and  rain  prevailed  ;  on  the 
seventh  day  the  rain  abated,  the  .storm  which 
had  struggled  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
rested ;  the  sea  withdrew  to  its  bed,  the 
violent  wind  and  the  flood-storm  ceased  ; '" 
see  the  Assyrian  account  in  article  Flood. 
On  the  theory  of  Mosaic  authorship,  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  difl'erence  of 
style.  Difl'erent  themes  require  ditt'erent 
statement.  Dates,  genealogies,  and  the  like 
do  not  call  the  imagination  into  exerci.se. 
Vivid  and  picturesque  description  belongs  to 
the  narration  of  lively  and  vivid  incidents. 
4.  The  critical  theory  that  there  are  parallel 
accounts  of  the  same  event  which  are 
marked  by  contradictions  likewise  fails  to 
stand  the  test  of  external  evidence.  It  is  con- 
tended that  according  to  P  God  forewarns 
Noah  of  an  impending  destructive  flood  of 
waters,  but  does  not  reveal  to  him  whether 
it  will  be  caused  by  melting  snows  or  con- 
tinuous rains  or  tidal  wave  ;  and  thus  P  con- 
tradicts J,  who  states  that  the  Lord  bade 
Noah  enter  into  the  ark,  because  in  yet  seven 
days  he  would  cause  it  to  rain  ujuin  the  earth. 
But  again  the  Assyrian  account  shows  that 
the  Hebrew  narrative  does  not  embody  two 
divergent  accounts,  but  is  the  record  of  .suc- 
cessive x^rogressive  events.  For  according  to 
it,  as  in  Genesis,  man  was  first  warned  of 
coming  destruction  and  bidden  build  a  boat. 
The  ruin  was,  accordingly,  to  be  wrouglit  by 
a  flood  of  water,  but  whether  the  deluge 
would  be  due  to  rain,  or  a  freshet,  or  the  in- 
flowing sea  was  not  disclosed.  When  the 
ajipointed  time  approached,  however,  the 
l)ro})hecy  became  definite  and  foretold  rain. 
The  Hebrew  account,  with  its  present  ma- 
terial and  the  i)resent  arrangement  of  that 
material,  is  essentially  the  ancient  account 
handed  down  from  the  fathers.  .And  the 
criticism  which  distributes  the  narrative 
among  different  writers  on  the  ground  of 
differences  of  style  or  alleged  contradictions 
is  demonstrably  invalid.  [For  full  discussion 
of  the  subject,  see  William  Henry  (ireen,  Thr 
Higher  Criticixm  of  the  Pentiitench  and  The 
Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis]. 

Pen'te-cost.     See  Weeks,  Fe.\st  of. 


Penuel 


594 


Pergamum 


Pe-nu'el  and  ouce  Peniel  (Gen.  xxxii.  31) 
[face  of  God]. 

1.  Originally  an  encampment  east  of  the 
Jordan,  firet  named  by  Jacob  because  he  had 
there  .seen  (iod  face  to  face,  yet  his  life  had 
been  preserved  (Gen.  xxxii.  30,  31).  In  the 
time  of  the  judges  there  was  a  tower  there, 
which  Gideon  broke  down,  and  a  city,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  he  slew  (Judg.  viii.  8, 
9, 17).  It  was  fortified  by  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xii.  25). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  the  ancestor  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  25). 

Pe'or  [an  opening,  a  cleft]. 

1.  A  mountain  in  Moab  looking  toward  the 
desert,  or  Jeshimon  (Num.  xxiii.  28).  From 
it  the  camp  of  Israel  at  Shittim  was  in  full 
view  (xxiv.  2).  A  mountain  still  bore  the 
name  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 
It  stood  opposite  Jericho,  on  the  road  to 
Heshbon,  above  or  to  the  east  of  Livias,  now 
Tell  er-Eameh.  Accordingly  Peor  was  a  peak 
of  the  Abarim  range  near  wady  Hesban. 

2.  A  Moabite  divinity  worshiped  in  mount 
Peor,  and  often  called  Baal-peor.    See  Baal- 

PJiOR. 

Pe-rae'a  or  Perea  [the  land  beyond]. 

The  region  between  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Arnon,  beyond  Jordan  (War  iii.  3,  3)  ;  cp. 
signification  and  location  of  Abarim.  The 
name  was,  however,  used  in  a  wider  sense ; 
for  Josephus  calls  Gadara,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Yarmuk,  the  capital  of  Persea  (War  iv. 
7,  3). 

Per'a-zim.     See  Baal-perazim. 

Pe-re'a.     See  Per^a. 

Pe'res.     See  Mene. 

Pe'resh  [distinction,  separation,  dung]. 

A  man  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii.  16). 

Pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  Pharez  except 
thrice  (1  C^hron.  xxvii.  3 ;  Neh.  xi.  4,  6)  ;  in 
A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phares  [a  breach]. 

A  son  of  Judah,  one  of  twins  whom  Tamar 
bore  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24-30).  He  became  the 
founder  of  a  tribal  family  which  took  its 
Jiame  from  him,  and  of  two  other  tribal  fam- 
ilies which  si)rang  from  his  sons  and  were 
named  from  them  (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21 ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  4,  5).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  David 
and  consequently  of  Christ  (Ruth  iv.  12-18 ; 
Mat.  i.  3). 

Pe-rez-uz'za  and  Perez-uzzah  [breach  of 
Uzza]. 

The  name  given  by  David  to  the  place 
where  Uzza  was  struck  dead  for  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  8;  1  Chron.  xiii.  11).  Ex- 
act situation  unknown. 

Per-fum'er-y. 

Si)ices  of  various  kinds,  such  as  aloes,  cas- 
sia, cinnamon,  mj-rrh,  frankincense,  spike- 
nard, which  were  raised  in  tin;  Jordan  val- 
ley or  imported  from  Arabia  and  elsewhere, 


formed  the  basis  of  perfumery  ( Ecclus.  xxiv. 
1.5).  The  spice  was  compelled  to  yield  its 
fragrance  by  at  least  four  diflerent  methods. 
It  was  tied  in  a  bundle  or  enclosed  in  a  bag 
(Song  i.  13)  ;  it  was  reduced  to  powder  and 
burned  as  incense  (iii.  6)  ;  its  aromatic  matter 
was  separated  by  boiling,  and  the  extract  was 
carried  as  scent  in  smelling-bottles  suspended 
from  the  girdle,  or  was  mixed  with  oil  and 
used  as  an  ointment  (i.  3 ;  Is.  iii.  20 ;  John 
xii.  3).  Frequently  several  spices  were  com- 
pounded (Ex.  XXX.  23,  24;  John  xix.  39). 
Perfumery  was  applied  to  the  person  and 
garments  and  furniture  (Ps.  xlv.  8:  Prov. 
vii.  17  :  Song  iv.  11).  It  was  used  in  the  tem- 
ple service  both  as  incense  and  as  ointment 
(Ex.  XXX.  22-38). 

Per'ga  [doubtless  citadel,  burg]. 

A  town  in  Pamphylia,  and  under  the 
Romans  the  capital  of  the  province,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Kestros,  60  stades 
from  the  mouth.  Paul  and  Barnabas  visited 
the  town  on  the  first  missionary  journey, 
both  going  and  returning  (Acts  xiii.  13,  14  ; 
xiv.  25).  In  the  vicinity  was  a  celebrated 
temple  of  the  goddess  Artemis  of  the  Asiatic 
type  (cp.  Diana  of  Ejjhesus),  who  was  known 
as  the  queen  of  Perga. 

Per'ga-mum,  in  A.  V.  Pergamos  [citadel, 
burg].  Both  forms  of  the  name  were  used 
by  the  ancients. 

The  most  important  city  of  Mysia,  situated 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Caicus,  about 
20  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was  once  the  cap- 
ital of  a  wealthy  kingdom  ruled  over  by  a 
dynasty  of  kings,  several  of  them  called  At- 
tains. The  first  of  these  kings.  Attains  I., 
came  to  the  throne  in  the  year  241  B.  c.  He 
defeated  the  Gauls  and  settled  them  in  the 
district  henceforth  known  as  Galatia.-  His 
son  Eumenes,  who  succeeded  him,  197  B.  C, 
adorned  the  city  and  founded  a  celebrated 
library,  which  ultimately  was  second  only  to 
that  of  Alexandria.  Attains  III.,  who  died 
in  the  year  133  B.  C,  bequeathed  to  the 
Romans  his  movable  property.  They  misin- 
terpreted the  bequest  to  mean  the  kingdom, 
appropriated  it,  erected  it  into  the  province 
of  Asia,  and  made  Pergamum  the  capital. 
In  6  B.  c,  however,  the  residence  of  the  pro- 
consul, who  in  imperial  times  acted  as  gov- 
ernor of  the  province,  was  transferred  to 
Ephesus.  Marc  Antony  promised  the  library 
(which  did  not  belong  to  him)  to  Cleopatra 
and  had  it  removed  to  Egypt,  where  it  was 
added  to  the  renowned  Alexandrian  library. 
The  acropolis  of  Pergamum  crowned  a  steep 
hill  that  rose  1000  feet  above  the  plain.  Near 
the  summit  stood  an  immense  altar  to  Zeus, 
erected  by  Eumenes  II.  to  commemorate  the 
victory  won  by  his  father  over  the  Gauls; 
and  at  a  short  distance  from  this  altar  there 
was  an  elegant  temple  of  Athene.  In  the 
Roman  period  a  ten)p]e  to  the  divine  Augus- 
tus was  also  built  on  the  acropolis.  Outside 
I   of  the  city  there  was   a  famous  shrine  of 


Perida 


59r> 


Persia 


^sculapius,  god  of  meilieine,  to  which  people 
from  all  quarters  flocked  for  healing.  Parch- 
meut,  called  in  Latin  penjamena,  and  in 
Greek  peiqamene,  was  so  named  because  it 
was  first  obtained  at  Pergamum.  The  third 
of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  addressed  in 
the  book  of  Revelation  was  that  at  Perga- 
mum. It  is  said  that  Satan's  seat  was  there, 
and  that  a  faitliful  martyr,  Antipas,  had  been 
put  to  death  in  the  place.  It  must,  there- 
fore, have  been  a  stronghold  of  antichristian 
idolatry  (Rev.  i.  11 ;  ii .  12-17).  It  is  now 
called  Bergama  or  Bergma,  and  still  exists 
as  a  town  of  mean-looking  wooden  houses 
interspersed  with  the  more  splendid  relics 
of  antiquity. 

Pe-ri'da.     See  Peruda. 

Per'iz-zites  [dwellers  in  unwalled  vil- 
lages]. 

An  important  section  of  the  Canaanites, 
often  enumerated  as  one  of  the  tribes  of 
Palestine  (Gen.  xv.  20;  Ex.  iii.  8;  Josh.  ix. 
1),  and  perhaps,  like  the  Rephaira,  an  aborig- 
inal people  who  were  of  different  race  from 
the  Canaanites  and  in  the  land  before  them 
(cp.  Gen.  xiii.  7 ;  Josh.  xvii.  15 ;  and  the 
omission  of  them  in  Gen.  x.  15  seq.).  They 
■were  in  the  country  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Abraham  and  Lot  (Gen.  xiii.  7).  In  Joshua's 
time  they  inhabited  the  mountain  region 
(Josh.  xi.  3),  dwelling  in  the  territory  after- 
wards given  over  to  the  tribes  of  Ejihraim, 
Manasseh  (xvii.  15),  and  Judah  (Judg.  i.  4,  5). 
They  were  not  extirpated,  but,  contrary  to 
the  law  of  Moses  (Deut.  vii.  3).  allowed  to 
enter  into  marriage  alliances  with  their  con- 
querors, seducing  them  into  idolatry  (Judg. 
iii.  5,  6).  Solomon  imposed  u}>on  these  Per- 
izzites  a  yoke  of  bondservice  (1  Kin.  ix.  20, 
21 ;  2  L'hron.  viii.  7). 

Per'se-us. 

Son  and  successor  of  Philip  III.,  and  last 
king  of  Macedon.  In  171  B.  C.  he  resumed 
the  war  with  the  Romans  which  his  father 
had  waged ;  but,  after  three  years  of  desul- 
tory fighting  and  occasional  success,  he  was 
couipletely  defeated  (1  Mac.  viii.  5)  by  L. 
^I2milius  Paulus  in  the  battle  of  Pydna, 
which  ended  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  He 
fled,  but  was  captured  and  taken  to  Rome, 
where  he  graced  the  triumph  of  his  con- 
queror. 

Per'si-a. 

Persia  proper,  the  seat  of  the  Persians 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  West- 
ern nations  as  a  settled  people,  lay  southeast 
of  Elam  and  nearly  corresponded  to  the 
province  of  modern  Persia  called  Ears,  or 
Farsistan,  a  modification  of  the  original  native 
name  Parga.  Persia,  in  this  limited  sense,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Great  Media  (Media 
Magna),  on  the  southwest  by  the  Persian 
Gulf,  on  the  east  by  Carmania  (now  called 
Kerman),  and  on  the  northwest  by  Susiana. 
Its  length  was  at  most  about  250  miles  ;  its 
average  breadth  about  200 ;  its  area  consid- 


erably less  than  50,000  square  miles.  In 
looser  usage,  the  term  Persia  denoted  the 
plateau  of  Iran,  tlie  region  bounded  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Cyrus,  the  Casjiian  Sea,  the  rivers  Oxus, 
Jaxartcs,  and  Inilus  il  Mac.  vi.  1  ;  2  Mac.  i. 
19).  15vtt  wlien  the  Persian  enii)iro  was  at 
the  height  of  its  power,  it  stretched  from  the 
empire  of  India  on  the  east  to  the  Grecian 
Archi]K'lago  on  the  west  :  and  from  the 
Danube,  the  Black  Sea,  mount  Caucasus, 
and  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north,  to  the  Ara- 
bian and  Nubian  deserts  on  the  south  (Esth. 
i.  1  :  X.  1 ) ;  and  it  was  nearly  3000  Tuiles  long, 
with  a  varying  breadth  of  500  to  1.500  miles. 
It  had  an  area  of  2,000,000  square  miles,  half 
that  of  Europe.  The  race  inhabiting  Persia 
proi)er  was  Aryan,  and  closely  related  to  the 
Median  race. 

The  Persians  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
table  of  nations  (Gen.  x.).  Tliey  did  not 
attain  to  prominence  until  many  centuries 
after  Moses.  About  700  B.  C.  the  country  of 
Parsu,  i.  e.  Persia,  was  one  of  the  allies  of 
Elam.  But  soon  Teispes,  a  chief  of  the  tribe 
and  a  member  of  the  family  of  the  Achse- 
menidse.  conquered  Elam  and  established 
himself  as  king  in  the  district  of  Ansan  or 
Anzan,  as  the  name  is  also  written.  His  de- 
scendants branched  into  two  lines,  one  reign- 
ing in  Ansan  and  the  other  remaining  in 
Persia.  His  great-grandson,  Cyrus  II.,  king 
of  Ansan,  united  the  divided  power,  con- 
quered Media  about  5.50  B.  c,  Lydia  in  Asia 
Minor  a  little  later,  and  Babylonia  in  5.39. 
He  allowed  the  Hebrew  exiles  to  return  to 
their  own  land  ;  see  Cyrus.  Dying  in  529 
B.  c,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses, 
but  reserved  a  small  portion  of  his  vast  do- 
minions for  his  younger  son,  Smerdis.  The 
arrangement  worked  badly.  ("ambyses 
became  jealous  of  Smerdis,  and  had  him 
privately  put  to  death.  In  525  the  king  con- 
quered Egypt.  As  he  was  returning  to  Per- 
sia, the  news  reached  him  that  Smerdis, 
whom  he  believed  to  be  dead,  was  really 
alive  (which  was  not  true),  and  had  assumed 
the  sovereignty,  the  Persian  army  supporting 
his  claim.  Troubled  by  the  tidings,  the  mon- 
arch drew  a  short  sword  from  its  sheath  and 
gave  himself  a  wound  which  in  a  few  days 
proved  fatal.  He  died  522  B.  c.  The  so- 
called  Smerdis,  who  was  really^  one  of  the 
Magi,  now  ascended  the  throne.  When  it 
was  discovered  that  he  was  not  the  true 
Smerdis,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  and  he  was  slain.  Darius,  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  plot  and  ap- 
parently the  next  heir  to  the  throne  when 
the  faniily  of  Cyrus  became  extinct,  began 
to  reign,  521  B.  c.,  being  then  about  twenty- 
eight  years  of  age.  The  accession  of  the  new 
king  "was  the  signal  for  a  getieral  revolt  of 
the  provinces,  but  the  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed, and  Darius  organized  a  new  empire 
which  extended  from  India  to  the  Grecian 
Archipelago  and  the  Danube.     It  was  under 


Persia 


596 


Peter 


him  that  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  re- 
built. He  died  48H  b.  c.  ;  see  Darius  2.  His 
son  and  successor  was  Xerxes,  the  Ahasuerus 
of  the  Book  of  Esther  and  probably  of  Ezra 
iv.  6.  He  reconquered  the  Egyptians;  and 
he  attempted  an  invasion  of  Greece,  but  was 
repulsed  with  great  loss  to  the  Persians ;  see 
Ahasuerus  2.  After  a  reign  of  twenty  years, 
he  was  assassinated  in  4(J3  B.  C.  His  son  and 
successor,  a  much  more  respectable  charac- 
ter, but  still  fickle  and  feeble,  was  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.  He  was  not  unfriendly  to  the 
•Tews.  He  allowed  Ezra  to  lead  a  large  num- 
ber of  them  back  to  Jerusalem,  and  he  per- 
mitted Nehemiah  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the 
city ;  see  Artaxerxes.  He  reigned  forty 
years,  dying  in  425  B.  c.  His  successors  were 
Xerxes  II.,  425 ;  Sogdianus,  425 ;  Darius 
Xothus,  the  Illegitimate,  424 ;  Artaxerxes 
]\Iuemon,  of  good  memory,  404 ;  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  359 ;  Arses  338 :  and  Darius  Codo- 
mannus,  336.  The  last  king  was  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  B.  c,  and 
with  him  the  first  Persian  empire  passed 
away.     See  Darius  3. 

The  royal  residences  were  Persepolis  (2 
Mac.  ix.  2),  Shushan  (Neh.  i.  1;  Esth.  i.  2), 
Ecbatana,  that  is  Achmetha  (Ezra  vi.  2; 
Antiq.  x.  11,  7),  and  to  an  extent  Babylon 
(Ezra  vi.  1). 

When  Cyrus  the  Great  allowed  the  Jews 
to  return  to  their  own  land  538  B.  c,  he  did 
not  grant  them  their  independence.  They 
were  placed  under  governors  appointed  by 
the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  iii.  7),  and  formed 
part  of  the  satrapy  beyond  the  river  (Ezra 
viii.  36)  which  consisted  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Phoenicia,  and  Cyprus  (Herod,  iii. 
91).  They  were  subjects  of  Persia  for  207 
years,  from  539,  the  year  in  which  Cyrus 
entered  Babylon,  to  3.32,  that  in  whi('h  Alex- 
ander the  Great  completed  the  conquest  of 
Palestine. 

The  faith  of  their  imperial  lords  was 
Zoroastrianism,  but  no  eflbrt  was  made  to 
enforce  it  on  the  subject  peoples.  It  was  a 
spiritual  religion,  recognizing  the  distinction 
between  God  and  nature,  between  spirit  and 
matter,  and  con.seciiuutly  being  averse  to 
images  of  (iod.  lis  fiuidaniental  ethical 
principle  was  the  essential  contradiction  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  light  and  darkness.  It 
conceived  of  two  realms  of  spirits  :  one  with 
a  liienu'cliy  of  angels  and  an'hangels,  where 
Ahuramazda  or  Ormazd,  as  the  name  is  writ- 
ten in  modern  Persian,  the  all-wise  lord, 
God  in  the  fullest  sense,  presides  over  the 
.seven  holy  spirits,  who  are  his  ministers  and 
the  expressiiin  of  his  attributes,  and  over 
thousands  of  worthy  ones;  and  another 
realm  of  evil  spirits  ruled  over  by  Ahrinian, 
the  spiritual  enemy.  It  was  deeply  tainted 
with  dualism,  and  Ahrinian  was  jirobably 
regarded  as  self-existent.  It  taugiit  the  duty 
of  man  to  eradicate  evil  atid  cultivate  good, 
and  to  strive  after  holiness  in  tliought,  word, 
and   deed,   which  will    be   rewarded  by  im- 


mortality and  heaven.  It  paid  homage  to 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  as  the  creation  of 
Ahuramazda.  See  Magi.  Later  Judaism 
shows  traces  of  the  Persian  supremacy. 

What  once  had  been  Persia  passed  first 
to  the  Macedonian  Greeks  and  their  suc- 
cessors of  the  same  race.  Then  it  became 
part  of  the  Parthian  empire.  In  A.  D.  211  or 
212  Ardashir  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new 
Persian  sovereignty,  ruled  by  a  dynasty 
called  after  his  family  Sassanian.  In  224  he 
defeated  and  slew  the  last  Parthian  king. 
The  Sassanian  dynasty  became  powerful, 
met  the  Roman  armies  on  equal  terms,  and 
set  limits  to  the  extension  of  their  sway  in 
the  east.  In  a.  d.  636  and  641,  Yazdejard, 
or  Yezdejerd  III.,  the  last  of  the  dynasty, 
was  defeated  by  the  Saracens,  and  Persia 
came  under  Mohammedan  rule,  which  has 
continued  till  now.  Some  of  the  bolder 
spirits  refused  to  submit  to  Mohammedan 
domination,  and  fled  to  the  deserts  and  the 
mountains.  Finally,  a  number  of  Persian 
refugees  landed  in  Guzerat  about  A.  D.  717, 
seeking  and  obtaining  an  asylum  in  India. 
Their  successors  constitute  a  limited  but  im- 
portant section  of  the  Indian  community. 
They  are  called  Parsees.  They  have  become 
prosperous,  and  are  loyal  to  the  English 
throne. 

Per'sis  [Persian]. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  labored  dili- 
gently in  the  Lord,  and  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Pe-ru'da  and  Perida  [scattered,  a  kernel]. 

A  subdivision  of  the  children  of  Solomon's 
servants  who  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  55  ;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

Pes'ti-lence. 

An  infectious  or  contagious  disease,  a 
plague.  While  the  sending  of  pestilence  is 
frequently  mentioned  as  from  God  (Ex.  ix. 
15;  Lev.  xxvi.  25;  Deut.  xxviii.  21),  he 
very  often,  if  not  in  all  cases,  uses  secondary 
causes  for  its  production.  The  punishment 
which  is  threatened  is  often  described  as  the 
sword,  the  famine,  and  the  jiestilence,  and 
these  words  tend  to  stand  in  this  order  (Ezek. 
vi.  11).  There  is  reason  for  this  order.  War 
breaks  out.  The  people  of  the  invaded 
country  cannot  cultivate  their  fields,  or,  if 
they  do,  they  find  their  crops  reaped  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  enemy.  Besiegers  invest  the 
cities  and  intentionally  cut  oil"  the  supplies 
with  the  object  of  forcing  a  surrender. 
Famine  ensues  in  country  and  town.  The 
starvation,  the  carnage,  and  the  unsanitary 
condition  of  the  cities  crowded  during  the 
siege  bring  a  pestilence. 

Pe'ter. 

The  Greek  form  of  the  Aramaic  surname 
Cephas  (John  i.  42 ;  1  Cor.  i.  12;  iii.  22;  ix. 
5;  XV.  5;  Gal.  i.  18;  ii.  9.  11,  14),  meaning  a 
rock,  which  Christ  bestowed  upon  Simon  or, 


Peter 


597 


Peter 


more  properly,  Syuieon  (Acts  xv.  14;  2  Pet. 
i.  1,  R.  V.  margini  on  his  first  appearance  be- 
fore him  (John  i.  42),  and  afterwards  ex- 
))lained  more  fully  in  its  prophetic  import 
(Mat.  xvi.  18  seq. ;  Mark  iii.  16).  Simon  was 
the  son  of  a  certain  John  (John  i.  42,  K.  V. ; 
xxi.  15,  16,  17,  E.  V.)  or  Jona  (Mat.  xvi.  17, 
probably  a  syncope  of  John),  who,  with  his 
sons,  Andrew  and  Peter,  prosecuted  the  trade 
of  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  in  part- 
nership with  Zebedee  and  his  sons  (Mat.  iv. 
18;  Mark  i.  16;  Luke  v.  3  seq.).  He  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida  (John  i.  44),  and  subse- 
(|ii('ntly  dwelt  with  his  family  at  Capernaum 
(Mat.  viii.  14  ;  Luke  iv.  38). 

Peter  was  probably  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  was  in  the  first  instance 
brought  to  Jesus  by  his  brother  Andrew 
(John  i.  41,  42),  who  was  one  of  the  fa- 
vored two  disciples  of  John  whom  he  pointed 
to  .Tesus  immediately  after  his  return  from 
tlie  temptation  in  the  wilderness  (John  i. 
3r>  seq.).  With  prophetic  insight  into  his 
character,  Jesus  at  once  conferred  upon 
him  the  surname  of  Cephas,  or  Peter,  that 
is.  "Eock"  (John  i.  42).  In  common  with 
the  earliest  followers  of  Jesus,  Peter  re- 
ceived three  separate  calls  from  his  Master : 
first,  to  become  his  disciple  (John  i.  40  seq. ; 
cp.  ii.  2) ;  secondly,  to  become  his  constant 
companion  (Mat.  iv.  19;  Mark  i.  17;  Luke 
V.  10)  ;  and,  thirdly,  to  be  his  ajjostle  (Mat. 
X.  2;  Mark  iii.  14,  16;  Luke  vi.  13,  14). 
Peter's  ardor,  earnestness,  courage,  vigor,  and 
impetuosity  of  disposition  marked  him  from 
the  first  as  the  leader  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus.  He  is  always  named  first  in  the  lists 
of  the  apostles  (Mat.  x.  2  ;  Mark  iii.  Ki ;  Luke 
vi.  14 ;  Acts  i.  13).  In  the  more  intimate 
circle  of  the  most  favored  three  disciples,  he 
is  likewise  always  named  first  (Mat.  xvii.  1 ; 
Mark  v.  37;  ix.  2;  xiii.  3;  xiv.  33;  Luke 
viii.  .51 ;  ix.  28).  He  was  the  natural  spokes- 
man of  the  apostolical  band.  He  was  the 
first  to  confess  Jesus  as  the  Christ  of  God 
(Mat.  xvi.  16  ;  Mark  viii.  29),  but  was  equally 
forward  to  dissuade  him  from  his  chosen 
path  of  suflering  (Mat.  xvi.  22 ;  Mark  viii. 
33),  receiving  from  Christ  the  appropriate 
praise  and  blame. 

Peter's  life  exhibits  three  well-marked 
stages.  First,  there  is  the  period  of  train- 
ing, as  exhibited  in  the  gospel  narrative. 
During  these  years  of  personal  associa- 
tion with  Christ,  he  learned  to  know  both 
Christ  and  himself.  And  though  he  brought 
them  to  an  end  in  a  threefold  denial  of  the 
Master  whom  he  had  boasted  that  he  at  least 
would  never  forsake  (Mat.  xxvi.  69  seq. ; 
Mark  xiv.  66  seq.  ;  Luke  xxii.  54  seq.  ;  John 
xviii.  15  seq.),  Jesus  closed  them  with  a 
loving  probing  of  his  heart  and  restoration 
of  his  peace  and  confidence  (John  xxi.  15 
seq.).  Secondly,  the  period  of  leadership  in 
the  church,  as  exhibited  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters of  The  Acts.  During  these  years  Peter 
justified  his  surname,  and  fulfilled  the  proph- 


ecy that  on  liim  sliould  the  edifice  of  the 
church  be  raised.  It  was  by  his  bold  and 
strong  hand  that  the  church  was  led  in  every 
step.  It  was  he  who  moved  the  disciples  to 
fill  up  the  broken  ranks  of  the  ajiostolale 
(Acts  i.  15)  ;  it  was  he  vvlio  iiroclaiined  to  the 
assembled  multitudes  the  meaning  of  the 
Pentecostal  eflusion  (ii.  14);  he  was  the 
leader  in  the  public  healing  of  the  lame 
man  and  in  the  subsequent  sermon  and  de- 
fense (iii.  4,  12;  iv.  H) ;  it  was  by  his  voice- 
that  Ananias  and  Sapjihira  were  rebuked 
(v.  3,  8).  Above  all,  it  was  by  his  hand  that 
the  door  of  .salvation  was  opened  alike  to  the 
Jews  in  the  great  sermon  at  Pentecost  (ii. 
10,  38),  and  to  the  gentiles  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius  (x.).  Thirdly,  the  period  of 
humble  work  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  ex- 
hibited in  the  epistles  of  the  N.  T.  When 
the  foundations  of  the  church  had  been  laid, 
Peter  takes  a  subordinate  place,  and  in  hum- 
ble labors  to  spread  the  boundaries  of  the 
kingdom,  disappears  from  the  page  of  history. 
In  the  chui-ch  at  Jerusalem  James  takes 
henceforth  the  leading  place  (xii.  17; 
XV.  13;  xxi.  18;  Gal.  ii.  9,  12).  Tlie  door 
had  been  opened  to  the  gentiles,  and  Paul 
now  becomes  the  apostle  to  the  gentiles 
(Gal.  ii.  7).  As  the  apostle  to  the  circum- 
cision (8),  Peter  prosecuted  henceforth  his 
less  brilliant  work,  wherever  Jews  could  be 
found,  and  contentedly  left  Jerusalem  to 
James  and  the  civilized  world  to  Paul.  The 
book  of  The  Acts  closes  its  account  of  him 
at  the  meeting  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.),  when 
his  policy  of  breaking  down  the  barriers  for 
the  gentiles  met  with  universal  acceptance. 
We  hear  of  him  afterwards  at  Antioch  (Gal. 
ii.  11),  possibly  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  12),  cer- 
tainly in  the  far  east  at  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v. 
13),  and  certainly  as  prosecuting  his  work 
through  missionary  journeys,  taking  his  wife 
with  him  (1  Cor.  ix.  5).  Finally,  we  know 
that  he  glorified  God  by  a  martyr's  death 
(John  xxi.  19).  Beyond  this,  Scripture  tells 
us  nothing  of  his  fortunes,  lalxirs,  sufi'crings, 
or  successes,  except  what  can  be  learned  from 
his  two  Epistles.  In  them  he  stands  before 
us  in  a  singularly  beautiful  humility,  not 
pressing  the  recognition  of  personal  claims 
to  leadership  upon  the  Christian  community, 
but  following  up  the  teaching  of  Paul  or  of 
Jude  with  his  own,  and  exhorting  his  readers 
to  hold  fast  to  the  common  faith. 

No  character  in  Scripture  history,  we 
may  even  say  in  all  literature,  is  drawn 
for  us  more  clearly  or  strongly  than  Peter'.s. 
In  the  gosjjcls,  in  The  Acts,  and  in  the 
epistles  it  is  the  same  man  that  stands 
out  before  us  in  dramatic  distinctness.  Al- 
ways eager,  ardent,  iniiiulsive,  he  is  pre- 
eminently the  man  of  action  in  the  apostolic 
circle,  and  exhibits  the  defects  of  his  quali- 
ties as  well  as  their  excellences  throughout 
life  (Mat.  xvi.  22 ;  xxvi.  69-75;  (ial.  ii.  11). 
His  virtues  and  faults  had  their  common 
root  in  his  enthusiastic  disposition  ;  it  is  to 


Peter 


598 


Peter 


Jiis  praise  that  along  with  the  weed  of  rash 
liaste,  there  grew  more  strongly  into  his  life 
the  fair  plant  of  burning  love  and  ready  re- 
ception of  truth.  He  was  treated  with  dis- 
tinguished honor  by  his  Lord  :  he  was  made 
the  recipient  of  uo  less  than  three  mirac^les 
in  those  early  days  of  the  gospels  ;  he  was 
granted  a  special  appearance  after  the  resur- 
rection (1  Cor.  XV.  5)  ;  Jesus  could  find  time 
in  his  own  passion  and  while  saving  the 
world  to  cast  on  him  a  reminding  glance 
and  to  bind  up  his  broken  heart.  Accordingly 
the  life  of  Peter  is  peculiarily  rich  in  in- 
struction, warning,  and  comfort  for  the 
Christian,  and  his  writings  touch  the  very 
depths  of  Christian  experience  and  soar  to 
the  utmost  heights  of  Christian  hope. 

Authentic  history  adds  but  little  to  our 
knowledge  of  Peter's  life  beyond  what  we 
glean  from  the  N.  T.  Conformably  to  the 
notice  of  his  martyrdom  in  John  xxi.  19,  we 
are  credibly  told  that  he  died  by  crucifixion 
about  the  same  time  with  Paul's  death  by 
the  sword,  that  is  about  a.  d.  08.  The  place 
of  his  death  is  not  incredibly  witnessed  to 
be  Eome.  Legend  was  early  busy  with  his 
life ;  the  Roman  legend  of  a  twenty-flve 
years'  episcopate  in  Rome  has  its  roots  in 
early  apocryphal  stories  originating  among 
the  heretical  Ebionites,  and  is  discredited  not 
less  by  its  origin  and  manifest  internal  Iut 
consistencies  than  by  all  authentic  history. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter.  The 
author  of  this  epistle  announces  himself  as 
the  apostle  Peter  (i.  1) ;  and  the  whole  in- 
ternal character  of  the  letter  as  well  as  ex- 
ceptionally copious  historical  attestation  bears 
out  the  assertion.  It  is  addressed  "to  the 
elect  who  are  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion  in 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bi- 
thj^nia"  (i.  1),  which  is  evidently  a  somewhat 
metaphorical  description  of  the  whole  body 
of  Christians  inhabiting  the  region  com- 
prised in  modern  Asia  Minor.  That  the 
readers  in  the  mind  of  the  author  were 
largely  of  gentile  origin  is  clear  from  such 
passages  as  i.  14;  ii.  9,  10;  iii.  (i ;  iv.  3. 
These  were  churches  founded  and  nurtured 
in  large  iiart  by  the  ajiostle  Paul,  and  to 
them  Paul  had  written  his  letters  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  Ephesians,  and  Colos.siaus;  Peter  writes 
(o  them  as  those  who  owed  their  conversion 
to  others  than  him.solf  (i.  12,  2.")),  and  in 
order  to  testify  that  tlie  gospel  they  had  re- 
c(^ived  was  '"the  true  grace  of  God"  and  to 
exhort  them  to  "stand  fast  therein"  (v.  12). 
Tlius  he  publishes  his  hearty  agreement  with 
the  apostle  Paul  and  at  the  same  time  i)ens 
what  is  preeminently  the  epistle  of  hope. 
The  order  in  which  the  countries  to  which 
it  was  sent  are  enunu-rated  (i.  1),  names 
them  from  cast  to  west,  and  suggests  that 
the  letter  was  written  in  the  east.  Tiiis 
is  borne  out  by  the  salutation  sent  from 
the  Babylonian  church  (v.  i;^).  Its  date  is 
set  by  its  pretty  co])ions  use  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  ou  tlie  one  side,  ami  the  death 


of  Peter  on  the  other,  as  between  A.  D.  63 
and  A.  D.  67:  it  is  most  probable  that  it  was 
written  about  6-1  or  65.  Allusion  is  made  to 
the  epistle  as  beiug  Peter's  in  2  Pet.  iii.  1  (cp. 
i.  1) ;  it  is  unmistakably  quoted  by  Polycarp, 
a  disciple  of  the  apostle  John  ;  it  is  definitely 
quoted  also  as  the  writing  of  the  apostle  Peter 
by  Irenseus  and  Tertulliau  in  the  closing  de- 
cades of  the  second  century ;  and  from  the 
very  beginning  it  has  always  held  a  secure 
place  in  the  Christian  Bible  in  every  part  of 
the  world,  and  has  always  been  in  the  fullest 
use  by  Christians  of  every  land. 

The  style  in  which  the  letter  is  written 
is  at  once  simple,  striking,  and  forcible, 
abounding  in  sudden  and  abrujyt  transi- 
tions and  admirably  reflecting  the  char- 
acter of  the  writer.  The  whole  mode  of 
presentation  of  its  matter  is  special  and 
characteristic,  though  the  doctrine  pre- 
sented is  distinctly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
epistles  of  Paul,  set  forth  here  with  prevail- 
ing reference  to  the  grace  of  God  and  the 
future  hope.  The  epistle  is  filled  to  a  re- 
markable degree  with  reminiscences  of 
earlier  Christian  writings,  particularly  of 
the  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Ephesians 
and  James  (cp.  1  Pet.  ii.  6,  8  with  Rom.  ix. 
32,  33;  1  Pet.  ii.  5;  iii.  8,  9;  iv.  7-11  with 
Rom.  xii.  1,  and  16,  17,  and  3,  6 ;  1  Pet.  ii.  18 
and  iii.  1-7  with  Eph.  vi.  5  and  v.  22,  23 ;  1 
Pet.  i.  1,  6,  7,  23  and  v.  6  with  Jas.  i.  1,  2,  3, 
18  and  1  Pet.  iv.  10),  thus  revealing  a  charac- 
teristic of  Peter's.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
combined  depth  and  beauty  of  its  Christian 
teaching.  After  the  greeting  (i.  1,  2)  there 
follows  an  introductory  section  (i.  3-12)  in 
which  God  is  praised  for  the  blessings  of  sal- 
vation. The  body  of  the  letter  (i.  1.3-v.  11) 
consists  of  (1)  a  series  of  exhortations  to  a 
diligent  Christian  walk,  correspondent  to 
the  teaching  its  readers  had  received  (i.  13- 
ii.  10)  ;  (2)  a  number  of  particular  directions 
for  the  special  relationships  of  life  (ii.  11-iv. 
6) ;  and  (3)  some  closing  instructions  for  the 
present  needs  of  the  readers  (iv.  7-v.  11).  It 
ends  with  salutations  and  announcements  (v. 
12-14). 

The  Second  Epistle  General  of  Peter.  The 
author  of  this  epistle  describes  himself  as 
"Symeon  Peter,  a  bond  servant  and  apostle 
of  Jesus  Christ  "  (i.  1,  R.  Y.  margin),  and  rep- 
resents himself  as  having  been  present  at 
Christ's  transfiguration  (i.  16),  and  as  having 
received  from  him  a  prediction  as  to  his 
death  (i.  14;  cp.  John  xxi.  19),  and  also  as 
standing  on  an  e(|uality  with  the  apostle 
Paul  (iii.  1,5).  A  lack  of  simplicity  in  the 
style  and  of  ease  in  expression  contrast  with 
the  simplicity  of  style  exhibited  by  Peter  in 
the  First  Epistle ;  and  this  difference  was 
made  as  early  as  Jerome's  time  an  argument 
for  diversity  of  authorship.  Jerome  himself 
thought  that  such  difierence  as  appears  was 
<lue  to  Peter's  use  of  different  interpreters. 
Perhaps  so  (cp.  Mark).  At  any  rate,  tlie 
distinct  claim  of  the  author  to  be  the  apostle 


Pethahiah 


599 


Pharaoh 


Peter  is  borne  out  by  the  character  of  the 
letter  itself  ;  for  it  does  not  lack  traits  char- 
acteristic of  Peter's  manner  or  points  of  like- 
ness to  his  speeches  recorded  in  The  Acts, 
and  it  shows  peculiarities  to  Peter's  discourse 
in  its  employment  of  a  number  of  unusual 
words  which  are  common  to  it  and  the  First 
Epistle,  and  in  the  habit,  observable  in  the 
first  letter  also,  of  giving  botli  the  negative 
and  positive  aspect  of  a  thought  (  for  example, 
1  Pet.  i.  12,  14,  15,  18,  19  and  2  Pet.  i.  16,  21 ; 
ii.  4,  5  ;  iii.  9,  17).  Traces  of  the  use  of  this 
epistle  in  the  very  earliest  days  of  the  church 
are  not  numerous  or  very  clear  ;  but  Origen 
at  the  opening  of  the  third  century  speaks 
of  it  in  a  manner  which  shows  that  it  was 
used  in  the  church  of  his  day  ;  and  although 
doubts  were  cherished  in  some  quarters  con- 
cerning its  authorship,  these  are  overborne 
by  the  weighty  historical  evidence. 

The  form  of  its  address  is  quite  general : 
"to  them  that  have  obtained  a  like  precious 
faith  with  us"  (i.  1);  but  iii.  1  shows  that 
the  same  readers,  or  some  one  territorial 
^roup  among  them,  are  in  view  to  whom  1 
Peter  had  been  sent.  The  place  from  which 
it  was  written  cannot  be  confidently  ascer- 
tained ;  if  the  allusion  in  i.  14  implies  that 
Peter  was  on  the  verge  of  his  martyrdom,  we 
may  think  of  Rome.  In  that  case  the  letter 
should  be  dated  in  A.  D.  68;  and  the  nature 
of  the  errors  rebuked  in  it,  and  its  use  of  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  (or  vice  versa)  as  well  as  its 
allusion  to  1  Peter  will  accord  with  this  date. 

Its  object,  as  is  declared  in  iii.  1,  17,  18, 
was  to  stir  up  the  minds  of  its  readers  to  re- 
member what  had  been  taught  them,  to  the 
end  that  they  might  be  saved  from  the 
errors  now  becoming  prevalent  and  might 
grow  in  grace  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  It  was 
written,  in  other  words,  to  rebuke  the  nas- 
cent gnosticism  creeping  into  the  churches, 
and  to  build  up  Christians  in  true  knowledge 
and  purity.  The  contents  of  the  letter  are 
in  full  accord  with  its  object.  After  the 
usual  apostolical  greeting  (i.  1,  2),  it  passes 
insensibly  into  an  earnest  exhortation  to 
growth  in  grace  and  knowledge  (3-11),  and 
thence  into  a  reminder  of  the  grounds  on 
which  this  knowledge,  itself  the  basis  of 
piety,  rests  (12-21),  and  a  denunciation  of 
the  "false  teachers  (ii.  1-22).  The  readers  are 
then  reminded  of  the  nature  and  surety  of 
the  teaching  given  them  as  to  the  second 
advent  and  "the  end  of  the  world  (iii.  1-13) ; 
and  the  letter  closes  with  an  esht)rtation  to 
them  to  make  their  calling  and  election 
sure,  including  a  commendation  of  Paul's 
letters,  and  concludes  with  a  doxology  (14- 
18).  B.  B.  w.  (supitlemented). 

Petli-a-M'ali  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family 
became  the  nineteenth  course  of  priests  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  16). 

2.  A  Levite   who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 


put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23).  He 
was  probably  the  Levite  of  the  name  who 
assisted  Ezra  in  his  religious  work  (Neh. 
ix.  5). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  and 
an  official  of  the  Persian  king  for  all  matters 
concerning  the  people  (Neh.  xi.  24). 

Pe'thor  [cleft,  opening]. 

A  town  near  the  Eui)hrates  (Num.  xxii..5), 
by  the  mountains  of  Aram  or  Mesopotamia 
(Num.  xxiii.  7;  Dent,  xxiii.  4).  While  the 
Israelites  were  in  Egyjit,  the  town  was  cap- 
tured by  th(;  ILittites,  and  they  retained  it 
until  the  ninth  century  B.  v.,  when  it  was 
wrested  from  them  by  Shalmane.ser  II.,  king 
of  Assyria,  and  converted  into  a  colony  of 
the  con(iuerors.  It  was  situated  far  nortli 
of  Palestine,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  near  the  river  Sagura.  now  Sajur, 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Hittite  capital 
Carchemish. 

Pe-thu'el  [probablv,  noblemindeduess  of 
God]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Joel  (Joel  i.  1). 

Pe'tra.     See  Skl.\. 

Pe-ul'le-thai,  in  A.  V.  Pe-ul'thai  [perhaps, 
full  of  work,  laborious]. 

A  Levite,  a  doorkeeper,  son  of  Obed-edom 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  5). 

Pha'lec.     See  Peleg. 

Phal'lu.     See  Pallu. 

Phal'ti.     See  Palti. 

Phal'ti-el.     See  Paltiel. 

Pha-nu'el  [face  or  presence  of  God]. 

An  Asherite,  the  father  of  Anna  (Luke  ii. 
36). 

Pha'raoh  [Egyptian  per-da,  great  house]. 

A  title  used  as  the  general  designation  of 
the  sovereign  of  Egypt,  both  with  and  with- 
out the  personal  name  attached. 

Of  the  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
several,  among  whom  are  the  Pharaohs  of 
Al)raham  and  Joseph,  cannot  be  identified 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Of  those  that 
are  better  known  tliere  are  : 

1.  The  Pharaoh  OF  THE  Oppression.  It 
is  quite  generally,  though  not  universally,  be- 
lieved that  this  "was  Kam.scs  II.,  third  king  of 
the  luneteenth  dynasty  and  son  of  Seti  I.  See 
Egypt  III.  8.  Both  belonged  to  the  New  Em- 
pire. Ramses  wiiile  yet  a  mere  child  was  made 
coregent  by  Seti,  and  reigned  sixty-seven 
years,  from  1348  to  1281  B.  c.  according  to  Dr. 
Mahler's  calculation.  He  was  a  great  war- 
rior and  penetrated  farther  into  Asia  than 
even  Thothmes  III.  had  done,  advancing  as 
far  as  Asia  Minor  and  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Tigris.  The  Libyans,  the  inhabitants  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  islanders  of  the  Medi- 
terranean made  war  against  Egypt,  but 
Ramses  defeated  them.  His  great  expedi- 
tions were  directed  against  the  Hittites  and 
their  allies,  and  occupied  many  campaigns. 
His  most  notable  exploit  was  during  an  ex- 


Pharaoh 


6J0 


Pharaoh 


pedition  to  Kadesh,  on  the  Orontes,  the 
southern  Hittite  capital,  in  which  he  was 
led  by  treacherous  Bedouin  Arab  guides  into 


Head  of  Ramses  II. 

an  ambuscade,  from  which  he  extricated 
himself  by  great  personal  prowess  ;  but  he 
failed  to  take  the  city  or  inflict  on  the  Hit- 
tites  such  a  defeat  as  would  terminate  the 
war.  He  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity,  sealed  by  his  marrying  the 
daughter  of  the  Hittite  king.  The 
peace  which  ensued  allowed  Eamses 
to  devote  his  attention  to  building 
operations,  to  founding  and  enrich- 
ing libraries,  and  to  establishing 
.schools.  Especially  in  the  delta  did 
he  erect  buildings,  among  which 
were  Pa-Eamses  and  in  part  at  least 
Pithom.  His  mummy  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Bulak. 

2.  The  Pharaoh  of  thk  Ex- 
odus. He  is  believed  to  have  been 
Meneptah  II.,  the  thirteenth  son  of 
Ramses  II.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne  he  maintained  the  treaty  of 
])eace  which  his  father  had  entered 
into  with  the  Hittites.  In  the  fifth 
year  of  his  reigu  Lower  Egypt  was 
invaded  by  the  Libyans  and  their 
allies.  The  mercenaries  of  the 
Egyptian  king,  rather  than  him- 
self, ultimately  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  their  invaders.  A 
liymn  was  composed  to  celebrate 
this  success  and  other  victories. 
The  translation  is  doubtful  in  minor 
])oints,  but  is  essentially  as  follows  : 


The  chiefs  bow  down,  rnaUinf;  their 

salutMliiins  of  iiesirc. 
Not  one  of  the  peoiilcs  cifilip  bow  [i.e. 

hostile    fiircnuners]    lifts  up    its 

hend  : 
The  land  of  the  liibyans  is  vanquislied, 
The  land  of  the  Hittites  is  tnimiuilized, 
Havaged  is  the  place  Pa-Kaiianu  [in  .Southern 

Palestine]  with  all  violence, 


Carried  away  is  the  place  Ashkelon, 

Overpowered  is  the  place  Gezcr, 

The  place  Innuam  [near  Tyre]  is  brought  to 
naught, 

The  people  Isiraalu  are  spoiled,  they  have  no 
seed. 

The  place  Khar  [i.  e.  southern  Palestine]  has  be- 
come like  the  widows  of  Egypt. 

All  the  world  is  at  peace, 

Every  one  that  was  rebellious  is  subdued  by  the 
king  Meneptali. 

Isiraalu  is  mentioned  in  close  connection 
with  places  in  Philistia,  Phoenicia,  and  Pales- 
tine. It  cannot  be  rendered  Jezreel,  for  the 
orthography  of  the  word  and  the  use  of  the 
determinative  which  signilies  people  are  both 
against  it.  It  alone  is  without  the  determi- 
native for  land  or  city.  It  accordingly  is  a 
nomadic  tribe  or  else  a  people  dwelling  in  a 
country  not  their  own.  Leaving  no  seed  to 
a  spoiled  and  harried  people  was  a  common 
mode  which  the  Egyptians  had  of  recording 
the  destruction  of  the  crops  or  supply  of 
grain.  The  natural  meaning  of  the  inscrip- 
tion accordingly  is  that  troo])s,  who  were  act- 
ing under  j\leiici)tah  and  waging  war  against 
the  peoples  of  Palestine  and  vicinity,  ravaged 
the  Israelites  and  destroyed  their  fields  or 
storehouses  of  grain.  All  available  evidence 
indicates  that  the  Israelites  had  not  con- 
quered Canaan  and  settled  in  Palestine  as 


Meneptah. 

yet.  The  attempt  to  identify  the  Habiri, 
who  were  warring  in  Palestine  in  the  reign 
of  Ameno])his  IV.,  .six  or  .seven  generations 
l)efore  Meneptah,  with  the  Hebrews  has  not 


Pharaoh 


601 


Pharaoh 


hcen  successful ;  see  Egypt  III.  8.  The  bib- 
lical record  and  the  iuscription  of  Meueptah 
agree,  if  the  inscription  means,  as  has  l)een 
inferred  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Moore,  that  within 
two  or  three  years  after  the  exodus  Egyptian 
or  Cauaanitish  subjects  of  Meneptah  attacked 
the  Israelites  near  Kadesh-barnea.  The  He- 
brews had  feared  to  advance  from  Kade.sh 
and  had  begun  their  dreary  life  of  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  Here  they  pastured 
their  flocks  and  herds,  and  doubtless,  like 
Isaac  when  in  the  same  quarter  (Gen.  xxvi. 
1-2),  sowed  seed  and  raised  what  crops  a  scan- 
tily watered  soil  i)ermitted.  Their  grain  was 
destroyed  by  the  enemy;  and  the  event  may 
possibly  be  referred  to  in  Num.  xiv.  45*; 
Deut.  i.  44-46,  for  their  sojourn  at  Kadesh 
had  been  long  enough  to  permit  the  young 
crop  to  be  growing,  but  not  the  grain  to  be 
ripe.  On  this  interpretation  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  exodus  was  not  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 
The  biblical  record  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  he  was.  It  is  not  necessary  to  believe 
that  he  did  in  person  everything  which  is 
charged  to  him.  What  is  done  in  Pharaoh's 
name  and  by  Pharaoh's  servants  can  be  de- 
scribed as  done  by  him  ;  and  what  his  emis- 
saries suffer  he  can  be  said  to  suffer. 

3.  Shishak.  Called  by  the  monuments 
Sheshenk  and  by  Manetho  Sesonchis,  the 
first  ruler  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty. 
According  to  an  inscription  found  in  Abydos, 
Shishak  was  the  son  of  an  Assyrian  con- 
queror named  Nemret.  The  names  of  his 
successors  are  also  more  Assyrian  than  Egyp- 
tian in  origin.  An  account  of  his  expedition 
into  Palestine  (1  Kin.  xiv.  25.  26;  2  Chron. 
xii.  2-9),  with  the  usual  embellishments  and 
exaggerations,  is  found  on  the  south  wall  of 
the  temple  at  Karnak.  In  the  list  given 
tliere  of  cities  conquered  in  that  expe- 
dition occurs  the  name  Judha-malek,  which 
may  possibly  mean  royal  city  of  Judah.  He 
was  probably  an  able  statesman,  as  he  was 
able  to  avoid  a  rupture  with  Solomon  while 
keeping  Solomon's  enemy  as  a  guest  (1  Kin. 
xi.  40).  He  shrewdly  took  advantage  of  the 
unsettled  state  of  affairs  in  Palestine  after 
the  division  of  the  kingdom,  to  make  his  in- 
vasion at  that  time  when  resi-stance  to  an 
enemy  was  necessarily  weakened  by  dissen- 
sions at  home.  He  also  created  a  balance  of 
power  for  himself  in  Egypt  by  reelevating 
to  a  position  of  power  the  priests  of  Apis  at 
Memphis,  rivals  of  the  priests  of  Thebes. 
Jeroboam  took  refuge  at  his  court  some  time 
after  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Solomon  (1  Kin. 
vi.  38;  vii.  1 :  ix.  10,  24  :  xi.  27),  and  the  in- 
vasion of  Judah  took  place  in  the  fifth  year 
of  Eehoboam  ;  accordingly,  the  longest  time 
required  by  the  biblical  data  for  the  reign  of 
Shishak  is*  21  years,  though  a  shorter  time 
would  suffice.  This  demand  is  met  by  the 
Egyptian  monuments,  for  they  mention  the 
thirty-ninth  year  of  his  reign. 

4.  Zerah  the  Cushite,  who  undertook  an 
expedition  against  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Asa, 


leading  an  army  comjjosed  of  Ethiojiiansand 
Libyans,  doubtless  in  addition  to  the  Egyj)- 
tian  troops.  His  forces  were  routed  at  Ma- 
reshah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-1,");  xvi.  8).  The 
monuments  do  not  mention  this  military  ex- 
pedition, as  it  is  their  custom  to  pass  over  in 
silence  their  own  defeats.  Zerah  is  com- 
monly identified  with  Osorkon  I.  or  II.,  suc- 
cessors of  Shishak  in  tiie  twenty-second  or 
Bubastite  dynasty.  He  may  have  been  called 
Cushite  by  the  biblical  writer  either  because 
he  was  crown  j)rince  when  he  led  the  exjie- 
dition  against  .Judah,  in  wliich  case  he  bore 
the  title  Prince  of  Cush  ;  or  because  he  was 
by  birth  an  Ethiopian,  Osorkon  II.  being  the 
son-in-law,  not  the  son,  of  the  i)receding 
monarch. 

5.  So,  contemporary  of  Hoshea,  king  of 
Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4) :  see  So. 

6.  TiRHAKAH,  third  and  last  king  of  the 
twenty-fifth  dynasty,  which  is  known  also 
as  the  Ethiopian  dynasty.  lioth  he  and  his 
name  are  Ethiopian  (Steindorff ).  When  Sen- 
nacherib, king  of  Assyria,  was  advancing 
through  Philistia  in  the  direction  of  Egypt  in 
701  B.  c,  he  heard  that  Tirhakah,  king  of 
Ethiopia,  was  coming  against  him  12  Kin. 
xix.  9).  Sennacheril),  in  his  own  account  of 
the  affair,  without  mentioning  the  personal 
names  of  the  monarchs,  says  that  the  kings 
of  Egypt  and  the  archers,  chariots  and 
horses  of  the  king  of  Ethiopia  met  him  in 
battle  at  Eltekeh  (Cylinder  ii.  73-81).  Ethi- 
opia and  Egypt,  whicli  were  probably  under 
the  general  sway  of  Shabataka.  or  already 
under  the  rule  of  the  young  and  vigorous 
Tirhakah  as  husband  of  Shabataka's  widow 
and  guardian  of  his  young  son.  were  gov- 
erned by  subordinate  kings.  Esarhaddon 
conducted  several  campaigns  against  Egypt; 
and  in  671  b.  c.  penetrated  into  the  midst  of  the 
country,  defeated  Tirhakah,  whom  he  calls 
king  of  Ethiopia,  took  ^Memphis,  made  Tir- 
hakah's  son  a  captive,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Egypt,  Pathros,  and  Ethiopia. 
Tirhakah  found  refuge  in  Ethiopia,  and  on 
Esarhaddon's  death,  in  669  or  (;68  b.  c,  re- 
turned to  Egypt.  Ashurbani])al  sent  an 
army  against  him,  .styling  him  king  of  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia,  and  defeated  his  troops  at  Kar- 
banit,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Canopic  branch 
of  the  Nile.  Tirhakah  retired  to  Thebes. 
He  still  had  the  sujiport  of  several  minor 
kings  of  Egyi)t.  among  whom  was  Necho. 
Ashurbanipal  afterwards  pursued  him  tliitlier 
and  took  Thebes.  The  Assyrian  king  pres- 
ently records  the  death  of  Tirhakah.  This 
event  occurred  about  664  B.  f.  The  Eg.vp- 
tian  records  attest  the  fact  that  he  reigned 
at  least  26  years,  so  that  his  possessif)n  of  the 
royal  title  can  be  traced  I)ack  as  far  as  690  B. 
c.  at  least. 

7.  Necho,  son  of  Psanimetick  I.  He  was 
the  second  ruler  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynastj' 
and  reigned  16  years,  from  610  to  594  B.  c. 
He  attempted  tocomi)lete  a  canal  connecting 
the  Red  Sea  with  the  Nile,  and  sent  a  sue- 


Pharathon 


602 


Pharisees 


cessful  expedition  to  circumnavigate  Africa 
(Herod,  ii.  158  ;  iv.  42).  He  slew  king  Josiah 
at  Megiddo  as  the  latter  unwisely  opposed 
his  march  toward  Assyria.  Herodotus  says 
that  Necho  defeated  the  Syrians  at  Mag- 
dolus  (Megiddo),  and  afterwards  took  Cady- 
tus,  one  of  the  large  cities  of  Syria  (ii.  159). 
This  has  been  identified  with  Gaza,  but  bet- 
ter with  Kadesh,  the  Hittite  city  on  the 
Orontes.  On  Josiah's  death,  the  people  set 
up  his  son  Jehoahaz,  but  Pharaoh  dethroned 
and  carried  him  off  to  Egypt,  setting  up  in 
his  stead  his  elder  brother,  Jehoiakim  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  30-34).  Necho  seems  to  have  left 
his  army  atCarchemish  while  he  returned  to 
Egypt.  In  605  B.  c.  he  returned  to  his  army, 
the  object  being  an  attack  on  the  decaying 
Assyrian  empire.  Unfortunately  he  came 
too  late  and  found  himself  opposed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  Babylonian  conqueror  of 
Assyria,  was  utterly  routed  by  him,  and  lost 
all  of  Egypt's  Asiatic  possessions  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  7). 

8.  Phakaoh-hophra,  the  Uah-ab-ra  of  the 
Egyptian  monuments,  the  Ouaphris  of  Ma- 
netho,  and  the  Apries  of  Herodotus.  He 
was  the  second  successor  of  Necho,  separated 
from  him  by  the  short  reign  of  Psammetick 
II.  He  reigned  19  years,  from  589  to  570  B. 
C.  He  was  on  the  throne  while  Jeremiah 
and  his  fellow-fugitives  from  Palestine  still 
lived.  The  prophet  intimated  that  Pharaoh- 
hophra  should  be  given  into  the  hands  of  his 
«nemies,  as  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  had  been  (Jer.  xliv.  30).  He  was  a 
warrior,  and  appears  to  have  conquered  the 
combined  fleets  of  Cyprus  and  Sidon  in  a  sea 
fight.  He  failed  at  last  in  an  attack  on  the 
Greek  colony  of  C'yrene.  His  army,  in  con- 
sequence, revolted ;  he  was  captured,  confined, 
and  ultimately  put  to  death. 

Phar'a-thon.     See  Pirathon. 

Pha'res  and  Pba'rez.     See  Perez. 

Phar'i-sees  [pr<>})ably,  separated]. 

One  of  the  three  chief  Jewish  sects,  the 
others  being  the  Sadducees  and  the  Essenes. 
It  was  the  straitest  sect  (Acts  xxvi.  5).  In 
all  probability  the  Phari.sec^s  originated  in 
the  period  before  the  Maccabfean  war,  in  a 
reaction  against  the  helleiiizing  spirit  which 
appeared  among  the  Jews  and  manifested  it- 
self ill  the  readiness  of  a  part  of  the  people 
to  adopt  Grecian  customs.  Those  who  re- 
garded these  practices  with  abhorrence  and 
their  spread  with  alarm  were  incited  to  strict 
and  open  conformity  to  tlie  Mosaic  law.  They 
were  drawn  yet  more  clos(!ly  together  as  a 
party  by  the  fierce  persecution  which  Anti- 
ochus  Ejuphanes,  175-164  B.  c,  set  on  foot 
against  the  faithful  Israelites  who  would  not 
abandon  Judaism  and  accept  1  he  (! reck  faith, 
when  he  attempted  to  destroy  tlic  holy 
Scriptures,  and  commanded  that  whosoever 
was  found  with  any  book  of  the  covenant  or 
consented  to  the  law,  should  be  jiut  to  deatli 
(1    Mac.    i.   56,    57).      The    Hasidreans,    who 


were  mighty  men  of  Israel,  even  all  such  as 
were  voluntarily  devoted  unto  the  law  (ii. 
42  ;  cp.  i.  62,  63),  participated  in  the  Mac- 
cabajan  revolt  as  a  distinct  party.  They  were 
probably  the  Pharisees,  they  certainly  cor- 
responded to  that  sect.  When  the  war  ceased 
to  be  a  struggle  for  religious  liberty,  and  be- 
came a  contest  for  political  supremacy,  they 
ceased  to  take  an  active  interest  in  it.  They 
are  not  mentioned  during  the  time  that  Jon- 
athan and  Simon  were  the  Jewish  leaders, 
160-135  B.  c.  The  Pharisees  appear  under 
their  own  name  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus, 
135-105  B.  C.  He  was  a  disciple  of  theirs, 
but  left  them  and  joined  the  Sadducees  (An- 
tiq.  xiii.  10,  5  and  6) ;  and  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Alexander  Jannseus,  endeavored  to 
exterminate  them  by  the  sword.  But  his 
wife,  Alexandra,  who  succeeded  him  in  78 
B.  c,  recognizing  that  physical  force  is  pow- 
erless against  religious  conviction,  favored 
the  Pharisees  (15,  5;  16,  1).  Thenceforth 
their  influence  was  paramount  in  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  Jewish  people. 

The  Pharisees  held  the  doctrine  of  fore- 
ordination,  and  considered  it  consistent  with 
the  freewill  of  man.  They  believed  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  in  the  existence  of  spirits ;  that  men 
are  rewarded  or  punished  in  the  future  life, 
according  as  they  have  lived  virtuously  or 
viciously  in  this  life ;  that  the  souls  of  the 
wicked  shall  be  detained  forever  in  prison 
under  the  earth,  while  those  of  the  virtuous 
rise  and  live  again,  removing  into  other 
bodies  (Acts  xxiii.  8 ;  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  3 ; 
War  ii. 8, 14).  These  doctrines  distinguished 
them  from  the  Sadducees,  but  did  not  con- 
stitute the  essence  of  Pharisaism.  Pharisaism 
is  the  final  and  necessary  result  of  that 
conception  of  religion  which  makes  religion 
consist  in  conformity  to  the  law,  and  prom- 
ises God's  grace  only  to  the  doers  of  the  law. 
Eeligion  becomes  external.  The  disposition 
of  the  heart  is  less  vital  than  the  outward 
act.  The  interj)retation  of  the  law  and  its 
application  to  the  details  of  ordinary  life 
accordingly  became  a  matter  of  grave  con- 
sequence, lawyers  acquired  increased  im- 
portance, and  expositions  of  the  law  by 
recognized  authorities  grew  to  a  body  of 
precepts  of  binding  force.  Josepbus,  who 
was  him.self  a  Pharisee,  describes  them  as 
not  merely  accepting  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
interpreting  it  more  skillfully  than  others, 
but  adds  that  they  had  delivered  to  the 
peoph;  a  great  many  observances  by  succes- 
sion from  the  fathers  which  are  not  written 
in  the  law  of  Moses  (Antiq.  xiii.  10,  6),  these 
being  the  traditional  interpretations  of  the 
elders,  which  our  Lord  pronounced  to  be  of 
no  binding  uiitli<irily  (Mat.  xv.  2,  3,  6). 

At  lii'st,  when  one  incurred  great  danger  in 
joining  the  party,  tiie  Pharisees  were  men 
of  strong  ndigious  character.  They  were 
the  b(^st  people  in  the  nation.  Subsequently 
Pharisaism  became  an  inherited  belief  and 


Pharosh 


603 


Philemon 


the  profession  of  it  was  popular,  and  men  of 
•character  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  original 
members  of  the  sect  joined  its  ranks.  With 
the  lapse  of  time  also  the  essentially  vicious 
element  in  the  system  developed  and  laid  the 
Pharisees,  as  commonly  rei)resented  hy  the 
members  of  the  sect,  open  to  scathing  rebuke. 
John  the  Baptist  called  them  and  the  Sad- 
ducees  a  generation  of  vipers  ;  and  it  is  well 
known  how  severely  our  Lord  denounced 
them  for  their  self-righteousness,  their 
hypocrisy,  their  inattention  to  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  law,  while  being  very  par- 
ticular as  to  minute  points,  with  other  faults 
(Mat.  v.  -20;  xvi.  «,  11,  12;  xxiii.  1-39). 
They  became  an  intriguing  body  of  men 
(Antiq.  xvii.  2,  4).  They  took  a  prominent 
part  in  plotting  the  death  of  Christ  (Mark 
iii.  0 ;  John  xi.  47-57).  Yet  they  always 
numbered  in  their  ranks  men  of  perfect 
sincerity  and  the  highest  character.  Paul 
in  his  early  life  was  a  Pharisee,  and  was 
accustomed  to  bring  forward  the  fiict  when 
he  was  reasoning  with  his  countrymen  (Acts 
xxiii.  6  ;  xxvi.  5-7 ;  Phil.  iii.  5).  His  teacher, 
Gamaliel,  was  of  the  same  sect  (Acts  v.  34). 

Pha'rosh.     See  Parosh. 

Phar'par  [swift]. 

Presumably  the  less  important  of  the  two 
rivers  of  Damascus,  for  Naaman  mentions  it 
only  second  (2  Kin.  v.  12).  According  to  the 
local  tradition,  which  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Phar- 
par  is  the  Tanra,  one  of  seven  canals  which 
are  drawn  off  from  the  Barada  as  it  nears 
Damascus.  It  is  more  common,  however,  out- 
side of  Damascus,  to  identify  the  Pharpar 
with  the  A'waj,  the  only  independent  stream 
except  the  Barada  within  the  territory  of 
Damascus,  but  distant  a  ride  of  three  hours 
from  the  city.  It  is  formed  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  several  streams  which  take  their  rise 
in  mount  Hermon.  It  pursues  a  tortuous 
course  through  the  plain  to  the  south  of  the 
city  and  iinally  enters  the  most  southerly 
of  three  inland  lakes.  In  dry  weather  its 
waters  are  sometimes  absorbed  before  they 
even  enter  the  lake. 

Pha-se'ah.     See  Paseah. 

Pha-se'lis. 

A  city  of  Lycia.  on  the  gulf  of  Pamphylia, 
with  three  excellent  harbors.  It  enjoyed 
-considerable  commerce  in  early  times  (Herod, 
ii.  178).  It  was  independent  (1  Mac.  xv.  23)  un- 
til the  war  of  78-75  B.  c.  when  the  Romans 
destroyed  it  because  it  had  become  a  center 
of  organized  piracy.  It  was  rebuilt.  1)ut  did 
not  rise  to  importance  again.  Its  ruins  exist 
near  Tekrova. 

Phas'i-ron. 

Probably  a  Bedouin  chief  (1  Mac.  ix.  66). 

Phe'be.     See  Phcebe; 

Phe-ni'ce.     See  Phoenicia  and  PmjiNix. 

Phe-ni'ci-a.     See  Phcenicia. 


Phi'col,  in  A.  ^'.  Phichol  [possibly,  mouth 

of  all,  /.  ('.  commanding  ail]. 

The  captain  ofthearmy  ui'  Abimelech,  king 
of  Gerar;  present  when  treaty  was  made 
between  Abimelech  and  Abraham,  and  be- 
tween Abimelech  or  his  successor  with  like 
title  and  Isaac  ((ien.  .\xi.  22;  xxvi.  26). 
There  is  no  nei'd  to  assume  that  he  was  older 
than  Isaac. 

PMl-a-derphia  [brotherly  love].     . 

1.  A  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  27 
miles  southeast  of  S;irdis,  in  the  phiin  of  the 
Hermus.  It  was  built  by  Attains  Pliila- 
delphus,  on  a  part  of  mount  'i'niolns.  In 
A.  D.  17  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
but  was  soon  rebuilt.  It  was  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  addressed  in 


Modern  Philadelphia. 

the  book  of  Eevelation  (i.  11  ;  iii.  7-13). 
Unlike  most  of  the  seven,  it  receives  com- 
mendation and  encouragement,  unmixed 
with  censure.  It  is  now  called  Allah  Shehr. 
and  continues  to  be  inhabited.  The  walls  of 
the  ancient  city,  which  are  still  standing, 
enclose  several  hills,  with  the  remains  of  a 
temple  and  other  buildings. 

2.  A  later  name  of  Kabbah  of  the  Ammon- 
ites.    See  Rabbah. 

PM-le'mon  [Greek,  loving  or  afl'ectionate 
(cp.  phUema,  a  kiss)]. 

A  convert  of  the  apo.stle  Paul's  (Philem. 
19),  who  resided  in  the  same  city  with 
Archippus  and  from  which  One.simus  had 
come,  viz.  Colossa;  (cp.  Philem.  2  with  Col.  iv. 
17;  and  Philem.  10  with  Col.  iv.  9).  There 
was  a  church  in  his  house  (Philem.  2).  Paul 
calls  him  a  fellow-laborer  (1)  and  sjieaks  of 
his  kindness  to  the  saints  (5-7).  As  Paul 
had  never  been  in  Colossfe  (cp.  Col.  ii.  1),  we 
may  suppose  that  Philemon  was  converted  in 
Ei)hesus  during  the  a])ostle's  Tuinistry  there 
(cp.  Acts  xix.  10).  It  is  not  improbable  that 
Archippus  was  Philemon's  son  and  Apjihia 
his  wife  (Philem.  2). 


Philetus 


604 


Philip 


The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  riiilemon  is  the 
brief  letter  sent  by  Paul,  in  conjunction  with 
Timothy,  to  Philemon.  The,  latter's  slave, 
Onesimus,  had  run  away,  perhaps  taking 
with  him  some  of  Philemon's  money  (18, 
19)  ;  and,  having  made  his  way  to  Rome, 
had  there  been  converted  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  apostle  (10).  Paul 
would  gladly  have  retained  him  as  a  free 
attendant,  but  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  do  so 
without  Philemon's  consent  (13,  14).  He 
doubtless  felt  too  that  Onesimus,  as  a  Chris- 
tian, ought  to  seek  the  forgiveness  of  his 
master;  and  he  was  equally  anxious  that 
Philemon  should  both  forgive  and  receive 
the  converted  wrongdoer.  So  he  sent  Onesi- 
mus back  to  Philemon,  urging  the  latter  to 
receive  him  as  a  brother  beloved  (16),  telling 
of  the  love  he  himself  bore  toward  the  con- 
vert (10,  12),  and  offering  to  repay  Philemon 
for  whatever  loss  Onesimus  had  caused  him 
(18,  19).  The  letter  is  an  exquisite  produc- 
tion. It  reveals  the  delicacy  of  Paul's  feel- 
ing and  the  graciousness  of  his  relations 
with  his  friends.  It  also  illustrates  the 
effect  of  Christianity  on  social  relationships 
generally,  the  spirit  of  love  and  justice 
which  were  destined  to  reorganize  society. 
When  Onesimus  carried  this  letter  to  Phile- 
mon, he  accompanied  Tychicus,  who  also  bore 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (Col.  iv.  7-9) 
and  that  to  the  Ephesians  (Eph.  vi.  21,  22). 
All  three  epistles  were  written  at  the  same 
time,  probably  A.  D.  61  or  62,  and  from  Rome. 
The  genuineness  of  the  Epistle  to  Philemon, 
though  it  is  so  brief  a  letter,  is  well  attested, 
being  contained  in  the  Syriac  and  Old  Latin 
versions,  named  in  the  Miiratoriaii  fragment, 
acci-pted  by  Marcion,  (luotcd  by  Origen  and 
(•x])ressly  as  Paul's,  and  included  by  Euse- 
bius  among  the  undisputed  books.  It  thus 
strongly  supports  the  genuineness  of  the 
other  epistles  with  which  it  is  associated. 
G.  T.  p.  (supplemented). 

Phl-le'tus  [worthy  of  love]. 

(h\o,  who  joined  with  Hymenseus  in  propa- 
gating the  error  that  the  resurrection  is 
already  i)ast  (2  Tim.  ii.  17,  18). 

PMl'ip  [fond  of  horses]. 

1.  Father  of  Alexander  the  Great  (1  Mac. 
i.  1).  He  was  a  son  of  Aniyntas  II.  of  Mace- 
don.  n(>  took  charge  of  the  government 
about  .'{(iO  n.  v.,  as  guardian  of  the  royal  in- 
fant, and  by  skillful  negotiations  and  success- 
ful war  delivered  the  country  from  the  dan- 
ger which  beset  it  by  reason  of  the  hostility 
of  the  Pa>(>nians,  Illyrians,  and  Athenians. 
He  then  ascended  tlie  throne,  perhajis  by 
usurpation.  He  captured  Amphii>olis  and 
annexed  it  to  hisdcmiinions  in  3.")8,  and  cross- 
ing the  river  Strymon.  he  took  possession  of 
Thracian  territory  and  founded  Philijjpi  in 
:{.")(>.  These  achievements  marked  only  the 
beginning  of  his  unchecked  career  of  con- 
quest in  Greece,  by  which  he  raised  Mace- 
donia from  an  obscure  state  to  be  the  domi- 


nant power  in  Grecian  affairs.  He  was  as- 
sassinated in  336  B.  c,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander. 

2.  Another  king  of  Macedon,  and  third  of 
the  name.  He  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Hannibal  against  the  Romans  in  215  B.  c, 
but  they  held  him  in  check  with  the  cooper- 
ation of  the  jEtolians.  After  seven  years  he 
was  glad  to  make  a  separate  peace.  In  200 
B.  c.  the  Romans  invaded  his  kingdom.  He 
successfully  re.sisted  them  for  two  years,  but 
in  197  he  was  completely  defeated  (1  Mac. 
viii.  5)  by  the  Roman  general  Flaminius  at 
CynocephaliP  in  Thessaly,  and  forced  to  con- 
clude a  humiliating  peace.  He  died  in  179 
B.  c. 

3.  Foster  brother  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29),  and  one  of  his  privileged 
friends  (1  Mac.  vi.  14).  When  Antiochus 
was  in  Persia,  nigh  unto  death,  he  appointed 
Philip  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  Antiochus  (15).  Lysias,  however, 
who  was  in  Syria,  usurped  the  i)osition  (17). 
Philip  returned  in  haste,  and  obtained  tem- 
porary possession  of  Antioch,  the  capital 
(55,  63).  But  Lysias  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  city.  According  to  Josephus,  Philip  was 
executed  (Antiq.  xii.  9,  7),  but  perhaps  he 
escaped  and  fled  to  Egypt  before  the  city  fell 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29). 

It  has  been  conjectured,  on  insufficient 
grounds,  that  he  is  identical  with  Philip,  the 
Phrygian  who  was  made  governor  of  Judaea 
by  Antiochus  (2  Mac.  v.  22),  and  that  he  was 
the  master  of  the  elephants  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (Livy  xxxvii.  41). 

4.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  first 
husband  of  Herodias  and  brother  or  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  (Mat.  xiv.  3 ;  Luke 
iii.  19).  He  is  not  called  the  tetrarch,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  dif- 
ferent person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch,  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas.  In  giving  the 
genealogy  of  a  portion  of  Herod  the  Great's 
family,  Josephus  states  that  Herodias  mar- 
ried Herod,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mari- 
amne,  daughter  of  the  high  priest  Simon ; 
that  she  left  him  to  live  with  Antipas  his 
half-brother  ;  and  that  her  daughter  Salome 
married  Philip  the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  Cleopatra  of  Jerusalem,  and 
after  Philip's  death  took  another  husband 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  Thus,  according  to 
Josephus,  the  first  husband  of  Herodias  was 
a  different  person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch. 
The  writers  of  the  N.  T.  agree  v/ith  Josephus 
in  that  they  make  Herodias'  first  husband  a 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  the  tetrarch,  and 
do  not  identify  him  with  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
whom  they  also  know  (Luke  iii.  1).  They 
differ  as  to  his  name.  It  is  commonly  be- 
lieved that  both  authorities  are  right,  and 
accordingly  the  first  husband  of  Herodias  is 
often  designated  Herod  Philip.  For  among 
the  children  of  Herod  the  Great  two  sons, 
borii  of  diHi'rent  mothers,  were  named  after 
Herod's  father  Antipas  or  Antipater.     Three 


Philip 


605 


Philippi 


of  his  sons,  born  of  three  difTerent  mothers, 
were  called  Herod  ;  one  of  wlioni,  however, 
had  a  second  name  Autipas,  and  was  spoken 
of  indifl'erently  either  as  Herod  or  Antipas 
(Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3  ;  xviii.  5,  1 ;  (>,  2).  One  of 
the  sons  whom  his  wife  Cleopatra  of  Jerusa- 
lem bore  was  called  Philip  ;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  Mariamne's  son,  who  is  called 
Herod  by  Josephus,  had  the  name  of  Philip 
also.  Herod  Philip,  after  the  execution  of 
his  half-brothers  Alexander  and  Aristobulus, 
was  next  in  order  of  birth  to  Autipater, 
Herod  the  Great's  firstborn,  and  for  a  time 
he  was  recognized  as  next  in  succession  to 
the  throne  (Antiq.  xvii.  3,  2)  ;  but  he  was 
passed  over  in  Herod's  later  wills. 

5.  Philiii  the  Tetrarch.  One  of  the  two  sons 
of  Herod  the  Great  and  Cleopatra  of  Jerusa- 
lem. He  M'as  brought  uj)  at  ]iome  with  his 
half-brothers  Archelaus  and  Antipas  (Antiq. 
xvii.  1,  3  ;  War  i.  28,  4).  In  A.  D.  4  he  advo- 
cated the  claims  of  Archelaus  to  succeed 
their  common  father,  and  was  himself  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Augustus  to  be  over 
Batanea,  Trachonitis,  Auranitis,  and  certain 
parts  of  Zeno's  house  about  Jamnia  (War  ii. 
6,  1-3;  cp.  Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  He  was  still 
tetrarch  of  the  region  of  Itursea  and  Tracho- 
nitis in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Csesar 
when  John  the  Bajitist  began  his  public  life 
(Luke  iii.  1) .  He  married  Salome,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Herod,  Mariamne's  son,  and  Herodias 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  He  enlarged  the  town 
of  Paneas,  at  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  and 
named  it  Csesarea.  It  was  afterwards  often 
spoken  of  as  Caesarea  Philippi  (Mat.  xvi.  13), 
to  distinguish  it  from  Csesarea  on  the  sea. 
He  also  raised  the  village  of  Bethsaida  to  the 
dignity  of  a  city  and  called  it  Julias,  in 
honor  of  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus  and 
wife  of  Tiberius  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  War  ii. 
9,  1).  He  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  from 
4  B.  c.  to  A.  D.  33,  dying  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  Tiberius  Csesar.  His  character  was 
excellent,  and  his  rule  was  mild  and  just 
(Antiq.  xviii.  4,  6).  His  dominions  were 
annexed  to  the  province  of  Syria,  but  in  A.  D. 
37  were  assigned  to  Herod  Agrippa  I.  Coins 
of  his  have  been  found  inscribed  with  his 
title,  Tetrarchos. 

6.  Philip  the  Apostle.  One  of  the  twelve 
apostles  (Mat.  x.  3).  His  home  was  in  Beth- 
saida, on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  he  was  a 
fellow-townsman  of  Andrew  and  Peter. 
Jesus  met  him  at  Bethany  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan, where  John  was  baptizing,  won  his 
faith,  and  called  him  to  be  a  disciple.  He 
found  Nathanael  and  brought  him  to  Jesus, 
in  the  conviction  that  an  interview  with  the 
Master  would  convince  Nathauael  that  Jesus 
was  the  Messiah.  His  confidence  was  justi- 
fied (John  i.  43-48).  A  year  later  Jesus 
•hose  him  to  be  an  ajiostle.  When  our  Lord 
was  about  to  perform  the  miracle  of  feeding 
the  five  thousand,  he  first  proved  Philip, 
and  awoke  a  concejjtion  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  miracle  by  asking  Philip:  "Whence 


are  we  to  buy  bread,  that  these  may  eat?" 
(John  vi.  5,  6).  On  the  day  of  the  tri- 
umphal entry  into  .Ternsaleni,  certain  (Jrecks 
desired  to  see  .lisus,  and  applied  to  I'iiilip, 
who  put  them  in  communication  wiih  .Jesus 
(xii.  20-23).  In  making  the  acqiuiintance  of 
Christ,  the  disciples  had  been  making  ac- 
CjUaintance  with  the  Father;  but  when 
Christ  si)oke  to  (hem  about  their  having 
known  and  seen  the  Father,  Philiii  ap])eared 
not  to  understand  and  said  :  "  Show  us  the 
Father,  and  it  sutficeth  ns"  (xiv.  8-12).  He 
is  named  after  the  resurn^ction  as  one  of  the 
apostles  who  met  in  the  uiijier  cliamlx-r 
(Acts  i.  13).  This  is  the  last  authentic 
notice  we  have  of  him.  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tions regarding  his  future  life  being  con- 
fused and  contradictory. 

7.  Philip  the  l".\angelist.  He  was  (me  of 
the,  seven  nu'U  of  good  report,  full  of  the 
Spirit  and  of  wisdom,  chosen  to  be  deacons 
to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  widows  ami  probably  the  jioor  gen- 
erally in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  is 
mentioned  next  in  order  to  the  martyr 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  5).  Persecution  fidlowed 
the  death  of  Stephen,  and  the  Christians 
were  scattered  abroad.  Philip  became  an 
evangelist.  He  visited  Samaria,  preached 
the  gospel,  wrought  miracles,  and  made 
many  converts  (  viii.  4-8  ;  xxi.  8).  Among 
them  was  Simon  the  sorcerer,  popularly 
known  as  Simon  Magus  (viii.  9-2.")).  After- 
wards, by  direction  of  an  angel,  Philii)  went 
along  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  on 
which,  after  a  time,  he  met,  i)reached  to, 
and  baptized  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (2(j-3!)). 
He  afterwards  visited  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and 
then  went  on  preaching  till  he  reached 
Cffisarea  (40).  He  was  still  in  that  city  years 
afterwards  when  Paul  passed  through  it  on 
his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  fact  is 
noted  that  Philip  had  four  virgin  daughters 
who  had  the  gift  of  prophecy  (xxi.  8,  !)). 

PM-lip'pi  [pertaining  to  Philip]. 

A  Macedonian  city,  called  originally 
Krenides  or  place  of  small  fountains.  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  ancient  Thrace,  but 
in  356  B.  c.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  annexed 
the  country  as  far  as  the  river  Nestus  and 
thus  took  m  the  town,  which  he  enlarged 
and  strengthened  and  called  after  his  own 
name.  In  its  vicinity  were  rich  gold  and 
silver  mines,  the  produce  of  which  greatly 
aided  Philip  in  carrying  out  his  ambitious 
projects.  In  168  b.  c.  the  Konian  consul 
Paulus  iEmilius  inflicted  a  decisive  and  very 
sanguinary  defeat  on  Perseus,  the  last  of  the 
Macedonian  kings;  and  Philippi,  with  the 
rest  of  the  territory,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors.  In  42  B.  c.  two  decisive 
battles  took  place  in  the  neighborhood  be- 
tween Brutus  and  Cassius,  two  of  Caesar's 
leading  assassins,  and  Octavian  and  Antony, 
his  chief  avengers.  After  Octavian  had  be- 
come Augustus  Cffisar  he  took  an  interest  in 


Philippians 


606 


Philippians 


the  place  where  he  had  jjained  the  victorv, 
and  sent  a  Roman  colony  to  Philijipi.  Not 
merely  does  Luke  mention  that  it  was  a 
colony  (Acts  xvi.  12),  but  coins  exist  with 
the  inscription,  Colonia  Atiqnsta,  Jul.  Philip- 
jinisis.  It  was  the  first  city  of  the  district; 
not  the  capital,  which  was  Amphipolis,  but 
either  the  place  of  first  importance  or  the 
first  city  reached  by  a  traveler  from  the  sea, 
Neapolis  belonging  to  Thrace  and  not  being 
attached  to  tlie  Roman  province  of  Mace- 
donia until  the  time  of  Vespasian.  About 
A.  D.  52  Paul  visited  the  city,  making  various 
converts,  of  whom  the  chief  were  Lydia  of 
Thyatira,  the  damsel  possessed  with  the 
spirit  of  divination,  and  the  Philippian  jailer 
(Acts  xvi.  12-40).  The  second  of  these  suc- 
cesses had  brought  on  persecution  and  im- 
prisonment of  the  evangelists  or  they  would 
not  have  had  access  to  the  jailer  to  do  him 
spiritual  good  (1  Thess.  ii.  2).  Paul  had  to 
leave  the  ])lace  abruptly  on  this  occasion, 
but  he  visited  it  again  at  a  future  period, 
sailing  thence  to  Syria  (Acts  xx.  6).  Philippi 
lies  inland  about  10  miles  northwest  of  its 
seaport  Neapolis,  the  two  being  separated  by 
a  mountain  range,  the  pass  over  which  is 
about  1600  feet  above  the  sea  level.  At  first 
Philij)])i  was  confined  to  a  small  hill  rising 
from  the  mid.st  of  a  plain  ;  in  the  Roman 
period  it  extended  to  the  plain.  The  river- 
side was  the  bank  of  the  Gangites,  now 
called  Angista,  along  the  shore  of  which  the 
walls  of  the  Roman  city  ran.  The  ruins, 
consisting  of  a  theater,  columns,  etc.,  are  ex- 
tensive, the  most  interesting  being  a  gate- 
way, supposed  to  be  that  by  which  the 
apostle  went  out  to  the  river.side.  No  one 
now  lives  on  the  spot,  but  there  is  a  Turkish 
village,  named  Bereketli,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity. 

Phi-lip 'pi- ans. 

The  natives  or  inhabitants  of  Philippi 
(Phil.  iv.   15). 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Philippians  is 
the  sixth  of  the  epistles  as  they  are  arranged 
in  our  N.  T.  It  was  written  by  Paul,  asso- 
ciating also  Timothy  with  him,  to  all  the 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi, 
with  the  bishops  and  deacons  (i.  1)  ;  a  ('hris- 
tiau  community  of  whicli  Paul  himself  had 
gatliered  the  nucleus,  and  the  first  one  of 
tbe  churches  which  he  had  founded  in 
Europe.  When  Paul  wrote  the  epistle,  he 
was  a  prisoner  (i.  7,  l.'i,  14,  16).  But  where, 
in  Ciesarea  or  in  Rome?  He  was  apparently 
in  the  custody  of  tbe  prsetorian  guard  (i.  1,3, 
R.  v.),  and  lie  sends  salutations  from  the 
saints  that  an;  of  Cie.sar's  household  (iv.  22). 
Many  about  him  wore  actively  engaged  in 
propagating  Christianity  (i.  14-18).  These 
references,  as  well  as  tiie  whole  tone  of  the 
](^tt(•r,  mak(!  it  clear  that  the  epistle  was 
written  from  Rome  during  the  apostle's  first 
Roman  imprisonment ;  see  Paul.  Jt  is  also 
most  probably  to  be  dated  toward  the  close 


of  that  period,  in  a.  d.  62  or  63.  This  fol- 
lows from  several  facts.  1.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  in  Rome  (i.  12).  2.  He  was  ex- 
pecting his  release  (i.  25;  ii.  23,  24).  3.  The 
Philippians  had  sent  him  a  gift  (iv.  10)  by 
the  hands  of  Epajjliroditus  (ii.  25)  ;  Epaphro- 
ditus,  however,  had  been  taken  sick  in 
Rome,  the  Philipi)ians  had  beard  of  it,  and 
Epaphroditus  had  learned  of  their  sorrow 
over  his  illness  (ii.  26).  A  considerable  time, 
therefore,  had  elapsed  since  Paul  had  reached 
the  capital. 

The  epistle  was  written  primarily  to  ac- 
knowledge the  gift  which  the  Philippians 
liad  sent  to  Paul.  Contrary  to  his  custom, 
he  had  more  than  once  received  such  gifts 
from  them  (iv.  15).  But  the  apostle  also 
seized  the  opportunity  to  tell  them  about 
himself  and  to  warn  them  against  error. 
It  is  the  letter  of  a  pastor  to  his  flock. 
It  was  not  called  forth,  like  many  of  his 
epistles,  by  any  crisis  in  the  church.  It 
abounds  in  spiritual  advice  for  the  Chris- 
tian life.  At  the  same  time  it  is  valuable 
for  the  light  it  throws  on  Paul's  situation  in 
Rome.  It  was  sent  by  the  hand  of  Epaph- 
roditus (ii.  25,  30)  who,  having  recovered 
from  his  illness,  was  about  to  return  to 
Philipiii.  It  may  be  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing sections  :  1.  Introduction  (i.  1,  2).  2. 
Gratitude  for  their  fidelity;  expression  of 
his  love  for  them  ;  prayer  for  their  sanc- 
tification  (i.  3-11).  3.  Account  of  how  God 
had  used  him,  though  a  prisoner,  to  extend 
the  gospel ;  of  the  opposition  to  him  on  the 
part  of  some,  but  of  his  own  contentment ; 
of  his  wish  at  times  to  die,  but  of  his  devo- 
tion to  them  and  confidence  that  he  would 
be  .spared  to  them  ;  and  of  his  earnest  desire 
that  they  might  stand  firm  (i.  12-30).  4. 
Appeal  to  them  for  spiritual  unity,  through 
self-forgetfulness  and  love,  after  the  example 
of  Christ,  that  they  may  perfect  the  work  of 
service  which  he  had  ever  set  before  them 
(  ii.  1-18).  5.  Promise  to  send  to  them  Tim- 
othy and,  if  possible,  to  go  himself  shortly ; 
meanwhile  he  will  send  Epaphroditus  (ii.  19- 
30).  6.  Exhortation  to  joyfully  pursue  the 
Christian  life,  based  on  his  own  joy  in  self- 
surrender  to  Christ  and  in  the  eager  pursuit 
of  the  reward  which  Christ  offers ;  to  which 
he  adds  a  warning  against  those  who  misuse 
the  freedom  of  the  gospel  that  they  may  in- 
dulge their  fleshly  appetites  (iii.).  7.  Con- 
cluding exhortations  to  individuals  and  to 
all,  the  keynotes  of  which  are  joy,  content- 
ment, holiness  (iv.  1-9).  8.  Final  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  gift  they  had  sent  him  and 
of  his  joy  in  their  love,  with  a  few  parting 
salutations  (10-23).  g.  t.  p.  (edited). 

The  unity  of  the  epistle  has  been  ques- 
tioned. Polycarp,  who  was  a  disciple  of  the 
apostle  John,  in  a  letter  to  the  Philippians, 
written  between  A.  D.  110  and  115,  casually 
alludes  to  Paul  as  having  written  letters  to 
them  (Polycarp  iii.  2,  "who  also  wrote  you 
letters  ")  ;  and    accordingly  the  attempt  has 


Philistia 


607 


Philistines 


been  made  to  establish  the  existeuce  of  two 
letters  joined  together  in  the  epistle  as  it  now 
exists,  united  for  example  at  iii.  1,  the  second 
and  earlier  letter  consisting  of  iii.  2-i'/.  23. 
The  genuineness  of  each  of  the  two  hypo- 
thetical letters  is,  of  course,  a  part  of  the 
theory.  The  words  of  Polycarp  are.  how- 
ever, misunderstood;  for  he  apparently 
knew  the  epistle  in  its  present  form  only, 
and  the  plural  letters  was  a  common  usage 
instead  of  the  less  vivid  singular.  Moreover, 
the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  partition 
the  epistle,  either  at  iii.  1  or  elsewhere,  have 
not  been  regarded  as  successful  by  the  jury 
of  scholars.  The  epistle  as  it  stands  yields 
a  satisfactory  analysis.  Abrupt  transitions 
from  personal  to  general  matters,  or  the  in- 
troduction of  a  new  thought  when  the  writer 
seemed  about  to  close,  as  at  tlie  beginning 
of  chapter  iii.,  are  common  in  letters  of  per- 
sonal correspondence,  such  as  this  epistle  is 
(cp.  Epistle). 

Phi-lis'ti-a  [land  of  foreigners  or  immi- 
grants] . 

A  word  occurring  in  Scripture  in  poetical 
passages  of  the  O.  T.  {Ps.  Ix.  8;  Ixxxvii.  4; 
and  R.  V.  of  Is.  xiv.  29),  and  meaning  the  land 
of  the  Philistines.  It  was  in  the  southwestern 
jiortion  of  Canaan,  and  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  plain  of  Sharon,  on  the  south 
by  the  desert  of  Shur,  on  the  east  by  the 
lowland  of  Judah,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean.  Excluding  narrow  strips  of 
territory  beyond  its  proper  limits,  its  length 
may  be  estimated  at  50  miles,  and  its  breadth 
at  is.  The  greater  portion  of  it  consists  of  a 
low  plain,  unhealthy  in  autumn,  but  very- 
fertile,  bearing  heavy  crops  of  grain,  as  well 
as  oranges,  figs,  olives,  and  other  fruits. 
The  coast  line  has  a  row  of  sand  dunes,  con- 
tinually encroaching  on  the  cultivated  dis- 
tricts. Of  its  five  cities,  all  important  in 
ancient  times,  Gaza  alone  is  still  a  large 
])lace.  Ekron  and  Ashdod  arc  villages ; 
Ashkelou  lies  in  ruins  by  the  sea  ;  Gath  is  so 
much  forgotten  that  its  name  has  disap- 
peared, and  its  site  is  not  quite  certain. 

Phi-lis'tines. 

A  tribe  or  nation  which  is  first  mentioned 
in  Gen.  x.  14,  and  tabulated  as  descended 
from  Mizraim  ;  in  other  words,  as  belonging 
to  Egypt.  They  went  forth  from  the  Caslu- 
him,  and  were  a  remnant  of  the  isle  or  sea- 
coast  of  Caphtor  (Jer.  xlvii.  4  ;  Amos  ix.  7) ; 
see  Caphtor.  The  country  near  Gaza  was 
inhabited  first  by  the  Avvim,  but  settlers 
from  Caphtor  destroyed  these  aborigines  and 
dwelt  in  their  room  (Deut.  ii.  23).  Philis- 
tines were  in  the  region  about  Gerar  and 
Beer-sheba  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  XX.  1,  2  ;  xxi.  32,  34  ;  xxvi.  1).  When 
the  Israelites  left  Egypt,  their  shortest  way 
to  Canaan  would  have  been  through  the 
Philistine  country,  but  the  emancipated 
slaves  were  not  sufficiently  heroic  to  fight 
their  way  through  the  land  of  so  warlike  a 


tribe,  and  they  were  directed  to  go  by 
another  route  tEx.  xiii.  17,  18).  No  steps 
were  taken  by  Joshua  to  confjuor  the  Philis- 
tines, who  already  were  in  i)ossession  of  the 
five  fortified  cities  with  which  their  names 
are  associated,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Ashkelon,  (iath, 
and  Ekron,  each  under  a  lord  (.Josh.  xiii.  2, 
3;  Judg.  iii.  3).  The  .judge  Shamgar  slew 
600  of  them  with  an  oxgoad  (31).  Not  long 
after  this  Israel,  on  account  of  its  idolatries, 
was  .sold  into  tlie  hands  of  the  I'hilistines 
(x.  (j,  7).  They  were  delivered  (11),  but  .sin- 
ning again,  came  under  the  same  domination 
for  forty  years.  From  this  they  were  deliv- 
ered by  Samson,  but  the  Philistines  ulti- 
mately proved  his  ruin  (xiv.-xvi.).  Early  in 
Samuel's  public  life  they  defeated  the  Israel- 
ites, slaying,  among  others,  Hophni  and 
Phinehas,  Eli's  sons.  They  also  captured 
the  ark  of  God  and  kei)t  it  seven  months; 
but  as  it  brought  calamities  with  it.  they 
sent  it  back  to  the  Israelite  country  (1  Sam. 
iv.-vi.).  Twenty  years  later  Samuel  defeated 
the  Philistines  in  battle  at  the  same  place, 
which  he  called  Ebenezer,  the  stone  of  help, 
because  Jehovah  had  helped  him  there  (vii. 
3-12).  It  was  an  overwhelming  defeat.  The 
Philistines  were  permanently  humbled,  and 
came  no  more  within  the  border  of  Israel. 
Their  army  often  crossed  that  border,  and 
intrenched"  itself  in  strong  positions,  and  a 
Philistine  invasion  was  a  constant  menace. 
But  the  Israelites  had  recovered  their  border 
from  Ekron  to  Gath,  regaining  possession  of 
the  Shephelah  or  lowland,  and  the  Philis- 
tines did  not  again  dispossess  them  (vii.  13, 
14).  The  power  of  the  Philistines  was  never 
more  formidable  than  during  the  reign  of 
Saul  (x.  5 ;  xii.  9).  He  and  his  son  Jonathan 
smote  them  at  Geba,  at  Michmash,  and 
elsewhere  (xiii.  1-23;  xiv.  47,  52;  xxiii.  27, 
28 ;  xxiv.  1).  But  they  .soon  appeared  again, 
and  Goliath,  whom  David  slew,  was  a  Philis- 
tine champion  who  stood  out  from  their 
army,  then  in  battle  array  within  tlie  terri- 
tory of  Judah  (xvii.  1-58;  xviii.  6;  xix.  5; 
xxi.  9 ;  xxii.  10).  Soon  after  this,  David 
more  than  once  encountered  the  Philis- 
tines (xviii.  17-21,25,  27,30;  xix.  8;  xxiii. 
1-5);  but,  at  last,  fearful  of  falling  a  victim 
to  Saul's  malice,  he  twice  over  took  refuge  in 
the  Philistine  country  (xxi.  10-15;  xxvii.- 
xxix. ;  Ps.  Ivi.  title).  On  the  second  occasion 
he  obtained  as  a  feudatory  pos.sessian  the 
town  of  Ziklag,  which  had  hitherto  been 
under  Philistine  authority  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6). 
A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  the  Phi- 
listines had  penetrated  to  the  very  heart  of 
Canaan  when  they  defeated  the  Israelites,, 
slaying  Saul  and  his  sons,  at  the  battle  of 
Gilboa  (xxviii.  4;  xxix.  11;  xxxi.  1-13;  1 
Chron.  x.  1-14).  David  was  more  successful 
than  his  predecessor  in  repelling  the  inva- 
sions of  the  Philistines,  with  whom  he  had 
several  battles  (2  Sam.  iii.  18  ;  v.  17-25;  viik 
1,  12;  xix.  9;  xxi.  1.5-22;  xxiii.  9-17;  1 
Chron.  xi.  12-19  ;  xiv.  8-17  ;  xviii.  1,  11 ;  xx. 


Philologus 


608 


Philosopliy 


4,  5).  After  his  death  the  Philistines  ave 
less  frequently  mentioned,  as  if  tlieir  power 
was  waning.  Under  Nadah,  the  son  of  Jero- 
boam I.,  and  some  other  short-lived  kings, 
tlie  Israelites  besieged  Gibbethon,  a  Philis- 
tine city  (1  Kin.  xv.  27;  xvi.  15).  The 
Philistines  sent  presents  to  Jehoshaphat  (2 
(hron.  xvii.  11);  but  they  invaded  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  his  succe.ssor,  Jehoram 
(xxi.  16),  and  also  in  that  of  Ahaz  (xxviii. 
IS).  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah  sueeessfully  in- 
vaded Philistia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  8  ;  2  t'hron. 
xxvi.  6,  7).  Judgment  against  them  is  fre- 
<|uently  threatened  by  the  i)ro]ihets  (Is.  xi. 
14  :  Jer.  xxv.  20  ;  xlvii.  1-7  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  15- 
17;  Amos  1.  6-8;  Obad.  19;  Zeph.  ii.  4,  5; 
Zech.  ix.  5-7).  Many  Philistines  accompa- 
nied Gorgias,  the  Syrian  general  of  Antiochus 
Epil)haues,  in  his  invasion  of  Judah  (1  Mac. 
iii.  41).  Judas  Maccaliu-us  afterwards  cap- 
tured Azotus  (Ashdod)  and  other  Philistine 
cities  (v.  68).  Jonathan  Maccaba'us  burnt 
Azotus,  with  the  temple  of  Dagon,  and  the 
city  of  Ashkelon  (x.  83-89).  He  also  burnt 
the  sul)urbs  of  Gaza,  but  took  no  further 
hostile  measures,  as  the  city  itself  was  sur- 
rendered on  his  demand  (xi.  60,  61).  The 
I'hilistines  are  not  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  N.  T.,  and  seem  ultimately  to  have 
merged  in  the  Jewish  nation. 

TJie  Mediterranean  is  once  called  the  sea 
of  the  Philistines  (Ex.  xxiii.  31). 

Phi-lol'o-gus  [fond  of  words]. 
A  Christian  at  Kome,  apjiarently  the  head 
of  a  Christian  household  (Uoni.  xvi.  1.")). 

Phi-los'o-phy  [love  of  wisdom]. 

The  sjiirit  of  ])ure  philoso])hy,  which  seeks 
to  ])cnctrate  to  the  essence  of  things  in  them- 
selves, is  foreign  to  the  Eastern  mind.  The 
great  distinction  between  Eastern  and  West- 
ern ])hiloso])hy  has  been  historically  that 
oriental  reasoning  remained  in  the  sphere  of 
religion  and  was  never  divorced  from  reli- 
gious axioms,  whik;  occidental  investigation 
came  to  be  conducted,  even  by  profoundly 
religious  minds,  Iti  a  far  wider  s])here  thaii 
religion  and  by  the  leason  unassisted  by  the 
postulates  of  religion.  Moral  philosojjliy 
has  characterized  the  East,  metaiiliysics  the 
West.  For  the  bihlical  student  the  contrast 
between  ({reek  and  Hebrew  thought,  tlieir 
.se])arate  development,  their  eventual  contact, 
and  tlieir  mutual  inllucnce  are  important. 
The  Hebrew  mind  reflected  on  the  view  of 
the  world  which  is  presented  by  rt^velation. 
It  drew  wisdom  froTu  the  experience  t)f 
former  generations,  which  was  handed  down 
by  tiie  ancients,  from  o))serva(ion  of  human 
life  and  tiie  results  of  conduct,  and  from  the 
study  of  the  adaptations  of  nature  to  an  end. 
It  thus  gained  triu'  ))rii;cii)les  for  the  govern- 
ment of  conduct,  it  sought  to  discover  to 
what  extent  religious  truth  was  ajiitroved  by 
the  test  of  human  ex|)eriencc,  and  it  wrestled 
with  the  i)aradoxes  of  the  moral  govei-ument 
of  God,  especially  with  the  (piestion  of  the 


snfTerings  of  the  ri'ihteous  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  wicked.  Prom  these  varied  source^ 
and  manifold  investigations  the  Hebrew  wise 
man  was  continued  in  the  conviction  that 
the  fear  of  (iod  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
Hebrew  philosophy,  or  wisdom  as  the  Bil)le 
calls  it,  received  a  great  imiiulse  through  the 
interest  of  Solomon,  who  both  gathered  the 
maxims  of  other  men,  and  out  of  his  own 
shrewd  observation  and  varied  experience 
gave  utterance  to  new  proverbs.  The  prov- 
erbs of  Solomon  largely  concern  conduct  in 
relation  to  the  individual  and  to  God,  such 
as  chastity,  tem))erance  in  meat  and  drink, 
self-control,  honesty,  suretyship,  behavior  in 
the  presence  of  the  mighty.  From  these 
things  Hebrew  thought  proceeded  to  view 
morality  in  larger  relations.  From  the  con- 
sideration of  a])parent  exceptions  to  its  con- 
clusions, it  advanced  to  moral  questions,  and 
looked  u])on  events  not  in  their  immediate 
personal  results,  but  in  the  light  of  their  effect 
upon  posterity  and  of  divine  retribution  in 
time  to  come.  The  Hebrew  ])hilosoi)her  further 
studied  nature,  and  saw  that  a  divine  ])ur- 
pose  exists  everywhere  (Ps.  civ.  24).  Every- 
where is  the  impress  of  thought.  Intelli- 
gence is  involved  in  the  creation  and  preser- 
vation of  the  universe  (Prov.  iii.  19).  He 
found  wisdom  to  be  an  attribute  of  (iod. 
which  is  everywhere  revealed  in  nature.  It 
existed  before  God  proceeded  to  create.  He 
personified  Avisdom  (Prov.  i.  20-33;  viii.  12), 
and  represented  it  existing  from  everlasting, 
as  brought  forth  before  the  creation  of  the 
world,  present  with  God  when  he  established 
heaven  and  earth,  ordained  to  rule  in  the 
created  universe  (viii.  22-31 ;  Job  xxviii.  12- 
27).  Wisdom  was  not  itself  a  person,  but  it  was 
looked  u]tonasol)jectiveto(Tod,  as  "the  reflec- 
tion of  God's  T>lan  of  the  world,"  asthe  princi- 
ple which  God  ordained  for  the  world.  By  later 
writers  the  tliought  was  develo])ed  and  wis- 
dom was  still  further  distinguished  from  (iod 
(Wisd.  vii.  22-viii.  5  ;  ix.  4.  9) ;  see  Wisdom. 
Greek  jihilosoithy  is  usually  said  to  begin 
with  Thales  about  640  B.  c.  Three  main 
periods  are  distinguished:  1.  The  pre-So- 
cratic  schools  which  arose  among  the  Greek 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor.  The  great  sulyect 
of  inquiry  was  the  constitutioTi  of  the  uni- 
verse. Is  there  one  underlying  element; 
such  as  moisture,  or  the  subtle  and  all-per- 
vading air,  or  one  eternal,  infinite,  immova- 
ble, unchangeable  Being,  or  the  instantaneous 
balance  of  ])owerV  2.  The  Socratic  schools 
reju-esented  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
4()9-322  B.  c.  Athens  was  the  center  of 
l)hilosophic  thought,  and  inquiry  was  di- 
rected to  ideas,  form  (or  essence)  of  things. 
But  it  was  not  a  barren  metajdiysics  that 
was  cultivated  ;  a  lofty  morality  was  incul- 
cated. Socrates  used  inductive  reasoning  by 
which  he  sought  to  discover  the  permanent 
clement  underlying  the  changing  forms  of 
appearances  and  opinions;  and  the  truth 
which  he  I  bus  discovered  he  attemjited  to  fix 


Philosophy 


609 


Phoenicia 


} 


byageneral  definitionorstatement.  Aristotle 
allowed  absolute  authority  to  the  reason  alone, 
and  accepted  nothing  which  he  could  not 
])rove  by  logic.  3.  The  post-Socratic  schools. 
Philosojihy  had  culminated  in  Aristotle,  and 
discussion  reverted  to  ethics  founded  on  met- 
aphysics. Epicurus,  342-270  B.  c,  declared 
that  the  character  of  actions  is  determined 
by  their  result,  and  that  itermanent  pleasure 
is  the  highest  good.  Zeno  the  Stoic,  about 
308  B.  c,  taught  that  moral  character  resides 
in  the  act  itself,  independent  of  the  result; 
and  inculcated  the  obligation  _  of  absolute 
obedience  to  the  commands  of*  duty.  The 
Skeptics  taught  that  certainty  is  not  attain- 
able in  human  knowledge ;  and  early  mem- 
bers of  the  school  held  that  when  we  are 
convinced  that  we  can  know  nothing,  we 
cease  to  care,  and  in  this  way  attain  ha])pi- 
uess. 

Alexander  the  Great  died  in  ,323  B.  c,  and 
Aristotle  in  .322.  Thus  when  Greek  ])hiloso])hy 
had  reached  its  climax,  Greek  culture  began 
to  be  introduced  into  Palestine  and  among 
the  Jews  of  the  disjiersion.  Epicureanism 
and  Stoicism  were  developed  in  (4reece  during 
the  period  of  the  first  close  contact  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  but  they  exercised  little  influ- 
ence on  Hel)rew  thought  compared  with  the 
]iower  exerted  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The 
influence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  seen  in 
the  Sadducees  jjerhaps.  who  seem  like  Aris- 
totle to  have  rejected  everything  which  un- 
aided reason  did  not  teach,  although  they  pro- 
fessed to  be  governed  by  a  different  principle. 
The  influence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  seen 
in  the  Alexandrian  school  of  Jewish  thinkers, 
whose  prominent  re])resentative  was  Pbilo,  a 
contem]ioraTy  of  Christ.  They  held  to  the 
teaching  of  Moses;  but  at  the  same  time 
they  took  what  they  a]»itroved  of  in  (4reek 
]>hilosoi>hy,  learning  especially  from  divine 
Plato,  and  endeavored  to  show  that  it  was 
already  taught  in  the  O.  T.  They  combined 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  .sage  and  of  Moses 
into  a  new  system,  and  removed  inconsisten- 
cies by  arbitrarily  allegorizing  Scripture,  even 
down  to  its  geography.  The  influence  of  the 
Greek  philosophy  was  seen  in  the  improved 
methods  and  enlarged  scojie  of  debate.  Paul 
advances  a  formal  philosojihic  argument  in 
Ins  address  in  the  midst  of  the  Areopagus  and 
in  the  beginning  of  his  Epistle  to  the  lvt)nians 
(Acts  xvii.  30;  Eom.  i.  19,  20).  The  influ- 
ence of  Greek  ]ihilosoi>hy  was  seen  further 
in  borrowed  ideas,  such  as  the  preexisteuce 
of  the  soul  (Wisdom  viii.  19,  20)  ;  in  new 
words  and  new  content  of  words,  as  in  the 
use  of  the  word  form  in  the  Aristotelian 
sense  of  essence  or  sum  total  of  attributes 
(Phil.  ii.  G)  ;  and  in  nice  di.scrimination  of 
thought  and  precision  of  definition.  Gnostic 
si)eculations  later  came  from  the  East ;  and 
the  attempt  to  combine  Gnosticism  with 
Christianity  led  Paul  to  combat  it  by  pre- 
senting the  true  relation  of  Christ  to  God 
and  the  world  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
39 


PMn'e-has,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  Phinees 
[perliajis  Egy])tian,  pa-nehsi,  the  negro 
(Petrie)].  A  Hebrew  etymology  is  not  ap- 
parent. 

1.  Son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron 
(Ex.  vi.  25).  He  ran  a  s])ear  through  an 
Israelite  and  a  Midianite  woman  who  had 
come  into  the  camp  at  Shittim  together,  thi.s 
stimmary  i>unishment  terminating  a  i)laguc 
which  was  then  raging  as  a  judgnunt  against 
tlie  idolatries  and  im])uriti('s  into  whiih  the 
Midianitish  women  were  leading  the  He- 
brews. An  everlasting  jiriesthood  was  there- 
fore promised  to  him  and  his  descendants 
(Num.  XXV.  1  18;  Ps.  cvi.  .30;  1  Mac.  ii.  .'■)4). 
With  a  short  interru])tion  when  the  house  of 
Eli,  of  the  lineage  of  Ithamar,  officiated  as 
high  priests,  Phiuehas  and  his  sons  held  the 
office  until  sacrifice  ceased  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  tem])]e  l)y  the  Ro- 
mans in  A.  D.  70.  Phiuehas  went  as  priest 
with  tl.e  army  on  the  punitive  exjieditiou 
against  the  Midianites  (Num.  xxxi.  fi),  and 
was  sent  with  ten  princes  to  remonstrate  vvitli 
the  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  on  their  erection 
of  an  altar,  erroneously  supjiosed  to  be  for 
schismatic  worshi})  (Josh.  xxii.  13).  He  re- 
ceived as  his  share  of  the  ])romised  land  a 
hill  in  mount  Epliraim  (xxiv.  33).  Through 
him  the  Israelites  iiujuired  of  the  Ix)rd 
Avhether  they  should  attack  the  Beujaniites 
for  condoning  the  sin  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  28). 

2.  The  younger  of  Eli's  two  degenerate 
sons.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  with  the 
Philistines  in  which  the  ark  of  God  was 
taken  ;  and  when  the  news  of  the  catas- 
tro]ihe  arrived,  they  so  affected  the  feelings 
of  his  wife  that  the  pains  of  jireniature 
childbirth  came  upon  her,  and  she  died  (1 
Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  .34;  iv.  11,  19-22). 

3.  Father  of  a  certain  Eleazar  (Ezra  viii. 
33),  evidently  a  priest. 

Phle'gon  [burning,  .scorching]. 
A   Christian   at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.   14). 

Phoe'be,  in  A.  V.  Phebe  [pure,  bright, 
radiant]. 

A  servant  or  deaconess  of  the  church  at 
Ceuchrea>,  the  eastern  j-ort  of  Corintli.  On 
her  removing  to  Rome,  I'aul  cordially  com- 
mended her  to  the  Christians  there  ;  for  she 
had  been  a  hel])er  or  patron  of  many,  a  term 
which  may  imply  that  she  made  it  a  duty  to 
stand  by  foreigners  in  their  civic  helplessness 
(Rom.  xvi.  1,  2).     See  De.\coxess. 

Phoe-ni'ci-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Phenicia  (Acts 
xxi.  2),  and  twice  Phenice  (xi.  19;  xv.  3) 
[Greek,  land  of  the  date  jialm,  or  of  purple 
dyeing,  or  of  dark  skinned  i)eoi)le]. 

A  narrow  strip  of  territory  between  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west  and  on  the 
east  the  crest  of  the  Lebanon  range  and  the 
detached  hills  running  south  from  it.  The 
northern  limit  may  be  regarded  as  .\rvad. 
Southward,  after  the  settlement  of  the  He- 


Phoenix 


610 


Pi-beseth 


brews  on  the  coast,  Phoenicia  practically 
terminated  at  the  Ladder  of  Tyre,  about  14 
miles  south  of  Tyre,  although  I'hoeniciaiis 
still  dwelt  in  Achzib  and  Accho  ( Judg.  i.  31). 
In  the  time  of  Christ  Phcenicia  extended 
southward  as  far  as  Dor.  about  16  miles  south 
of  C'armel.  The  di.stance  from  Arvad  to  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre  is  about  125  miles.  The 
chief  cities  were  Tyre  and  Sidon,  of  which 
Sidon  was  the  first  to  rise  to  celebrity.  Phoe- 
nicia Avas  called  Canaan  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews (Is.  xxiii.  11),  and  its  inhabitants  were 
reckoned  as  Canaanites  and  clas.sed  with  the 
Hamitic  peoples  (Cen.  x.  15).  This  classifi- 
cation makes  probable,  but  does  not  neces- 
sarily imjdy,  that  they  were  of  Hamitic 
blood.  According  to  their  own  tradition, 
they  had  migrated  from  the  Erythra'an  Sea, 
l)y  way  of  Syria,  to  the  coast  of  Canaan 
(Herod,  i.  1 ;  vii.  89).  According  to  Arabian 
authors,  the  migration  was  across  the  north- 
ern Arabian  desert.  The  Phcenicians  thus 
traced  their  origin  to  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  an  early  abode  of  the  Ham- 
itic race.  In  course  of  time  they  adopted 
the  Semitic  language.  The  territory  which 
the  Phoenicians  inhar)ited  had  good  natural 
harbors;  mount  Lebanon  afibrded  them  an 
almost  inexhaustible  sujjply  of  timber,  with 
which  ships  were  constructed,  and  they  be- 
came the  most  skillful  navigators  known  to 
antiquity.  They  not  merely  traded  with  dis- 
tant countries  accessible  by  Mediterranean 
routes,  but  they  colonized  sjiots  favorable  for 
commerce,  some  of  which  afterwards  rose 
into  importance.  Their  most  celebrated 
colony  was  Carthage,  on  the  African  coast, 
near  modern  Tunis,  which  was  long  a  rival 
of  Eome,  by  which  it  was  at  last  destrf)yed. 
Of  the  Carthaginian  leaders  who  figured  in 
the  Punic  wars,  some,  if  not  all,  had  names 
purely  Phcenician,  and  almost  Hebrew. 
Thus,  Hannibal  means  the  grace  of  Baal, 
and  Hasdrubal.  a  help  is  Baal.  When  our 
Lord  visited  the  cfiasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  he 
was  within  the  Phoenician  territory  (Mat. 
XV.  21 ;  Mark  vii.  24,  31).  Various  Christians 
who  were  scattered  abroad,  owing  to  the  per- 
secution which  followed  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen,  found  their  way  to  Phcenicia  (Acts 
xi.  19).  Paul  and  Barnabas  went  through  it 
on  their  way  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  (xv. 
3).  Paul,  on  his  last  voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
sailed  in  a  Pha-nician  vessel,  which  brought 
him  to  Tyre  (xxi.  2,  3).  See  Tykk,  Baal, 
Jkzkdel,  and  Hiram. 

Phoe'nix,  in  A.  V.  Phe-ni'ce  [date  palm]. 

A  haven  in  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  12),  safe 
throughout  the  year  because  the  entrance  to 
its  harbor  opens  toward  the  northeast  and 
southeast  (K.  ^'.,  cp.  text  and  margin).  It  is 
now  called  Lutro,  and  is  the  only  harbor  on 
the  .soutli  of  Crete  which  is  safe  at  every 
season  of  the  year. 

Phryg'i-a. 

A  large  and    important   province  of  Asia 


Minor,  which,  after  its  original  boundaries- 
were  curtailed  by  the  disseverance  from  it 
of  (Talatia,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bithynia  ;  on  the  south  by  Lycia,  Pisidia, 
and  Isauria  ;  on  the  east  by  Lycaonia  and 
Galatia ;  and  on  the  west  by  Caria,  Lydia, 
and  Mysia.  The  region  is  a  high  table-land  be- 
tween the  chain  of  Taurus  on  the  south,  Olym- 
pus on  the  north,  and  Temiius  on  the  west.  Of 
its  towns,  four  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T., 
Laodicea,  Colosste,  Hierai)olis,  and  Antioch  of 
Pisidia,  which  is  reckoned  by  Strabo  to 
Phrygia.  At  this  period  Phrygia  had  ceased 
to  be  a  province  and  was  merely  a  local 
name.  Antiochus  the  Great  settled  2000 
Jewish  families  from  Babylonia  and  Meso- 
potamia in  Lydia  and  Phrygia  (Antiq.  xii.  3, 
4),  and  Jews  from  Phrygia  were  present  at 
Jerusalem  on  that  day  of  Pentecost  signal- 
ized by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spii'it  (Acts 
ii.  10).  Phrygia  was  traversed  by  Paul  on 
his  second  and  third  missionary  journeys 
(Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23). 

Phu'rah.     See  Pueah. 

Phut.     See  Put. 

Phu'vah.     See  Puvah. 

Phyg'e-lus,  in  A.  V.  Phy-gel'lus. 

A  Christian  in  the  province  of  Asia  who, 
with  others,  deserted  the  apostle  Paul  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  (2  Tim.  i.  15). 

Phy-lac'te-ry  [a  safeguard,  an  amulet]. 

A  prayer  band  consisting  of  short  extracts 
from  the  law  of  Mo.ses,  and  worn  on  the  fore- 
head or  on  the  arm  (Mat.  xxiii.  5).  The 
phylactery  eventually  assumed  the  form  of 
a  small  case,  made  of  parchment  or  black 
sealskin.  Tlie  one  for  the  forehead  con- 
tained four  eompartments,  in  each  of  which 
was  placed  a  strip  of  parchment  inscribed 
with  a  passage  of  Scripture.  The  four  pas- 
.sages  were  Ex.  xiii.  2-10,  11-17  ;  Deut.  vi. 
4-9;  xi.  13-21.  It  was  fastened  with  straps 
on  the  forehead,  just  above  and  between  the 
eyes.  The  other  case,  which  was  bound  on 
the  left  arm,  contained  but  one  compart- 
ment, in  which  a  strip  of  parchment  was 
placed  bearing  the  same  four  quotations  from 
the  law.  The  first  three  ot  these  were  in- 
terpreted as  enjoining  the  custom,  but  are 
ratiier  to  be  understood  figui-atively  (see 
Frontlet).  Phylacteries  are  worn  by  every 
male  Jew  during  the  time  of  morning  prayer, 
except  on  the  Sabbath  and  festivals,  which 
days  are  themselves  signs  and  render  phj^- 
lacteries  unnecessary  (cp.  Ex.  xiii.  9). 

Phy-si'cian.     See  Medicine. 

Pi-be'seth  [Egyptian,  Pa-bast,  abode  of  the 

goddess  Bast]. 

An  Egyptian  city  (Ezek.xxx.  17),  in  Greek 
form  written  Buba.stos  or  Bubastis  (Herod, 
ii.  59,  137).  It  is  now  called  Tell  Basta,  and 
is  on  the  delta  near  Zaga/.ig,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile.  It 
is  about  45  miles  northeast  by  north  of  mod- 
ern Cairo,  and  30  southwest  by  south  of  an- 


Piece 


611 


Pilate 


cient  Zoau.  Among  the  ruins  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  once  splendid  tenijile  of  red  gran- 
ite, dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  tlie  place. 

Piece. 

In  O.  T.,  -when  ]>iece  refers  to  money  and 
is  not  italicized,  it  denotes  a  certain  amount 
of  precious  metal,  whether  coined  or  un- 
coined (Gen.  xxxiii.  19 ;  1  fSam.  ii.  36)  The 
word  piece  was  chosen  hy  the  translators  be- 
cause it  is  vague,  and  they  did  not  know  the 
value  of  the  money  indicated  by  the  several 
Hebrew  words.  Piece  is  also  employed  by  the 
translators,  where  the  unit  of  weight  or  the 
coin  is  not  exi)ressly  mentioned  by  the  He- 
brew writer,  but  where  he  ordinarily  means 
a  shekel  (Judg.  xvii.  2  ;  2  Sam.  xviii.  11,  in 
A.  V.  shekel;  cp.  Dent.  xxii.  19;  1  Kin.  x. 
29,  where  both  versions  have  shekel).  In  N. 
T.  also  a  piece  of  silver  commonly  denotes 
the  shekel  or  its  equivalent  (Mat.  xxvi.  15 
with  xxvii.  9  and  Zech.  xi.  12)  ;  but  in  Luke 
XV.  8  it  is  a  drachma,  worth  about  16  cents. 

Pi'e-ty. 

Filial  pietv,  dutifulncss  in  the  family  (1 
Tim.  V.  4). 

Pi'geon.     See  Dove. 

Pi-ha-hi'rotli  [probably,  hou.se  or  place  of 
sedge]. 

The  last  station  of  the  Israelites  on  leav- 
ing Egypt,  near  Baal-zephon  and  Migdol.and 
on  the  sea  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  8). 
The  site  is  disputed.  Brugsch  regards  the 
name  as  Hebrew,  which  then  might  mean 
mouth  of  the  caverns;  and  he  identities  it 
with  the  Serbonian  bog,  which  the  Greeks 
called  Karathra,  and  at  the  bottom  of  which 
they  represented  the  monster  Typhon  as 
lying.  But  the  name  is  doubtless  Egyp- 
tian. Keil  asserts  that  it  has  incontest- 
ably  been  preserved  in  'Ajrud,  on  the 
Pilgrim  road,  about  16  miles  northwest  of 
Suez.  But  the  two  names  have  only  one 
letter  in  common.  Naville  identifies  it  with 
Pikerehet,  or  Pikeheret,  near  Pithom  (((.  v.). 
Not  merely  is  there  a  similarity  of  sound, 
but  Pharaoh  had  a  farm  there  ;  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  instead  of  "before  Pi-hahiroth,"  in- 
.serts  "before  the  farm."  The  city  was  an 
important  one,  which  disputed  with  Pithom 
the  honor  of  being  the  capital  of  the  eighth 
nome,  or  district,  of  Lower  Egypt.  Its  spe- 
cial deity  was  O.siris.  Naville  believes  that 
itwasthesame])laceas  Serapiu.  or  Serapeum, 
the  only  known  sanctuary  of  Osiris  in  that 
region.  Two  roads  ran  from  it:  the  one 
to  Clusma.  9  miles  off.  the  other  to  Pelusium. 

Pi'late  [armed  with  a  javelin,  or  wearing 
the  piln.i  or  felt  cap  which  was  worn  by  a 
manumitted  slave  as  the  emblem  of  liberty]. 

Pontius  Pilate,  fifth  Roman  procurator  in 
Judiea  after  the  deposition  of  Arclielaus  in 
A.  D.  6.  See  Procurator.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  Sejanus  he  was  ajipointed  by  the 
emperor  Tiberius  procurator  of  Judsea  about 
A.  D.  26,   in  succession  to  Valerius  Grains. 


He  arrived  in  Judtea  the  same  year.  lie  was 
accompanied  by  his  wife  (Mat.  xxvii.  19). 
For  a  long  time  it  was  illegal  for  a  IJonian 
governor  who  was  a]>p<>iiited  to  a  dangerous 
province  to  take  his  wife  witJi  him,  but  since 
the  time  of  Augustus  it  was  permitted  (Taci- 
tus, Ann.  iii.  33). 

Pilate  sent  a  detachment  of  troops  into 
Jerusalem  by  night,  carrying  with  them 
their  ensigns,  which  had  hitherto  always  been 
left  outside  the  city.  On  these  ensigns  were 
silver  eagles  and  small  images  of  the  em- 
peror, and  they  gave  great  offense  to  the 
Jews.  I)e])utations  went  to  Csesarea,  the 
oflicial  residence  of  the  procurators,  to  urge 
the  removal  of  the  ensigns,  and  Pilate,  after 
in  vain  attemjiting  to  intimidate  the  peti- 
ti(mers,  was  obliged  at  last  to  comply  with 
their  request  (Antiq.  xviii.  3,  1  ;  War  ii.  9, 
2  and  3).  Some  time  afterwards,  taking 
the  sacred  money  called  Corban,  he  be- 
gan to  exjiend  it  in  making  an  aqueduct 
to  bring  water  into  Jerusalem  from  the  up- 
lands south  of  the  capital.  The  Jews  con- 
sidered that  this  was  applying  to  secular  uses 
money  which  had  been  dedicated  to  God ; 
and  on  Pilate's  visiting  Jerusalem  they  beset 
his  tribunal  with  much  clamor  and  tumult. 
Having  been  told  beforehand  that  such  an 
occurrence  was  likely  to  happen,  he  had 
taken  the  precaution  of  mingling  his  soldiers 
in  disguise  among  the  multitude,  armed  with 
sticks,  if  not  with  concealed  daggers.  Wlien 
the  tumult  was  at  its  height  he  gave  them  a 
signal  to  attack  the  rioters  with  the  sticks, 
which  they  did  so  vigorously  that  some  were 
killed,  and  the  rest,  fleeing  in  panic,  tram- 
pled many  of  their  numl)er  to  death.  The 
riot  seems  not  to  have  been  renewed,  and 
the  aqueduct  was  made ;  but  the  aflair  in- 
creased the  disfavor  with  which  the  people 
regarded  Pilate  (Antiq.  xviii.  3.  2:  War  ii.  9, 
4).  Pilate  attempted  to  dedicate  some  gilt 
shields  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tilierius  and 
place  them  within  Herod's  palace  at  Jerusa- 
lem. They  were  inscribed  with  the  imperial 
name,  but  were  without  the  imperial  jiortrait. 
Still  they  gave  oflense.  The  people  apjitaled 
to  him  in  vain  to  for])ear.  Then  the  influ- 
ential men  of  the  city  forwarded  a  petition 
to  the  emjieror,  who  ordered  Pilate  to  take 
the  shields  back  again  to  f'a'sarea  (Philo, 
Legat.  ad  Caium  xxxviii.).  In  narrating  this 
event.  Pliilo,  or  rather  Agrippa  I.,  in  a  letter 
which  Philo  cites,  describes  Pilate  as  a  man 
of  inflexi])le  disposition,  and  merciless,  as 
well  as  obstinate.  He  also  says  that  he  feared 
they  might  complain  to  the  emperor  about 
Pilate  in  respect  to  his  corruption  and  his 
acts  of  violence,  and  his  habit  of  insulting 
people,  and  his  cruelty,  and  his  continual 
execution  of  peojyle  untried  and  uncon- 
demned,  his  never-ending  and  gratuitous 
and  most  grievous  inhumanity.  Pilate  was 
in  office  when  John  the  Baptist  and  our 
Lord  began  their  respective  ministries  (Luke 
iii.  1).     It  was  the  custom  of  the  ]irocurators 


Pilate 


612 


Pinnacle 


to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  when  the  immense 
gatherings  took  place  at  the  leading  Jewish 
festivals.  On  these  occasions  they  took  up 
their  residence  in  the  palace  of  Herod.  It 
was  probably  at  one  of  these  that  Pilate  fell 
upon  the  Galilseans,  and  mingled  their  blood 
with  their  sacrifices  (Luke  xiii.  J,  2).  The 
Galilteans  were  a  turbulent  class  of  men, 
prone  to  misbehave  wlien  they  came  u])  to  the 
festivals  (Antiq.  xvii.  10,  2  and  9).  There  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  Pilate  would  have 
treated  them  as  he  did  unless  they  had  first 
broken  out  into  riot.  It  is  probable  that 
Herod  Antijias  took  oflfense  at  the  summary 
way  in  which  his  subjects  were  slain  by 
Pilate  on  this  occasion  ;  but  whatever  may 
have  been  the  originof  the  variance  ))etween 
the  two,  Herod's  ill-will  was  ajipeascd  by 
Pilate's  acknowledgment  of  the  tetrarch's 
jurisdiction  in  Galilsean  affairs  (Luke  xxiii. 
6-12)  on  the  day  when  our  Lord  was  put  to 
death. 

The  character  of  Pilate,  which  these 
various  incidents  of  his  otficial  career  reveal, 
is  seen  in  his  treatment  of  Jesus  also.  Pilate 
was  a  worldling  willing  enough  to  act  justly 
if  this  could  be  done  consistently  with  his 
interests,  and  to  avoid  criminal  acts  provided 
that  this  could  be  done  at  small  cost ;  but  if 
heavy  payment  were  needed,  Pilate  was  not 
the  man  to  give  it.  His  secret  question  to 
himself  was  not,  What  is  my  duty?  but. 
What  is  my  interest  ?  He  acquitted  our  Lord 
of  evil,  was  desirous  of  releasing  him,  and 
was  aware  that  justice  required  that  this 
should  be  done ;  but  he  knew  also  that  it 
■would  further  increase  his  unpopularity  ;  so 
to  please  the  Jewish  people,  he  gave  orders  to 
scourge  him  in  whom  he  had  just  before  de- 
clared that  he  had  found  no  crime.  He 
allowed  the  Roman  soldiers,  whom  a  single 
word  from  him  would  have  restrained,  to 
inflict  new  tortures  on  the  already  lacerated 
body  of  Jesus,  and  after  many  more  insults 
and  injuries  to  the  uncom]ilaining  sufierer, 
finally  answered  the  Jewish  clamors  for  the 
crucifixion  of  the  Son  of  God  by  giving  sen- 
tence that  it  should  be  as  they  required 
(Mat.  xxvii.;   Luke  xxiii.). 

Pilate's  gov(UMniK'nt  ended  abruptly.  A 
Siunaritan  iiiiiiostor  i)ruiiiis('(l  liis  country- 
nieu  tliat,  if  lliey  would  go  to  the  top  of 
mount  (Toriziui.  he  woukl  show  them  where 
Moses  liad  liidden  certain  golden  vessels  of 
the  tahernaiile.  Moses  never  was  at  mount 
Gcri/.iui;  hi^  had  not  crossed  the  Jordan; 
yet  a  di'luded  multitude  gathered  at  a  village 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  in  order  to  go  up. 
Unfortunately  they  carried  arms.  Pilate, 
llicrefore,  seized  all  the  ways  to  Geriziin 
with  horseuien  and  foot  soldiers,  attacked 
the  mass  of  the  ])rofessed  treasure-seekers, 
slew  many,  and  made  prisoners  of  others  and 
.sent  them  to  execution.  The  Samaritans 
forwarded  a  complaint  against  Pilate  to  his 
immediate  superior,  Vitcllius,  ])r('si(l('nt  of 
Syria.     Vitellius  appointed  a  new  procurator, 


and  ordered  Pilate  to  proceed  to  Rome  to 
answer  to  the  emperor  for  his  conduct. 
Before  Pilate  arrived  Tiberius  had  died, 
March  Kith,  A.  D.  37(Antiq.  xviii.  4,  1  and  2). 
It  is  reported  that  Pilate  was  banished  to 
Vienne,  on  the  Rhone,  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  ultimately  committed  suicide. 

Various  Acta  Pilati,  Acts  of  Pilate,  are 
extant,  but  no  two  of  them  agree,  and  all 
are  considered  to  be  spurious. 

Pil'dasli. 

A  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Pil'ha,  in  A.  V.  Pil'e-ha  [a  slice,  plow- 
ing]. 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  24). 

Pill. 

To  take  the  skin  or  rind  off,  to  peel  (Gen. 
xxs.  38,  R.  V.  peel). 

Pil'lar. 

1.  A  stone  erected  as  a  sign  of  the  holiness 
of  a  place  (Gen.  xxviii.  18),  as  a  memorial 
of  some  person  or  event  (xxxi.  45 ;  Josh, 
iv.  5-9;  1  Sam.  vii.  12;  2  Sam.  xviii.  18; 
and  see  Garrison),  or  as  a  representa- 
tive of  parties  present  (Ex.  xxiv.  4).  Isaiah 
prophesied  that  the  time  is  coming  when 
the  converts  to  the  true  faith  in  Egypt 
shall  erect  an  altar  and  a  pillar  to  the  Lord 
(Is.  xix.  19),  as  Abraham  and  Jacob  did  of 
old  in  Canaan.  The  pillar  was  used  by  the 
heathen.  The  Canaanites  erected  pillars  in 
connection  with  the  worship  of  Baal.  The 
Israelites  were  strictly  enjoined,  in  the  oldest 
legislation,  to  break  them  and  overthrow  the 
altars  (Ex.  xxiii.  24,  R.  V.),  and  they  were  for- 
bidden to  erect  .similar  pillars  beside  the  altar 
of  the  Lord  (Dent.  xvi.  22).  Pillars,  how- 
ever, found  favor  among  the  degenerate  Is- 
raelites of  the  northern  kingdom  (Hos.iii.  4  ; 
X.  1,  2),  and  even  in  Judah  (Mic.  v.  13,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  support,  much  used  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture for  upholding  roofs  and  curtains  (Ex. 
xxvi.  32  ;  Judg.  xvi.  26).  The  earth  and  the 
heavens  were  often  spoken  of  poetically  as 
supported  by  pillars  (1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Job.  ix. 
6  ;  xxvi.  11).  Strong  men  and  fundamental 
])rinciples  are  figuratively  called  pillars  (Gal. 
ii.  9;  1  Tim.  iii.  15). 

Pil'low.     See  Bolster. 

Pil'tai  [characterized  by  deliverance]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Moadiah  in  the  days  of  the  high  ])riest  Joia- 
kim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Pine  and  Pine  Tree. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tidhar, 
the  name  of  a  tree  in  Lebanon  (Is.  xli.  19; 
l.\'.  13;  K.  V.  margin,  jilane).  It  has  not 
been  jiroperly  identified. 

2.  The  rendering  of  'Es  shemen,  oil  tree 
(Neh.  viii.  15,  in  R.  V.  wild  olive).  See  Oil 
Trek. 

Pin'na-cle. 

A  i)art  of  the  temple,  the  edge  of  which 


Pinon 


613 


Pitch 


was  at  a  great  height  above  the  ground  (Mat. 
iv.  5).  Exact  identilicatiou  is  inii>ossible. 
The  Greek  word  pterugtoH,  like  i)iinuicle 
which  is  used  to  transhite  it,  literally  iiitans 
a  little  wing  ;  and  it  denotes  the  tin  of  a  tish, 
the  border  of  a  garment,  or  the  end  of  the 
breastplate  (Lev.  xi.  9;  Num.  xv.  .38;  Ex. 
xxviii.  26,  in  Septuagiut).  It  may  be  simply 
the  edge  of  the  roof  or  court.  Liglufoot,  in- 
fluenced by  the  meaning  of  the  Greek  word, 
suggested  the  porch  which  projected  on  each 
side  of  the  temple  like  wings  {War  v.  5,  4). 
Others  have  thought  of  the  royal  porch 
which  adjoined  the  temitle  and  towered  400 
cubits  above  the  valley  of  the  Kidron  (Aiitiq. 
XV.  11,  5;  XX.  9,  7).  The  golden  sjiikes 
which  were  erected  on  the  roof  of  the  temple 
to  prevent  birds  from  alighting,  have  been 
thought  of  also  as  most  nearly  resembling 
slender  towers  or  pinnacles  in  the  modern 
sense  ;  but  they  were  many,  and  the  evangel- 
ists speak  of  the  pinnacle  as  though  there 
were  but  one  (E.  V.). 

Pi'non. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  41;  1 
Chron.  i.  r>2),  probably  catalogued  by  the 
Tiame   of    his    town    (Gen.   xxxvi.   40)  ;    see 

PUNON. 

Pipe. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  called  in  Hebrew 
halil,  pierced  instrument,  and  in  (4reek 
aalos.  It  existed  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
riie  single  pipe  or  reed  was  held  vertically 
and  blown  by  a  mouthpiece  at  the  end.  A 
ditferent  kind  was  held  and  blown  like  a 
flute.  The  double  pipe  consisted  of  right 
and  left  tubes,  which  were  blown  at  the 
same  time,  and  played  each  with  the  corre- 
sponding hand.  The  holes  of  a  pipe  num- 
bered two,  three,  or  four.  It  was  used  in 
orchestra  or  was  played  alone  (1  Sam.  x.  5 ; 
1  Kin.  i.  40),  and  it  accompanied  merry  song, 
religious  praise,  and  the  funeral  dirge  (Is.  v. 
12;  XXX.  29;  Mat.  ix.  23;  xi.  17).  See 
Music. 

2.  A  wind  instrument  of  ancient  origin, 
called  'ugnb  (Gen.  iv.  21),  which  was  used 
in  merrymaking  (Job  xxi.  12;  xxx.  .31),  and 
was  deemed  worthy  of  employment  in  the 
praise  of  God  (Ps.  cl.  4).  According  to  the 
Targums  it  was  a  pipe.  The  Vulgate  and  in 
Ps.  cl.  the  Septuagiut  explain  it  as  a  wind 
instrument,  the  organon.  The  A.  V.  always 
ti"anslates  it  organ,  doubtless  in  the  sense  of 
mouth  organ  or  set  of  pipes.  The  E.  V.  uni- 
formly renders  it  pipe. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  nekeh  (Ezek.  xxviii. 
13)  denotes  a  pierced  instrument  (E.  V.  pipe) 
or  a  perforated  gem. 

Pi'ram  [like  a  wild  ass,  swift]. 

A  Canaanite  king  of  Jarmuth,  one  of  those 
defeated  by  Joshua  before  Gibeou  (Jo.sh.  x.  3). 

Pir'a-thon,  in  E.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.  .'■)OPliara- 
thon  [nakedness,  prominence].  In  A.  V.  of 
1  Mac.  the  adjective  Pharathoui  is  used. 

A  town  in  the  mount  of  the  Amalekites, 


in  the  E|)hraimite  territory.  Abdon,  the 
judge,  and  Benaiah,  the  military  ofticial, 
were  Pirathonites  (Judg.  xii.  13-15;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  30  ;  1  Chron.  xxvii.  14).  It  was  forti- 
fied by  Bacchides  (1  Mac.  ix.  .'iO ;  cji.  Antit). 
xiii.  1,  3).  Eobinson  identified  it  j)lausibly 
with  Fer'ata,  on  a  hill  about  fi  miles  west  by 
south  of  Shechem.  Conder  suggests  Fer'on, 
1 1  miles  west  by  north  of  Shechem  ;  see 
Ophrah. 

Pis'gah  [a  part,  piece,  division]. 

That  ])art  of  the  Abarini  range  of  moun- 
tains near  the  northeastern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1  with  iii.  27  and  xxxii. 
49).  The  Dead  Sea  was  under  its  slopes 
(Deut.  iii.  17).  Its  top  looked  down  upon  the 
desert  (Num.  xxi.  20).  The  field  of  Zo]ihim  on 
its  top  was  visited  by  Balaam  and  Balak  (xxiii. 
14).  From  its  summit,  called  Nebo,  a  large 
part  of  Canaan  west  of  the  Jordan  was  visi- 
ble, and  from  it  Moses  viewed  the  promised 
land  (Deut.  iii.  27;  xxxiv.  1-4)  ;  see  Nebo. 
It  was  on  the  southern  border  of  the 
realm  of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites 
(Josh.  xii.  2,  3).  As  late  as  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius,  the  mountainous  country  adjacent  to 
mount  Peor  was  called  Phasgo.  But  the 
name  is  no  longer  attached  to  the  eastern 
mountains,  but  seems  to  linger  in  the  rocky 
headland,  Eas  el-Feshkah,  on  the  opposite 
ide  of  the  sea. 

Pl'shon.    See  Eden. 

Pi-sid'i-a. 

A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Phrygia ;  on  the  south  by  Lycia 
and  Pamphylia ;  on  the  east  by  Lycaonia ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Caria.  It  formed  a  part 
of  the  Eoman  province  of  Galatia.  The 
mountain  chain  of  Taurus  runs  through  it, 
and  its  turbulent  inhabitants  were  so  brave 
that  they  were  never  entirely  subdued  either 
by  the  Persians  or  by  the  Eonians.  Its  chief 
town  Avas  Antioch,  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
14). 

Pi'son.     See  Eden. 

Pis'pah. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Jether  (1  Chron.  vii. 
38). 

Pit. 

A  large  deep  hole  in  the  ground.  It  may 
be  either  natural  or  artificial  (Gen.  xiv.  10; 
xxxvii.  20,  24). 

Figuratively  it  is  used  for  the  grave  er 
deatli  (.lob  xxxiii.  18,  24),  and  it  is  employed 
thrice  to  render  sh^'olCSww.  xvi.  30,  33;  Job 
xvii.  16) ;  see  She«)L  and  Abyss. 

Pitch. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kopher. 
covering.  The  ark  of  Noah  was  daubed 
over  with  it,  to  render  the  jniution  of 
wooden  planks  imj)ervious  to  water  (Gen.  vi. 
14).  It  was  ])robably  as])halt  from  Hit,  in 
Babylonia.     See  HiTiMEN. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Zepheth, 


Pitcher 


614 


Plague 


liiliiitl.  The  ark  of  Moses  was  covered  over 
with  it  (Exod.  ii.  3).  The  streams  in  the 
land  of  Edoni  were  to  become  ])itch  of  this 
character  (Is.  sxxiv.  9).  Tlie  last  passage 
suggests  that  it  also  was  asphalt  from  some 
locality.  See  Bitumen. 
Pitch'er. 

A  water  jar  of  earthenware  (cp.  Judg.  vii. 
19),  in  the  East  generally  having  one  or  two 
handles.  See  Jar,  and  the  illustrations, 
Jacob  and  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  article 
Jerusalem. 

Pi'thom  [Egyptian  pa-tum,  abode  of  Turn 
{Turn  being  the  setting  sun,  worshiped  by 
the  Egyptians  as  a  god)]. 

One  of  the  two  store  cities  which  the 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Egypt  built 
for  Pharaoh  (Exod.  i.  11).  Excavations, 
made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Egyptian 
Exploration  Fund,  by  Edouard  Naville  at 
Tell  el-Maskhuta,  showed  this  to  be  the 
ancient  Pithom.  It  is  on  the  south  side  of 
the  sweet-water  canal  which  runs  from  Cairo 
to  Suez  through  the  wady  Tumilat.  There 
seems  to  have  been  at  the  spot  an  ancient 
shrine  dedicated  to  Tum  ;  but  inscriptions 
dug  up  indicate  that  the  city  and  fortifica- 
tions did  not  come  into  existence  till  the 
time  of  Eamses  II.,  the  Pharaoh,  it  is  be- 
lieved, of  the  oppression.  No  more  ancient 
monuments  than  his  have  been  found  in  the 
place.  To  the  northeast  of  the  temple  of 
Tum  are  extensive  subterranean  buildings. 
The  -walls  are  9  feet  thick,  built  of  crude 
bricks  joined  by  thin  layers  of  mortar.  A 
most  interesting  observation  was  made  that 
some  bricks  had  been  manufactured  with 
and  some  without  straw  (cp.  Exod.  v.  10-12). 
The  walls  inclosed  a  number  of  rectangular 
chambers  not  communicating  with  each 
other,  the  only  access  to  them  being  from 
above.  Naville  believes  that  they  were 
storehouses  or  granaries,  into  which  the 
Pharaohs  gathered  the  provisions  necessary 
for  armies  or  even  for  caravans  about  to  cross 
the  desert  into  Syria.  At  the  time  of  the 
Greek  dynasty  Pithom  received  the  new 
name  of  Heroopolis,  city  of  heroes,  which 
the  Romans  abridged  into  Ero,  as  is  proved  by 
Latin  inscriptions  from  the  locality.  Sayce 
«ompares  Ero  with  Egyptian  ara,  a  storehouse. 
It  was  in  the  land  of  Goshen  :  for  the  Sep- 
tuagint  substitutes  Heroopolis  for  Goshen  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  28,  and  the  Coi)tic  version,  trans- 
lated from  the  Septuagint,  reads  near  Pithom, 
in  the  land  of  Ramses.  All  around  the  sacred 
buildings  of  Pithom  was  the  civil  city  of 
Thuku,  believed  to  be  the  Succoth  of  Exod. 
xii.  37. 
Pi'thon. 

A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
35:  ix.  41). 
Plague. 

An  intliction  sent  by  God  as  a  ])unishment 
for  sin.  In  most  of  the  cases  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  the  infliction   is  an    ei)ideniic   or 


other  disease,  but  it  may  be  also  a  judgment 
of  a  ditferent  character.  A  disease  to  be  a 
plague  need  not  be  miraculous.  The  particu- 
lar disease  which  God  has  attached  as  a  pen- 
alty for  the  violation  of  this  or  that  physical 
or  mental  law  may  be  properly  called  a 
plague,  if  the  act  has  moral  quality.  And 
even  a  disease  which  arises  from  ignorance 
of  sanitary  laws  and  from  a  violation  of 
nature  in  no  wise  criminal,  and  which  in 
itself  is  without  moral  significance,  may  be- 
come in  God's  hands  an  instrument  for  the 
punishment  of  evil  doers,  God  predetermin- 
ing and  arranging  for  the  time  and  place  of 
its  outbreak  with  this  end  in  view.  What  is 
called  in  English  by  way  of  emphasis  the 
plague  is  a  highly  malignant  form  of  typhus 
fever,  due  to  neglect  of  sanitary  precautions, 
which  has  frequently  originated  at  Cairo,  in 
Egypt,  and  spread  to  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the'  adjacent  regions.  It  is  probable  that  it 
has  been  used  in  times  past  as  a  chastening 
rod. 

The  first  plague  mentioned  in  Scripture 
was  that  sent  on  Pharaoh,  Abraham's  con- 
temporary, for  the  protection  of  Sarah,  the 
patriarch's  wife  (Gen.  xii.  17).  The  next 
plagues  in  point  of  time  were  the  ten  in- 
flicted on  Egypt.  They  were  not  phenomena 
with  which  the  Egyptians  were  previously 
unacquainted ;  but  in  most  cases,  if  not  in 
all,  they  were  distresses  common  to  the 
countrj%  Yet  they  were  not  mere  natural 
phenomena  in  aggravated  form  ;  they  ex- 
hibited unmistakably  miraculous  features; 
see  Egypt  III.  6.  The  first  consisted  in  the 
change  of  the  river  water  into  blood  or  some- 
thing like  it  (Ex.  vii.  14-25)  ;  the  second,  in 
the  vast  multiplication  of  frogs  (viii.  1-15) ; 
the  third,  in  lice,  sand  flies,  or  fleas,  produced 
from  the  dust  (16-19) ;  the  fourth,  in  swarms 
of  flies  (20-.32) ;  the  fifth,  in  murrain  on  the 
cattle  (ix.  1-7) ;  the  sixth,  in  boils  and  blains 
on  man  and  beast  (8-12)  ;  the  seventh,  in  a  de- 
structive hailstorm  (13-35) ;  the  eighth,  in 
locusts  brought  by  the  east  wind  (x.  1-20) ; 
the  ninth,  in  dense  darkness  (21-29)  :  and 
the  tenth,  in  the  death  of  all  the  firstborn 
(si.  1-xii.  30).  A  iilague  was  sent  upon  the 
Israelites  for  making  and  worshiping  the 
golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  35) ;  and  another  for 
murmuring  against  the  sustenance  provided 
for  them  by  God  (Num.  xi.  33,  34)  ;  another 
slew  the  spies  who  had  brought  up  an  evil 
report  of  the  land  (xiv.  37)  ;  another  raged 
among  the  people  for  murmuring  at  the 
righteous  punishment  of  the  rebels  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram.  In  this  visitation  14,700 
I)erishcd  (xvi.  4(j-50).  In  another  plague 
sent  upon  the  people  on  account  of  the  idola- 
tries and  impurities  at  Baal-peor  24,000  died 
(xxv.  9 ;  Josh.  xxii.  17  ;  Ps.  cvi.  29,  30).  The 
infliction  of  the  enierods,  or  piles,  upon  the 
Philistines  is  called  a  jihigue  (1  Sam.  vi.  4). 
A  plagut!  or  pestilence,  in  which  70,000  per- 
ished, followed  on  David"s  numbering  the 
people   (2  Sam.   xxiv.   13-25;  1   Chron.  xxi. 


Plain 


615 


Plow 


12-30).  A  plague  was  tlireatoned  against 
Jehoram,  king  of  Judali,  and  his  people 
(2  Chron.  xxi.  14,  lo). 

Sometimes  the  word  jjlague  is  used  of  dis- 
eases which  are  not  ejiidemic:  it  is  applied, 
for  instance,  to  an  issue  of  blood  (Mark  v. 
29,  34,  literally  scourge),  to  lejjrosy  in  indi- 
viduals (Lev.  xiii.  3,  5,  (i),  and  e\cn  to  the 
spreading  of  some  inferior  forms  of  vegeta- 
tion on  the  walls  of  presumably  damp  houses 
(xiv.  35). 

Plain. 

In  the  A.  V.  seven  different  words  are  ren- 
dered plain.  Three  of  these  deserve  special 
notice,  sh^phelah,  kikkar,  and  ''"rahah.  The 
term  sh'^phelah,  or  lowland,  as  R.  V.  renders 
it,  was  the  technical  designation  for  the  dis- 
tricts of  southern  and  in  part  of  central  I'al- 
estine,  between  the  higher  hills  on  the  east 
and  the  low-lying  plain  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  west.  In  Josh.  xv.  33-47 
forty-two  towns  of  Judah,  with  their  vil- 
lages, are  enumerated  as  being  within  its 
bounds.  Some  of  these  were,  however,  gen- 
erally in  Philistine  hands,  and  hence  Obad. 
19  mentions  the  lowland  of  the  Philistines. 
See  Lowland. 

Kikkar,  which  means  circle,  circuit,  was 
applied  especially  to  the  plain  of  the  Jordan 
from  at  least  Succoth  on  the  north  to  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  on  the  south  (Gen.  xiii.  10,  11, 
12  ;  xix.  17,  28 ;  Dent,  xxxiv.  3  ;  2  Sam.  xviii. 
23;  2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  valley  as  far 
north  as  the  sea  of  Galilee  was  probably  in- 
cluded in  the  designation  (War  iv.  8,  2). 

The  word  '"rahah,  which  is  rendered  plain 
in  A.  V.  of  Deut.  ii.  8;  iii.  17,  etc.,  is  gen- 
erally left  untranslated  in  R.  V.  See  Arabah. 


lobed  leaves,  resembling  those  of  the  sycamore 
maple,  which  is  (he  reason  why  tiie  latter  tree 
issonietimes  callcdaplane.and  has  tiie  s])ecific 
name  pHeudn-iAatannx.  Tiie  oriental  i)ian(!  is 
indigenous  in  .soullierii  iMirope  and  western 
Asia.  In  Palestine  it  is  wild  by  the  side  of 
mountain  streams,  besides  being  cultivated 
in  many  places. 

Plas'ter.    See  Mortar  L 

Pledge.     See  Loan. 

Ple'ia-des  [daughters  of  sailing,  stars 
which  indicate  by  their  rising  the  time  of 
safe  navigation;  or  perhaps,  the  full  or  com- 
pact group]. 

The  Hebrew  word  Kimah  is  the  uame  of  a 
brilliant  star  or  constellation  (Job  ix.  9 ; 
xxxviii.  31  ;  and  Amos  v.  8,  in  A.  V.  the 
seven  stars),  and  in  the  oi)inion  of  tlu; 
majority  of  ancient  writers  it  denotes  the 
Pleiades.  An  Arabic  designation  for  the 
Pleiades  is  Thuriyya\  which  likewise  signi- 
fies a  compact  group. 

The  Pleiades  are  a  cluster  of  stars  in  the 
constellation  Taurus  (the  Bull),  in  the  shoul- 
der of  the  animal.  For  some  unknown 
reason  they  were  anciently  said  to  be  seven  ; 
and  since  only  six  were  usually  seen,  the 
notion  arose  of  a  lost  Pleiad.  Six  stars  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  ordinary  nights, 
but  more  may  be  seen  by  persons  of  very 
good  sight.  With  the  aid  of  a  telescope  a 
hundred  stars  may  be  counted.  Josephus 
uses  the  setting  of  the  Pleiades  as  a  note  of 
time  (Autiq.  xiii.  8,  2). 

Plow. 

In  Palestine  the  plow  is  of  primitive 
character.  It  consists  of  a  pole  or  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  to  one  end  of  which  the 


Flowing  and  .*^(>wing  in  Ancient  li'ypt. 


Plane. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Armon, 
naked  one  (Gen.  xxx.  37;  Ezek.  xxxi.  8). 
So  R.  V.  and  the  ancient  versions,  except 
that  the  Septuagint  renders  it  pine  in 
Ezekiel.  The  A.  V.,  following  the  rabbini- 
cal interpretation,  calls  it  chestnut.  The 
oriental  plane  tree  (Platanus  orientalis)  grows 
from   70  to  90  feet  high.     It  has  palmately 


yoke  is  attached,  while  from  the  other  end 
a  small  branch  projects  or  else  through  the 
end  a  beam  is  thrust  which  is  sheathed  in  a 
thin  plate  of  iron  and  forms  the  share  (Is.  ii. 
4).  It  was  dragged  by  oxen  or  cows,  and 
was  guided  by  the  hand  (.Judg.  xiv.  18;  Job 
i.  14;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  25,  2() ;  Luke  ix.  (52). 
Such  an  implement  can  do  little  more  than 
scratch  the  surface  of  the  ground.     Hence 


Pochereth-hazzebaim 


616 


Poetry 


the  same  land  has  to  be  plowed  over  and 
over  aj;ain.  When  Elisha  was  plowing 
with  twelve  yoke  of  oxen  there  were  prob- 
ably twelve  plows,  each  with  its  pair  of 
bullocks  and  its  man,  P^lisha  being  the  last 
of  the  twelve  (1  Kin.  xix.  19,  20J. 


I'low,  Plowshares,  and  Yokes, 
as  still  used  in  Asia  Minor. 

Poch'e-reth-haz-ze-ba'im  [perhaps,  cap- 
turing gazelles]. 

Name  of  a  division  of  Solomon's  servants' 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  57;  Neh.  vii.  59).  The  A.  V. 
divides  the  name,  makes  the  latter  part  a 
place,  and  calls  the  man  Pochereth  of  Ze- 
baim. 

Po'et-ry. 

Poetry  is  one  of  the  earliest  forms  in  which 
the  literary  taste  of  a  people  begins  to  ex- 
press it«elf.  It  is  rhythmical  and  regular  in 
form,  like  the  motions  of  the  dancer  which 
it  so  frequently  accompanied  in  ancient 
times  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21).  It  is  naturally  born 
of  the  emotions,  and  is  called  forth  by  indi- 
vidual or  national  joy  or  sorrow  or  deep 
concern.  The  imagination  also  and  the 
habit  of  expressing  thought  in  vivid  lan- 
guage borrowed  from  nature,  which  are  vital 
elements  in  poetry,  come  to  manifestation 
during  the  childhood  of  a  people.  The  He- 
brews formed  no  exception  to  the  rule.  The 
words  of  Sarah  at  the  })irth  of  her  son  have 
the  poetic  ring  (Gen.  xxi.  (!.  7).  The  blessing 
which  Jacob  bestowed  on  his  sons  as  the  time 
of  his  death  approached  was  couched  in  the 
sententious  and  picturestpie  form  of  Semitic 
po(ttry  (xlix.).  The  song  which  sprang  spon- 
taneously from  Moses'  lips,  when  lie  beheld 
the  overthrow  of  Pharaoh's  host  in  the  sea 
and  discerned  at  once  the  moral  effect  which 
it  would  have  on  the  nations  of  tJanaan, 
was  al.so  an  utterance  born  of  strong  feel- 
ing and  cast  into  the  simple  form  of  He- 
brew poetry. 

Ancient  Semitic  poetry  does  jiot  rhyme. 
Poems  have  been  discovered  which  show  a 
certain  caesural  arrangement,  hut  this  feature 
is  not  essential.  Assonance,  allitei'ation,  and 
rhyme,  so  common  in  occidental  poetry,  oc- 


casionally occur  in  Hebrew  poetry,  but  they 
also  are  not  essential  and  they  are  extremely 
rare.  Nor  is  there  a  regular  recurrence  of 
long  and  short  syllables  or  feet;  but  the 
rhythmical  tendency  was  strongly  felt  and 
unconsciously  led  to  producing  lines  of  nearly 
the  same  number  of  words  or  word-groujjs, 
or,  to  state  the  matter  somewhat  ditferently. 
the  same  number  of  main  accents,  including 
at  times  a  secondary  accent.  The  line,  more- 
over, was  made  to  end  at  a  break  in  the  sense 
except  in  extremely  rare  cases,  such  as  Ps. 
xcvi.  12. 

The  essential  formal  characteristic  of  He- 
brew poetry  is  parallelism.  By  this  is  meant 
that  the  sentiment  of  one  line  is  echoed  in 
the  next. 

The  name  was  given  to  this  feature  by 
Bishop  Lowth  in  1753,  who  investigated  the 
phenomenon  and  drew  attention  to  synony- 
mous, antithetic,  and  synthetic  parallelism 
de  Sacr.  Poesi.  Hebr.  xix.).  Parallelism  is 
of  various  kinds : 

1.  Synonymous,  when  the  thought  of  the 
first  line  is  repeated  in  other  words  in  the 
second  line,  as  in  Gen.  iv.  23: 

Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice; 
Ye   wives   of   Lainech,    hearken   unto    my 
speech. 

The  couplet : 

For  I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding  [or, 

for  wounding  rae], 
And  a  young  man  to  my  hurt  [or,  for  bruisuig 

me], 

likewise  exhibits  synonymous  parallelism ; 
and  at  the  same  time  it  shows  the  exegetical 
importance  of  an  acquaintance  with  this 
principle,  for  Lamech  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  speak  of  two  murders.  He  men- 
tions killing  but  one  man.  This  principle 
also  enables  the  expositor  of  Scripture  to 
interpret  ambiguous  words  ;  for  example,  in 
Ps.  xxii.  20 : 

Deliver  my  soul  from  the  sword  ; 

My  darling  from  the  power  of  the  dog, 

the  parallelism  determines  that  the  darling 
referred  to  is  not  a  dear  friend,  but  means 
the  psalmist's  soul  or  his  life. 

2.  Progressive,  in  which  the  second  line 
expresses  a  new  idea  more  or  less  closely  re- 
lated to  the  first ;  as  in  Job  iii.  17 : 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling ; 
And  there  the  weary  be  at  rest. 

3.  Synthetic  or  constructive,  in  which  there 
is  parallelism  of  structure  only,  while  the 
thought  of  one  line  serves  as  the  foundation 
upon  whi(-h  to  build  a  new  thought;  as  Ps. 
XXV.  12  : 

What  niHi)  is  he  tliat  feareth  the  Lord? 
Him  shall  he  instruct  hi   the  way  that  he 
shall  choose  ; 


Poetry 


617 


Pomegranate 


or  Prov.  xxvi.  4  : 

Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly, 
Lest  thon  also  be  like  unto  him  ; 

or  Ps.  xxiv.  9  : 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates ; 

Yea,  lift  tlieiu  up,  ye  everlasting  doors  : 

And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

4.  Climactic,  in  which  the  characteristic 
words  are  repeated  and  form  the  ladder  on 
which  the  thought  climhs  to  completion  or 
to  emphatic  reiteration  ;  as  in  Ps.  xxix.  5: 

The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  ; 
Yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  in  pieces  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon ; 

and  in  Ps.  cxxi.  3,  4: 

He  will  not  sufler  thy  foot  to  be  moved  : 
He  that  keept'th  tliee  will  not  slumber; 
Behold,  he  that   kcepeth   Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

5.  Antithetic,  in  wliich  the  thought  is  made 
more  clear  by  contrast ;  as  in  Mat.  viii.  20 : 

The  fo.xes  have  holes. 
And  the  birds  of  the  air  have  nests ; 
But  the  Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay 
his  head. 

6.  Comparative,  in  which  the  thought  is 
explained  by  comparison  with  something  else 
that  is  familiar  ;  as  in  Ps.  xlii.  1 : 

As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks, 
So  panteth  my  soul  after  thee,  O  God. 

The  parallelism  usually  yields  a  distich, 
but  tristichs  are  not  uncommon,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  examples  already  cited.  Tetra- 
stichs  and  pentastichs  also  occur  (Ps.  i.  3; 
xxvii.  4,  9;  xxxvii.  7,  14,  20,  25,  28,  34,  40). 
The  stanza  is  not  essential  to  Hebrew  poetry. 
It  is  used,  however,  in  Ps.  xlii.  and  xliii., 
which  form  one  poem,  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  by  a  recurring  verse.  Ps.  xlvi. 
consists  of  three  groups  of  three  verses  each, 
the  conclusion  of  each  group  being  marked 
by  Selah,  and  the  la.st  two  groups  closing 
with  a  refrain.  There  are  also  alphabetical 
psalms,  in  which  the  principle  is  more  or 
less  fully  observed  of  beginning  the  suc- 
cessive verses  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  consecutive  order  (Ps.  xxv. ;  xxxiv.  ; 
xxxvii.).  Ps.  cxix.  consists  of  twenty-two 
groups  of  eight  verses  each.  The  number 
of  groups  equals  the  number  of  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  and  the  initial  letter  of 
each  verse  in  a  group  is  in  the  original  that 
letter  of  the  alphabet  which  numerically 
corresponds  to  the  group.  The  book  of 
Lamentations  is  constructed  on  a  similar 
alphabetical  plan  ;  see  Lamentations. 

Poetry  is  usually  classified  as  epic,  dra- 
matic, lyric,  and  didactic.  Neither  the  ei)ic 
nor  the  drama  is  found  in  the  Bible  ;  but  the 
Book  of  Job  has  a  semi-dramatic  form,  for 
there  is  action,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
drama,  in  the  prologue  and  epilogue,  and 
there  is  a  regular  alternation  of  speakers 
throughout.     See  also  Song  of  Songs.     The 


lyrics  arc  the  most  Tuimerous  jioems.  No 
period  of  Israelitish  history  after  the  exodus 
is  without  them.  They  consist  of  triumphal 
odes  whicli  celebrate  the  deliverance  wrought 
by  .Jehovah,  like  the  .song  of  Moses  at  the 
lied  Sea,  and  the  song  of  Deborah;  psalms 
of  the  penitent  suing  for  mercy  or  expressing 
tlie  joy  of  forgiveness  (Ps.  .\x.\ii.  ;  li.),  and 
of  the  poor  and  needy  crying  out  in  distress, 
calm  in  faith,  or  praising  (iod  for  succor 
(xxxviii.  ;  and  iii. ;  xxiii.  ;  Hab.  iii. ;  and  1 
Sam.  ii.  1-10;  Ls.  xxxviii.  10-20;  Luke  i. 
46-55) ;  p.salms  of  the  coming  Eedeemer  and 
his  kingdom  (Ps.  ii. ;  xlv. ;  Ixxii.)  :  anil 
plaintive  elegies,  as  the  lament  of  David 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  the  songs  of  mourn- 
ing for  .ludah,  and  the  Lamentations  (2  Sam. 
i.  17-27;  Ps.  xliv. ;  Ix.;  Ixxiv.). 

Poi'son. 

Any  substance,  vegetable,  animal,  or  miner- 
al, which  produces  a  morbid  or  deadly  effect 
when  introduced  into  the  animal  organism  (2 
Kin.  iv.  39,  40;  Eom.  iii.  13).  The  venom  of  ser- 
pents is  denoted  in  Hebrew  either  by  hemah, 
heat  (Deut.  xxxii.  24,  33;  Ps.  Iviii.  4),  a  gen- 
eral word  which  is  also  used  for  hot  passion 
and  the  heat  produced  by  wine,  or  by  ro'uft, 
(Deut.  xxxii.  33  ;  Job  xx.  16),  which  also  sig- 
nifies a  bitter  herb;  see  Gai.l.  The  custom 
of  anointing  arrows  with  the  jioison  of 
snakes  is  probably  alluded  to  in  Job  vi.  4.  It 
was  a  practice  of  great  antiquity  and  consid- 
erable extent  (Homer,  Odyssey  i.  261,  262; 
Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xi.  115  ;  xviii.  1).  Vegetable 
poison  was  also  employed  for  this  purpose,  as 
thatobtaiued  from  the  yew  tree  (Hist. Nat.  xvi. 
20).  The  Gauls  used  a  poisonous  herb  called 
limemn,  perhaps  leopard's  bane  (xxvii.  76). 

The  suicide  of  Ptolemy  Macron  by  poison, 
the  alleged  murder  of  Pheroras  by  poisoned 
food,  and  the  fame  of  Arabian  wtmien  for 
skill  in  i)reparing  poisonous  jiotions  (2  Mac. 
X.  1.3;  Autiq.  xvii.  4,  1),  serve  to  show  that 
the  crimes  prevalent  at  that  time  in  Rome 
were  not  left  uncommitted  in  Judah  and  the 
East  (cp.  Mark  xvi.  18)  ;  but  the  absence  of 
direct  mention  of  them  in  the  Bible  indicates 
that  they  were  not  common  among  the  Jews. 

Pollux.     See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Pome'gran-ate  [apple,  having  many  grains 
or  seeds] . 

Tlie  pomegranate  (Punica  (iranatum),  in 
Hebrew  called  rhnmon,  in  Arabic  rttmwdn,  is 
a  tree  from  12  to  15  feet  high,  havitig  oblong- 
oblanceolate  entire  leaves,  without  dots. 
Here  and  there  on  the  branches  occasional 
tliorns  are  found.  Tlie  flowers  have  gen- 
erally scarlet  petals  proceeding  from  a  large 
leathery  c^ilyx.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  an  orange,  and  has  a  hard,  red  rind, 
filled  with  numerous  seeds  enveloi)ed  in 
bright  red  pulp  ;  hence  the  English  name, 
which  means  an  apple  with  many  seeds. 
The  pulp  is  most  refreshing  to  tlie  taste. 
The  pomegranate  is  wild  in  northern  .\frica 
and  western  Asia,  and  possibly  so  in  Gilead. 


Pommel 


618 


Poor 


It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Palestine  in 
Scripture  times  (Num.  xiii.  23  ;  xx.  5  ;  Deut. 
viii.  8;  1  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Soug  iv.  3,  13;  vi.  7, 
11;  viii.  2;  Joel  i.  12;  Hag.  ii.  19).  The 
expressed  juice  of  the  fruit  made  a  pleasant 
drink    (Song  viii.  2,  R.  V.).     Pomegranates 


Pomegranate. 

of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  stufl'  alternating 
with  bells  made  of  gold  were  put  along 
the  skirts  of  the  robe  connected  with  the 
high  priest's  ei)hod  (Exod.  xxviii.  33,  34; 
xxxix.  26).  The  chapiters  of  the  two  pillars 
at  the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  had  each 
around  them  a  double  row  with  a  hundred 
pomegranates  each  (1  Kin.  vii.  20;  2  Kin. 
XXV.  17;  2  Chron.  iii.  16).  The  fruit  is  still 
much  cultivated  in  Palestine. 

Pom'mel. 

Kounded  portion  or  bowl  of  a  chapiter 
(2  Chron.  iv.  12,  13;  in  R.  V.  and  in  1  Kin. 
vii.  41,  12,  bowl). 

Pon'ti-us.     See  Pilate. 

Pon'tus  [the  sea]. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  on  the  Pontus  Euxiniis,  or  Black  Sea, 
from  the  first  word  of  which  the  name  of 
the  province  was  derived.  It  may  be  de- 
scribed as  reaching  from  the  valley  of  the 
Phasis  in  Colchis  to  the  river  Halys,  and  ex- 
tending inland  southward  across  the  moun- 
tains to  Caiipaddciu.  ,\l)ont  KH)  n.  c.  an  in- 
dcpendtait  kingdom  of  this  name  was  cstalj- 
lisiicd.  Six  of  its  successive  kings  were 
called  Mithridates.  The  last  of  them  main- 
tained, till  his  death  in  (\'.'>  n.  c,  a  fierce  struggle 
with  the  Romans,  who  reduced  the  kingdom 
to  the  position  of  a  jirotticted  state,  united  it 
witii  Bithynia,  and  formed  the  province  of 
Bithynia  and  Pontus.  Jews  resided  in  Pontus 


(1  Pet.  i.  1).  Jews  from  Pontus  were  at  Jeru- 
salem during  the  pentecostal  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9).  Aquila  the  Jew  was 
born  in  the  province  (xviii.  2). 

Pool. 

A  reservoir  for  water,  supplied  by  rain  or 
else  by  springs,  like  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
From  the  pool  the  water  was  sometimes  con- 
ducted in  channels  to  town  and  garden 
(2  Kin.  XX.  2(J  ;  Ecc.  ii.  6  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  30). 
The  pools  of  Bethesda,  Siloam,  and  Gihon 
were  at  Jerusalem,  and  water  was  also  con- 
ducted to  the  city  from  the  reservoirs  at 
Etam  ;  and  there  were  pools  at  Hebron, 
Gibeon,  Samaria,  and  Heshbon  (2  Sam.  ii  13  ; 
iv.  12  ;  1  Kin.  xxii.  38  ;  Song  vii.  4). 

Poor. 

The  unequal  distribution  of  the  blessings 
of  life  is  not  ideal  in  the  sight  of  God.  Now 
God  gave  Canaan  to  his  people  (Ex.  vi.  4,  8). 
Accordingly  the  Mosaic  law  provided  for  a 
general  participation  of  the  people  in  the 
ownership  of  the  land  ;  and  while  it  per- 
mitted freedom  of  sale,  it  secured  a  readjust- 
ment of  property  and  a  return  to  each  family 
of  its  inheritance  in  Canaan  every  fifty  years 
(Lev.  XXV.  13,  23).  But  notwithstanding  all 
that  law  and  instruction  can  do,  the  poor  are 
always  present,  sometimes  through  sins  of 
their  own  or  their  ancestors,  sometimes 
through  the  inscrutable  but  wise  providence 
of  God.  The  poverty  which  springs  from 
indolence  or  personal  crime  was  theoretically 
excluded  from  Israel,  the  kingdom  of  God  ; 
and  its  poor  were  regarded  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  theocracy  as  the  unfortunate 
and  chastened  bnt  beloved  children  of  God. 
All  the  poor,  especially  widows,  orphans, 
and  strangers,  enjoyed  the  care  of  God  and 
the  godly,  and  all  were  specially  favored  by 
the  law.'  Every  hungry  person  had  the  right 
to  pluck  and  cat  for  present  need  in  the  vine- 
yard or  grainfield  of  another  (Deut.  xxiii. 
24,  25).  Every  poor  person  was  authorized 
at  harvest  to  glean  after  the  reapers,  to  cut 
the  grain  that  was  left  standing  at  the  edge 
of  the  field,  and  to  take  any  forgotten  sheaf 
which  remained  in  the  field  when  the  harvest 
was  over.  At  the  vintage  and  in  fruit-pick- 
ing time  what  was  left  hanging  on  the 
branches  belonged  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9, 
10;  xxiii.  22;  Deut.  xxiv.  19-21).  In  the 
seventh  year  and  fiftieth  year  the  land  was 
not  tilled,  and  what  grew  of  itself  was  not 
harvested,  but  was  free  to  all  to  eat  (Lev. 
XXV.  4-7,  11,  12).  The  poor  man  in  his  ex- 
tremity might  .sell  his  services  to  a  master 
for  a  term  of  years,  but  regained  his  freedom 
in  the  year  "of  release  (38-42).  If  a  loan 
were  required  by  a  poor  man,  it  was  to  be 
bestowed,  even  though  the  near  approach  of 
the  release  of  the  seventh  year  would  soon 
give  him  the  legal  right  of  not  repaying  the 
debt(Deut.  xv.  7-10).  The  poll  tax,  which  each 
man  had  to  pay  for  the  ransom  of  his  soul  or 
life  on  the  taking  of  a  census,  was  the  same 


Poplar 


619 


Post 


ill  amount  for  both  rich  and  poor,  being  half 
a  shekel ;  but  in  offerings  presented  at  the 
tabernacle  or  temple,  a  cheaper  form  of  gift 
Avas  sometimes  prescribed  for  tlie  poorer  wor- 
shiper (Lev.  xii.  8  ;  xiv.  21  ;  xxvii.  H).  The 
X^rosperous  were  encouraged  to  invite  the 
poor  to  the  sacrificial  feasts  and  to  remember 
them  on  other  jo j'ous  occasions  ( Deut.  xvi. 
11,  14).  There  are  many  beautiful  examples 
of  kindness  shown  to  the  needy  (Job  xxxi. 
16-22).  There  were  also  warnings  in  the  law 
against  the  oppression  of  the  poor  (Ex.  xxii. 
21-27).  At  the  same  time,  justice  must  not 
be  violated.  A  judge  must  not  give  a  verdict 
in  favor  of  a  man  because  he  was  poor ;  the 
claims  of  justice  were  to  be  paramount  over 
every  other  consideration  (Ex.  xxiii.  3  ;  Lev. 
xix.  15).  The  kindly  provisions  of  the  law, 
however,  were  frequently  ignored  in  times 
of  religious  declension,  and  theprojjhets  have 
occasion  to  rebuke  hard-heartedness  and  in- 
justice toward  the  poor  (Is.  i.  23 ;  x.  2 ; 
Ezek.  xxii.  7,  29  ;  Mai.  iii.  5).  There  were 
also  abuses  of  the  good  law  itself.  There 
were  those  who  obeyed  the  letter,  but  not 
the  spirit,  who  bestowed  alms  to  he  seen  of 
men  (Mat.  vi.  1).  Many  gracious  promises 
are  made  to  the  pious  poor,  and  the  divine 
procedure  to  them  is  shown  to  be  that  of 
loving  care  (1  Sam.  ii.  6;  Job  v.  15;  xxxiv. 
28;  xxxvi.  15-;  Ps.  ix.  18;  x.  14;  xii.  5; 
xxxiv.  6 ;  XXXV.  10).  Blessings  are  also 
promised  to  the  man  who  pities  the  poor 
(Ps.  xii.  1 ;  Prov.  xiv.  21, 31  ;xxix.7,  etc.).  Our 
Lord  in  the  course  of  his  ministry  showed 
his  great  love  for  the  poor  (Mat.  xix.  21  ; 
Luke  xviii.  22;  John  xiii.  29,  etc.),  and  it 
was  a  special  characteristic  of  his  ministry 
that  to  the  poor  the  gospel  was  X'^eached 
(Mat.  xi.  5;  Luke  xiv.  21-23).  The  early 
church  considered  it  one  of  its  most  sacred 
duties  to  look  after  its  poor,  and  as  far  as  its 
limited  resources  would  allow,  the  poor  also 
outside  its  communion  (Acts  ii.  45  ;  iv.  32 ; 
vi.  1-fi;  xi.  27-30;  xxiv.  17;  1  Cor.  xvi.  1-3; 
Gal.  ii.  10;  1  Thes.  iii.  6). 

The  poor  in  spirit  are  the  humble,  whether 
rich  or  poor  in  this  world's  goods  (Mat.  v.  3). 

Pop'lar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Libneh, 
white,  applied  to  a  tree  (Gen.  xxx.  37).  It 
ranked  with  trees  of  which  the  shadow  is 
good  (Hos.  iv.  13).  If  it  is  the  poplar,  the 
species  is  Fopulns  alba,  a  tall  tree  with  white 
wood,  and  the  leaves  white  and  cottony  on 
the  lower  side.  In  the  first  passage  the  R.  V., 
following  the  Septuagint,  has  storax  on  the 
margin,  referring  to  i^ti/ra.r  officinale,  some- 
times called  libnah  in  Arabic,  a  resinous 
shrub  from  10  to  20  feet  high,  a  native  of 
the  Levant ;  see  Stacte.  The  Septuagint 
understands  the  white  pojilar  to  be  meant  in 
Hos.  iv.  13. 

Por'a-tha  [probably,  having  many  chari- 
ots]. 

One  of  Haman's  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 


Porch. 

A  walk  protected  by  a  roof  sui>i)orte(l  by 
pillars  ;  a  colonnade  ;  a  portico.  There  were 
often  porches  of  tbis  character  in  royal  or 
other  mansions  (1  Kin.  vii.  (i,  7),  auif  there 
was  a  notable  one  on  the  eastern  front  of 
Solomon's  temple  (vi.  3;  Ezek.  viii.  l(j  ;  ,loel 
ii.  17).  Sometimes  tiiere  was  a  colonnade  on 
an  upper  floor  (Judg.  iii.  23).  The  ])orclies 
of  the  pool  of  Hctliesda,  and  Solomon's  pon-ii 
connected  with  tlie  second  teiH|ilc,  were  alsD 
colonnades  (.lolm  v.  2  ;  x.  23),  called  in  Greek 
stoa.  The  porch  where  Peter's  second  denial 
took  place  was  doubtless  the  passage  from  the 
street  to  the  court  of  the  house;  and  in  the 
parallel  passage  it  is  styUd  the  fore-court 
(Mat.  xxvi.  71  ;  Mark  .\iv.  G8,  R.  V.  margin). 

Por'ci-us.     See  Ekstus. 

Por'cu-pine  [a  spinous  pig]. 

The  rendering  of  the  It.  V.  in  Is.  xiv.  23; 
xxxiv.  11  ;  Zejdi.  ii.  14  of  the  Hebrew  Kip- 
pod,  the  one  rolling  itself  together.  The 
corresponding  word  in  other  Semitic  dialects 
denotes  both  the  hedgehog  and  the  porcu- 
pine. The  European  porcupine  iHi/strix  cris- 
tatn)  is  common  in  Palestine,  especially  in 
the  gorges  leading  down  to  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan.  A  brush-tailed  porcupine  {Atherura 
hirsHtiro.itris)  has  also  been  found  in  Judaea. 
The  A.  V.  translates  kippod  by  bittern. 

Por'poise. 

The  rendering  of  Tahash  in  the  R.  V.  on 
the  margin  of  Ex.  xxv.  5  and  elsewhere 
where  the  text  has  seal  and  A.  V.  has  badger. 
This  marginal  rendering  follows  Niebuhr's 
remark  that  the  name  tiihas  is  given  to  a 
species  of  porpoise  by  the  Arabs  near  cape 
3Iusseiidiim. 

Pos'ses-sion.     See  Demoni.\c. 

Por'ter. 

A  gate  keeper  (1  Chron.  ix.  22,  23;  and  xvi. 
.38,  in  R.  V.  doorkeeper).  Keepers  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  city  gate  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2(5 ;  2 
Kin.  vii.  10),  at  the  doors  of  the  temple  (1 
Chron.  ix.  22),  at  the  entrance  of  private 
houses  (Mark  xiii.  34).  When  David  organ- 
ized the  Levites  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle, he  assigned  the  duty  of  acting  as  door- 
keepers to  a  large  .section  of  them,  4(100  in 
number.  They  were  not  all  needed  at  once, 
so  he  distributed  them  into  courses,  officiat- 
ing in  succession  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5;  xxvi. 
1-19). 

Post. 

1.  The  upright  timber  at  the  side  of  a  door 
(1  Kin.  vi.  33).  A  stone  pillar  sometimes 
took  the  place  of  wood.  A  Hebrew  slave 
who  did  not  desire  to  embrace  the  oppor- 
tunity of  freedom  afforded  by  the  arrival  of 
the  seventh  year,  but  jiieferred  to  remain 
permanently  in  the  master's  hou,se,  allowed 
an  awl  to  be  thrust  through  his  ear  into  tlie 
door  or  doorpost  (Ex.  xxi.  (i ;  Deut.  xv.  17) 
as  a  sign  of  attachment  to  the  bouse. 

2.  A  courier  (Esth.  iii.  13  ;  Job  ix.  25). 


Pot 


620 


Praetor 


Pot. 

The  most  frequent  word  is  the  Hebrew 
sir,  a  vessel  made  in  various  sizes,  large  and 
small  (2  Kin.  iv.  38),  and  of  different  ma- 
terials, earthenware  and  metal  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
3),  and  used  for  manifold  purposes,  such  as 
for  boiling  flesh  (xvi.  3  ;  2  Chrou.  xxsv.  13  ; 
Job  xli.  31;  and  Ezek.  xxiv.  3-5,  in  R.  V. 
caldron),  for  washing  (Ps.  Ix.  8),  for  refining 
metals  (Prov.  xxvii.  21).  The  term  dud 
might  also  designate  a  similar  pot  ( Job  xli.  20  ; 
in  1  Sam.  ii.  14  rendered  kettle ;  iu  2  Chron. 
XXXV.  13  rendered  caldron)  ;  so  also  might 
kallahath,  which  is  rendered  caldron  (1  Sam. 
ii.  14  ;  Mic.  iii.  3).  In  Job  xli.  20  the  word 
translated  caldron  in  A.  V.  should  be  rushes. 
Water  for  domestic  purposes  was  kept  in 
earthen  pots  (John.  ii.  6) ;  see  Waterpot. 

Pot'i-phar  [who  is  of  the  sun]. 

The  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard  and  owner 
of  Joseph.  His  wife  attemjited  to  seduce  the 
young  slave  from  the  ])ath  of  virtue,  and 
when  she  failed,  she  induced  Potiphar  to  im- 
prison him  on  a  charge  which  she  knew  to  be 
false  (Gen.  xxxix.  1-20). 

Pot-i-phe'ra,  in  A.  V.  Poti-pherali  [Egyp- 
tian Pet-p-ra,  who  is  of  the  sun,  belonging  to 
the  sun]. 

A  priest  of  On,  or  Heliopolis,  the  city  of 
the  sun.  He  was  the  father  of  Asenath,  who 
was  given  in  mari'iage  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45- 
50;  xlvi.  20). 

Pot'ter. 

One  who  makes  earthenware  pots  and  sim- 
ilar vessels.  The  clay  was  trodden  by  foot 
of  man  to  reduce  it  to  a  paste  (Is.  xli.  25 ; 
Wisd.  XV.  7).  It  was  then  placed  on  a  hori- 
zontal wheel,  before  which  the  potter  sat, 
turning  the  wheel  with  his  hand  as  he 
shaped    the   vessel,    or    keeping    the  wheel 


in  motion  with  liis  foot,  wliile  he  fash- 
ioned the  revolving  clay  with  liis  baud 
and  arm.  The  finished  work  was  glazed  and 
baked  in  a  furnace  (Jer.  xviii.  3,  4  ;  Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  29,  30).    The  ability  of  the  i)otter  to 


mold  the  clay  into  any  shape  he  desired  is 
used  in  Is.  xlv.  9 ;  Jer.  xviii.  5-12  ;  Rom.  ix. 
20-25  to  illustrate    God's   sovereignty  over 


Potters  at  the  Kiln  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

man.  God,  of  course,  in  the  exercise  of  sov- 
ereignty acts  only  in  accordance  with  his  in- 
finite i)erfections  of  wisdom,  justice,  good- 
ness, and  truth. 

Pot'ter's  Field.     Sec  Akeldama. 

Pound.     See  Money  and  Weights. 

Pow'der. 

The  fine  ])articl('s  into  which  any  substance 
is  cTushed  or  ground  (Ex.  xxxii.  20).  Pul- 
verized spice  of  any  kind,  intended  to  be 
burnt  as  incense  (Song  iii.  6). 

Prse'tor. 

One   of  the   chief  civil   magistrates   in    a 


Praetorium 

Roman  colony,  in  Greek  commonly  d(\sig- 
nated  stnitefios  (Acts  xvi.  12,  and  20,  ',i'),  R.  V. 
margin).  There  were  usually  two,  elected 
annually  by  the  colonists;  and  occasionally 
styled  consuls.  Two  lictors  attended  each 
praetor;  cleared  the  way  before  him,  .saw 
that  due  respect  was  shown  him  by  the  puh- 
iic,  and  executed  his  orders  (.35,  38,  R.  V. 
margin). 

Pra-to'ri-um  [belonging  to  a  prsetor]. 

The  tent  of  a  general ;  the  official  residence 
of  a  provincial  governor ;  a  palace.  In  the 
N.  T.  it  denotes: 

1.  The  palace  occupied  by  Pontius  Pilate 
at  Jerusalem  and  where  his  judgment  seat 
was  erected  (Mark  xv.  16;  and  margin  of 
R.  V.  of  Mat.  xxvii.  27;  John  xviii.  28,  33; 
xix.  9,  cp.  13).  Some  have  understood  the 
castle  of  Antonia  ;  but  Herod's  palace  was 
the  building  occupied  by  the  procurators. 
See  Herod,  Palace  of. 

2.  Herod's  palace  at  Cse-sarea,  in  which 
Paul  was  confined  (Acts  xxiii.  35,  R.  V. 
margin  ;  in  text,  palace  ;  in  A.  V.,  judgment 
hall). 

3.  The  praetorian  guard  at  Rome,  the  duty 
of  which  was  to  guard  the  imperial  palace 
and  its  occupant,  the  emperor  (Phil.  i.  13; 
in  A.  v.,  palace;  on  the  margin,  Caesar's 
court). 

Prayer. 

Prayer  is  communion  with  God.  It  im- 
plies that  God  is  a  person,  able  and  willing 
to  hear  us,  who  has  created  the  universe  and 
still  preserves  and  governs  all  his  creatures 
and  all  their  actions.  He  is  not  the  slave  of 
his  own  laws.  He  can  produce  results  by 
controlling  the  laws  of  nature  or  cooperating 
with  them  as  readily  as  a  man  can ;  nay 
more  readily,  for  he  is  God.  He  can  influ- 
ence the  hearts  and  minds  of  men  more 
readily  than  even  a  man  can  induce  his  fel- 
low-men to  action.  God  has  foreordained 
both  the  prayer  and  its  answer.  He  has  had 
a  plan  from  the  beginning;  and  he  accom- 
plishes this  plan  both  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  established  the  universe  and  the 
laws  which  he  set  in  o]ieration,  and  also  by  his 
constant  presence  in  the  universe,  upholding 
it  and  controlling  it. 

Prayer  is  instinctive  with  man.  In  his 
extremity  of  need  he  cries  out  to  (Jod.  And 
God  requires  prayer  of  all  men  ;  but  to  pray 
to  God  implies  a  right  relation  to  him.  Ac- 
ceptable prayer  can  be  ofiered  unto  God  by 
the  righteous  only.  The  pra\cr  of  the 
viicked  is  abomination  unto  him  (Prov.  xv. 
20;  xxviii.  9).  Only  those  ■who  have  for- 
saken sin  are  authorized  to  draw  nigh  unto 
God  in  prayer.  There  is  no  proy)riety  in 
rebels  against  the  authority  of  God  approach- 
ing him,  except  with  rentinciation  of  their 
rebellion  and  a  petition  for  pardon.  Prayer 
is  the  communion  of  the  child  of  God  with 
his  Father  in  heaven.  It  consists  of  adora- 
tion, thanksgiving,  confession,  and  petition 


621 


Presents 


fXeh.  i.  4-11;  Dan.  ix.  3-19;  Phil.  iv.  6). 
It  has  been  engaged  in  by  God's  people  from 
the  beginning. 

Prayer  is  thus  the  natural  expression  of 
the  religious  feeling.s,  and  further  God's 
blessings  are  given  in  answer  to  prayer  (1 
Kin.  ix.  3;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  37;  Mat.  vii.  7). 
(tod  is  attentive  to  every  prayer  tli:;t  is 
rightly  offered  to  hiiu.  He  bcarctli  the  A-onng 
r;ivens  when  they  cry  ;  and  God'speoplc  luive 
the  promise  that  he  will  answer  their  prayers 
(Ps.  Ixv.  2).  James,  citing  history,  say.s  that 
the  supplication  of  a  righteous  man  availeth 
much  in  its  working  (Jas.  v.  1().  R.  \.).  Christ 
speaking  to  his  disciples  said  :  "  VVhatsoe  vtr  ye 
shall  ask  in  my  name,  that  will  1  do"  (.John 
xiv.  13).  God's  people  present  their  i)etitioiis 
to  God  and  leave  to  him  to  decide  wliether  it 
is  wise  to  grant  the  r((iuesr  or  not.  They  know 
that  God  alone  can  tell  whether  the  granting 
of  the  prayer  would  be  for  their  own  good  or 
for  the  welfare  of  the  kingdom  of  (iod  or  for 
God's  glory.  The  apostle  John,  wriling  to 
believers,  states  the  doctrine  of  prayer  with 
its  necessary  condition  when  he  says:  "This 
is  the  boldness  which  we  have  toward  him, 
that,  if  we  ask  anything  according  to  his  will, 
he  heareth  us"  (i  John  v.  14.  R.  V.).  "The 
answer  will  be  such  as  we,  if  duly  enlight- 
ened, would  ourselves  desire."  God  often 
blesses  his  children  best  when  he  denies 
their  requests.  And  when  they  pray  they 
desire  him  to  deny  their  requests  if  in  his 
sight  it  is  best  to  do  so. 

We  must  pray  in  the  name  of  Christ,  be- 
cause sinful  man  cannot  approach  God.  We 
must  draw  near,  not  claiming  any  inherent 
right  of  our  own  to  come,  but  in  the  name 
of  him  who  hath  washed  us  from  our  sins  in 
his  blood  and  made  us  to  be  priests  unto 
God. 

Prayer  is  addressed  to  God  in  his  fullness, 
as  the  triune  God.  Prayer  to  each  of  the 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead.  Father.  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  is  involved  in  the  apostolic 
benediction  :  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  com- 
munion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all " 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  14).  Prayer  was  addressed  to 
the  risen  Christ.  Christians  called  upon  his 
name  (1  Cor.  i.  2).  Stephen  petitioned  him. 
Paul  besought  him  and  rendered  thanks  to 
him.  the  redeemed  ascribe  glory  and  domin- 
ion to  him  (.Vets  vii.  ,59,  fiO;  2  Cor.  xii.  8.  9; 
1  Thes.  iii.  11:1  Tim.  i.  12;  Rev.  i.  5,  (i). 

Prep-a-ra'tion. 

The  day  before  the  Sabbath  (Mark  xv.  42  : 
John  xix.  31;  Aiitiq.  xvi.  6,  2;  cp.  .Tuditii 
viii.  6).  The  preparation  for  the  Sabbath  of 
the  passover  was  the  eve  of  a  peculiarly  high 
day  (John  xix.  14,  31 1. 

Pres'by-ter-y. 

Tlu'  whole  body  of  pre^buteroi,  elders  in  ;i 
church  I  I  Tim.  iv.  14).  See  Eldkk  and 
L.AYiX(;  ox  OF  Hands. 

Pres'ents.     See  Gifts. 


Priest 


622 


Priest 


Priest  [contracted  from  Latin  presbyter, 
Greek  presbiilcros,   elderly,  an  elder]. 

All  autluiri/.ed  iniuister.  It  sometimes  de- 
notes a  minister  of  state  or  responsible  ad- 
viser of  the  king  (2  Sam.  viii.  18;  see  E.  V. 
margin).  In  2  8am.  xx.  2fj  the  official  is 
desci-ibed  as  jiriest  to  David  (see  R.  V.  mar- 
gin), and  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  17  as  chief  about 
the  king.  In  1  Kin.  iv.  5  the  title  is  quali- 
fied and  explained  by  friend  of  the  king  (see 
FiUEND  OF  THE  KiNG).  Very  frequently 
the  ministers  at  the  sanctuary  are  described 
as  Levitical  priests,  as  though  the  designa- 
tion lohen,  minister,  priest,  rather  needed 
descriptive  qualification. 

An  authorized  minister  of  a  deity  who,  on 
behalf  of  a  community,  ofiiciates  at  the  altar 
and  in  other  rites.  The  essential  idea  of  a 
priest  is  that  of  a  mediator  between  man  and 
God.  The  priests  formed  a  distinct  class  in 
the  nations  of  antiquity  generally ;  as  in 
Egypt,  Midian,  Philistia,  Greece,  Rome  (Gen. 
xlvii.  22;  Ex.  ii.  16;  1  Sam.  vi.  2;  Acts 
xiv.  13). 

In  the  absence  of  a  regularly  organized 
priesthood,  priestly  functions  were  exercised 
from  time  immemorial  by  private  individ- 
uals, as  Cain,  Abel ;  and  by  patriarchs  in  be- 
half of  a  family  or  tribe,  as  Noah,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  Job.  The  natural  head  of  a  body 
of  people  acted  as  priest.  There  were  those 
among  the  Israelites  at  the  time  of  the  exodus 
who  possessed  this  jirerogative  by  natural 
right,  and  who  liad  been  influenced  by  the 
pressure  of  increasing  priestly  duties,  arising 
from  the  growth  of  the  Hebrew  population, 
and  by  the  spectacle  of  the  Egyptian  priest- 
hood, to  devote  themselves  professionally  to 
j)riestly  functions  (Ex.  xix.  22).  Even  after 
the  organization  of  the  Levitical  priesthood 
priestly  prerogatives  existed  outside  of  that 
order.  When  God  him.self  dispensed  with 
the  mediation  of  the  ordained  priests  and 
manifested  himself  immediately  to  a  man, 
that  man  recognized  his  right  to  offer  sacri- 
fice at  once  without  tlie  intervention  of  the 
regularly  constituted  mediators  (Judg.  vi.  18, 
24,  26 ;  xiii.  Ki) ;  and  when  for  irolitical 
reasons  it  became  impossible  for  those  who 
feared  God  in  the  northern  kingdom  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  offices  of  the  Levitical 
priests,  the  primitive  law  was  recalled  and 
the  father  of  the  family  or  other  person  in- 
dicated by  ancient  custom  erected  the  altar 
and  offered  sacrifices  to  Jehovali  (1  Kin 
xviii.  30). 

When  the  Hebrew  nation  was  organized  at 
Sinai  a  national  sanctuary  and  service  were 
projected  on  a  noble  scale,  such  as  became  the 
essential  dignity  of  Jehovah,  and  ajijuared  to 
no  disadvantage  wlien  brought  into  com- 
l)ari.son  with  the  purest  worship  of  the  most 
cultured  nations  of  that  age.  Priests  were 
needed  for  its  altar.  Aaron  and  liis  sons 
were  ai)]ioiutc(l  to  that  office,  and  the  ])riest- 
liood  was  made  hereditary  in  the  family  and 
restricted    to  it   (Ex.   xx'viii.   1 ;    xl.  12-15  ; 


Num.  xvi.  40;  xvii.  ;  xviii.  1-8;  and  cp. 
Deut.  X.  6;  1  Kin.  viii.  4 ;  Ezra  ii.  36  seq.). 
All  the  .sons  of  Aaron  were  priests  unless  de- 
barred by  legal  disabilities  (Lev.  xxi.  16  seq.). 
Accordingly  when  they  are  referred  to  as  a 
class,  they  are  mentioned  either  simply  as  the 
priests  or  as  the  priests  the  sons  of  Aaron,  in 
allusion  to  their  descent  as  a  family  (i.  5  ;  2' 
Chron.  xxvi.  18 ;  xxix.  21 ;  xxxv.  14 ;  cp. 
Num.  iii.  3  ;  x.  8 ;  Josh.  xxi.  19 ;  Neh.  x.  38), 
or  as  the  priests  the  Levites,  in  allusion  ta 
the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged  (Deut.  xvii. 
9,  18;  xviii.  1 ;  Josh.  iii.  3  ;  viii.  .33  ;  2  Chron. 
xxiii.  18;  xxx.  27;  Jer.  xxxiii.  18,  21;  cp. 
Ex.  xxxviii.  21),  or  later  as  the  i)riests  the 
Levites  the  sons  of  Zadok,  as  designation  of 
a  branch  of  the  family  (Ezek.  xliv.  1-5  ;  c]). 
xliii.  19).  This  method  of  designating  the 
priests,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  passages, 
cited,  was  in  vogue  at  a  time  when  beyond 
all  question  the  distinction  between  jiriest 
and  Levite  was  firmly  established.  The  dis- 
tinction is  recognized  in  the  history :  the 
ministers  at  the  altar  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  and  the  users  of  Urim  and  Thummim 
always  belong  to  the  family  of  Aaron. 

The  duties  of  the  priests  were  mainly  three  : 
to  minister  at  the  sanctuary  before  the  Lord, 
to  teach  the  people  the  law  of  God,  and  to 
inquire  for  them  the  divine  will  by  Urim  and 
Thummim  (Ex.  xxviii.  30  and  Ezra  ii,  63; 
Num.  xvi.  40  ;  xviii.  5  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  3  ;  Jer. 
xviii.  18;  Ezek.  vii.  26;  Mic.  iii.  11).  The 
priest  was  subject  to  special  laws  (Lev.  x.  8 
seq.) ;  and  in  respect  to  marriage,  he  could 
only  take  to  wife  one  of  his  own  nation,  a 
virgin  or  a  widow  who  had  not  been  divorced, 
and  her  genealogy  in  the  ancient  records 
must  be  as  regular  as  that  of  the  ]>riest  him- 
self (xxi.  7 ;  Ezra  x.  18,  19  ;  coii.  Apiou.  i.  7). 
His  dre.ss  when  ou  duty  consisted  of  1.  Short 
breeches,  reaching  from  the  hips  to  the 
thighs.  2.  A  coat  fitting  close  to  the  body, 
woven  in  one  piece  without  seam,  at  least  in 
later  times  extending  to  the  ankles,  and 
which  was  gathered  about  the  loins  with 
a  symbolically  ornamented  girdle.  3.  A  cap 
shaped  like  a  cup.  These  several  articles 
were  made  of  white  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42; 
Antiq.  iii.  7,  1-3).  Priests  and  others  officially 
connected  with  the  solemn  service  often 
wore  a  linen  ephod  ;  but  it  was  not  pre- 
scribed and  it  was  not  made  of  varied  and 
costly  materials  like  the  one  worn  by  the  high 
priest  (1  Sam.  ii.  18  ;  xxii.  18  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  14). 

On  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  in  view  of  the 
present  needs  of  the  descendants  of  Aaron, 
who  were  then  doubtless  in  the  third  genera- 
tion, but  more  especially  with  a  view  to  fu- 
ture demands,  thirteen  towns  were  designated 
where  residence  and  lands  for  pasturing  cat- 
tle were  legally  theirs  (Josh.  xxi.  10-19).  In 
the  course  of  centuries  they  increased  to  a 
numerous  body.  Accordingly  David  divided 
them  into  twenty-four  (lourses.  Except  dur- 
ing the  great  festivals,  when  all  the  courses, 
were  employed,  each  course  officiated  for  a 


Prince 


623 


Procurator 


week  at  a  time,  the  change  being  made  on 
the  Sabbath  before  evening  sacrifice  (1  (Jhron. 
xxiv.  1-19 ;  2  Kin.  xi.  5,  9 ;  Autiq.  vii.  14,  7). 
Four  only  of  these  courses  appear  to  liave  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  ( Ezraii. 
36-38)  ;  but  the  old  number  was  eventually 
reconstructed  (cp.  Luke  i.  5,  9).  There  were 
distinctions  in  rank  among  tlie  priests.  The 
supreme  pontiff  was  the  high  priest  (q.  v.). 
N«!Xt  to  him  stood  the  second  priest  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  IS),  who  was  probably  the  same  as  the 
ruler  of  the  house  of  God  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
13  ;  Nell.  xi.  11)  and  the  captain  of  tlie  tem- 
ple (Acts  iv.  1  ;  V.  24).  The  chief  priests  who 
are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  were  the  offi- 
ciating high  priest,  former  liigh  priests  still 
alive,  and  members  of  their  families. 
They  were  an  anomaly  of  the  times.  The 
law  which  regulated  the  succession  to  the 
high-priesthood  had  come  into  abeyance 
through  political  confusion  and  foreign 
domination.  High  priests  were  made  and 
unmade  at  the  will  of  the  rulers. 

Prince. 

A  person  of  chief  rank  or  authority  in  any 
official  relation;  as  the  king  of  a  iintion  (1 
Kin.  xiv.  7).  satrap  over  a  province  (Dan.  ifi. 
2,  A.  v.),  head  of  a  tribe  (Num.  i.  l(i)  or  of  a 
tribal  family  (xxv.  14),  a  sheik  ((jen.  xxiii. 
(5),  a  chief  officer  over  the  servants  of  a  king 
(Dan.  i.  7).  Prince  is  the  rendering  of  various 
Hebrew  and  (ireek  words. 

Seven  princes  of  Media  and  Persia  had  ac- 
cess to  the  king's  presence  and  held  the 
highest  official  position  after  the  throne 
(Estli.  i.  14).  Apparently  they  were  the 
seven  coun.selors  of  the  king  (Ezra  vii.  14). 
In  the  year  521  B.  c.  an  event  occurred  wliich 
perhaps  explains  the  origin  of  these  privi- 
leges. Seven  men  of  the  first  rank  in  Persia 
(Herod,  iii.  77),  having  slain  the  false  Smer- 
dis,  entered  into  a  compact  with  each  other, 
as  they  were  about  to  choose  one  of  their 
number  to  be  king,  that  each  of  the  seven 
should  have  liberty  to  enter  the  palace  with- 
out being  announced,  and  that  the  king 
should  not  be  allowed  to  marry  outside  of 
these  seven  families  (S4). 

Pris'ca  and  Pris-cil'la  [old  wonuin  and 
little  old  woman]. 

The  wife  of  Aquila,  who  went  with  him  in 
his  wanderings,  and  showed  at  least  equal 
zeal  with  her  husband  in  advancing  the 
Christian  cause.  Paul's  estimate  of  her  was 
high  (Acts  xviii.  1-3,  18,  2G  ;  Kom.  xvi.  3;  2 
Tim.  iv.  19),  and  in  three  out  of  five  verses 
she  is  named  before  her  husband.  See 
Aquila 

Pris'on. 

A  special  place  was  set  apart  in  Egypt  for 
the  confinement  of  criminals.  It  was  under 
the  charge,  and  in  the  house,  of  a  military 
officer,  and  the  prisoners  were  often  bound 
as  well  as  kept  in  ward  (Gen.  xl.  3,  4 ;  xlii. 
16,  17).  The  prison  was  an  institution  among 
the  Philistines  also ;  Samson  was  imprisoned, 


blinded,  bound  with  fetters,  and  compelled 
to  labor  (Judg.  xvi.  21). 

Among  the  Hebrews  there  was  a  ])rison  in 
Samaria  in  the  reign  of  Ahab,  which  was 
under  the  charge  of  the  governor  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  27).  Later  there  is  notice  of 
the  detention  of  prisoners  at  Jeru.saleni  iu 
the  court  of  the  guard  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21),  and 
in  the  dry  cistern  that  was  iu  the  court 
(xxxviii.  6) ;  but  private  hou.ses  were  also 
used  for  the  purpose  (xxxvii.  15).  The 
prison  fare  was  bread  and  water  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
27).  In  the  Koman  period  the  i)rocurator's 
palace  at  CiEsarea  on  the  sea,  the  castle  of 
Antonia,  and  doubtless  the  palace  of  Herod 
at  Jerusalem,  had  rooms  where  accused  per- 
sons were  confined  (.\cts  xxiii.  10,  35).  The 
prison  at  Jerusalem  into  which  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  cast  Peter  was  protected  by  iron 
gates,  and  important  ]irisoners  were  bound 
with  chains  and  guarded  by  soldiers  in  the 
cell,  while  other  soldiers  kept  watch  before 
the  door  (xii.  6,  10). 

The  Mamertine  prison  at  Rome,  where 
Jugertha  was  left  to  starve  to  death,  and 
where  according  to  tradition  Peter  was  con- 
fined, is  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline  hill 
toward  the  forum.  It  dates  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  city.  It  consists  of  two  cells, 
one  over  the  other.  The  lower  one  is  19  feet 
long,  10  wide,  and  6|  high.  It  is  entirely 
underground.  It  is  vaulted,  the  walls 
gradually  contracting.  To  judge  by  the 
slope  of  the  v;alls,  the  chamber  was  originally 
about  10  feet  in  height,  and  was  closed  by  a 
conical  vault,  arched  in  shape,  but  not  con- 
structionally  an  arch.  F^ntrance  to  it  was 
originally  obtained  only  through  a  hole  in 
the  ceiling,  through  which  criminals  were 
let  down.  The  floor  is  the  native  rock,  from 
which  a  spring  bursts,  said  in  the  legend 
to  have  been  miraculously  caused  to  flow  by 
Peter  in  order  to  baptize  his  Jailers. 

Proch'o-rus  [probably,  leading  in  a  choric; 
dance]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Greek-speaking  widows  and  probably 
the  Christian  poor  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Pro-con'sul  [one  acting  for  a  ctmsul]. 

The  governor  of  a  Roman  province  which 
was  administered  by  the  senate  (Acts  xiii.  7; 
xviii.  12;  xix.  .{8,  li.  V.).  lie  was  appointed 
for  one  year,  exercised  in  this  jirovince  all 
the  powers  of  a  consul,  and  «,as  attended  by 
I  quiestors,  who  collected  the  revenues  and 
paid  them  into  the  treasury  managed  by  the 
senate. 

Proc'u-ra-tor  [steward,  administrator]. 

The  agent  of  the  Eoman  emperor,  who  re- 
sided in  imperial  (as  distinct  from  .senatorial) 
provinces,  received  the  revenues  and  paid 
them  into  the  emperor".s  private  exchequer. 
The  military  governor  and  chief  magistrate 
was  called  proi)ra;tor  or  legate ;  but  in  the 
smaller  imperial  provinces  and  sometimes 
in  parts  of  larger  ones  the  office  of  legate 


Prophet 


624 


Prophet 


was  dispensed  with,  and  the  entire  govern- 
ment civil  and  military  was  intrnstcd  to  a 
procurator.  Such  was  the  case  in  Judtea. 
When  Archelaus  was  deposed  by  the  em- 
peror Augustus  in  A.  D.  6,  Judaia,  Samaria, 
and  Idunifea  were  erected  into  a  division  of 
the  ])refecture  of  Syria,  called  the  jtrovince 
of  Judjea,  and  placed  under  procurators 
(Autiq.  xvii.  ]1,  4;  13,  5;  Tacitus,  Annal. 
xii.  '2'3 ;  Hist.  v.  9).  They  were  successively 
Copouius  (Antiq.  xviii.  1."  1 ;  2,  2  ;  War  ii.  8, 
1);  Marcus  Ambivius;  Anuius  Rufus,  in 
whose  time  the  emperor  Augustus  died ; 
Valerius  Gratus,  who  held  otfice  eleven  years 
(Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2) ;  Pontius  Pilate,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Tiberius,  deposed 
after  tiui  years,  and  arrived  at  Rome  just 
after  the  death  of  Tiberius,  which  occurred 
in  March  37  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2;  4,  2;  6,  5 ; 
W^ar  ii.  9,  2;  Tacitus,  Annal.  xv.  44;  Luke 
iii.  1);  Marullus,  appointed  by  the  emperor 
Caius  (Antiq.  xviii.  6,  11),  and  after  an  in- 
terval which  concluded  with  the  three-year 
reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  over  Judtea  (Acts 
xii.  1-23);  Cusi)ius  Fadus,  Avlio  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Claudius;  Tiberius 
Alexander  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  2;  xx.  1,  2;  5,  2  ; 
War  ii.  11,  6)  ;  Cumanus,  api)ointed  after  the 
death  of  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis  and  later 
recalled  by  the  emperor  Claudius  (Antiq.  xx. 
5,  2:  6,  2  and  3  ;  War  ii.  12,  1  and  6)  ;  Felix, 
appoitited  by  Claudius  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  1;  War 
ii.  12,  8;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9;  Annal.  xii.); 
Porcius  Festus,  sent  out  by  Nero  (Antiq.  xx. 
8,  9  ;  War  ii.  14,  1 ;  Acts  xxiv.  27)  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Festus,  Albinus  (Antiq.  xx.  9, 
1  ;  War  ii.  14,  1)  ;  and  finally  Gessius  Florus, 
a])i)ointed  by  Nero  shortly  before  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign  (Anticj.  xx.  11,  1;  War  ii. 
14,  2  seq.;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  10). 

As  a])pears  from  the  cited  passages  and 
their  context,  these  procurators  were  subject 
to  the  governor  of  Syria;  ))ut  in  Judfea 
itself  their  authority  was  supreme.  The 
Roman  garrison  stationed  in  the  jiroviuce 
stood  at  their  command  ;  all  imi)ortant  mat- 
ters came  before  their  judgment  seat ;  they 
bad  the  power  of  life  and  death  (War  ii.  8, 
1)  ;  and  their  sentence  was  executed  by  the 
soldiers.  Tliey  commonly  residcul  at  Csesarea 
I)y  th(!  sea;  but  they  were  wont  to  go  up  to 
.leru.salem  at  the  feasts  and  sonuitimes  to 
winter  tliere  (Anti(j.  xviii.  3,  1),  and  they 
\  isitcd  various  cities  of  their  dominion  as 
occasion  recpiired.  When  in  Jerusalem,  they 
were  accustomed  to  occupy  the  i)alace  of 
Herod.     See  Hkkod,   I'Ai.,\t'K  of. 

Proph'et. 

An  autlioritative  and  inralHl)le  teacher  of 
God's  will.  Speaking  of  the  order  of  i)ro])h- 
ets  conceived  of  as  a  unity,  (iod  i)romised  to 
raises  them  uj)  from  among  the  clioseu  peojile, 
(|iiuiily  them  by  jiutliiig  his  words  into  their 
moutii,  I'nabje  them  to  siieak  all  that  lie 
commanded  them,  and  maintain  the  authority 
of  his  word  which  they  should  speak  (Dent. 


xviii.  18,  19).  Every  prophet  of  God,  and 
preeminently  Christ,  was  like  unto  Moses 
(18;  Acts  iii.  22,  23),  in  similarity  of  eiidue- 
ment,  of  doctrine,  of  attitude  toward  the 
lav/,  of  didactic  work.  The  same  authorita- 
tive and  representative  character  of  the 
prophet  is  referred  to  by  Zecliariah.  Words 
are  given  to  the  prophet  by  God  ;  the  words 
are  sent  by  his  Spirit  to  the  prophets,  are 
given  to  be  taught  to  the  people,  and  have 
been  accredited  in  the  past  by  their  fulfill- 
ment (Zech.  i.  fi;  vii.  12;  also  Neh.  ix.  30). 
The  same  facts  regarding  the  pro])liet  are 
abundantly  illustrated  in  individual  in- 
stances. The  prophets  did  not  inherit  the 
office  nor  receive  it  by  human  appointment, 
but  were  chosen,  prepared,  and  called  of 
God ;  and  the  call  was  often  soul-searching 
(Ex.  iii.  1-iv.  17;  1  Sam.  iii.  1-20;  Jer.  i. 
4-10;  Ezek.  i.  1-iii.  15).  The  word  of  the 
Lord  came  to  them  in  various  ways.  They 
are  strenuously  commanded  to  speak  and 
not  keep  silence.  They  were  accredited  by 
signs,  by  the  fulfillment  of  their  predictions, 
and  by  their  doctrine  itself.  Their  authority 
was  repeatedly  upheld  by  divine  judgment 
visited  on  the  disobedient. 

But  there  were  also  false  prophets.  Besides 
heathen  ]n-ophets  who  spoke  in  the  name  of 
an  idol  (Deut.  xviii.  20;  1  Kin.  xviii.  19; 
Jer.  ii.  8  ;  xxiii.  13),  there  were  false  prophets 
who  spoke  in  Jehovah's  name  (Jer.  xxiii.  16- 
32).  They  wern  of  two  classes:  first,  con- 
scious impostors,  enticed  to  claim  the  gift  by 
the  consideration  and  influence  which  true 
prophets  enjoyed  ;  and  courted  on  account 
of  their  smooth  words  (1  Kin.  xxii.  .5-28; 
Ezek.  xiii.  17, 19  ;  Mic.  iii.  11 ;  Zech.  xiii.  4)  ; 
and  probably,  secondly,  sincere  and  even 
godly  men,  whose  doctrine  might  be  based 
on  the  law  of  God,  but  who  were  self-deceived 
in  that  they  had  not  been  called  to  the  pro- 
phetic office  by  God  and  were  not  infallible 
religious  guides.  Tests  were  therefore  es- 
tablished for  distinguishing  the  true  from 
the  false.  The  true  prophet  was  recognized — ■ 
1.  By  signs  (Ex.  iv.  8;  Is.  vii.  11,  14).  But 
signs  alone  were  not  sufficient,  for  they 
might  occasionally  come  to  pass  accidentally 
or  be  wrought  by  artifice  (Dent.  xiii.  1,  2; 
cp.  Ex.  vii.  11,  22;  2  Thes.  ii.  9).  2.  By  the 
fulfillment  of  his  predictions  (Deut.  xviii. 
21,  22).  This  credential  gains  in  evidencing 
power  as  time  goes  on  and  the  historic  events 
and  developments  take  place  wliich  the  jiro- 
phets  foretold  of  old.  3.  By  his  teaching 
(Deut.  xiii.  1-5;  Is.  viii.  20).  If  the  doctrine 
taught  by  the  claimant  of  a  call  from  God 
led  men  away  from  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the  speaker  was  manifestly  not  a  man  of 
God.  The  true  prophet's  teaching  was  found 
to  agree  with  the  doctrine  of  the  law  con- 
cerning God,  his  nature,  character,  and  wor- 
ship, and  concerning  the  conduct  of  man. 
Hut  there  was  more  than  mere  servile  agree- 
ment with  the  law  of  God.  Planting  them- 
selves on  the  doctrines  of  the  law,  the  proph- 


Prophet 


625 


Prophet 


ets  uiifi)l(led  its  priiici])les  in  their  applica- 
tion to  human  conduct  and  in  their  reve- 
lation of  (iod.  And  aiuont;  the  sa^es  of  all 
history  the  propluts  whom  Israel  accepted 
tower  aloft  and  stand  alone  in  the  purity, 
value,  and  fitness  of  their  teaching. 

Prophecy  included  the  prediction  of  future 
events  (Is.  v.  11-13;  xxxviii.  5,  6;  xxxix. 
6,  7;  Jer.  xx.  6;  xxv.  11  ;  xxviii.  16:  Amos 
i.  5;  vii.  9,  17;  Mic.  iv.  10).  Prediction  was 
an  important  part  of  the  prophet's  work,  and 
it  furnished  his  credentials  in  ])art.  But  more 
important  still,  the  prophet  had  to  deal  with 
the  present  and  the  past,  and  to  instruct  men 
in  God's  ways  (Is.  xli.  '26 ;  xlii.  9 ;  xlvi.  9).  The 
use  of  the  English  word  prophet  must  not  be 
permitted  to  emphasize  unduly  the  predict- 
ive side  of  prophecy.  The  English  word 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  prophetes,  which 
means  one  who  speaks  for  another,  an  inter- 
l)reter  or  jjroclaimer.  and  one  who  speaks 
l)eforehand,  a  predictor.  This  twofold  mean- 
ing is  due  to  the  two  senses  of  the  preposi- 
tion pro,  for  and  before. 

The  Hebrew  word  ii(ihi',  which  is  trans- 
lated prophet,  means  one  who  announces.  It 
.seems  to  have  been  a  comprehensive  general 
term  at  first.  The  active  participle  is  used 
in  another  Semitic  language,  the  Assyrian, 
for  an  announcer.  In  the  Hebrew  Scrij)- 
tures  Abraham  is  called  a  prophet  ((ien.  xx. 
7).  Between  him  and  God  there  was  direct 
personal  intercourse,  with  him  was  the  secret 
of  the  Lord,  to  him  God  revealed  himself 
and  his  purposes  (Gen.  xv.  1-18;  xviii.  17), 
he  was  able  to  teach  his  descendants  the  true 
knowledge  of  God  (xviii.  19),  and  he  had 
l)ower  of  intercession  with  God  (23-32). 
Miriam,  who  expressly  claims  that  the  Lord 
had  spoken  by  her,  was  a  prophet  (Ex.  xv. 
20 ;  Num.  xii.  2,  6).  Aaron  as  the  spokesman 
of  Moses  is  called  his  prophet  (Ex.  vii.  1 ;  cp. 
iv.  16).  The  nabi',  or  prophet,  was  a  person 
(jualified  by  God  to  be  his  spokesman  to  men. 
And  this  is  the  fundamental  idea  which 
underlies  the  term  as  used  in  Deut.  xviii.  18. 
One  of  the  qualifications  was  prophetic  vision 
(1  Sam.  iii.  1).  Looked  at  in  this  aspect,  the 
prophet  was  sometimes  called  a  seer  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9,  in  Hebrew  ro'eh ;  Is.  xxx.  10,  in  He- 
brew hoseh).  And  when  this  was  the  main 
aspect  in  which  he  was  regarded  by  tlie 
people,  and  this  qualification  was  the  one  of 
highest  value  in  popular  estimation,  .seer  was 
the  designation  in  vogue  among  the  people. 
This  was  the  case  for  a  considerable  period 
in  the  early  history  of  Israel.  Samuel  and 
Gad  and  Iddo  were  known  by  this  title.  But 
Samuel  ceased  to  be  merely  a  seer  to  whom 
the  people  resorted  when  they  would  inquire 
of  the  Lord,  desiring  to  know  God's  will  as 
to  duty,  or  seeking  direction  in  national 
afi'airs,  or  craving  light  upon  private  matters. 
Samuel  went  out  among  men  as  an  authori- 
tative teacher  of  the  nation  sent  by  God, 
and  this  public  proclamation  was  the  distinc- 
tive idea  in  prophecy  (1  Sam.  x.  10-13 ;  xix. 
40 


20).  The  teaching  fimction,  as  seen  in  Moses, 
became  prominent  again  ;  and  beginning  with 
Samuel  and  liis  followers,  and  with  renewed 
force  several  centuries  later,  the  |)rophet 
became  a  constant  presence  in  the  national 
life,  an  anibas.sador  of  heaven  to  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  an  authoritative  i)reacher  of  right- 
eousness, an  interpreter  of  past  and  jiresent 
hi.story  on  its  moral  side,  an  aduionislier  of 
the  consequences  which  (iod  the  judge  has 
annexed  to  conduct,  a  forewarner  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  divine  judgment  on  sin,  and  a 
fosterer  of  fidelity  toward  .Jehovah.  To 
foretell  the  future  or  make  known  the  .secret 
counsel  of  God,  as  did  Nathan  when  he  for- 
bade David  to  build  the  temi)!e  and  an- 
nounced God's  purpose  to  establish  David's 
throne,  forever  remained  functions  of  the 
prophet;  but  they  became  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  his  work.  Other  features  were 
more  constantly  in  evidence,  and  as  a  result 
the  restricted  name  of  seer  gave  piace  again 
to  the  broader  designation  of  prophet  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9).  Samuel  was  called  a  seer  by  his  con- 
temporaries, but  his  great  successors,  whom 
God  raised  up  and  insi)ired  to  teach  the  na- 
tion, were  commonly  designated  prophets  by 
the  men  of  their  generation.  Seer  was  not 
banished  from  use,  but  the  title  of  prophet, 
which  had  never  been  entirely  disused 
(Judg.  iv.  4;  1  Sam.  x.  lO-i:?;  xix.  20), 
was  raised  again  to  its  former  prominence 
(iii.  20).  Amos  had  prophetic  vision  (Amos  i. 
1 ;  viii.  1 ;  ix.  1)  and  was  called  a  seer  ))y 
the  priest  of  Bethel  (vii.  12)  ;  but  he  was 
also  called  to  projjhe.sy  on  the  basis  of  this 
prophetic  sight,  and  he  did  so  (vii.  lr>). 

Keferring  to  the  prophet's  special  endue- 
ment  from  on  high,  he  was  called  a  man  of 
the  Spirit  (Hos.  ix.  7).  In  common  with 
other  ministers  of  God,  olKcial  or  j>rivate,  he 
is  a  man  of  God,  a  servant  of  (.4od,  a  messen- 
ger of  the  Lord,  a  shepherd  of  God's  people, 
a  watchman,  an  interpreter. 

That  the  prophet  was  to  be  raised  up  from 
the  people  of  Israel  alone  did  not  prevent 
God,  who  worketh  when  and  where  he  ^vill, 
in  caring  for  his  kingdom  to  send  a  dream  to 
a  Philistine,  an  Egyptian,  a  Midianite,  a 
Babylonian,  a  Roman  (Gen.  xx.  6 ;  xli.  1  ; 
Judg.  vii.  13;  Dan.  ii.  1;  Mat.  xxvii.  19). 
Even  Balaam,  who  was  a  soothsayer,  and  as 
such  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Moab  to 
curse  Israel,  was  temporarily  used  by  Gwl. 
These  foreigners  were  in  momentary  contact 
with  the  kingdom  of  God,  For  its  protec- 
tion and  advantage  a  glimpse  of  the  future 
was  given  to  them.  They  did  not  thereby 
become  prophets,  any  more  than  did  Ilagar 
or  Manoah  and  his  wife,  to  whom  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  appeared  and  aflbrded  a  glimpse 
of  the  future.  They  were  not  men  of  the 
Spirit,  the  intimates  of  God. 

The  prophets  were  taught  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  (1  Kin.  xxii.  24;  2  C'hron.  xv.  1;  xxiv. 
20:  Neh.  ix.  30:  Ezek.  xi.  ."> ;  .Toel  ii.  28; 
Mic.  iii.  8  ;  Zech.  vii.  12;  Mat.  xxii.  43;  1  Pet. 


Prophet 


626 


Prophet 


i.  10,  11).  In  this  God  worked  in  accordaure 
with  the  psychological  nature  of  man.  An 
audible  voice  or  an  angelic  messenger  occa- 
sionally came  (Num.  vii.  89;  1  Sam.  iii.  4; 
Dan.  ix.  21) ;  but  the  instruction  was  ordi- 
narily imparted  by  dreams,  visions,  and  in- 
ward suggestions  recognized  by  the  prophets 
as  not  of  themselves.  They  were  not  under 
the  permanent  influence  of  the  Spirit.  The 
word  of  the  Lord  came  unto  them.  They 
waited  for  revelation  (Lev.  xxiv.  12).  And 
their  natural  mental  discernment  is  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  word  which  came  to 
them.  Samuel's  private  thought  is  distin- 
guished from  God's  (1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7).  Nathan 
at  first  approved  of  David's  purpose  to  build  a 
temple  for  the  Lord,  but  afterwards  told  the 
king  that  God  had  forbidden  its  construction 
(2  Sam.  vii.  3).  The  prophets  did  not  exer- 
cise the  prophetic  power  at  all  times,  but 
when  God  told  them  to  si)eak. 

From  the  time  of  Samuel  the  oflB.ce  was 
regularly  transmitted.  Though  the  prophets 
who  are  mentioned  by  name  are  few,  there 
were  many  anonymous  ones  (1  Kin.  xviii.  4; 
2  Kin.  ii.  7-l<)).  The  oflSce  seems  not  to  have 
ceased  until  the  death  of  Malachi.  At  the 
approach  and  advent  of  Christ  the  tongue  of 
])rophecy  was  again  loosed  (Luke  i.  67;  ii. 
26-38).  '  In  the  church  of  the  N.  T.  also  there 
were  prophets  (1  Cor.  xii.  28).  They  were 
not  an  order,  like  apostles  and  elders.  They 
were  men  and  women  (Acts  xxi.  9),  and  they 
were  specially  illumined  expounders  of  God's 
revelation.  They  spake  by  the  Spirit,  occa- 
sionally foretold  the  future  (xi.  27,  28;  xxi. 
10,  11),  and  taught  and  exhorted  to  great 
edification  (1  Cor.  xiv.  3,  4,  24).  Paul  ironi- 
cally gives  the  title  to  a  heathen  writer,  who 
so  correctly  described  the  immoral  character 
of  the  Cretans  that  he  had  proven  himself 
to  that  extent  a  mouthpiece  of  the  truth 
(Tit.  i.  12). 

The  call  of  the  prophets  came  immediately 
from  (lod  himself  (Amos  vii.  15).  The  proph- 
et was  aware  of  a  definite  moment  when 
the  call  came.  Moses  was  called  to  his  com- 
prehensive work  at  the  bush  (Ex.  iii.  1-iv. 
17).  Samuel  had  a  special  revelation  in  his 
youth  (1  Sam.  iii.  1-1.5),  which  was  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reception  of  revelation  (iii. 
19-iv.  1).  Elisha  knew  when  he  was  called 
to  the  office,  and  also  when  he  was  qualified 
for  the  work  (1  Kin.  xix.  19.  20;  2  Kin.  ii. 
13,  14).  The  vision  seen  by  Isaiah  in  the 
year  that  Uzziah  died  (Is.  vi.)  has  been  sup- 
posed by  many  to  have  been  his  original 
call,  but  it  may  have  been  a  later  experi- 
ence, designed  to  fit  him  for  a  new  and 
greater  work,  like  the  vision  that  came  to 
the  apostle  .John  long  after  his  call  (Rev.  i. 
10),  to  Peter  at  .Toi>|ia  (Acts  x.),  to  Paul  in 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xxii.  17),  and  like  the  ex- 
perience of  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  1-22)  who 
had  been  called  to  the  prophetic  office  by  a 
vision  many  years  before  (i.  1,  4),  and  of 
Elijah,    whose    inaugural  call    is   not   men- 


tioned, but  who  was  afterwards  commis- 
sioned at  Horeb  for  a  special  work  (1  Kin. 
xix.).  Jeremiah  knew  when  he  was  called, 
and  interposed  objections  (Jer.  1.  4-10). 
Hosea  refers  to  the  time  when  Jehovah 
spake  at  the  first  by  him  (Hos.  i.  2).  In  the 
call  of  the  prophets  human  instrumentality 
is  mentioned  but  once,  namely,  in  the  case 
of  EUsha  (1  Kin.  xix.  19).  Evidence  that 
the  prophets  were  anointed  with  oil  and  in- 
ducted into  office  has  been  sought  in  Ps.  cv. 
15.  But  the  psalmist  is  speaking  of  the 
patriarchs.  He  speaks  in  the  name  of  God, 
and  uses  the  language  of  his  own  time  in 
alluding  to  them  as  prophets  (Alexander, 
Wellhausen  ;  anointed  with  the  Spirit),  or  as 
priests,  who  were  anointed  ones,  and  prophets 
(Perowne),  or  as  kings,  who  also  were 
anointed,  and  prophets  (Gen.  xx.  7  ;  xxiii.  6 ; 
Delitzsch  ;  Baethgen,  tribal  chiefs  equal  in  ■ 
rank  to  anointed  kings).  Is.  Ixi.  1  has  also 
been  cited,  but  the  anointing  there  spoken 
of  is  the  unction  of  the  Spirit.  The  case  of 
Elisha  has  also  been  appealed  to  (1  Kin.  xix. 
16),  where  Elijah  is  told  to  anoint  Elisha  to 
be  prophet  in  his  room.  But  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  even  Elisha  was  ever  anointed 
with  oil.  Elijah  carried  out  the  command 
by  casting  his  cloak  upon  Elisha.  Figura- 
tively speaking,  he  anointed  Elisha  when  he 
cast  his  mantle  upon  him  (cp.  1  Kin.  xix.  15 
with  2  Kin.  viii.  13,  where  the  command  to 
anoint  is  fulfilled  by  speaking  a  word).  The 
prophet's  cloak  was  the  sign  of  the  prophet's 
vocation  (2  Kin.  i.  8 ;  ii.  9,  13-15),  so  that 
throwing  it  to  him  was  a  symbol  of  the  call 
to  the  prophet's  office. 

To  the  prophets'  mode  of  life  there  is  only 
incidental  allusion.  Evidently  in  most  re- 
spects it  was  like  that  of  other  men.  As  an 
appropriate  dress  for  their  work  a  garment 
of  hair  was  frequently  worn  by  them  (2  Kin. 
i.  8 ;  Zech.  xiii.  4  ;  cp.  Mat.  iii.  4) ;  not  as  an 
ascetic's  habit,  but  as  a  mourner's  garb,  sym- 
bolic of  mourning  for  the  sins  of  the  people. 
Sackcloth  also  was  worn  for  the  same  pur- 
pose (Is.  XX.  2).  The  rough  garment  was  not 
worn  next  to  the  skin,  after  the  manner  of 
ascetics;  but  was  a  mantle,  cast  about  the 
shoulders  over  other  raiment.  For  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  prophets  wild  fruits  were  at 
their  disposal  (2  Kin.  iv.  39;  Mat.  iii.  4). 
Contributions  were  made  for  their  support  (1 
Sam.  ix.  8;  1  Kin.  xiv.  2,  3;  2  Kin.  iv.  42). 
Hospitality  was  shown  them  (1  Kin.  xvii.  9; 
xviii.  4  ;  2  Kin.  iv.  8, 10).  Some  were  Levites, 
and  shared  in  the  Levitical  revenues.  Some 
had  iirivate  means  ;  as  Elisha  and  Jeremiah 
(1  Kin.  xix.  19,  21;  .Ter.  xxxii.  8-10).  Per- 
haps some  were  supported  at  court  by  royal 
bounty,  like  Gad,  the  king's  seer,  and  others, 
who  bore  the  same  title  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11  ;  1 
Chron.  xxv.  5;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  15).  The 
l)roi)hets  usually  dwelt  in  houses  like  other 
men  (1  Sam.  vii.  17;  2  Sam.  xii.  15;  1  Kin. 
xiv.  4;  2  Kin.  iv.  1,  2;  v.  9;  xxii.  14;  Ezek. 
viii.  1).    See  also  Pkophktic  Associations, 


Prophet 


627 


Prophetic  Associations 


Literary  activities  and  duties  devolved 
upon  the  prophets,  as  historians  mid  writers 
of  prophecy.  The  events  of  the  reijriis  of 
David  aiid  Solomon  were  recorded  in  tlie 
histories  of  Samuel  the  seer,  Nathan  tlie 
prophet,  and  Gad  the  seer,  and  in  the  pro])h- 
ecy  of  Ahijahd  t'hron.  xxix.  29;  2  C'hron. 
ix.  29).  Events  of  the  reign  of  Rehoboam 
were  written  in  the  histories  of  Shemaiah 
the  prophet  and  Iddo  the  seer  {2  C'hrou.  xii. 
15),  and  of  Jeroboam  in  the  vision  of  Iddo 
the  seer  (is.  29 1,  of  Abijah  in  the  commentary 
of  Iddo  the  prophet  (xiii.  22),  of  Jehoshaiihat 
in  the  history  of  Jehu,  sou  of  Ilanani  (xx.  34 
with  xix.  2),  of  Uzziah  first  and  last  and  of 
Ilezekiah  in  the  writings  of  Isaiah  (xxvi.  22; 
xxxii.  32).  The  four  great  historical  works, 
the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and 
Kings,  were  classed  by  the  Jews  as  the 
I'ormer  Prophets  in  the  canon,  and  were  evi- 
dently written  by  prophets.  In  the  time  of 
I.saiah  and  Hosea  the  prophets  entered  upon 
their  great  careers  as  writers  of  prophecy. 
They  committed  their  prophetic  utterances 
in  summary,  or  in  considerable  detail,  or 
as  isolated  and  individual  prophecies,  to 
writing. 

Spiritually  the  prophets  were  prepared  to 
receive  divine  communications.  They  were 
holy  men,  men  who  were  surrendered  to 
God's  service  and  who  lived  in  communion 
with  God,  men  of  habitual  prayer  (like 
Samuel,  1  Sam.  vii.  5;  viii.  6;  xii.  23;  xv. 
11),  who  retired  at  times  to  their  watch 
tower,  that  is,  composed  their  minds  and 
gave  themselves  up  to  quiet  contemplation, 
in  order  to  wait  for  revelation  (Is.  xxi.  8; 
Hah.  ii.  1).  Moses  withdrew  for  forty  days 
into  the  quiet  and  solitude  of  mount  Sinai 
for  communion  with  God,  when  the  pattern 
of  the  tabernacle  was  to  be  shown  him. 
Occasionally,  in  the  early  period,  music  was 
em])loyed  to  stimulate  devotion  and  awaken 
religions  feeling  (1  Sam.  x.  5),  or  to  soothe 
the  mind  and  attune  the  heart  for  medita- 
tion, when  the  will  of  the  Lord  was  sought 
(2  Kin.  iii.  15).  It  was  perhaps  not  acci- 
dental that  the  prophets  were  sometimes  by 
a  river's  side  and  soothed  by  the  steady  flow 
or  the  placidness  of  the  .strean),  when  the 
communication  came  (Ezek.  i.  3;  Dan.  x.  4), 
and  that  Samuel  heard  the  Lord  speak 
when  night  had  fallen  (1  Sam.  iii.  2-10). 
By  these  various  means  the  prophet's  soul 
was  kept  or  made  ready  for  the  opei'ation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  God  in  holding  commu- 
nication with  men  worked  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  man's  mind. 

There  were  men  who  possessed  and  exer- 
cised the  prophetic  gift,  who  were  not  offi- 
cially prophets.  David  was  a  prophet ;  he 
wrote  of  Christ;  but  he  Avas  not  a  prophet 
officially.  He  was  king,  and  his  writings 
were  not  assigned  a  place  among  the  pro- 
phetic Scriptures.  Daniel  had  the  gift  of 
pro]ihecy  in  an  eminent  degree;  but  he  did 
not  devote  his  life  to  teaching  the  people  ;  he 


was  oiBcially  a  statesman  and  governor  under 
Babylonian  and  Persian  kings.  His  writings, 
like  those  of  David,  were  ])laced  among  the 
Hagiographa  or  sacred  writings,  and  not  witii 
the  works  of  ollicial  prophets.  See  t'.\N<)N. 
The  Former  Proi)iiets  and  the  Latter  Propli- 
ets  are  designations  in  tlie  Het)rew  canon  for 
the  authors  respectively  of  the  liistorical 
books  of  Jusliua,  Judges,  1  and  2  Samuel,  1 
and  2  Kings,  and  of  the  strictly  iiroiihctical 
books  beginning  with  Isaiah.  The  authors 
were  prophets;  anonymous  in  the  case  of  the 
Former  Prophets,  but  named  in  the  case  of 
the  strictly  prophetical  books.  The  reason 
was  that  prophecy,  not  history,  required  au- 
thentication. The  designation  does  not  refer 
to  the  time  when  the  books  were  composed, 
but  to  the  respective  places  of  the.se  two 
groups  of  books;  Kings,  for  example,  being 
written  after  Isaiah,  but  holding  a  place 
among  the  Former  Projihets.  There  were 
great  prophets,  like  Elijah  and  Elisha,  who  did 
not  commit  their  discourses  to  writing.  They 
are  termed  oral  prophets  by  modern  scholars. 
The  literary  productions  of  other  prophets 
who  recorded  their  prophecies  are  cited,  ex- 
cerpted from,  and  incorporated  in  the  books 
of  the  Former  Prophets  and  other  Scripture 
(see  a  foregoing  paragrajjli). 

Of  the  Latter  Prophets,  Hosea,  Amos,  and 
Jonah  labored  in  the  northern  kingdom  ;  the 
rest  exercised  their  office  among  the  people 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  either  in  Palestine 
or  in  the  land  of  exile.  Classed  chronologi- 
cally, and  including  Daniel,  they  are:  1.  In 
the  Assyrian  period,  from  shortly  before  the 
accession  of  Tiglatlipileser.  745  b.  c,  to  the 
decay  of  the  Assyrian  power,  about  625  B.  c, 
Ho.sea,  Amos,  and  .Tonah  in  the  north,  and 
Joel,  Obadiah,  Isaiah,  Micali,  and  Nalnim  in 
Judah.  2.  During  the  Babylonian  period  in 
Judah,  from  625  b.  c.  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
in  587  b.  C,  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk.  and  Zepli- 
aniah.  3.  During  the  exile  in  Babylonia, 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  4.  During  the  jieriod 
of  the  restoration,  Haggai,  Zeciiariah,  and 
Mahichi.     See  Mrsic,  N.vioTii. 

Proph'et-ess. 

1.  A  woman  called  of  (iod  to  the  prophetic 
office.  Deborah  was  a  prophetess  (Judg.  iv. 
4).  The  Israelites  resorted  to  her  for  judg- 
ment, and  the  Lord  revealed  his  will  through 
her  to  the  nation  (5,  6, 14).  Huldah  also  was 
a  prophetess.  She  was  consulted  by  the  high 
priest  at  the  command  of  the  king  in  regard 
to  the  teaching  of  Deuteronomy,  and  she 
declared  the  counsel  of  the  Lord  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  12-20).  Four  virgin  daughters  of 
Philip  the  evangelist  jirophesied  (Acts  xxi.  9). 

2.  A  prophet's  wife,  as  is  probably  meant 
in  Is.  viii.  3. 

Pro-phet'ic  As-so-ci-a'tions. 

The  presence  of  a  company  of  |)ro])liets  at 
Gibeah  of  God,  the  home  of  Saul,  is  men- 
tioned in  1  Sam.  x.  5.  Whether  they  were 
a   wandering    band   of  prophets,  going  from 


Prophetic  Associations 


628 


Proselyte 


town  to  town,  or  formed  a  commuuity  of 
prophets  resident  at  Gibeah,  cannot  be  de- 
termined. The  designation  of  the  phice  as 
the  hill  of  God  was  probably  derived,  not 
from  the  abode  of  these  prophets,  but  from 
the  high  place  of  worship  that  was  upon  it 
(verse  5).  The  word  rendered  company  in 
A.  v.,  liand  in  K.  V.,  is  not  the  word  trans- 
lated company  in  1  Sam.  xix.  20;  and  the 
phrase  is  not  definite,  but  is  merely  a  band 
of  prophets. 

Samuel  dwelt  at  Eamah  (1  Sam.  vii.  17 ; 
xxviii.  .'>),  where  he  was  the  head  of  a  com- 
pany of  prophets  (xix.  18-20).  More  defi- 
nitelj',  he  was  at  Naiotli,  in  Ramah,  a  build- 
ing or  locality  in  the  town  of  Ramah  inhab- 
ited by  this  community  of  prophets  (see 
Naioth).  Jewish  tradition  is  represented 
by  tlie  Targum  of  .Jonathan,  which  renders 
the  word  Naioth  by  house  of  instruction  ; 
and  this  translation  has  given  rise  to  the 
phrase  "school  of  the  prophets,"  with  its 
misleading  suggestions.  The  prophets  who 
gathered  together  naturally,  indeed,  em- 
ployed their  leisure  in  the  study  of  things 
pertaining  to  God :  but  there  is  no  hint  in 
the  narrative  that  they  were  at  school  or 
were  novitiates  in  training  for  the  prophetic 
office.  The  word  and  the  narrative  indicate 
that  there  was  at  Ramah  a  community  of 
men  already  endowed  with  the  prophetic 
gift  and  witli  power,  in  co-operation  with 
God,  spiritually  to  affect  those  who  came  in 
contact  with  them  (1  Sam.  x.  10;  xix.  20- 
2.3)  ;  who  dwelt  together  at  or  round  about 
Samuel's  house;  under  his  conduct  engaged 
in  worship,  giving  utterance  in  praise  and 
exhortation  to  their  exalted  religious  feelings 
and  apprehension  of  truth  (cp.  prophesying, 

I  Sam.  X.  5 ;  1  Cliron.  xxv.  1-3),  and  doubt- 
less standing  likewise  under  his  direction  iu 
whatever  other  religiousduties  devolved  upon 
them  as  prophets.  The  situation  may  be 
conceived  thus:  Shiloh,  the  religious  meet- 
ing place  of  Israel,  had  been  forsaken  of 
God.  The  prophets  gathered  about  God's 
great  representative  and  the  chief  spiritual 
force  of  the  time  in  order  to  cultivate  their 
own  spiritual  life  in  common  worship,  to 
praise  God  together  as  the  Spirit  gave  them 
utterance  (1  Sam.  xix.  20),  to  engage  in  united 
prayer  in  behalf  of  the  nation  (xii.  23;  xv. 

II  with  3")  ;  xvi.  1),  and  to  go  forth  in  com- 
panies for  the  revival  and  instruction  of  the 
people  (x.  5,  10).  They  sought  on  the  one 
hand  to  benefit  themselves  by  religious  fel- 
lowship, hold  prolonged  communion  with 
God  amidst  favorable  surroundings,  and 
thereby  not  only  to  satisfy  their  spiritual 
longings,  but  also  to  quicken  their  spiritual 
apprehen.sion  and  fpialify  them.selves  for 
(rod's  use  of  them  as  his  s|)()kesmen  ;  and 
tliey  sought  on  the  other  hand  to  afford  a 
center  of  reformation  in  the  midst  of  great 
apostasy. 

Two  hundred  years  later,  in  the  northern 
kingdom,  prophetic  communities  made  their 


appearance  for  a  brief  while.  They  were 
probably  founded  ))y  Elijah,  on  the  model  of 
the  earlier  society  under  the  presidency  of 
Samuel.  The  members  were  designated  sons 
of  the  prophets.  The  name  denotes  that 
they  belonged  to  the  prophetic  order  ;  just 
as  a  son  of  the  apothecaries  was  one  who  fol- 
lowed the  trade  of  an  apothecary,  a  son  of 
the  goldsmiths  was  a  professional  practitioner 
of  the  goldsmiths'  art,  and  sons  of  the  singers 
were  members  of  the  singers'  guild  (Neh.  iii. 
8,  31 ;  xii.  28).  The  members  of  the  pro- 
phetic order  were  called  prophets  and  sons 
of  the  prophets  indifferently,  and  the  word 
of  the  Lord  was  revealed  to  them  (1  Kin.  xx. 
3.b-38,  41;  2  Kin.  ii.  3,  5;  ix.  1).  The  a.sso- 
ciations  which  they  formed  were  compara- 
tivelj^  large  (2  Kin.  ii.  7,  16  ;  iv.  42,  43),  occu- 
pied a  common  building  or  compound  (iv. 
.j8  :  vi.  1-4),  and  were  located  at  Gilgal, 
Bethel,  and  Jericho  (ii.  3,  5;  iv.  38).  Bethel 
was  a  piominent  seat  of  idolatrous  worship, 
and  Jericlio  was  hard  by  another  such  place  ; 
and  the  establishment  of  an  organized  society 
of  prophets  at  them  shows  that  the  founder 
intended  the  prophetic  community  to  be  a 
counterpoise  to  apostate  worship  and  a  center 
of  reformation.  Elijah,  and  after  him  Elisha, 
stood  at  the  head  of  these  communities,  vis- 
ited them  in  turn  (ii.  1,  2,  4;  iv.  38),  was 
looked  up  to  with  respect  and  called  ma.ster 
(vi.  5).  Elisha  was  regarded  with  peculiar 
affection  ;  they  desired  his  presence  with 
them,  sat  before  him  as  having  him  for  their 
president  (and  perhaps  teacher),  referred 
their  plans  and  their  difficulties  to  him,  and 
were  sent  forth  by  him  to  perform  proi}hetic 
functions  (iv.  38,  40;  vi.1-7;  ix.  1).  Though 
not  without  revelation  themselves  they  could 
learn  much  of  the  will  of  God  from  the 
greater  prophet,  as  Miriam  and  Aaron  did 
from  Moses  (ii.  16-18;  c]).  sitting  before  a 
prophet  as  equivalent  to  inquiring  of  God, 
Ezek.  viii.  1  ;  xiv.  1-7  ;  xx.  1 1.  The  spiritual 
condition  even  of  projihets  could  be  pro- 
moted by  the  use  of  the  means  of  grace,  and 
meditation  on  God's  law  could  benefit  even 
inspired  men  of  God. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  these  societies 
existed  after  the  time  of  Elisha,  neither  in 
Is.  viii.  16  nor  in  Amos  vii.  14.  Huldah  the 
prophetess  was  not  connected  with  such  a 
society  ;  .she  did  not  dwell  in  the  college,  as 
the  A.  y.  renders,  but  in  the  second  quarter 
of  the  city  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14,  R.  V.). 

Pros'e-lyte. 

In  the  N.  T.,  a  convert  to  Judaism.  The 
Pharisees  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make 
one  proselyte  (Mat.  xxiii.  15).  The  Roman 
poet  Horace  mentions  the  trait  as  character- 
istic of  the  Jews  (.Sat.  i.  4,  142  and  143).  Pros- 
elytes were  present  when  the  pentecostal 
effusion  took  place  (Acts  ii.  10).  One  of  the 
nten  chosen  to  look  after  the  poor  in  the 
early  Christian  church  was  Nicoias,  a  pros- 
elyte of  Antioch  (vi.  5).     They  were  quite 


Proverbs,  The 


629 


Province 


numerous  in  Antioch  (War  vii.  3,  3).  At 
Damascus  great  numbers  of  women  were 
converts  to  Judaism  (ii.  20,  2).  The  cham- 
berlain of  queen  Candace  was  evidently  a 
convert  (Acts  viii.  27).  and  the  royal  family 
of  Adiabene,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  adopted 
the  Jew's  religion  (Antiq.  xx.  2-4).  At 
Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  many  proselytes  followed 
Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii.  43).  The  rab- 
bins recognized  two  orders  of  proselytcii.  One 
were  proselytes  of  righteousness.  They  con- 
sented to  be  circumcised  and  baptized,  and 
to  offer  sacrifice.  They  adopted  Judaism  in 
its  entirety.  The  proselytes  of  the  gate  or 
of  sojourning  were  much  less  advanced. 
They  agreed  to  observe  what  were  called  the 
seven  i)recepts  of  Noah  (see  Noah),  but  de- 
clined to  be  circumcised  or  to  embrace 
.Judaism. 

Prov'erbs,  The. 

A  poetical  book  on  practical  piety.  It  follows 
the  Book  of  Psalms  in  the  Hebrew  collection 
and  also  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Engli.sh 
versions.  The  Hebrew  word  which  has  been 
rendered  proverb  embraces  more  than  a  max- 
im. It  includes  also  the  fable,  the  riddle, 
the  satire,  the  parable  (Num.  xxiii.  7  ;  Is. 
xiv.  4  ;  Ezek.  xvii.  2).  The  several  parts  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs  are:  1.  Title,  i.  1-6,  de- 
scri])tive  of  the  entire  book;  declaring  the 
l>nr]u)se  of  the  collection  to  be  "  to  know 
wisdom  and  instruction;  .  .  .  the  words  of  the 
wise  and  their  dark  sayings,"  and  designat- 
ing it  the  proverbs  of  Solomon,  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel.  This  title,  however,  does  not 
affirm  that  the  book  in  all  its  parts  is  from 
Solomon  (cp.  Ps.  Ixxii.  20.  although  each  j)salm 
in  the  book  is  not  thereby  ascribed  to  David  ; 
see  titles  of  Ps.  xlii.-l.).  2.  Main  contents.  I. 
Praise  of  wisdom,  i.  7-ix.  18;  a  didactic 
)>oem  in  the  form  of  addres.'^es  by  a  father  to 
his  son,  and  specially  designed  for  young 
men.  II.  The  proverbs  of  Solomon,  x.-xxii. 
16;  maxims  arj-anged  in  no  precise  order 
and  consisting  in  each  case  mostly  of  two 
contrasted  sentences.  III.  Without  formal 
superscription,  but  which  maybe  called  from 
the  opening  verse,  compared  with  xxiv.  23, 
the  words  of  wise  men,  xxii.  17-xxiv.  22. 
Among  the.se  words  is  a  poem  on  the  drunk- 
ard's woes.  Supplemented  by  the  sayings  of 
the  wise,  xxiv.  23-34,  including  an  ode  on 
the  sluggard.  IV.  Proverbs  of  Solomon 
copied  out  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  xxv. - 
xxix. ;  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
popular  proverb,  and  consisting  of  pithy 
sentences  not  only  of  two,  but  also  of  three, 
four,  or  five  parallel  clauses  each.  Three 
appendices:  (1)  The  words  of  Agur,  xxx.; 
enigmatical  sayings  in  which  numbers  play 
a  significant  part.  (2)  The  words  of  king 
Lemuel,  xxxi.  1-9;  maxims  on  practical  life 
addressed  to  him  by  his  mother.  (3)  Praise  of 
the  virtuous  woman,  xxxi.  10-31 ;  a  poem  in 
which  each  of  the  twenty-two  verses  begins 
with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  in 
regular  order. 


The  particular  ascri])tion  of  certain  sec- 
tions ol  tiie  book  to  Solomon,  and  of  other 
sections  apparently  to  oth(!r  authorship,  in- 
dicates that  Solomon  was  not  tlir  author  of 
the  entire  work  ;  and  the  title  of  the,  fourth 
section,  "Tiiesc  also  arc  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  the  men  of  Hez.'kiah  king  of  Judah 
copied  out,"  is  valid  evidence  that  the  book 
of  Proverbs  did  not  receive  its  ])re.sent  shai>e 
before  the  reign  of  Heziikiah.  The  brief  in- 
troduction (i.  l-(i)  fittingly  describes  the  en- 
tire book,  and  the  poem  in  i)raiso  of  wisdom 
(7-ix.  18)  is  not  ascribed  to  Solomon,  and 
forms  the  preface  to  the  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  immediately  follow,  or  more  jirobably 
to  all  the  maxims  of  wisdom  which  consti- 
tute the  remainder  of  th(^  book.  The  intro- 
duction and  poem  may,  therefore,  be  safely 
attributed  to  the  hand  and  brain  of  another 
literary  man  than  Solomon,  and  dated  not 
earlier  than  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  The 
second  and  fourth  sections,  cha]).  x.-xxii.  lU 
and  xxv.-xxix.,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
book,  are  ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  absence 
of  a  polemic  against  idolatry  has  been  urged 
as  evidence  that  the  proverbs  in  these  sec- 
tions originated  or  were  collected  after  the 
cessation  of  the  great  struggle  which  the 
prophets  carried  on  with  encroaching  heathen- 
ism. It  may  with  equal  justice  be  advanced 
as  proof  that  thes(!  sections  antedate  that 
struggle.  If  the  absence  of  polemic  proves 
anything,  it  affords  evidence  that  these  pro- 
verbs were  collected  either  before  the  division 
of  the  kingdom  and  the  encroachments  of 
idolatry,  or  after  the  exile,  when  idolatry  had 
lost  its  attractiveness.  The  language  of  these 
sections  favors,  though  it  does  not  establish, 
the  ascription  to  Solomon,  for  it  is  ])ure  He- 
brew. It  is  free  from  foreign  orthography 
and  forms,  such  as  are  found  in  sonu'  books 
which  were  written  immediately  before  the 
exile  or  subsequently  to  it.  Furthermore 
proverbial  literature  is  very  ancient.  It 
appeared  early  among  the  Hebrews  al.so  ( 1 
Sam.  xxiv.  13;  2  Sam.  xii.  1;  Judg.  ix.  7). 
That  Solomon  comjtosed  and  collected  prov- 
erbs has  early  attestation  (Prov.  xxv.  1  ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  32  ;  x.  1  seq.  ;  Kcclus.  xlvii.  13-17). 
The  titles,  therefore,  which  attribute  tlic 
maxims  in  these  two  sections  of  the  book  of 
Proverbs,  may  safely  be  regarded  as  authentic. 

Prov'ince. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  and  Araniai" 
M'd'nifih,  jurisdiction,  and  the  Greek  Ejxtr- 
cliia,  government. 

The  young  men  or  servants  of  the  princes 
of  the  provinces,  who  fought  under  Ahab 
against  Benhadad  (1  Kin.  xx.  14),  were  not 
Israelites  (1.5).  They  itrobably  served  the 
chieftains  who  ruled  various  districts  in 
Gilead  and  the  Hauran,  and  made  common 
cause  with  Israel  in  resisting  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  Syrians  upon  the  country  south 
of  Damascus. 

The  provinces  of  the  Babylonian  and  Per- 


Psalms,  Book  of 


630 


Psalms,  Book  of 


siau  empires  were  divisions  of  the  realm  for 
administrative  purposes  (Dan.  ii.  49;  iii.  :>). 
Dari\is  the  Gi-eat,  who  as  king  of  Persia,  had 
dominion  from  India  to  I^lthiopia  (Herod,  iii. 
90-94),  divided  tliis  great  empire  into  twenty 
governments  called  satrapies  (i.  19:,;  ;  iii.  89); 
see  S.^TRAP.  These  satraj)ies  or  large  prov- 
inces were  subdivided  into  smaller  govern- 
mental districts,  which  the  Jews  designated 
likewise  by  the  general  term  province  (Ezra 
viii.  30  ;  Neh.  ii.  7,  9;  Esth.  iii.  12;  viii.  9; 
cp.  Herod,  iii.  120,  128;  vi.  42;  with  iii.  127; 
V.  11,  27,  30;  see  also  Darius  2).  In  the 
days  of  Ahasuerus  these  minor  provinces 
numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
(Esth.  i.  1).  During  the  Persian  period 
Judah  was  at  first  under  tlie  .jurisdiction  of 
the  governor  beyond  the  river  (Ezra  v.  3,  6), 
but  by  royal  decree  it  was  made  a  separate 
province  and  granted  a  governor  of  its  own 
(ii.  63;  V.  8). 

The  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
of  two  classes,  imperial  and  senatorial.  The 
imperial  provinces  were  under  the  direct  and 
sole  control  of  the  emperor;  they  compre- 
hended all  the  frontier  provinces  which  were 
supposed  to  need  the  presence  of  an  army  of 
occupation  to  hold  them  in  sulycction  ;  they 
were  governed  by  a  Tnilitary  ojlicer  called  a 
legate,  who  was  appointed  by  tlie  emperor  ; 
their  revenues  were  received  by  imperial 
agents  termed  procurators,  and  were  paid 
into  the  private  exchequer  of  the  emperor. 
The  smaller  imperial  provinces,  and  parts 
of  larger  ones  like  the  snbprovince  of  Judaea, 
were  ruled  by  a  procurator  only,  the  presence 
of  a  legate  not  being  deemed  necessary, 
f'ilicia  (Acts  xxiii.  34),  C4alatia,  and  Syria, 
of  which  Jndsea  was  a  part,  were  imperial 
provinces.  The  senatorial  provinces  were 
administered  by  the  senate  ;  they  did  not 
require  to  be  kept  under  control  by  military 
force  ;  tlieir  governor  was  styled  a  ])roconsui. 
He  was  attended  by  (puestors.  who  received 
tlie  nnennes  and  paid  them  into  the  jiublic 
treasury,  which  was  managed  by  the  senate, 
('yprus  (Acts  xiii.  4.  7),  Macedonia  (xvi.  12), 
Achaia  (xviii.  12),  and  Asia  (xis.  10)  were 
S(matorial  provinces. 

Psalms,  Book  of. 

A  collection  of  religious  poems  which  were 
sjieciaiiy  eniiiloyed  JTi  the  ])nblic  worship  of 
tiui  (iod  of  Israel.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called 
Hook  of  Praises.  The  title  in  the  English 
version  is  borrowed  from  the  (ircek  transla- 
tion (c]).  Luke  XX.  42).  The  g(Mieral  designa- 
tion P.salms  of  David  is  derived  from  the  num- 
ber of  psalms,  seventy-three  in  all,  e.\i)ressly 
ascribed  to  David  in  the  Hebrew  titles  (cp. 
Hcb.  iv.  7). 

The  psalms  number  150.  They  are  divided 
into  live  books;  in  imitation,  it  is  thought, 
of  the  fivefold  division  of  the  Pentateuch; 
see  footnote,  I'kntatkuch.  This  divisiiin  is 
ancient.  It  is  indicated  in  the  Septuagint, 
and  is  marked  b.y  headings  in  the  Hebrew 


text.  Its  existence  in  the  chronicler's  day  is, 
bowevei",  scarcely  evidenced  by  1  Chron.  xvi. 
35,  3G,  compared  with  Ps.  cvi.  47,  48,  as  De- 
litzsch  believes,  for  the  passage  in  the  psalm  is 
as  ]>robably  dei'ived  from  the  words  in  Chron- 
icles as  vice  versa.  These  books  begin  respect- 
ively with  Ps.  i.,  xlii.,  Ixxiii.,  xc,  and  evil. 
Each  book  is  arranged  to  close  with  a  doxology. 
In  the  first  book  all  the  psalms  are  attributed 
to  David  except  four  (i.,  ii.,  x.,  xxxiii.).  These 
are  so-called  orphan  jisalms;  that  is,  they  are 
anonymous.  In  the  Septuagint  all  except  i., 
which  is  introductory,  and  ii.  are  ascribed  to 
David;  x.  being  united  to  ix.  and  xxxiii. 
bearing  the  title  "To  David."  The  divine 
name  .Tehovah  is  generally  employed  in  the 
psalms  of  this  book.  In  the  second  book,  of 
the  thirty-one  psalms  the  first  eight  are  a 
collection  of  songs  of  the  sons  of  Korah. 
Seven  are  expressly  ascribed  to  them  ;  and 
xliii.,  whether  written  by  them  or  not,  was 
composed  as  the  conclusion  of  xlii.  This 
group  is  followed  by  a  psalm  of  Asa])h. 
Then  comes  a  gi'oup  of  twenty  psalms  at- 
tri))uted  to  David  with  the  exception  of  two 
(Ixvi.,  Ixvii.).  Of  the  two  exceptions,  how- 
ever, Ixvii.  is  ascribed  to  David  in  the 
Se]>tuagint.  The  book  closes  with  an  anony- 
mous and  a  Solomonic  psalm  (Ixxi.,  Ixxii.). 
In  this  book  the  divine  name  is  prevailingly 
Elohim,  God  ;  and  two  psalms  duplicate  two 
of  the  first  book,  substituting  the  word  God 
for  Jehovah  (liii.  and  Ixx. ;  cp.  xiv.  and  xl. 
13-17).  The  third  book  contains  seventeen 
psalms.  The  first  eleven  are  attributed  to 
Asaph,  four  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  and  one 
each  to  David  and  Ethan.  This  collection 
of  psalms  was  gathered  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  burning  of  the  ti'ni])le 
(Ixxiv.  8,  7,  8;  Ixxix.  1).  The  fourth  book 
likewise  contains  seventeen  psalms.  ■  Tlie 
first  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  two  to  David  ;  and 
the  remaining  fourteen  are  anonymous.  The 
Septuagint  gives  eleven  to  David,  leaving 
only  five  anonymous  (xcii.,  c,  cii.,  cv.,  cvi.). 
The  fifth  book  has  twenty-eight  anonymon.s 
psalms,  while  fifteen  are  assigned  to  David 
and  one  to  Solomon.  The  ascrijitions  difler 
considerably  in  the  Septuagint.  This  col- 
lection was  made  late,  I'or  it  includes 
])salms  which  refer  to  the  exile  (cxxvi., 
cxxxvii.).  It  will  be  seen  that  the  comi)osi- 
tion  of  the  jisalms  ranges  over  a  long  period 
of  time.  That  David  was  the  author  of 
psalms  is  supported  by  abundant  early  testi- 
mony, direct  and  indirect.     See  David. 

The  titles  of  the  psalmsare  ancient.  Tlfey 
wei'e  not  only  in  their  ]ilacewlien  the  Greek 
version  was  made,  but  they  were  old  at  that 
time ;  for  musical  and  other  terms  which 
occur  were  not  understood  by  the  trans- 
lators. As  they  stand,  the.v  are  not  infal- 
lible ;  Ixxxviii.,  for  example,  having  two 
titles.  The  titles  have  been  exjiosed,  like 
the  rest  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  to 
the  ordinary  vicissitudes  of  transmissi(^n  ; 
and    enors    have  doubtless  crept   in  during 


Psalms,  Book  of 


631 


Psalms,  Book  of 


the  process  of  copying  which  must  be  dis- 
covered aud  removed  by  textual  criticism. 
In  the  titles  the  Hebrew  preposition  lamed 
constantly  occurs,  it  is  translated  "to"'  in 
the  phrase  "to  the  cliief  musician  "  (Ps.  iv. 
title,  in  R.  Y.  for),  and  "of"  in  such  e.Kpres- 
sions  as  a  "psalm  of  DaA'id "  ( Ps.  iii  ),  a 
"  Jlichtam  of  David  "  (xvi.),  "a  jjsalni  (jf  the 
sonsof  Korah"  (xlvii.),  "a  i)salm  of  Asaph" 
(1.),  "a  song  of  David"  (Ixv.),  "a  ])rayer  of 
Moses  the  mau  of  God  "  (xc),  "a  prayer  of 
the  afflicted  "  (cii.),  aud  "a  psalm  of  David  " 
(xi.),  "  a  psalm  of  the  sons  of  Korah  "  (xliv.), 
"a  psalm  of  Solomon'"  (Ixxii.),  and  simply 
"of  David"  (cxxii.),  "of  Solomon  "  (cxxvii.); 
and  "  for"  in  "a  song  for  the  Sabbath  day" 
(xcii.),  "a  psalm  for  the  thank-otfering  "  (c, 
1\.  V.  mai-gin).  The  force  of  this  iin'])ositiun 
in  Hebrew  speech  was  manifold.  In  the 
titles  prefixed  to  poems  four  important  mean- 
ings must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  inter- 
preter. It  may  denote — 1.  Possession,  be- 
longing to  (Ps.  xxiv.  1,  rei)resented  by  the 
}iossessive  case).  2.  Authorship  (Hah.  iii.  1). 
'^.  Dedication  (Cxen.  xvi.  14,  Beer-lahairoi, 
the  well  [consecrated]  to  the  Living  one  who 
seeth  me;  Is.  viii.  1).  4.  Intended  purpose. 
When  the  preposition  is  employed  several 
times  in  a  title,  it  may,  of  course,  be  used 
each  time  iu  a  different  sense  (Ps.  iv,  ren- 
dered for,  of,  in  A.  V.  to,  of;  xviii.,  for,  of,  of, 
unto;  Is.  v.  1,  for  or  to,  and  touching).  The 
simple  phrases  ''of  David"  (Ps.  xi.),  "of 
Asaph"  (Ixxxi.),  and  the  Hebrew  order  of 
the  words  "of  David,  a  p.salm"  (Ps.  xxiv.), 
"of  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  Maschil"  (.xliv.), 
"of  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  psalm"  (xlvii.), 
suggest  that  the  word  psalm  or  Michtam  or 
prayer  (iv.,  xvi.,  xvii.)  is  an  epithet  descrip- 
tive of  the  poem,  and  in  these  and  similar 
cases  might  lie  separated  by  a  comma  or 
other  punctuation  from  the  prepositional 
phrase  that  follows,  thus  "a  psalm;  of 
David,''  "a  song;  for  the  Sabbath  day." 
Further,  the  preposition  seems  often  to  refer 
to  a  collection  to  which  the  particular  psalm 
originally  belonged,  as  in  the  phrase  '"  of  the 
sons  of  Korah."  This  clue  leads  to  the  be- 
lief that  the  similar  phrase  "of  David"  re- 
fers to  a  collection  prepared  by  David. 

The  book  of  The  Psalms,  as  at  present  con- 
stituted in  tiie  Old  Testament,  was  the  hymn 
book  of  the  second  temple.  Its  rich  devo- 
tional songs  were  also  sung  in  private  gather- 
ings for  the  worship  of  God  (Mat.  xxvi.  30; 
see  P.^ssovERi.  Like  modern  hymn  books, 
it  was  composed  of  the  hymns  of  the  ages, 
and  in  many  cases  the  source  from  which 
these  psalms  were  derived  is  stated  in  the 
titles.  From  these  it  appears  that  there  were 
collections  iu  use  before  the  present  Psalter 
was  compiled.  1.  The  collection  of  David. 
Seventy-three  psalmsof  thecom|)leted  i'salter 
belonged  originally  to  tliis  earlier  book  of 
jiraise,  according  to  the  notes  in  tlie  Hebrew 
text  (iii.-ix.,  xi.-xxxii  ,  xxxiv.-xli.,  li.-lxv., 
Ixviii.-lxx.,  Ixxxvi.,  ci.,  ciii.,cviii. -ex.,  cxxii,. 


cxxiv.,  exxxi.,  cxxxiii.,  cxxxviii.-cxlv.). 
In  the  Greek  version  the  note  is  not  found 
with  cxxii.  and  cxxiv.,  and  occurs  with 
-xxxiii..  xliii.,  Ixvii.,  Jxxi.,  xci.,  xciii.-xcix., 
civ.,  and  cxxxvii.,  in  addition  to  the  ]).salms 
provided  with  it  in  the  Hebrew  text.  In 
this  collection  a  number  of  j)salms  were  pro- 
vided with  a  ]irose  inl  nidnctinn  stating  the 
occasion  ;  and  all  that  had  this  preface,  or  at 
least  thirteen  of  them,  were  taken  over  into 
the  completed  book  of  The  Psalms  (iii.,  vii., 
xviii.,  xxxiv.,  li.,  Iii.,  liv.,  hi.,  Ivii.,  lix., 
Ix.,  Ixiii.,  cxlii.).  No  jisalm  of  the  com- 
pleted Psalter  has  an  introduction  of  this 
kind,  except  those  that  are  markeil  "of 
David."  To  judge  from  the  name,  from  the 
definite  ascription  of  theauthorshi])  to  David 
by  means  of  a  relative  clause  in  the  title  of 
certain  psalms  thus  marked  (vii.,  xviii. j, 
from  David's  known  ])ossession  of  jioetic 
gifts,  and  from  the  ancient  testimony  to  his 
interest  in  the  musical  .service  of  the  .sanc- 
tuary (see  David),  this  collection  was  formed 
by  David,  and  ivas  the  jisalm  book  of  tiie 
temple  in  pre-exilic  times.  Prol)al)ly  it  con- 
tained both  sacred  poems  of  David's  own 
composition  and  jisalms  selected  by  him  from 
various  sources;  and  it  would  be  (juite  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  history  of  Iiymnody  if 
this  collection  of  sacred  songs,  used  by  many 
generations  in  public  and  private  worshij), 
received  additions  of  approjiriate  hymns  as 
time  went  on,  yet  retained  its  original  title 
of  Prayers  of  David  (Ps.  Ixxii.  20).  Is  not 
the  present  book  of  The  Psalms,  although  it 
contains  sacred  poems  written  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians, 
nevertheless  often  entitled  the  Psalms  of 
David?  (See  first  paragraph).  When  the  con- 
tents of  this  Davidic  collection  were  com- 
bined with  other  collections  each  of  its 
psalms  was  marked  as  taken  from  the  book 
of  David.  Writings  of  proi)hets.  ])riests,  aud 
poets  who  lived  before  the  Babylonian  exile 
survived  that  calamity,  and  it  is  not  surjiris- 
iug  that  a  body  of  religious  songs  should 
have  outlived  the  catastroiihe  and  been  ulti- 
mately incorporated  in  the  new  hymnal. 
2.  A  collection  used  by  the  sons  nf  Korah.  a 
familysomeof  whom  wereothcially connected 
with  the  sanctuary  as  singers  (.sec  Korhitk). 
Eleven  psalms  are  attested  as  having  be- 
longed to  this  collection  (xlii.,  xliv.-xlix., 
Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv.,  Ixxxvii.,  Ixxxviii.).  '.i.  A 
collection  arranged  by  Asiii)h  or  niembei's  of 
his  family,  who  were  official  musicians  and 
singers  at  the  .sanctuary  1  .see  As.\ni ).  'I'wel  ve 
psalms  are  known  to  have  lielonged  to  this 
body  of  hymns,  and  in  all  the  divine  name 
kept  prominent  is  God  (1.,  Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.). 
Besides  these  three  collections  there  were 
many  fugitive  hymns  which  in  course  of 
time  received  the  ai>]>roval  of  the  religious 
authorities  for  use  in  public  worship.  But 
the  three  primary  c(ilIiitious  supjily  two- 
thirds  of  the  |)salmody  admitted  into  the 
completed  P.salter. 


Psalms,  Book  of 


632 


Psalms,  Book  of 


After  these  collections  liiul  been  formed 
three  minor  groupings  of  psalms  came 
into  existence.  1.  By  culling  mainly  from 
the  three  primary  collections  a  group  of 
psalms  was  assembled  in  which  the  promi- 
nent thought  is  God  in  the  fulness  of  his 
attributes  (xlii.-lxsxiii.).  Because  the  word 
God,  in  Hebrew  Elohim,  predominates,  these 
psalms  are  sometimes  designated  Eloliistic. 
The  group  contained  the  collection  of  Asai)h, 
perhaps  the  whole  of  it,  consisting  of  twelve 
numbers,  seven  Korahite  psalms,  about  a 
score  from  the  psalter  of  David,  and  one 
from  a  book  of  Solomon's.  It  was  made  for 
the  purpose  of  meeting  a  felt  need  in  the 
worship ;  and  it  included,  first,  psalms  that 
were  written  originally  in  adoring  contem- 
plation of  God,  in  the  fulness  of  the  concep- 
tion ;  and,  secondly,  psalms  in  which  the 
divine  name,  if  it  was  not  originally  God, 
was  Jehovah,  and  was  changed  to  God  or  Lord 
in  order  to  adapt  the  psalm  to  the  special  use 
(cp.  xiv.  with  liii.,  and  cviii.  1-5  with  Ivii.  7- 
11 ;  Jehovah  being  changed  to  God  or  Lord 
or  vice  versa).  Scarcely  an  Elohistic  psalm  is 
found  in  the  Psalter  outside  of  this  group 
(consider  xc).  The  group  was  given  a  place 
as  a  whole,,  and,  so  far  as  known,  without 
diminution  of  number,  in  the  completed 
Psalter;  but  the  division  of  the  Psalter  into 
five  books  cut  it  in  twain.  2.  A  collection 
<»f  fifteen  psalms  was  formed  from  various 
sources,  mostly  from  fugitive  pieces,  and  en- 
titled Songs  of  Ascents.  It,  too,  was  kept 
intact  in  the  final  arrangement  of  the 
Psalter.  3.  Further,  and  mainly  from  the 
three  primary  collections,  a  selection  was 
made  by  the  chief  musician.  It  contained 
fifty-five  psalms  which  appear  in  the  com- 
l)leted  Psalter;  namely,  thirty-nine  from  the 
collection  of  David,  nine  from  that  of  the 
sons  of  Korah,  and  five  from  that  of  Asaph, 
with  one  or  two  from  anonymous  sources 
(Ixvi.  and  Ixvii.,  unless  the  latter  is  Davidic, 
see  Septuagint).  T(j  these  fifty-five  the  Sep- 
tuagint  adds  the  xxxth,  from  David's  collec- 
tion. The  prayer  of  Ilabakkuk  was  also  in- 
cluded (Hab.  iii.  19).  All  tlie  psalms  in  the 
present  Psalter  that  are  provided  with  musi- 
cal directions  once  belonged  to  this  collec- 
tion. Not  all  the  psalms  that  once  had  a 
place  in  it,  however,  have  musical  notes. 
This  latter  fact,  rather  than  the  former,  in- 
dicates a  collection  ;  since  the  musical  notes 
might  conceivably  be  mere  instructions  to 
the  director  of  the  temple  music  and  account 
for  the  mention  of  him.  The  fact  that  a 
psalm  had  belonged  to  the  chief  musician's 
collection  is  noted  in  connection  with  it  in 
the  comjjleted  Psalter. 

Internal  evidence  for  the  date  of  a  i)salm 
may  come  from  several  .sources.  1.  Diction 
and  grammatical  constructions.  The  inquiry 
along  these  lines  demands  caution  in  view 
of  the  limited  amount  and  scoi)e  of  the 
literature  available  for  comparison,  the 
draughts  upon  the  common  Semitic  stock  of 


words  enforced  on  the  poet  by  the  insistent 
call  for  syno!iyms  in  the  parallelism  of 
Hebrew  verse  (cp.  Ps.  xix.  2-4),  the  vocabu- 
lary of  poetry,  which  is  characteristically 
rich  in  unusual  words  and  constructions,  and 
the  dialects  among  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine 
with  their  different  content  of  words  and 
forms  (cp.  Judg.  v. ;  1  Kin.  xvii.-2  Kin.  viii.  ; 
Hosea;  Jonah).  2.  Historical  events  and 
conditions  reflected  in  the  psalm.  Unless  an 
occurrence  of  known  date  is  explicitly  men- 
tioned (Ps.  cxxxvii.),  the  evidence  is  incon- 
clusive ;  for  a  suitable  occasion  which  is 
familiar  to  the  modern  interpreter  (as  for  Ps. 
xlvi.  the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib)  may 
not  have  been  in  the  mind  of  the  psalmist 
at  all.  The  critical  question  must  ever  be: 
Are  the  terms  of  the  description  so  specific 
as  to  determine  the  event  with  certaintj'  and 
render  negligible  the  consideration  of  other 
similar  crises'?  3.  The  stage  of  religious  de- 
velopment which  the  psalm  reveals.  The 
argument  from  this  source  is  apt  to  turn  on 
theories  regarding  the  date  of  the  documents 
contained  in  the  Pentateuch  or  of  other  Old 
Testament  literature,  or  on  opinions  about 
the  insight  into  sjiiritual  things  and  the 
depth  of  religious  experience  possessed  by 
earnest  men  in  the  early  days  of  the  mon- 
archy. There  are  writings,  however,  which 
are  acknowledged  by  all  schools  of  criticism 
to  be  some  of  them  eai-lier  than  David,  others 
contemporary  with  him,  and  yet  others  not 
later  than  the  eighth  century.  These  writ- 
ings afibrd  a  common,  though  limited,  ground 
on  which  to  discuss  the  extent  of  the  relig- 
ious knowledge  and  exjierience  of  individual 
men.  4.  The  fact  that  the  speaker  in  the 
psalm,  who  uses  the  ])rououn  of  the  first  per- 
son singular  or  i)lural,  in  many  instances 
represents  the  community,  and  is  not  the 
psalmist  voicing  his  own  personal  emotions. 
The  individualization  of  the  nation,  how- 
ever, was  common  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  latest  in  Israel.  It  is  found  in  the  Ten 
Commandments  and  their  preface,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  ])rophets.  Hence  its  employ- 
ment in  a  psalm  is  i)ractically  no  aid  towards 
determining  the  date  of  couijiosition  (cp.  first 
person  singular,  Deut.  vii.  17;  viii.  17;  ix.  4; 
Is.  xii.  1, 2 ;  Jer.  iii.  4 ;  x.  19,  20 ;  xxxi.  18, 19 ; 
Hos.  viii.  2  ;  xii.  8  ;  xiii.  10  ;  Mic.  ii.  4.  More- 
over, these  various  criteria  determine  the 
date  of  those  sectionsonly  towhich  theyapply 
(Ps.  xix. 7-14;  li.l8,  19), and  do  not  necessarily 
fixthe  date  of  the  entire  psalm.  The  cautious 
investigator  discovers  that  in  many  cases  a 
negative  result  only  is  attainable,  namely, 
that  sufficient  reason  does  not  exist  for  deny- 
ing the  authenticity  of  the  title;  or  the  out- 
come of  the  inquiry,  .stated  po.sitively,  may 
be  that  the  contents  of  the  psalm  are  suit- 
able to  the  occasion  attested  l)y  the  title. 

Technical  terms  used  are  Neginah,astringed 

instrument,    and   its   i>li^ral    Neginoth ;    and 

Nehiloth,    wind   instruments   (iv.,    v.,    Ixi.). 

J   Terms  probably  musical :  Alamoth,  maidens, 


Psaltery 


633 


Ptolemy 


perhaps  laaiden  or  treb'e  voices  (xlvi. ;  1 
Chron.  xv.  20);  Gittith,  a  cither  of  Gath, 
perhaps,  or  a  march  of  the  Gittitc  <;uard 
(viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv.)  ;  Selah,  an  orchestral 
interlude  or  a  change  from  jyiano  to  forte 
{in.  2);  Sheminith,  the  eifjiith  (vi.;  xii.  ;  1 
C'hrou.  XV.  21).  Terms  indicative  of  the 
character  of  the  psalm  :  Maschil,  a  didactic  or 
reflective  poem  (xxxii.,  and  twelve  others) ; 
Michtam,  perhaps  epigrammatic  (xvi.,  Ivi.- 
Ix.)  ;  Mizmor,  a  lyric  poem,  regularly  trans- 
lated psalm  (iii.,  et  passim)  ;  Shiggaion, 
probably  a  wild  dithyrambic  (vii.  ;  Hab.  iii. 
1).  Other  terms  are  understood  to  indicate 
familiar  melodies :  Aijeleth  hash-Shahar,  hind 
of  the  dawn  (xxii.)  ;  .Tonath  elem  rehokim, 
the  silent  dove  of  them  that  are  alar  oil', 
or,  changing  the  pronunciation  of  the  second 
word,  the  dove  of  the  distant  terebinths 
(Ivi. );  Mahalath,  heaviness  (liii.,  Ixxxviii.)  ; 
Muth-labben  (ix.) ;  Shosluuinim  and  Shoshan- 
nim  Eduth  and  Shushan  Eduth,  lilies  the 
testimony  (xlv.,  Ix.,  Ixxx.).  The  songs  of 
ascents  or  degrees  were  jjrobably  designed 
for  pilgrims  going  up  to  Jerusalem. 

Psal'ter-y. 

The  usual  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nebel, 
when  a  musical  instrument  is  intended.  In 
four  passages  it  is  translated  viol  (Is.  v.  12, 
ill  R.  V.  lute;  xiv.  11;  Amos  v.  23;  vi.  5). 
Nebel  is  doubtless  the  Greek  nabhi,  which 
was  reputed  to  he  of  Sidonian  origin ;  and  it 
is  usually  translated  by  this  Greek  word  in 
the  Sejituagint  (1  Sam.  x.  5 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  5  ;  1 
(  hron.  xiii.  8;  xv.  16,  20).  The  body  of  the 
instrument  was  made  of  wood  (2  Sam.  vi.  5; 
2  Chron.  ix.  11),  or,  later,  of  metal  (Antiq. 
viii.  3,  8).  The  strings  were  of  gut  {minnim), 
and  their  number  in  the  common  instru- 
ment is  unknown,  but  in  a  special  variety 
they  were  ten  (Ps.  xxxiii.  2;  xcii.  3).  It 
was  tuned  to  the  soprano  register  (1  C'liron. 
XV.  20).  It  could  be  carried  about  while  it 
was  played  (1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  5).  The 
name  psaltery,  which  is  occasionally  given 
to  this  instrument  in  the  Septuagint  (Ps. 
xxxiii.  2;  Ivii.  8),  has  been  thought  to  iden- 
tify it  with  the  santir  of  tJie  Arabs;  but  the 
history  of  the  s<nitir  and  its  name  seems 
to  be  as  follows:  The  Assyrians  used  a 
musical  instrument  consisting  of  a  long, 
low,  horizontal  body  over  which  strings 
were  strung.  It  was  played  with  a  plectrum. 
See  illustration  under  Music.  The  Greeks 
adopted  it  as  the  twenty-stringed  magadis 
and  the  forty-stringed  epigoneiou.  Later  the 
magadis  received  the  name  psalterion,  and 
was  apparently  borrowed  with  its  new  name 
from  the  Greeks  by  the  Aramaeans  (Dan.  iii. 
5,  if  p'sanVrin  does  not  represent  a  ditferent 
instrument  here)  and  by  the  Arabs.  By  the 
latter  it  was  called  santir.  In  the  light  of 
this  probable  history  of  the  sa)itii;  the  iden- 
tity of  its  name  with  psaltery  is  seen  not  to 
identify  it  with  the  Hebrew  nebel.  The 
tradition  regarding  the  nebel  indicates  that 


it  was  a  kind  of  harp  .Jose])lius  says  that 
the  difference  between  the  Icinura  [Hebrew 
kiiuior,  harp]  and  the  wibla  was  that  the 
former  had  ten  strings  ami  was  i)layed  with 
the  plectrum,  while  the  latter  had  tw(  he 
notes  and  was  played  with  tht;  hand  (.\uti(i. 
vii.  12,  3).  According  to  Husel)ius,  tlie  p.stil- 
terion  was  called  tuibld  by  the  Hebrews  and 
had  the  metallic  sounding-board  above  ;  and 
Augustine  on  Ps.  xlii.  descril)es  it  as  liaving 
the  sounding-board  above  the  strings,  and 
not  below  as  in  the  cither,  the  strings  of  the 
psaltery  being  stretched  between  a  curved 
arm  and  the  drum  or  resonance  box  in  which 
it  terminates  above.  Isidorus  and  Ca.s.siodorus 
describe  the  psaltery  as  triangular  in  shape, 
like  the  Greek  letter  delta.  If  they  do  not 
confound  it  with  the  trigdnon,  which  had  a 
triangular  frame,  and  if  they  correctly  give 
the  shape  of  the  psaltery,  it  appears  to  have 
resembled  the  uiiright  harp  which  A.ssyrian 
musicians  carried  while  they  played  it.  See 
illustration  under  Mi:tsic.  The  original  form 
of  the  sounding-board  and  the  arm  probaldy 
bore  resemblance  to  a  skin  bottle  and  its 
neck,  and  obtained  for  th(>  musical  instru- 
ment its  name  of  nebel,  bottle.  It  was  one 
of  the  instruments  which  the  company  of 
prophets  whom  Saul  met  were  jilaying  when 
he  came  in  their  way  (1  Sam.  x.  .">).  and  one 
of  those  used  at  David's  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  5).  When  he  per- 
manently organized  the  instrumentalists  into 
an  orchestra  for  the  sanctuary,  some  were 
appointed  to  perform  on  the  psaltery  (1  Chron. 
XV.  16,  20,  28;  xvi.  Ty ;  xxv.  1,  6)  ;  and  it  was 
subsequently  in  continual  use  for  divine  wor- 
ship (2  Chron.  v.  12).  It  was  played  also  at 
festive  gatherings  (Is.  v.  12;  Amos  vi.  5).  It 
was  often  combined  with  the  harp  (1  Sam.  x.  rt ; 
2  Sam.  vi.  .^  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  11  ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2  ; 
cviii.  2).  For  its  use  in  the  sanctuary,  see 
Music. 

Ptol-e-ma'is.    See  Accho. 

Ptol'e-my. 

The  name  borne  by  all  the  inale  rulers  of 
Egypt  of  the  house  of  Lagus,  which  began 
with  Ptolemy  Soter,  one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  lasted  until  the 
Roman  conr|nest  of  Kgypt  and  the  death  of 
Cleopatra.  The  early  Ptolemies,  especially 
the  first  three,  were  wise  and  efficient  rulers 
and  raised  Egypt  to  a  high  position  of  power 
and  influence.  They  held  many  foreign  i>os- 
sessions,  among  which  were  Pho-uicia.  Ciile- 
syria,  Cyprus,  and  Cyrenaica,  ami  fora  wliile 
Palestine.  They  patronized  art.  letters,  and 
.science,  and  raised  Alexandria,  their  capital, 
to  be  the  leading  university  center  of  ( ireciau 
culture.  They  were  friendly  to  the  Jews, 
encouraging  them  to  settle  in  Alexandria, 
granting  them  special  privileges  and  giving 
to  many  of  them  high  civil  and  military 
positions. 

The  later  rulers  of  this  house  were,  how- 
ever, weak  and  wicked.     Wars  with  their 


Ptolemy 


634 


Publican 


neighbors  were  frequent,  revolts  on  the  part 
of  their  people  at  home  became  common, 
incest  and  the  murder  of  relatives  were  well 
known  in  the  palace,  and  the  loss  of  all  the 
foreign  possessions  heralded  the  loss  of  the 
throne  itself. 

Three  of  the  rulers  of  this  line  and  sev- 
eral men  of  humbler  rank  are  mentioned  in 
the  Books  of  the  Maccabees  : 

1.  Ptolemy  IV.,  called  Philopator.  He  was 
suspected  of  causing  the  death  of  his  father, 
and  his  tirst  act  on  coming  to  the  throne  was 
the  murder  of  his  mother  and  younger 
brother.  His  whole  reign  was  a  series  of 
debaucheries  and  crimes.  Encouraged  by 
the  weakness  and  profligacy  of  Ptolemy, 
Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  made  war  on 


Ptolemy  Philopator. 

him  with  a  view  to  wresting  Phoenicia  from 
Egypt,  but  was  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Egyptian  army  at  the  battle  of  Eaphia,  217 
B.  c.  (3  Mac.  i.'l-5).  After  this  battle,  Ptol- 
emy sacrificed  in  Jerusalem,  but  being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  at- 
tempted to  assassinate  all  the  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria in  revenge.  A  somewhat  fanciful  ac- 
count of  this  is  found  in  the  Third  Book  of 
Maccabees.     He  died  in  20.^  b.  c. 

2.  Ptolemy  VI.,  called  Philometor.  began  to 
reign  in  181  B.C.,  at  the  age  of  seven,  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother,  Cleopatra.  He  reigned 
for  some  years  alone  and  for  some  years 
conjointly  with  his  brother,  Physcon,  called 
Ptolemy  VII.  Later,  the  kingdom  was  di- 
vided between  them,  Phy.scon  ruling  over 
Cyrene  and  Libya,  and  Philometor  over 
Egypt  and  Cyprus.  His  generals  invaded 
Syria  and  so  came  into  contact  with  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  by  whom  they  were  completely 


Ptolemy  Philometor. 

defeated  at  Pelusium  171  B.C.     Cyprus  also 
was   taken    by   Antiochus,    and    Alexandria 


would  doubtless  have  fallen  but  for  the  in- 
terference of  the  Romans,  who  began  at  that 
time  to  exercise  a  quasi  protectorate  over 
Egypt.  Philometor  interfered  frequently  in 
the  atfairs  of  Syria,  siding  one  time  with  the 
pretender  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  x.  51-57) 
and  afterwards  with  Alexander's  rival,  De- 
metrius Nicator  (xi.  1-18).  While  engaged 
in  battle  in  Syria,  he  fell  from  his  horse,  and 
died  shortly  afterwards  from  the  effects  of 
the  injury,  145  b.  c.  Ptolemy  showed  special 
favor  to  the  Jews.  It  was  by  his  permission 
that  Onias  built  a  Jewish  temple  at  Leon- 
topolis  copied  after  the  temple  at  Jeru.salem. 

3.  Ptolemy  VIL,  Physcon,  also  called 
Euergetes,  was  first  co-regent  with  his 
brother  Philometor,  170-164  B.  c,  but  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  reigned  alone,  145- 
117  B.  c.  He  is  sometimes  reckoned  as 
Ptolemy  VIII.,  his  nephew  Eupator,  son 
of  Philometor.  reigning  for  a  few  days  after 
his  father's  death.  The  early  part  of  his 
reign  was  a  series  of  crimes  against  his  own 
family  and  such  debauchery  as  alienated 
and  disgusted  his  subjects,  who  revolted  sev- 
eral times.  Like  his  predecessors,  he  inter- 
fered in  the  affairs  of  Syria,  lending  aid 
first  to  Zabinas,  and  then  against  him.  He 
is  mentioned  (1  Mac.  xv.  16)  as  in  corre- 
spondence with  Eome,  and  it  is  probably  he 
who  is  meant  in  1  Mac.  i.  18. 

4.  Ptolemy,  a  general  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes (2  Mac.  iv.  45;  vi.  8;  viii.  8).  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  which  Lysias  organized 
against  Judas  Maccabfeus  (1  Mac.  iii.  38).  It 
is  possible  that  he  is  identical  with  Ptolemy 
Makron  (2  Mac.  x.  12),  who,  first  served 
Ptolemy  Philometor  in  Cyprus,  then  passed 
into  the  service  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and 
later  into  that  of  Antiochus  Eupator.  Fall- 
ing into  disfavor  with  the  latter,  he  ended 
his  life  by  taking  poLson,  164  B.  c. 

5.  Ptolemy,  son-in-law  of  the  high  priest 
Simon.  He  murdered  his  father-in-law  and 
two  of  his  brothers-in-law  in  the  stronghold 
of  Dok,  near  Jericho  (1  Mac.  xvi.  11  seq.). 

Pu'a.     See  Puvah. 

Pu'ah. 

One  of  the  Hebrew  midwives  who  dis- 
obeyed the  command  of  the  Egyptian  king 
to  kill  the  male  children  at  their  birth  (Ex. 
i.  15). 

For  others  called  Puah  in  the  English  ver- 
sions, but  which  is  a  different  word  in  He- 
brew, see  PuvAH. 

Pub'li-can. 

A  farmer  of  the  Roman  taxes  and  customs. 
In  place  of  appointing  revenue  officers  to 
raise  fixed  taxes  from  the  community,  th« 
Romans  and  their  deputy  princes  like  the 
Herods  were  accustomed  to  ])ul  up  to  auction 
the  privilege  of  farming  the  ])ublic  revenues, 
or  some  specified  part  of  them,  in  the  several 
l)rovinccs,  cities,  towns,  and  districts.  Those 
who  bid  at  the  auction  were  necessarily 
wealthy  men   or  representatives  of  wealthy 


Publius 


63o 


Punishment 


companies;  for  they  undertook  to  pay  a 
given  sum  into  the  treasury  {in  imbllcum), 
and  they  were  obliged  to  give  security  to  the 
government  for  the  sums  they  ]iromised  to 
])ay.  In  some  eases  tliey  in  turn  sold  the 
right  of  farming  portions  of  the  revenue  to 
subcontractors,  in  others  they  engaged  a 
number  of  subordinate  agents  to  do  the 
actual  work  of  collecting  the  taxes.  They 
themselves  were  generally  Romans  of  eques- 
trian rank,  while  their  subordinates,  of 
course,  were  of  inferior  dignity.  The  sub- 
ordinates or  actual  collectors  of  the  taxes 
and  customs  are  called  publicans  in  the 
English  version  of  the  N.  T.  It  was  under- 
.stood  that  the  farmers  were  to  repay  them- 
selves for  their  labor  and  the  risk  they  had 
undertaken  by  taking  from  the  taxpayers  a 
I'raction  more  than  they  paid  over  to  the 
government.  No  proper  means  were  adopted 
to  prevent  that  fraction  from  assuming  great 
]n'oportions.  With  a  few  honorable  excep- 
tions, the  publicans,  great  and  small,  were 
extortioners  (cp.  Luke  iii.  12,  13;  xix.  8). 
They  were  unpoiiular  among  all  classes  in 
the  provinces,  exce]it,  perhaps,  with  the 
IJoman  governors,  who  often  received  part 
of  the  plunder  for  conniving  at  the  oppres- 
sions practiced.  Sometimes  the  subcontrac- 
tors, and  in  most  cases  the  subordinate  tax- 
gatherer,  in  the  conquered  countries  be- 
longed to  the  native  population.  Thus 
Zacchseus,  a  Jew,  seems  to  have  been  sub- 
contractor for  the  revenues  of  Jericho  (Luke 
xix.  1,  2),  and  Matthew,  or  Levi  (also  a  Jew), 
apparently  a  tax  collector  jiaid  by  the  farmer 
for  the  revenues  of  Capernaum  (Mat.  ix.  9  : 
:\Iark  ii.  14  ;  Luke  v.  27).  It  added  to  the 
unpopularity  of  the  Jews  who  accepted  office 
as  the  agents  of  the  Eoman  publicans,  or 
themselves  became  farmers  of  the  revenue 
from  particular  towns,  that  they  raised  taxes 
for  a  foreign  and  heathen  government.  They 
were  not  admitted  into  society  ;  nay,  it  was 
considered  disreputable  for  anyone  to  be 
their  friend  and  associate.  It  was  one  of 
the  charges  brought  against  our  Lord  that 
he  ate  with  publicans  and  sinners  (Mat.  ix. 
10-13)  and  that  he  was  their  friend  (xi. 
19).  He  honored  them  by  choosing  one  of 
their  number  as  an  apostle  (ix.  9 ;  x.  3). 
Quite  agreeing  with  popular  opinion  as  to 
the  low  moral  state  of  the  average  publican 
(v.  46,  47  :  xviii.  17),  he  still  invited  them  as 
freely  as  he  did  others  into  the  kingdom  of 
God.  His  kindness  touched  their  hearts, 
and  not  a  few  of  them  were  Ijaptizcd  (xxi. 
.'Jl,  32;  Luke  iii.  12;  vii.  29;  xv.  1;  xviii. 
1.3,  14).  He  introduced  a  penitent  ])ublican 
into  his  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  pub- 
lican (9-14). 

There  is  no  passage  in  the  N.  T.  in  which 
publican  .signifies  the  keeper  of  a  public 
house. 

Pub'li-us. 

The  chief  man  and  a  land  owner  on  the 


island  of  Melita,  when  Paul  was  there.  He 
entertained  the  apostle  and  his  companions 
for  three  days.  He  was  rewarded  ;  for  Paul 
by  prayer  and  the  laying  on  of  liands  cured 
the  father  of  Publius  of  fever  and  dysentery 
(Acts  xxviii.  7,  8).  His  name  suggests  tiuit 
he  was  a  Roman  :  and  his  title,  which  is  also 
found  in  inscriptions  relating  to  Malta,  seems 
to  mean  that  he  was  the  highest  Roman  of- 
ficial on  the  island. 

Pu'dens  [bashful,  modest]. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  joined  V\\\\\  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  In  an  inscription  found  in  that  capital, 
a  man  of  the  same  name  and  perhajis  the 
same  as  he  is  stated  to  have  been  a  servant 
of  Tiberius,  or  Claudius.  The  facts  that  in 
the  letter  to  Timothy  Pudens,  l,inus,  and 
Claudia  go  together,  and  the  poet  JIartial, 
who  went  to  Rome  about  a.  D.  66  and  abode 
there  many  years,  mentions  three  jiersons 
bearing  the  same  names,  have  suggested  that 
the  poet  may  have  referred  to  Paul's  three 
friends.  If  so,  Pudens  was  an  Umltrian.  who 
became  a  centurion  and  was  sent  on  military 
duty  to  the  remote  north  ;  and  Claudia  was 
the  wife  of  Pudens  and  apparently  of  Brit- 
ish origin,  being  prol)al)ly  the  daughter  of 
king  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  men- 
tioned in  a  Latin  inscription  tound  at  Chi- 
chester in  A.  D  1723.  With  the  sanction  of 
king  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  a  man 
named  Pudens  gave  the  site  at  Chichester  for 
the  erection  of  a  temple  by  a  guild  of  car- 
penters. 

Pu'hites.     See  Puthites. 

Pul. 

1.  An  African  country  and  people.  The 
latter  are  conj^led  with  Tarshish  and  Lud. 
apparently  all  three  being  skillful  in  archery 
(Is.  Ixvi.  19).  One  opinion  is  that  Pul  is  the 
island  of  Philte  on  the  Nile  in  Upper  Ecrypt 
on  the  confines  of  Ethiopia.  It  is.  however, 
more  probably  a  copyist's  error  for  Put  (q.  v. ). 

2.  A    king'  of    Assyria ;     see     Tiglath- 

PILESKR. 

Pulse. 

Leguminous  i>lants  or  their  seeds,  spei-ially 
peas  and  beans,  which  are  eminently  nour- 
ishing. On  these  Daniel  and  his  companions 
desired  to  be  fed  (Dan.  i.  12,  Ki.  R.  V.  margin, 
herbs).  Parched  ])ulse  is  nu-ntioned  in  2 
Sam.  xvii.  28.  but  the  word  pulse  is  plausibly 
supplied  by  the  translators;  it  is  not  in  the 
original. 

Pun'ish-ment. 

The  jienally  due  for  sin  inflicted  for  the 
satisfaction  of  justice.  So  Adam,  Eve.  and 
Cain  were  iiuuished  by  God.  Punishment  is 
not  inflicted  for  the  good  of  the  ofl'ender. 
The  destruction  of  the  men  of  Sodom  for 
their  wickedness  was  not  intended  to  benefit 
them.  The  execution  of  the  murderer  does 
not  aim  at  his  reformation.  Chastisement, 
not  punishment,  is  intended  to  reform  the  of- 


Punishment 


636 


Punishment 


fender.  Nor  is  punishment  primarily  iiiflieted 
with  a  view  tp  the  prevention  of  crime,  al- 
though thisisa  great  end.  The  civil  authority 
enforces  law  hy  penalty  for  the  protection  of 
the  state,  since  purely  moral  considerations, 
such  as  the  inherent  righteousness  of  an  act 
or  the  sense  of  justice,  fail  to  prevent  men 
from  violating  the  rights  of  others.  Deter- 
ring the  evil-disposed  was  an  ohject  in  the 
infliction  of  punishment  which  the  Mosaic 
law  had  in  view,  but  it  was  not  the  principle 
on  which  the  law  was  based  (Deut.  xiii.  11 ; 
xvii.  l.S;  xis.  20;  xxi.  21).  If  the  preven- 
tion of  sin  were  the  main  end,  justice  would 
l)e  merged  into  Ijenevolence  toward  the  citi- 
zens of  the  state.  Yet  the  chief  end  of  pun- 
ishment is  not  to  restrain  the  criminal  from 
further  crime  nor  to  deter  others  from  doing 
similar  acts  of  violence.  Sin  ought  to  be 
punished  irrespective  of  the  effect  which  the 
punishment  may  have  in  preventing  others. 
The  indignation  which  men  feel  toward  the 
offender  himself,  when  they  witness  a  flagrant 
act  of  wrongdoing,  such  as  murder,  op])res- 
sion,  or  cruelty,  and  the  demand  which  they 
instinctively  make  for  his  punishment  show 
that  they  discern  guilt  in  the  sinner,  and 
that  they  do  not  think  in  the  first  instance 
of  the  need  of  deterring  others  from  the 
commission  of  like  crimes.  The  wrongdoer 
is  punished  because  he  deserves  to  be.  So, 
under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  state  must  execute 
justice  and  punish  the  offender,  or  be  held 
guilty  of  participating  in  and  condoning  the 
crime  (Lev.  xx.  4,  5;  Num.  xxv.  4,  11  ;  Deut. 
xxi.  8;  Josh.  vii.  11-15).  The  people  must 
cleanse  Jehovah's  land  from  the  blood  of 
murder.  The  execution  of  the  murderer 
was  an  expiation  of  the  land  (Num.  xxxv. 
33,  34  ;  Deut.  xxi.  8). 

The  majesty  of  the  law  is  maintained  only 
when  the  punishment  bears  an  adequate  pro- 
portion to  the  crime  committed,  neither  too 
little  nor  too  much.  The  penalty  need  not 
be,  and  .seldom  is,  an  exa<-t  equivalent.  The 
penalty  for  theft  is  not  the  restitution  of  the 
stolen  property  nor  its  exact  value  in  money. 
Enforced  restitution  does  not  clear  the  thief. 
Law  has  been  violated,  guilt  incurred,  and 
punishment  is  demanded. 

The  laws  of  the  Hebrews  were  stern,  but 
the  i)unishments  were  not  cruel.  In  rare  cases 
the  family  of  the  criminal  was  extirpated  by 
the  immediate  act  of  God  or  by  his  express 
command  (Num.  xvi.  32,  33;  Josh.  vii.  24, 
25  ;  2  Kin.  ix.  25.  26)  ;  but  this  extent  of 
punishment  was  recognized  as  extraordinary ; 
it  was  not  appointed  by  the  law  as  the  pre- 
scribed penalty  for  any  crime,  and  the  law 
exjjressly  forbade  that  fathers  should  he 
])unished  for  the  children  (Deut.  x.xiv.  Ki). 
For  a  special  case  of  impurity,  the  iieinous- 
ness  of  which  was  aggravated  by  the  relation 
of  the  party  concerned  to  the  sanctuary  of 
(lod,  and  for  inccstuousness  of  pc^culiar  ab- 
horrence, the  penalty  was  burning  with  fire 
(JjCV.  XX.  14;  xxi.  9;  cp.  tJeu.  xxxviii.  24). 


But  there  was  no  cruelty  involved.  The 
guilty  ones  were  not  burnt  alive  ;  they  were 
first  stoned  to  death,  and  then  their  bodies 
were  consumed  by  fire  (cp..  Josh.  vii.  15,  25; 
see  also  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23).  The  hand  of  a 
woman  who  had  used  it  in  a  shameless  act 
to  assist  her  husband  in  his  struggle  with  an 
adversary  was  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  12). 
Was  this  undue  severity?  Retaliation  for 
bodily  injury,  when  inflicted  willfully  and 
not  in  a  quarrel,  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for  tooth, 
was  legalized.  So  it  was  by  ancient  (Ireek 
law  and  by  the  Roman  laws  of  the  twelve 
tables.  In  the  later  Jewish  law  (Antiq.  iv. 
8,  35),  and  perhaps  in  the  earlier  law  as  well, 
a  ransom  in  lieu  of  the  maiming  might  be 
accepted  by  the  injured  person.  This  ex- 
emption was  based  on  Ex.  xxi.  29,  30  on  the 
principle  that,  since  in  so  great  a  matter  as 
the  infliction  of  death  by  one's  ox,  a  fine 
might  take  tlie  place  of  the  surrender  of  the 
owner's  life,  in  all  lesser  cases  of  injury  :i 
fine  might  also  be  accepted.  In  its  humanity 
the  Hebrew  administration  of  justice  com- 
pares favorably  with  Roman  methods.  Un- 
like Roman  law,  the  Hebrew  penal  code 
did  not  authorize  the  punishment  of  the 
parricide  by  scourging  him  to  the  effusion 
of  blood  and  then  sewing  him  up  in  a  sack 
and  drowning  him;  nor  did  it  sanction  the 
torture  of  witnesses,  who  were  slaves,  and 
of  accused  persons  to  extract  testimony  (Acts 
xxii.  24;  see  Deaconess),  the  punishment 
of  the  condemned  by  stocks  and  cruel  scourg- 
ing (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  Acts  xvi.  24;  War  ii. 
14,  9),  the  mockery  of  those  about  to  be  exe- 
cuted (Mat.  xxvii.' 27-31),  crucifixion  (26,  32. 
44;  Antiq.  xvii.  10,  10),  condemnation  of 
criminals  to  fight  with  each  other  as  gladia- 
tors or  with  wild  beasts  (1  Cor.  xv.  .32  ;  War 
vi.  9,  2 ;  vii.  2,  1),  scourging  to  death,  starv- 
ing to  death  (see  Prison),  and  burning  to 
death,  not  infrequently  by  clothing  the  vic- 
tim in  a  shirt  steeped  in  pitch  and  setting  it 
on  fire. 

The  Hebrew  law  did  not  rudely  abolish 
established  usage,  even  when  cu.stom  fell 
short  of  the  standard  erected  by  God  (see 
Slave,  Concubine,  Divorce)  ;  it  recognized 
the  people's  hardness  of  heart  (Mark  x.  5)  ; 
but  it  brought  custom  under  law,  checked 
excesses,  reformed  abuses ;  it  took  solemn 
account  of  man's  conception  of  right  and 
justice  as  prevalent  in  that  age,  guarded 
against  vengeance  and  vindictiveness.  satis- 
fied tli(>  s(>nse  of  justice,  and  thus  maintained 
the  august  majesty  of  law ;  and  it  set  higher 
standards  before  man  and  was  a  distinct  ad- 
vance toward  perfection.  The  form  of  puni- 
tive justice  was  further  determined  by  the 
essential  idea  of  the  theocracy,  which  re- 
quired that  not  onlj^  crimes  against  the  .state 
and  society,  but  also  violations  of  religious 
ordinances  should  be  punished.  The  relation 
of  the  Israelites  to  their  divine  King  re- 
sulted in  God's  ])unishing  sin  when  man 
failed  to  d(»so,  and  in  God's  reserving  to  him- 


Punishment 


637 


Punishment 


self  the  riglit  to  punish  certain  specified  sins, 
e.  g.,  to  inflict  childlessness  (Lev.  xx.  4-6,20, 
21).  Furthermore,  the  athninistration  of 
justice  was  a  matter  in  which  tlie  entire 
community  was  concerned,  and  consequently 
the  people  participated  in  its  execution. 
The  people  stoned  the  criminal  condemned 
to  death. 

The  offenses  mentioned  in  the  penal  law 
were  : 

1.  Violation  of  the  religious  duties  of 
the  covenant.  There  were  (1)  capital  offen- 
ses, which  the  human  tribunal  punished  with 
death.  They  were  five  :  sacrifice  to  idols 
Ex.  xxii.  20;  Lev.  xx.  2;  Deut.  xiii.  6-17 ; 
xvii.  2-7),  sorcery,  professed  intercourse  with 
a  familiar  spirit,  soothsaying  (Ex.  xxii.  IM  ; 
Lev.  XX.  27),  profanation  of  the  Sabbath 
(Ex.  xxxi.  14,  15;  xxxv.  2),  blasphemy  (Lev. 
xxiv.  10-16),  and  false  prophecy,  whether 
uttered  in  behalf  of  heathen  deities  or  in 
the  name  of  Jehovah  (Deut.  xiii.  1-5;  xviii. 
20).  The  penalty  was  death  by  stoning.  In- 
stances of  the  infliction  of  the  death  penalty 
on  persons  charged  with  these  offenses  are 
recorded  in  the  history  ;  for  sacrificing  to 
idols  (2  Kin.  x.  18-25-  xi.  18;  xxiii.  5,  20), 
for  exorcising  the  dead  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3,  9), 
for  profaning  the  Sabbath  (Num.  xv.  32-36), 
for  blasphemy  (1  Kin.  xxi.  13),  for  uttering 
false  prophecy  (xviii.  40  ;  xx.  27,  28).  (2) 
Offenses  punishable  by  cutting  off  the  offen- 
der from  his  people.  They  endangered  cov- 
enant institutions  and  the  fundamental  ordi- 
nances of  worship.  They  were  refusal  to 
receive  circumcision,  the  sign  of  the  cove- 
nant (Gen.  xvii.  14),  neglect  of  the  passover, 
the  covenant  sacrifice,  and  consumption  of 
leavened  bread  during  the  fea.st  of  unleav- 
ened bread  (Ex.  xii.  15;  Num.  ix.  13),  per- 
formance of  work  and  refusal  to  fast  on  the 
day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xxiii.  29,  30),  use  of 
blood  or  fat  for  food,  .since  they  belonged  to 
sacrifice  and  atonement  (vii.  25-27  ;  xvii.  14), 
offering  elsewhere  than  at  the  sanctuary 
(xvii.  4),  slaughteringisacrificial  animals  with- 
out making  a  peace  offering,  and  eating  the 
peace  offering  after  the  prescribed  limit  (vii. 
18;  xvii.  9;  xix.  8),  use  of  the  holy  anoint- 
ing oil  and  the  incen.se  for  common  purposes 
(Ex.  xsx.  33,  38),  neglect  to  purify  one's  self 
from  defilement,  and  eatingsacrifico  in  an  un- 
clean condition  (Lev.  xxii.  3;  Num.  xix.  20). 
The  punishment  of  cutting  oft'  is  in  some 
instances  accompanied  by  the  death  penalty 
or  by  threat  of  divine  judgment.  When  ac- 
companied by  the  death  penaltj',  the  execu- 
tion of  the  ofl'ender  was  committed  to  man. 
The  threat  of  divine  judgment  reserved  the 
infliction  to  God  himself.  The  question 
whether  the  punishment  of  cutting  ott"in  all 
cases  implied  death,  even  when  the  death 
penalty  was  not  expressly  annexed,  has  given 
rise  to  much  debate.  The  phrase  has  been 
interpreted  to  mean  exconnnunication,  as 
rabbinical  writers  understand  ;  or  loss  of  the 
riffhts  belonsiing  to  the  covenant:   or  death, 


which  in  breaches  of  the  ritual  was  intended 
to  be  commuted  to  banishment  or  deprivation 
of  civil  rights  ,  or  death  in  all  cases,  either 
invariable  and  without  remission,  or  else 
voidable  by  repentance  and  use  of  the  means 
of  propitiation  for  ceremonial  defilement.  It 
probably  means  expulsion  from  the  fellow- 
ship of  Israel  or,  as  is  otherwise  sUited,  the 
congregation  of  Israel  (Ex.  xii.  15,  19;  Num. 
xvi.  9;  xix.  13),  and,  wliether  specifically 
stated  or  not,  includes  divine  intervention 
for  the  extermination  of  the  evil-doer  (Gen. 
xvii.  14  with  Ex.  iv.  24;  Lev.  xvii.  10;  xx. 
3,  5,  6 ;  xxiii.  30).  Accidental  breach  or 
mere  neglect  did  not  involve  this  dire  pun- 
ishment. Only  when  a  person  ofl'ended  with 
high  hand  and  showed  bold  contempt  for  the 
law  was  he  cut  off  from  his  people  (Num.  xv. 
30,  31). 

2.  Unchastity.  (1)  Abominations  that  de- 
file the  people  and  the  land.  The  penaltj' 
was  death.  They  were  adultery  and  the  se- 
duction of  a  betrothed  virgin,  not  a  slave 
girl  (Lev.  xx.  10  ;  Deut.  xxii.  21-27),  mmat- 
ural  lust,  both  beastiality  and  sodomy  (Ex. 
xxii.  19  ;  Lev.  xx.  13,  15,  16),  incestuous  re- 
lations with  mother-in-law  or  daughter-in- 
law  (11,  12,  14).  Unchastity  on  the  part  of 
a  priest's  daughter,  since  itdefilesatthesame 
time  the  father  who  was  set  apart  to  holy 
service,  was  punished  not  only  by  death,  but 
also  by  burning  the  body  (xxi.  9).  (2)  Un- 
clean, but  less  repugnant,  conjugal  relations 
were  punished  by  cutting  the  oflenders  off 
from  their  people  or  by  childlessness  (Lev. 
XX.  17-21).  (3)  The  hand  of  a  woman, 
which  was  used  in  a  shameless  and  unchaste 
act  to  distress  the  adversary  of  her  husband, 
was  to  be  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  12).  (4)  Un- 
chastity which  is  neither  adulterous,  un- 
natural, nor  incestuous.  The  seduction  of  a 
virgin  entailed  marriage,  the  payment  of  the 
usual  price  for  a  wife,  and  in  certain  cases  a 
fine  (Ex.  xxii.  16,  17)  ;  and  the  ravishcr  was 
obliged  to  marry  the  maid  and  pay  her  father 
fifty  shekels,  and  forfeited  the  right  of  di- 
vorce (Deut.  xxii.  28,  29). 

3.  Insubordination  to  the  constituted  au- 
thorities. The  penalty  was  death.  (1)  Im- 
piety toward  parents:  striking  or  cursing 
father  or  mother  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17;  Lev.  xx. 
9),  incorrigibility  coupled  with  habitual 
drunkenness  (Deut.  xxi.  18-21).  (2)  Re- 
fusal to  submit  to  the  decree  of  the  jtriest  or 
judge  (xvii.  12).  (3)  Treason,  which  is  not 
treated  in  the  law,  but,  according  to  the  his- 
tory, was  punished  by  death  and  confiscation 
of  property  (1  Sam.  xx.  31  ;  xxii.  16 ;  2  Sam. 
xvi.  4  ;  xix.  29  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  8,  9  .  xxi.  13,  1.5). 

4.  Crimes  against  tlie  person,  life,  cliarac- 
ter,  and  property  of  another.  (1)  Willful  mur- 
der and  man-sti-aling  were  punished  by  death 
(Ex.  xxi.  12, 16  ;  Deut.  xxiv.  7) ;  see  Mukdkk. 
(2)  Bodily  injury,  inflicted  intentionally 
or  through  cai-elessness,  was  punished  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  by  comi)ens;ition  or  re- 
taliation, an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a 


Punon 


638 


Purification 


tooth  (Ex.  xxi.  18-3(i).  (3)  A  false,  witness 
incurred  the  penalty  of  the  i  rime  for  which 
the  accused  was  on  trial  (Deut.  xix.  Kj,  19), 
and  a  false  accusation  against  a  young  wife's 
honor  was  iiunished  hy  chastisement,  a  tine 
of  iOO  shekels,  and  foifeiture  of  the  right  of 
divorce  (xxii.  13-19).  (4)  For  injury  to  prop- 
erty the  law  required,  according  to  circum- 
stances, either  simple  compensation  or  a  tine 
paid  to  the  owner  and  amounting  to  several 
times  the  value  of  the  stolen  goods  (Ex. 
xxii.  1-15). 

The  punishments  recognized  hy  the  Mosaic 
law  were  death,  chietiy  hy  stoning,  and  in 
extreme  cases  the  hurniug  or  hanging  of  the 
body;  chastisement,  the  stripes  not  to  exceed 
forty  (Deut.  xxv.  3) ;  retaliation,  comjjensa- 
tion,  which  is  scarcely  a  punishment,  and 
line ;  forfeiture  of  rights ;  and  in  a  special 
case  the  loss  of  a  hand.  Death  was  some- 
times inflicteil  by  the  sword,  spear,  or  arrow, 
but  without  the  forms  of  Hebrew  law  and  iu 
extraordinary  cases  (Ex.  xix.  13  ;  xxxii.  27; 
Num.  xxv.  7;  1  Kin.  ii.  25).  The  sword  of 
the  magistrate  did  not  symbolize  Hebrew 
judicial  authority.  Imprisonment,  chains, 
and  stocks  were  used  by  the  authority  of 
priests  and  kings,  but  they  were  not  an  in- 
stitution of  the  early  days  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  (Ezra  vii.  26;  Jer.  xx.  2;  Acts  v.  40). 

Pu'non  [perhaps,  darkness  or  fog]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness not  long  before  their  arrival  in  Moab 
(Num.  xxxiii.  42,  43).  Probably  the  small 
town  called  Phainon  by  Eusebius,  in  the 
desert  east  of  mount  Seir,  between  I'etra  and 
Zoar ;  cp.  Pinon. 

Pu'rah,  in  A.  V.  Phurah  [bough]. 

The  servant,  doubth'ss  armor-bearer,  of 
Gideon  (,Tudg.  vii.  10,   11). 

Pu-ri-fi-ca'tion. 

Under  the  Mosaic;  law  these  were  of  four 
kinds:  1.  Purification  from  uncleanuess  con- 
tracted by  contact  with  a  corpse  (Num.  xix. ; 
cp.  V.  2,  3),  not  a  carcase  (Lev.  v.  2).  For 
this  purpose  the  ashes  of  a  heifer  were  re- 
(juired,  a  female  animal  as  in  tlie  case  of  the 
sin  offering  for  the  common  people.  It  was 
necessary  for  the  heifer  to  be  red,  the  color 
of  blood  in  which  the  life  resides;  to  be 
without  blemish,  and  never  to  have  been 
used  in  the  service  of  man.  It  was  slain 
without  the  camp,  its  blood  was  sjjrinkled 
toward  the  sanctuary,  and  the  carcase  was 
burned  together  with  cedjir,  liyssoji,  and 
scarlet.  The  ashes  were  gatheretl  and  pre- 
st!rved  without  the  camp.  When  needed, 
they  were  mingled  with  living  water;  and  a 
clean  ])erson,  with  a  bunch  of  hyssop, 
sprinkled  them  ui>on  the  unclean  on  the 
third  and  seventh  day.  It  only  remained 
for  the  defiled  to  wash  his  clothes  and  bathe, 
in  order  to  be  ceremonially  clean.  Tlie  de- 
filement of  a  Naziiile,  wliose  consecration 
Lad  been  intciruiitctl  by  contact  with  a 
corjise,    was  of  irreater  moment,  for  he  was 


specially  dedicated  to  ceremonial  purity. 
After  a  w-eek's  separation,  on  the  seventh 
day  he  shaved  off  his  hair,  the  sign  of  his 
vow.  On  the  eighth  day  he  brought  the 
same  offerings  as  a  man  who  had  been  defiled 
by  an  issue  or  as  a  mother  might  after  child- 
birth (Num.  vi.  9-12).  A  guilt  offering  fol- 
lowed (ver.  12),  preparatory  to  his  reinstate- 
ment as  a  Nazirite  ;  cp.  the  guilt  offering  of 
the  leper. 

2.  Purification  from  uncleauness  due  to  an 
issue  (Lev.  xv. ;  cp.  Num.  v.  2,  3).  On  the 
seventh  day  after  recovery,  the  unclean  per- 
son after  bathing  in  living  water  and  wash- 
ing the  raiment  was  clean  ;  and  on  the  eighth 
day  he  repaired  to  the  sanctuary  and  offered 
two  doves  or  young  pigeons,  one  for  a  sin 
offering,  the  other  for  a  burnt  offering.  Un- 
cleauness due  to  contact  with  a  person  having 
an  issue,  or  with  anything  rendered  unclean 
by  such  a  person,  was  in  ordinary  cases 
cleansed  by  a  bath,  the  imcleanness  remain- 
ing until  evening  (Lev.  xv.  5-11). 

:>.  Purification  of  a  mother  after  childbirth. 
After  the  days  of  uucleanness,  which  were 
seven  for  a  man  child  and  fourteen  for  a  fe- 
male child,  were  over,  those  of  j)urificatiou 
followed,  during  which  she  touched  no  hal- 
lowed thing,  lest  siie  defile  it,  and  for  the 
same  reason  was  forbidden  access  to  the 
sanctuary.  For  a  son  these  were  to  continue 
thirty-three,  and  for  a  daughter  sixty-six 
days,  after  which  she  brought  a  lamb  of  the 
first  year  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons 
or  two  doves  for  a  burnt  offering  and  a  young 
pigeon  or  dove  for  a  sin  offering  (Lev.  xii.  «  ; 
Luke  ii.  21-24). 

4.  Purification  of  the  leper  (Lev.  xiv.). 
The  candidate  for  purification  presented  him- 
self on  the  appointed  day  at  the  gate  of  the 
camp,  later  at  that  of  the  city.  The  i>riest 
killed  a  clean  bird,  holding  it  so  that  the  blood 
flowed  into  an  earthen  vessel  of  living  water. 
He  made  a  sprinkler  by  binding  a  bunch  of 
hyssop  with  a  scarlet  cord  on  a  cedar  handle, 
and  dipped  the  sjjrinkler  and  a  living  bird 
into  the  bloody  water,  sprinkled  the  person 
undergoing  i)urificatioii,  and  released  the 
bird  ;  see  Azazkl.  This  much  of  the  ritual 
was  also  performed  in  purifying  a  house  of 
lejirosy.  The  candidate  was  then  ])ronounced 
clean  :  and  having  washed  his  clothes,  shaved 
off  all  his  hair,  and  bathed,  he  might  enter 
camp  or  city,  but  must  remain  outside  of  his 
habitation  seven  days.  On  the  seventh  day 
he  again  washed  his  raiment,  shave<l  and 
bathed,  and  was  clean.  On  the  eighth  day 
he  appeared  at  the  sanctuary  with  two  male 
lambs  and  a  ewe  lamb  of  the  first  year  or,  if 
his  means  were  limited,  with  one  lamb  and 
two  doves  or  pigeons,  togther  with  a  meal 
offering  and  a  measure  of  oil.  One  he  lamb 
was  taken  for  a  guilt  ofl'ering.  The  jjriest 
put  some  of  its  blood  on  the  candidate's  right 
ear,  right  thiiiiib,  and  right  great  toe.  He  did 
likewise  with  some  of  the  oil,  after  sprink- 
ling a  little  of  it  before  the  Lord,  and  poured 


Purim 


639 


Purse 


the  rest  on  the  caiulidate's  head.  The  cere- 
mony was  comiileted  by  offering  the  remain- 
ing laml)s  or  [ligeons  for  a  sin  offering  and  a 
burnt  offering. 

Pu'rlm  [from  Persian  pwr,  a  lot ;  or  per- 
hajis  Baljyloniau  pur  or  bar,  a  stone]. 

A  Jewish  festival,  in.stitnted  to  celebrate 
the  deliverance  of  the  exiles  in  Persia  from 
the  wholesale  massacre  of  their  race  planned 
by  Haman.  He  had  cast  })ur,  or  a  lot,  to  as- 
certain a  favorable  day  for  carrying  out  his 
scheme.  The  festival  was  kept  on  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  days  of  the  niontli  Adar, 
approximately  Februaiy  (Esth.  ix.  20-28). 
In  2  Mac.  xv.'SG  it  is  called  tlie  day  of  :Mor- 
decai.  Josephus  mentions  that  in  his  time 
all  the  Jews  in  the  inhabited  world  kept  the 
festival  ( Antiq.  xi.  6,  i:!).  fSome  have  thought 
that  the  feast  of  the  Jews  mentioned  in  John 
V.  1  was  that  of  Purim  ;  but  the  statement 
that  Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem  is  opiiosed 
to  this  view,  for  Purim  was  celebrated 
throughout  the  land,  and  only  at  three  great 
feasts  was  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  compulsory. 
Purim  was  not  one  of  the  three.  From  the 
time  of  its  institution  it  has  enjoyed  great 
popularity  among  the  Jews.  The  celebration 
has  assumed  a  fixed  form.  The  1.3th  of  Adar 
they  keep  as  a  fast  day.  In  the  evening, 
which  is  the  beginning  of  the  14th  day,  they 
assemble  in  their  synagogues.  After  the 
evening  service  the  reading  of  the  book  of 
Esther  is  begun.  When  the  name  of  Haman 
is  reached,  the  congregation  cry  out,  "  lA^t 
his  name  be  blotted  ont,"  or  "The  name  of 
the  wicked  shall  rot,"  while  the  youthful 
worshipers  spring  rattles.  Tiie  names  of 
Haman's  sons  are  all  read  in  a  breath,  to  in- 
dicate that  they  were  hanged  simultaneously. 
Next  morning  the  people  repair  again  to  the 
synagogue,  and  finish  the  formal  religious 
exercises  of  the  festival  and  then  devote  the 
day  to  mirth  and  rejoicing  before  the  Lord, 
the  wealthy  giving  gifts  to  the  poor.  The 
keeping  of  the  Purim  festival  on  the  14th  of 
Adar  from  age  to  age  is  a  strong  argument 
for  the  historic  character  of  the  incidents 
recorded  in  the  book  of  Esther.    See  Esther. 

Purple. 

A  color  which  in  ancient  and  modern  usage 
comprehends  violet  and  all  the  hues  inter- 
mediate between  violet  and  crimson.  In 
ancient  times  it  included  crimson  and  other 
reds  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  61,  G2 ;  Mark  xv. 
17  with  Mat.  xxvii.  28).  Purple  raiment  was 
costly,  and  consequently  its  use  was  the  priv- 
ilege of  the  rich  exclusively.  It  was  worn 
by  persons  of  wealth  and  high  official  posi- 
tion (Esth.  viii.  15;  cp.  Mordecai"s  elevation 
to  office.  2;  Prov.  xxxi.  22;  Dan.  v.  7;  1 
Mac.  X.  20,  62.  64;  2  Mac.  iv.  38;  cp.  .31; 
Luke  xvi.  19;  Rev.  xvii.  4),  and  esi)ecially 
by  kings,  as  by  the  kinglets  of  Midian  ( Judg. 
viii.  26).  Indeed,  it  was  a  sign  of  royalty 
(1  Mac.  viii.  14;  Homer,  Iliad,  iv.  144),  and 
was  put  on  Jesus  in  mockery  of  his  claims. 


Rich  cloths  of  purple  were  u.sed  as  coverings 
for  the  seats  of  princely  palanquins  (Song 
iii.  10),  awnings  for  the  decks  of  luxurious 
sliips  lEzek.  xxvii.  7),  and  drapery  for  idols 
(Jer.  X.  0).  It  was  largely  employed  in  the 
hangings  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  4; 
xxvi.  1,  31,  36),  and  in  the  garments  of  the 
high  priest  (xxviii.  5,  6,  15,  33;  xxxix.  2!»). 
Tlie  Jews  interpreted  the  color  symbolically 
(War  V.  5,  4). 

Purjile  dve  was  obtained  from  various  kinds 
of  shell  fisii  (1  Mac.  iv.  23 ;  War  v.  5,  4),  and 
was  yielded  by  a  thin  liquor,  called  the 
flower,  secreted  bj'  a  gland  in  the  neck.  The 
amount  yielded  by  each  fish  was  very  small, 
much  labor  was  required  to  collect  it  in 
quantity,  and  the  price  was  correspondingly 
great.  The  larger  purples  were  broken  at 
the  top  to  get  at  the  gland  without  injuring 
it,  but  the  smaller  ones  were  pressed  in  mills 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  60).  Two  species  of 
Muiex   were    used   by  the   ancient  Tyrians, 


Muicx  tninculus. 

Murex  trmtculus  and  Murex  brandaris.  and 
yielded  crimson.  The  Murex  is  common 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  the 
shade  of  color  varies  with  the  coast. 

Purse. 

A  bag  for  carrying  money  (Luke  x.  4  ;  xii. 
33  ;  xxii.  35),  which,  however,  was  not  a 
necessity,  as  money  was  often  carried  in  the 
girdle  (Mat.  x.  St,  R.  V.  margin).  The  pur.-;e 
or  common  treasury  of  the  disciples  was  in 
charge  of  Judas  (John  xii.  6:  xiii.  29,  R.  V 
margin,  box) ;  the  .same  word  was  used  to 
describe  it  as  that  which  designated  the 
chests  for  offerings  at  the  temple.  Before 
coins  came  into  use,  pieces  of  silver  and  gold 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes  were  tied  in  a 
bag  or  in  the  girdle,  or  rings  of  the  precious 
metal  were  strung  on  a  cord  (Gen.  xlii.  35 ; 
Prov.  vii.  20),  and  weights  and  scales  were 


Put 


640 


Quail 


canicd  for  vveijiliiusr  out  tlie  desired  quantity 
(IXnt.  XXV.  13;  Mic.  vi.  11). 

Put,  in  A.  V.  Phut  in  Gen.  x.  6;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  .5,  margin. 

A  peoi)le  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen.  x. 
6),  and  the  country  inhabited  by  them.  Tlie 
prevalent  opinion  is  that  the  name  denotes 
Libya  in  whole  or  in  part.  It  is  mentioned 
in  association  with  Egypt  and  other  African 
countries,  especially  with  Lubim  (Nah.  iii. 
!t)  and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxvii.  10;  and  Is.  Ixvi.  19 
in  Septuagiut;  between  Cush  and  Lud,  Jer. 
xlvi.  9;  Ezek.  xxx.  5);  it  is  rendered  Lib- 
yans by  the  Septuagint  in  Jeremiah  and  Ezek- 
iel ;  it  is  ahso  identified  with  Libya  by  Jo- 
sephus  (Antiq.  i.  6,2)  ;  and  the  western  part 
of  Lower  Egypt  is  called  in  Coptic  Phaiat. 
Another  view  is  strenuously  aefended  by 
Ebers  and  Brugsch,  which  connects  Put  with 
Punt.  Punt  lay  south  or  southeast  of  Cush, 
and  is  commonly  identified  with  the  Somali 
country  in  Africa,  east  of  the  straits  of  Bab 
el-Mandeb,  and  on  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Asia, 
near  Aden,  in  Arabia. 

Pu-te'o-li  [little  wells]. 

A  seaport  in  Italy  which  Paul's  vessel 
reached  the  day  after  it  had  been  at  Ehegium. 
The  apostle  found  Christians  there,  and  en- 
joyed their  hosi)itality  (Acts  xxviii.  1.3). 
Founded  in  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  it  was 
originally  called  Dicfearchia,  and  was  the 
ordinary  landing  place  of  travelers  to  Italy 
from  Egypt  and  the  East  (Antiq.  xvii.  12,  1  ; 
xviii.  7,  2  ;  Life  3).  It  was  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  bay  of  Naples,  near  the  site 
where  the  modern  city  of  that  name  now 
stands.  Its  old  name  of  Puteoli  still  exists, 
little  changed,  as  Pozzuoli.  The  whole 
region  round  is  volcanic,  and  the  crater  of 
the  Solfatara  rises  behind  the  town. 

Puth'ites,  in  A.  V.  Puhites. 

A  family  in  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53). 

Pu'ti-el  [probably,  afflicted  by  God]. 

Father-in-law  of  Eleazar,  Aaron's  son  (Ex. 
vi.  2.-)). 

Pu'vah  and  Puah ;  instead  of  first  form 
A.  V.  has  Phuvah  (Gen.  xlvi.  13),  Pua  (Num. 
XX vi.  23). 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar  ajid  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  23; 
1  Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar,  son  of  Dodo,  and 
f.itlur  of  the  judge  Tola  (Judg.  x.  1). 

Py'garg. 

'IMic  rendering  of  the  He))rcw  D'lshoti, 
trca<lcror  leaper,  the  name  of  a  clean  animal 
(Dent.  xiv.  .'>).  The  jiygarg  of  the  ancients 
was  a  white  rumped  antelope.  It  .seems  to 
have  b(!en  the  addax  (Antilopc  <ultln.i\  or 
Addax  rtii.ioiiittciiliilii.t).  The  horns,  which  ex- 
ist in  botli  sexes,  are  twisted  and  ringed.  It 
has  a  while  )>atch  on  the  forehead,  and  tiie 
hinder  ])arts  are  grayish-white.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  large  ass.     It  is  a  native  of  north- 


eastern Africa  (cp.  Herod,  iv.  192),  but  its 
range  extends  to  the  southeastern  frontier  of 
Palestine. 

Pyr'rhus. 

The  father  of  Sopater  (Acts  xx.  4,  E.  V.). 


Q. 


Qoph.     See  Koph. 
Quail. 

A  bird  which  the  children  of  Israel  twice 
during  their  journeying  near  Sinai  provi- 
dentially had  for  food  in  great  abundance. 
In  the  wilderness  of  Sin  the  birds  covered 
the  camp  on  one  evening  (Ex.  xvi.  12,  13)  ; 
at  the  graves  of  lust  they  were  driven  by 
the  southeast  wind  from  the  sea,  and  fell  in 
vast  quantities  in  and  around  the  camp, 
lying  in  places  three  feet  deep  (Num.  xi.  31- 
34;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  26-31).  Each  time  it  was 
the  spring  of  the  year.  The  bird  was  called  in 
Hebrew  sHav,  and  the  similarity  between  the 
Hebrew  word  and  the  Arabic  salwd,  a  quail, 
proves  that  to  be  the  bird  intended.     It  is 


Quail  {Coliirnix  daclyli!<onans). 

the  quail  of  Europe,  not  of  America,  is 
called  Coturnix  dactylisonans,  or  communis, 
and  is  placed  in  the  Tetraonidie  or  grouse 
family,  and  the  Perdicivx,  or  partridge  sub 
family.  It  is  the  smallest  species  of  the 
partridge  type,  being  only  about  7J  inches 
long.  Its  general  color  is  brown,  with  huffy 
streaks  above  and  buff  below.  It  is  migra- 
tory, arriving  in  Palestine  from  the  sontli  in 
immense  numbers  in  March,  and  going  soutli- 
ward  again  at  the  approach  of  winter.  Quails 
fly  rapidly  and  well,  and  take  advantage  of 
the  wind  ;  but  if  tlie  wind  changes  its  course, 
or  the  l)irds  become  exhausted  from  long 
flight  the  whole  innnense  flock  is  apt  to  fall 
to  the  gi'ound,  where  they  lie  stunned  (cp. 
Antiq.  iii.  1,  5).  In  this  condition  they  are 
captured  in  great  (juantities  on  the  coasts 
and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
Israelites  spread  the  quails,  which  they  could 
not  eat  at  once,  round  about  the  camp  (Num. 
xi.  32)  in  order  to  dry  them  in  the  sun  and 


Quartus 


641 


Quirinius 


air,  as  the  Egyptians  did  with  fish  (Herod, 
ii.  77). 

Quar'tus  [fourth]. 

A  Coriuthiau  Christiau  who  joined  with 
Paul  in  sending  a  salutation  to  the  church  of 
Kome  (Koni.  xvi.  23). 

Qua-ter'ni-on. 

Four  united  persons  or  things;  a  guard  of 
four  soldiers  (Acts  xii.  4).  Four  quaternions, 
/.  e.,  four  companies,  each  of  four  soldiers, 
sixteen  in  all,  were  set  to  look  after  Peter 
when  he  was  in  prison  at  Jerusalem,  each 
quaternion  discharging  the  duty  for  one 
watch  of  three  hours.  During  the  night 
watches,  two  soldiers  slept  with  the  apostle 
in  his  cell,  while  the  other  two  mounted 
guard  before  the  door. 

Queen. 

The  consort  of  a  king,  or  a  woman  who 
reigns  by  her  own  right.  Vashti  and  Esther 
were  queen  consorts  (Esth.  i.  9  ;  ii.  22).  Even 
after  the  death  of  the  king  her  husband,  the 
queen,  especially  if  mother  of  the  new  mon- 
arch, retained  respect  and  influence  (2  Kin. 
X.  13) ;  for  the  practice  of  polygamy  made 
the  position  of  even  the  chief  wife  pre- 
carious, and  at  any  time  the  king  might  cai)ri- 
ciously  promote  over  her  head  some  one  of 
her  rivals;  but  the  queen  mother,  i.  e.,  the 
mother  of  the  king,  had  an  unalterable  rela- 
tion to  the  monarch,  and  was  often  the  most 
potent  female  personage.  Three  queens  reg- 
nant or  Avomen  who  occupied  the  throne  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture  :  Athaliah,  who,  after 
perpetrating  a  massacre  of  the  seed  royal, 
usurped  the  throne  of  Judah  ;  the  queen  of 
Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  1-13  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1-12)  ; 
and  Candace,  queen  of  the  Ethiopians  (Acts 
viii.  27).  The  last  two,  it  is  believed,  came 
to  their  high  dignity  in  a  perfectly  legitimate 
way. 

The  queen  of  heaven  was  a  false  divinity, 
in  honor  of  whom  the  Jews  in  Jeremiah's 
time  made  cakes,  burnt  incense,  and  poured 
out  drink  ofterings  (Jer.  vii.  18;  xliv.  15-30). 
She  was  probably  the  Phoenician  goddess 
Ashtoreth  (q.  v.),  partly  the  moon  and  partly 
the  planet  Venus  personified. 

Quick'sand. 

A  sandbank  which  moves,  quick  being  used 
in  the  nearly  obsolete  sense  of  living.  The 
quicksands  of  which  the  sailors  on  board 
Paul's  ships  were  afraid  (Acts  xxvii.  17), 
and  which  were  the  terror  of  ancient  mari- 
ners, were  two  in  number,  the  Greater 
and  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  the  former  consti- 
tuting the  southeastern,  and  the  latter  the 
southwestern  part  of  that  great  indenta- 
tion in  the  north  African  coast  south  of 
Sicily.  The  Greater  Syrtis,  now  called  the 
gulf  of  Sidra,  curves  inward  on  the  African 
coast  for  about  126  miles,  and  measures 
264  miles  between  the  two  promontories 
at  its  mouth.  It  is  shallow,  and  full  of 
quicksands.  The  Lesser  Syrtis  does  not  inn 
so  far  inland.  At  its  mouth  it  measures 
41 


about  69  miles  from  the  island  of  Kerkenna 
on  the  north  to  that  of  Jerba  on  the  south. 
It  is  dangerous  to  navigate,  owing  to  its 
winds  and  tides.  It  is  now  called  the  gulf 
of  Cabes. 

Qui-ri'ni-us,  in  A.  V.  Cyrenius  ;  the  former 
being  the  original  Latin  name,  the  hitter  the 
modification  it  underwent  among  theCirceks. 

A  Koman  who  became  governor  of  Syria 
(Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1).  Under  him  an  enroll- 
ment was  made  which  led  .Jos(]ili  to  go  witli 
Mary  his  esjjoused  wife  to  Betliieliem.  This 
visit  to  Bethlehem  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  Great,  at  the  c-lt)se  of  the  year  .5  or 
beginning  of  4  b.  c.  The  enrollment  was  not  a 
local  affair,  but  was  made  in  pursuance  of  a  de- 
cree of  the  Ivoman  emperor  Augustus  that  all 
the  world  should  be  taxed.  This  was  the  first 
enrollment  made  when  Quirinius  was  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  (Ltike  ii.  1-.^,  K.  V.).  Quiri- 
nius was  twice  sent  as  leyatus  Au(iusti,  i.  e., 
governor,  to  Syria.  His  first  administration 
fell  somewhere  between  7  and  2  b.  c.  During 
it  he  carried  on  the  war  with  the  Homona- 
denses  of  CHlicia,  probably  sharing  the  official 
duties  and  title  with  Varus,  who  was  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  from  7-4  B.  c.  Thus  Varus 
directed  the  civil  business  of  the  province 
while  Quirinius  conducted  its  military  and 
foreign  affairs  (cp.  the  dual  administration 
of  Vespasian  and  Mucianus).  Quirinius  was 
proconsul  of  Asia  in  3-2  B.  c,  if  the  Tivoli 
inscription  is  correctly  interpreted  by  Ram- 
say; and  he  was  legatus  An.gnsti  for  Syria  the 
second  time  A.  D.  6-9.  The  first  enrollment 
was  conducted  in  the  Jewish  manner,  by 
tribes  and  families.  The  second,  made  in 
A.  D.  6-7  after  Judaea  had  been  incorporated 
into  the  Roman  empire,  was  resented  as  a 
mark  of  servitude  and  occasioned  disturb- 
ances, stirred  up  by  .Judas,  a  Galilsean  (Acts 
V.  37;  Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5;  War  ii.8, 1).  Luke 
connects  the  first  enrollment  with  Quirinius, 
without  mentioning  Varus,  because  it  was 
commonly  spoken  of  as  the  first  eiuvjllment 
under  Quirinius  in  distinction  from  the  not- 
able enrollment  under  him  which  gave  rise 
to  the  tumults. 

A  brief  biography  of  Quirinius  is  furnished 
by  Tacitus  (Annal.  iii.  48).  He  says  :  "About 
this  time  he  [the  emperor  Tiberius]  asked 
the  senate  that  the  death  of  Sulpicius  Qui- 
rinius [which  occurred  in  A.  D.  21]  miglit  be 
celebrated  by  public  obsequies.  Quiriniu.s 
was  in  no  way  related  to  the  old  and  patri- 
cian family  of  the  Sulpici,  but  was  born  at 
Lanuvium,  a  municipal  town.  As  a  reward 
for  his  military  and  administrative  services, 
ho  obtained  the  ottice  of  consul  under  Augus- 
tus [in  12  B.  c],  and  soon  afterwards  the 
honors  of  a  triumi)h  for  having  taken  the 
strongholds  of  the  Homonadenses  in  Cilicia. 
While  attending  Cains  C'eesar  as  rector,  when 
the  foruier  obtained  .\rinenia,  he  paid  court 
to  Tiberius,  who  was  staying  at  Rhodes. 
Tiberius  mentioned  the  fact  in   this  letter, 


Quiver 


642 


Rab-mag 


praised  him  for  his  good  offices,  and  accused 
Marcus  Lollius  of  being  the  author  of  the 
depravity  of  Caius  Caesar  and  his  animosity. 
But  to  other  people  the  memory  of  Qui- 
riuius  was  by  no  means  dear,  because  of 
his  persistence  in  the  trial  of  Lcpida  [his 
wife,  whom  he  bad  convicted  of  adulteries, 
poisonings,  and  treasonable  dealings,  but  who 
yet  succeeded  in  gaining  the  compassion  of 
the  people],  and  also  of  his  sordid  avarice  in 
his  old  age,  although  very  powerful." 

Quiv'er. 

A  case  for  containing  arrows  (Is.  slix.  2 ; 
Lam.  iii.  13).  The  Assyrian  archers  on  foot 
carried  the  quiver  on  the  back,  with  the 
opening  usually  at  the  right  shoulder,  but 
archers  who  fought  from  chariots  hung  the 
quiver  at  the  .side  of  the  vehicle  ;  see  illus- 
tration under  Bow  and  Kam.  The  Egyp- 
tians also  slung  the  quiver  across  the  back, 
but  they  seem  to  have  allowed  it  to  hang 
horizontally  and  to  have  drawn  out  the 
arrows  from  beneath  tlie  left  arm. 


R. 


Ra'a-mali,  in  E.  Y.  once  Raama  (1  Chron. 
i.  9),  the  Hebrew  .spelling  in  this  instance 
[shaking,  quivering,  trembling]. 

Collective  name  for  a  Cushite  people,  a.sso- 
ciated  with  Sheba  (Gen.  x.  7;  1  Chron.  i. 
9).  Men  of  the  two  tribes  brought  precious 
stones  and  gold  to  the  markets  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Eaamali  is  mentioned  in 
inscriptions  of  Sheba  as  a  place  near  Ma'in, 
in  soutlnvestern  Arabia. 

Ra-a-mi'ah  [trembling  caused  by  Jeho- 
vah].    See  Keelaiah. 

Ra-am'ses.     See  Eameses. 

Rab'bah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Ratabath  (Deut. 
iii.  1 1  ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20),  the  Hebrew  form  when 
joined  with  a  following  word  [great,  i.  e.,  the 
capital]. 

1.  A  city  on  the  southern  tributary  of  the 
Jabbok,  23  miles  east  of  the  nearest  point 
on  the  Jordan.  It  was  the  chief  city  of 
the  Ammonites.  In  the  war  which  was 
waged  against  the  children  of  Amnion  to 
avenge  the  disgrace  jjut  upon  the  ambassa- 
dors of  David,  Abishai  drove  the  Ammonites 
into  Medeba  (1  Chron.  xix.  7-15).  The  next 
spring  Joab  besieged  Kabbah.  During  a  sally 
from  the  gate,  Uriah  the  Hittite  was  killed. 
That  part  of  the  city  lying  between  the  citadel 
and  the  river,  and  called  the  city  ()f  waters, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Joab,  but  the  citadel 
held  out.  David  was  then  sent  for  to  com- 
plete the  coiKpiest  and  associate  it  with  his 
name.  He  did  so,  treating  the  vanquished 
inhabitants  with  cruel  siiverity  (2  Sam.  xi. 
1  ;  xii.  26-31 ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3)'.  In  time  the 
Ammonites  recovered  the  city.  Judgments 
were  denounced  against  it  by  Jeremiah 
(xlix.  2-0)  and    Ezekiel    (xxi.  20).     It    was 


embellished  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285- 
247  B.  c),  ;iiid  in  his  honor  named  I'hiladel- 
])hia,  though  the  old  name  never  ceased  to 
be  used  by  the  natives.  Phihulelphia  was 
the  eastern  limit  of  Perwa  (War.  iii.  3,  3)  ; 
and  it  WHS  the  southernm(jst  of  the  ten  cities 
of  the  Decajjolis.  The  commercial  highway 
between  Daujascus  and  Aral)ia  which  skirted 
the  desert  passed  through  the  city,  and  there 
was  also  a  trade  road  from  Philadelphia  by 
way  of  Gerasa  and  Pella  to  Scythopolis.  The 
city  was  once  the  seat  of  a  bishopric;,  and 
among  the  chief  ruins  are  those  of  a  churcli. 
As  in  various  other  cases,  the  more  modern 
name  has  lapsed,  and  'Amman,  a  curtailment 
of  Eabbath  Ammon,  has  taken  its  place. 

2.  A  city,  with  dependent  villages,  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  tJO).  Per- 
haps its  site  is  the  ruin  Eubba,  about  14 
miles  west  by  south  of  Bethlehem. 

Rab'bath.     See  Eabbah. 

Rab'bi,  and  Rabboni. 

A  doctor,  teacher,  or  master ;  a  respectful 
term  apjilied  by  the  .lews  to  their  spiritual 
instructors  (Mat.  xxiii.  7;  .lohn  i.  38).  The 
later  .lewish  schools  are  said  to  have  had 
three  gnules  of  honor:  rah  (master),  the 
lowest;  rabbi  (my  master),  the  second;  and 
rabboni  (my  lord,  my  master),  the  highest 
of  all.  When  John  wrote,  the  termination 
which  denotes  my  had  lost  its  especial  sig- 
niticance  as  a  possessive  pronoun,  for  John 
explains  rabbi  and  rabboni  as  meaning 
sim|)iy  master  (John  i.  38;  xx.   1(5). 

Rab'bith  [multitude]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
20).  Conder  doubtfully  id('ntities  it  with  the 
present  village  of  Eaba,  among  hills  8  miles 
south  of  mount  Gilboa,  and  7  southeast  of 
Jenin. 

Rab-bo'ni.     See  Rabbi. 

Rab'-mag. 

A  title  of  liigh  office,  borne  by  Nergal- 
sharezer,  a  chief  officer  in  Nebuchadnezzar's 
army  (.T(>r.  xxxix.  3).  Four  explanations 
have  been  offered,  none  of  which  rests  on  a 
sure  foundation.  1.  It  dciuotes  the  chief  of 
the  Magi.  According  to  this  view,  the 
Median  and  Persian  religious  caste  was  in- 
fluential in  Babylonia  in  the  reign  of  Neb- 
uchadjiezzar,  who  had  a  Median  jirincess  for 
his  wife,  and  its  head  man  accompanied  the 
army.  The  Magi  are,  however,  called  in 
Gnu^k  M<i(i(n,  singular  Maqos.  which  appears 
in  Semitic  as  Mit(jiishn,  not  as  jiuiq.  2.  It  is 
the  Hebrew  modific.ition  of  ruliii  iiiuja,  ex- 
alted prince,  a  title  which  Nalnnia'id  .-iscribes 
to  his  father  and  which  Nchiichaflnezzar 
assumes.  The  word  iwqa  is  not  well  under- 
stood, and  its  long  initial  vowel  is  a  strong 
argument  against  its  idcjitity  with  wmt.  3. 
It  rtipresents  ruh  vmhhi'i.  chief  prophet  or 
soothsayer,  who  appears  from  this  i)assage  in 
Jeremiah  to  have  accomi>anied  the  army,  as 
did  theaugursof  Rome.  4.  Sitice  w'«/i(lenotes 
a  prince,  as  does  rab,  the  combination  prince- 


Rab-saris 


043 


Rachel 


prince  is  the  title  for  a  hifjh  military  official. 
l;ut  such  a  title  seems  scarcely  distinctive. 

Rab'-sa-ris  [mh  sha  ri'shu,  chief  who  is 
head,  the  latter  part  heinji  modified  to  suit 
the  Hehrevv  ear  into  ^iirls,  eunuch]. 

An  official  title.  A  rah-.saris  accomjianied 
the  armies  of  Sennacheiih  and  Nehuchad- 
nezzar  (2  Kin.xviii.  17;  Jer.  xxxix.lj).  The 
officer  at  Nebu(;hadne/.zar's  court,  who  is 
called  master  of  the  euuui-hs  in  the  English 
version  ai\d  whose  title  is  jjivoii  in  Hebrew 
as  rab  sarisim,  perhaps,  held  the  same  office 
(Dan.  i.  3). 

Rab'sha-keh  [Assyrian  lab  shnl-,  head 
officer,  general]. 

Title  of  a  military  official,  associated  with 
the  tartan  and  the  rah-saris  of  Sennachcrili  in 
command  of  an  expedition  against  .lerusalem 
{2  Kin.  xviii.  17).  On  this  occasion  he  con- 
ducted the  i)arley  with  the  ollicials  of  Heze- 
kiah  (19,  26,  27,  37),  and  was  perhaps  head 
of  the  expedition  (xix.  8). 

Ra'ca. 

An  Aramaic  term  rela\  worthless:  an  ex- 
pression of  contempt  (Mat.  v.  22). 

Ba'cal,  in  A.V.  Rachal  [trade,  commerce]. 

A  place  in  .ludali  to  which  David  sent  some 
of  the  recovered  spoil  of  Ziklag  il  yam.  xxx. 
2D).     Site  unknown. 

Race.     See  Games. 

Ra'cbab.     See  Rahab. 

Ra'chal.     See  Racal. 

Ra'chel.  in  A.  V.  once  Rabel  (Jer.  xxxi. 
15)  [ewe]. 

The  younger  danghter  of  Lahan.  She  was 
possessed  of  much  jiersoual  heauty,  and  .lacob 
fell  in  love  witli  her  at  tirst  sight,  when  he 
met  her  at  the  well  near  Harau,  in  Meso- 
potamia, where  she  w;is  watering  her  Hock. 
As  he  possessed  no  ])roperty  and  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  pay  the  parents  a  juice  for  the 
bride,  he  served  her  father  seven  years  for 
lier,  and  then,  being  cheated  hy  the  sul)sti- 
tution  of  the  elder  sister.  Leah,  who  was 
much  less  highly  tavoreil.  served  another 
seven  for  the  younger  maiden,  the  only  one 
who  had  gained  his  afl'e(;tions.  He  married 
her  also  (Gen.  xxix.  1-30),  and  she  became 
the  mother  of  .loseiih  (xxx.  22-2.5)  and  Ben- 
jamin, dying  when  the  latter  was  born 
(xxxv.  l(i-18).  She  was  l)uried  a  little  to 
the  north  of  Ephrath,  better  known  as  Beth- 
lehem. The  grave  was  situated  at  a  place 
which  a  traveler  from  Bethel  would  reach 
before  he  came  to  Bethlehem.  Jacob  erec  led 
a  pillar  to  inark  the  spot.  This  jiillar  long 
remained  (19,  20).  It  was  near  Zelzah  (1 
Sam.  X.  2).  The  re])uted  site  was  alluded 
to  by  .Tenmie  and  the  Bordeaux  i)ilgrini  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  is  accejited  as  cor- 
rect by  .Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans. 
Tlie  erection  cjilled  Kubbet  Rahil,  tomb  of 
I'achel,  is  a  small  building  like  a  mosque, 
with  a  dome.     It  has  an  o]ien  apartment  to- 


ward the  east  and  a  small  enclosure  toward 
the  west.  The  present  structure  is  of  no 
great  antiquity. 


lomb  0*1  Kxchel 

The  prophet  .Jeremiah  represents  Rachel 
as  weeping  for  her  children,  the  descendants 
of  her  son  Joseph,  the  people  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  who  were  in  captivity  (Jer. 
xxxi.  I'i ;  cp.  9,  18).  At  Ramah  was  her 
voice  heard  :  not  because  the  prophet  foresaw 
that  the  ca|)tives  of  Judah  and  Benjamin 
would  be  brought  to  Ramah  after  tlie  fall  of 
Jerusalem  before  being  led  into  exile  (xl.  1), 
for  Rachel  is  not  weeping  over  the  Jews  ;  but 
either  because  a  town  called  Ramah  was 
perhaps  near  Rachel's  grave  (cp.  1  .Sam.  x.  2  ; 
and  Ramah  2),  or  more  in-obably  because 
Ramah  was  a  height  in  the  territory  of 
Rachel's  remaining  children,  the  descendants 
of  Benjamin,  and  lu-ar  the  border  of  de- 
populated Ephraim,  whence  the  desolation 
of  the  land  was  visible.  This  jiicture  which 
the  prophet  drew  of  weeping  Rachel  found 
fulfillment  in  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents 
at  Bethlehem  in  the  land  of  Judah  (.Afat.  ii. 
18),  although  the  descendants  of  Leah,  not 
Rachel,  wej)!.  Rachel  looking  on  the  wasted 
land  of  Ei)hraim,  and  bewailing  her  slain  and 
exiU'd  children,  was  witness  that  the  process 
had  begun  which  terminated  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  i)romised  land  by  foreigners,  the 
occupation  of  the  throne  by  an  Edomite, 
and  the  slaughter  of  Leah's  children  in  the 
endeavor  to  slay  the  legitimate  king  and 
destined  saviour  of  all  Israel.  Ephraim.  Ren- 
iamiu.  ami  Judah  alike.  The  ])icture  of 
Rachel  found  more  than  a  counterpart  in 
the  sorrow  of  the  women  of  Bethlehem.  It 
found  comi.letion,  and  it  found  renewed 
realization.  Rachel  wept  again,  this  time 
with  Leah.  Riichel's  hope  for  the  return  of 
her  children  to  the  Lord  their  God  and  David 


Raddai 


644 


Bam 


their  king  (Jer.  xxx.  9)  was  bound  up  in 
Leah's  yearning  for  that  son  of  David  in 
whose  days  Judah  shoiild  be  saved  and  Israel 
dwell  in  safety  (xxiii.  (j).  Kacliel's  cry  was 
the  first  wail  of  that  lamentation  which  con- 
tinued through  the  centuries  and  was  heard 
at  Bethleliein  when  a  foreign  king,  in  hos- 
tility to  the  son  of  David,  legitimate  king 
of  the  Jews,  was  able  to  send  armed  men  to 
the  city  of  David  and  slay  tlie  children. 
The  process  begun  ivhen  Rachel  first  wept 
was  being  completed.  The  jjrophetic  pic- 
lure  was  finding  final  fulfillment. 

Rad'dai  [cutting  under,  subjugating]. 
A  son   of  Jesse,  and  brother  of  David  (1 
Chron.  ii.  14). 
Ra'gau.     See  Eeu. 
Ra-gu'el.     See  Reuel. 

Ra'hab  I.  [ferocity,  insolence, violence]. 

A  poetical  name  for  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4; 
Ixxxix.  10;  Is.  xxx.  7,  R.  V.  ;  li.  9).  In  Is. 
li.  9  it  is  parallel  with  dragon  ;  see  Dragon. 
In  Job.  ix.  13;  xxvi.  12,  R.  V.,  especially, 
some  interpreters  understand  a  sea  monster, 
and  some  even  discern  an  allusion  to  the 
Semitic  myth  of  the  sea  monster  Tiamat 
who  attempted  to  reduce  the  ordered  uni- 
verse to  chaos,  but  was  subdued  by  the 
sun-god  Marduk.  This  interpretation  is  not 
necessary,  but  it  is  possible.  The  inspired 
poets  and  prophets  might,  of  course,  ])orrow 
the  creations  of  fancy  to  illustrate  truth  ;  cp. 
Leviathan. 

Ra'hab  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  once  Rachab 
(Mat.  i.  .""))  [broad]. 

A  harlot  whose  house  was  on  the  wall  of 
Jericho.  She  harbored  the  spies  sent  by 
Joshua  to  explore  the  city,  hid  them  when 
they  were  searched  for,  and,  finally,  let  them 
down  by  a  cord  on  the  outer  side  of  the  wall, 
so  that  they  escaped  to  the  Israelite 
camp  (Josh.  ii.  1-24).  When  Jericho 
was  taken,  Rahab  and  her  family 
were  spared,  and  incorporated  with 
the  chosen  people  (vi.  22-25;  Heb. 
xi.  31  ;  James  ii.  25).  It  was  prob- 
ably she  who  l)ecame  the  wife  of 
Salmon  and  the  mother  of  Boaz, 
and  a  link  in  the  chain  of  ancestry 
both  of  king  David  and  of  our  Lord 
(Mat.  i.  5). 

Ra'ham  [afl'ection,  tenderness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hez- 
ron,  house  of  Caleb  ( 1  Chrmi.  ii.  44). 

Ra'bel.     See  Rachel. 

Rain.     See  Year. 

Rain'bow. 

A  bow  appearing  in  the  part  of  Attack 
the  heavens  opposite  to  the  sun, 
consisting  of  the  jirismatic  colors,  and  formed 
by  the  r{'fra<'ti()ii  and  i(  llcction  of  the  sun's 
rays  from  droj)s  of  rain  or  vapor.  It  is  ex- 
ceeding beautiful  i  Ecclus.  xliii.  11, 12).  After 
the  flood  God  selected  the   rainbow,  which 


had  often  before  been  seen  in  the  sky,  and 
ai)pointed  or  consecrated  it  as  the  token  of 
the  promise  that  he  would  not  again  destroy 
the  earth  by  a  flood  (Gen.  ix.  12-17).  It  be- 
came the  symbol  of  God's  faithfulness  and 
of  his  beneficence  toward  man  (Rev.  iv.  3), 

Rai'sin.    See  Vine. 

Ra'kem  [variegated].  The  Hebrew  M'ord 
is  el.sewliere  rendered  Rekem. 

A  Manassite  (1  Chron.  vii.  16). 

Rak'kath  [a  shore]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali,  and,  from  its 
etymology,  presumably  on  the  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee  (Josh.  xix.  35).  The  rabbins 
place  it  where  Tiberias  now  stands. 

Rak'kon  [thinness,  or  perhaps  a  shore]. 

A  village  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  46).  Conder 
suggests  as  its  site  Tell  er-Rekkeit,  2i  miles 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  'Aujah,  and  6 
north  of  Joppa. 

Ram,  I. 

1.  The  male  of  the  sheep  (Ezek.  xxxiv.  17) ; 
see  illustration  under  Sheep.  It  was  used 
as  food  (Gen.  xxxi.  3H),  might  be  brought  as 
a  burnt  ottering  or  a  peace  ofl'ering  (xxii.  13; 
Lev.  i.  10;  viii.  18;  and  iii.  6;  ix.  4),  and 
was  appointed  for  a  guilt  or  trespass  ofl'ering 
(v.  15;  vi.  6).  Rams'  skins  dyed  red  were 
used,  with  other  appliances,  as  coverings  of 
the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  14),  and  ranis' 
horns  as  war  and  apj)arently  jubilee  trumpets 
in  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  vi.  4-6,  8,  13). 
The  two-horned  ram  seen  by  Daniel  in  pro- 
phetic vision  was  the  Medo-Persian  power, 
the  fir.st  or  smaller  horn  that  came  up  being 
the  empire  of  the  Medes,  the  second  or 
greater  horn  which  rose  at  a  later  period 
that  of  the  Persians  (Dan.  viii.  3-7,  20). 

2.  The  battering-ram  was  an  instrument  of 
war,  used  to  beat  down  the  gates  and  walls 


(III  a  City  liy  means  of  Battering-ram  and  Archers 


of  a  besieged  city  (Ezek.  iv.  2  ;  xxi.  22  ;  War 
V.  6.  4>.  It  consisted  of  a  log  of  wood  iron- 
pointed,  swung  liy  ropes  from  a  sujiport 
above  and  generally  within  a  tower  (War  v. 
11,  5).     In  attacking  a  fort  or  city,  it  was 


Ram 


645 


Eamath-mizpeli 


often  necessary  to  throw  up  a  mound  of  earth 
to  serve  as  an  inelinerl  phuie  and  enable  the 
besiegers  to  bring  the  battering-ram  and  other 
military  engines  against  the  walls  (Ezek.  iv. 
2),  see  also  illustration  under  Lachisii. 

Ram,  II.,  inA.V.of  N.T.Aram,  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  form  [high] .  The  name  assiniies 
various  Greek  forms,  as  Aram,  Arran,  Ariii. 

1.  A  man  of  Jiidah,  a  son  of  Heznm,  ;i!id 
brother  of  Jerahmeel  (Ruth  iv.  ID;  1  Chron. 
ii.  9  ;  Mat.  i.  3;  Luke  iii.  33,  E.  V.,  te.xt  and 
margin). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  femily  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jeralmieel  (1  Chron.  li    25,  27). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Buz,  founder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  the  Buzites,  and  an  ancestor  of  Elihu 
(Job  xxxii.  2).  He  has  sometimes  been  iden- 
titied  with  Aram  of  Gen.  xxii.  21  ;  but  Aram 
was  not  descended  from  Buz  (nor  vice  versa), 
and  Aram  and  Eam  are  ditierent  names  in 
Hebrew. 

Ra'mah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Rama,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  [a  height]. 

1.  A  town  in  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii  25), 
not  far  from  Gibeah,  Geba,  and  Bethel  (Judg. 
iv.  5  ;  xix.  13,  14  ;  Is.  x.  29).  It  was  fortified 
by  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  to  keep  the  people 
of  Judah  from  making  military  excursions 
northward  (1  Kin.  xv.  17,  21,  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  1-6) :  hence  ajiparently  soilth  of  Bethel. 
It  seems  to  have  lieen  the  place  where  the 
captives  of  Judah  were  massed  together  be- 
foie  their  deportation  to  Babylon  (Jer.  xl  1). 
The  town  was  reoccupied  after  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  26 ;  Neh.  xi.  33).  According  to  Jo.se- 
phus,  Eamah  was  distant  40  stades  from  Jeru- 
salem (Antiq.  viii.  12,  3).  Eohinson  located  it 
at  er-Eam,  on  a  height  5  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem. His  views  have  been  generally  ac- 
cepted. It  is  now  a  small  Arab  village,  having, 
however,  hewn  stones  and  fragments  of  pil- 
lars, the  remains  of  antiquity. 

2.  A  town  where  the  parents  of  Samuel 
lived  (1  Sam.  i.  19;  ii.  11;  cp.  with  1.  1), 
where  he  himself  was  born  and  had  his  resi- 
dence (vii.  17;  viii.  4;  xv.  34;  xvi.  13;  xix. 
18,  19,  22,  23;  xx.  1),  and  where  he  was 
buried  (xxv.  1 ;  xxviii.  3).  For  the  sake  of 
distinction  from  other  towns  of  similar  name 
it  was  called  Eamathaim-zophim  (cp.  i.  1 
with  19,  etc.).  The  town  cannot  be  located 
with  certainty.  1.  It  has  been  identified  with 
Eamah  of  Benjamin.  On  this  theory  the 
place  is  rightly  described,  so  it  is  con- 
tended, as  situated  in  the  hill  countiy  of 
Ephraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  and  it  is  difl'erent 
from  the  unnamed  towii  in  the  land  of  Zuph 
where  Saul  first  met  Samuel  (ix.  5  .seq  ). 
Eohinson  called  this  identification  in  (jucs- 
tion,  and  probably  justly,  although  his 
opinion  has  not  been  followed  by  all  authori- 
ties. 2.  It  lay  south  of  Beujamiii,  for  (n)  The 
passage  1  Sam.  i.  1  does  not  clearly  locate 
Eamathaim  in  the  hill  country  of  Ei)hraim, 
but  rather  states  that  a  certain  man  of  the 
family  of  Zuph  dwelt  in  Eamathaim,  a  city 


of  the  Zophites,  who  were  a  branch  of  the 

Kohathite  Lovites,  and  were  called  Epliraim- 
ites  because  their  assigned  borne  was  in  the 
hill  country  of  Ei)liraim,  whence  thev  had 
migrated  (cp.  Josh  xxi.  5  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22-2(). 
35,  66  seq.).  (b)  If  this  be  the  true  interpre- 
tation, then  the  unnamed  city  where  Saul 
met  Samuel  is  doul)tless  Uamatliaim-zopliim, 
for  it  is  in  the  land  of  Zui)h.  This  district 
lay  outside  the  borders  of  Benjamin  (1  Sam. 
ix  4-6),  and  south  of  Benjamin,  /.  «.,  in  such 
a  situation  that  a  i)ersoii  going  from  a  city  in 
or  ((tiite  near  it  to  (iibeah  of  Benjamin  came 
to  Rachel's  sepulcher  on  the  boniers  of  Ik'U- 
jamin  (x.  2),  between  Bethel  and  Bethlehem 
(Gen.  XXXV.  16,  19).  (c)  It  is  now  plain  why 
Saul  did  not  know  the  i)rophet  Samuel  by 
sight,  which  could  scarcely  have  been  the 
case  had  the  prophet  resided  at  Eamah  of 
Benjamin,  only  21  miles  from  Saul's  home 
(cp.  also  1  Sam.  viii.  1,  2).  3.  Another  loca- 
tion for  Eamathaim  may  be  sought  in  the 
territory  of  Ephraim  (Autifj.  v.  10,  2)  where 
the  Zophites  dwelt;  liut  not  in  Benjamin 
and  not  the  nameless  town  of  1  Sam.  ix.  5. 
Beit  Rima,  13  miles  northeast  of  Lydda, 
has  been  suggested.  Compare  with  caution 
Eam.a.thai.\i. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  29).  If  it  is  not  "the  same  town 
as  Ramah  of  Naphtaii  (.36),  its  site  may  be 
at  Rameh,  about  13  miles  S.  W.by  S.  of  Tyre. 

4.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtaii  (.losh.  xix. 
36).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  situated  at 
er-Rameh,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Safed 
and  17  east  of  .\cre. 

5.  Ramoth-gilead  (cp.  2  Kin.  viii.  28  with 
29,  and  2  Chron.  xxii.  5  with  6). 

6.  A  village  in  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  8;  in 
A.  V.  Ramath).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Ramoth  of  the  South  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27) ;  and 
was  also  known  as  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ra'math  [height],  the  Hebrew  form  of 
Ramah  when  joined  to  a  following  word. 

A  village  of  Simeon  (.Tosh.  xix.  8,  in  E.  V. 
Eamah),  known  also  as  Eamoth  of  the  South 
(1  Sam.  xxx.  27).     See  Eamah  6. 

Ra-math-a'im,  in  A.  V.  Ram'a-them  [twin 
heights]. 

A  town  which  gave  name  to  one  of  three 
governmental  districts  which  were  detached 
from  Samaria  and  added  to  .Tudfea  (1  Mac. 
xi.  34;  cp.  x.  .30,  3S).  Its  location  must  he 
sought  near  the  southern  border  of  Ei)hraim. 

Ra-math-a-im-zo'pMm  [the  twin  heights 

(of  the)  Zophites]. 

The  residence  of  Samuel's  father  (1  Sam. 
i    1) ;  see  Eamah  2. 

Ra'math-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  any  town  called 
Eamah  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27).  Which  of  them 
js  referred  to  in  the  passage  is  not  known. 

Ra-math-le'M.     See  Lehi. 

Ra-math-miz'peli.     See  Mizpah  2. 


Barneses 


646 


Rebekah 


Ram'e-ses  [Egyptian,  Ra-mesu,  son  of  the 

SlHl], 

A  town  of  Egypt  in  tlie  most  fertile  dis- 
trict in  the  hind  (Gen.  xlvii.  11).  It  was  in 
the  land  of  Goshen  (6).  By  Pharaoh's  orders, 
Joseph  located  his  father  and  brothers  there. 
The  store  city  Raamses  or  Ramses,  which  the 
Israelites  afterwards  built  for  Pharaoh  (prob- 
ably Ramses  II  ),  is  i)rol)ably  meant  (Exod.  i. 
11) ;  see  Egypt  III.  H.  When  the  exodus 
took  place  the  Israelites  marched  from 
Eameses  to  Succoth  (Exod.  xii.  37;  Num. 
xxxiii.  '.i). 

Ra-mi'ah  [exalted  is  Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Parosh,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  25). 

Ra'moth  [high  places,  height]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Bani,  induced  l)y  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29).  The 
E.  v.  reads  Jeremoth  in  the  text,  and  rele- 
gates Ramoth  to  the  margin. 

2.  A  town  of  Issachar,  assigned  for  resi- 
dence to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (1  Chron.vi. 
73) :  see  Jarmuth. 

3.  A  town  in  Gilead  ;  see  Ramoth-gilead. 

4.  A  town  of  the  south  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27)  ; 
see  Ramah  6. 

Ra-moth-gil'e-ad  [heights  of  Gilead].  See 
MiZPAH  2. 

Ram'ses. 

A  method  of  anglicizing  the  Egyptian  JiU- 
7ni'sii.     See  Pharaoh  and  Rameses. 
Ra'phah  and  Rapha  [he  has  healed]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  2) ; 
but  he  is  not  enumerated  with  those  who 
accompanied  Jacoli  into  Egy])t  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21),  and  was  prolmbly  born  after  the  descent 
into  Egyi)t.  He  did  not  found  a  tribal  fam- 
ily ;  his  descendants,  if  there  were  any, 
were  included  in  other  families  of  the  Bcn- 
jamites.      Compare  remarks  under  Nobah. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  37).  Called  in  ix.  43  Rephaiah,  a  syn- 
onymous name. 

Ra'phon. 

A  town  of  Gilead,  besieged  by  the  Ammon- 
ites, but  relieved  by  Judas  Maccabteus  (1  Mac. 
V.  37).  It  was  apparently  not  far  from  Car- 
naim  (43).  It  maybe  identical  with  Kajihana, 
which  was  one  of  the  original  cities  (-onstitii- 
ting  the  Decapolis,  and  was  situated  south  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee  and  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Ra'phu  [healed,  cured]. 

A  Benjamite,  father  of  Palti  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

Ra'ven. 

A  bird,  black  in  color  (Song  v.  11),  om- 
nivorous, feeding  even  on  carrion  (Prov.  xxx. 
17),  and  hence  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  15).  Noah  sent  one  forth  from  the  ark. 
It  did  not  return  to  him,  finding,  doubth^ss, 
floating  carcases  on  which  it  was  able  to  iced 
(Gen.  viii.  7).  It  frcf|uents  valleys  (Prov. 
xxx.  17),  and  makes  its  nest  in  solitary 
places  (Is.  xxxiv.  11).     By  divine  providence 


ravens  fed  Elijah  with  bread  and  flesh  morn- 
ing and  evening  at  the  brook  Cherith  during 
the  drought  and  famine  (1  Kin.  xvii.  2-7). 
The  consonants  of  the  words  for  ravens  and. 
Arabians  are  the  same  in  Hebrew  ;  and  when 
the  text  is  written  without  vowels,  as  origin- 
ally, it  is  impossible  to  determine,  if  the 
context  does  not  decide,  whether  Arabs  or 


Kavcn. 

ravens  are  meant.  It  is  generally  admitted 
now  that  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  are 
right,  and  that  the  Hebrew  writer  intends  to 
state  that  Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens.  The  bird 
referred  to  in  Scripture  is  undoubtedly  the 
common  raven  {Corvus  corax),  which  is  found 
in  every  part  of  Palestine.  It  is  black, 
with  steel-blue  and  purple  iridescence,  and  is 
about  2(i  inches  long.  The  name  is  broad 
enough,  however,  to  include  other  Corvidse. 
Another  species  {Corvus  nmbrinus)  occui's  in 
southern  Palestine  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan. 

Ra'zor. 

A  sharp  instrument  for  removing  the  beard 
or  hair  (Is.  vii.  20;  Ezek.  v.  1).  See  Knife, 
Beard,  Hair. 

Re-a'iah,  in  A.  V.  once  Reaia  (1  Chron. 
V.  5)  [Jehovah  has  seen,  or  jirovided  for]. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  descended  from 
Judah  through  Hezron  (1  C'hroii.  iv.  2), 
called  in  ii.  52  Haroeh,  i.  e.,  the  seeing  One. 

2.  A  Reuben ite  (1  Chron.  v.  5). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  47  ;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'ba  [perhaps,  a  fourth  part  or  quarter]. 

One  of  the  five  Midianite  kings,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  war  waged  by  Moses  against  Midian, 
because  they  seduced  Israel  to  licentious 
idolatry  (Num.  xxsi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

Re-bek'ah,  in  N.  T.  Rebecca  (Rom.  ix.  10) 
[a  r<i]ie  with  a  noose,  ».  e..  a  young  woman 
whose  ))oauty  ensnares  menl. 

A  daiigliter  of  Bethuel.  When  she  came 
with  her  pitcher  to  a  well  near  the  city  of 


Recah 


647 


Red  Sea 


Nahor,  in  Mesopotamia,  the  servant  of  Abra- 
ham, wlio  had  been  sent  to  obtain  a  wife  for 
Isaac,  presented  himself  and  asked  permis- 
sion to  drink  from  her  jiitcher  She  not  only 
fi;ranted  his  request,  but  volunteered  to  draw 
water  for  his  camels.  He  had  asked  God  for 
this  very  sign  ;  her  conduct  showed  that  she 
was  of  a  generous  disposition  ,  he  saw  tliat 
she  was  beautiful ;  and  he  at  once  gave  her 
expensive  presents,  as  for  a  future  bride.  He 
did  not  at  the  time  know  her  name,  but 
asked  what  it  was,  and  then  added  the  in- 
quiry whether  he  might  lodge  at  her  father's 
house.  She  was  willing ,  and  when  her 
brother  Laban's  consent  had  been  obtained, 
the  delegate  took  up  his  temporary  residence 
in  their  dwelling,  and  explained  the  object 
of  his  journey  to  Mesdinitaniia.  He  ended 
by  petitioning  that  Kobckah  should  accom- 
pany him  to  Canaan  and  hecnnie  the  wife  of 
Isaac.  Laban  gave  his  consent,  and  the 
maiden,  adding  hers,  went  with  the  servant, 
married  Isaac,  and  became  the  mother  of 
Esau  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xxiv.  1-H7).  Slic  pre- 
ferred .Jacob  to  Esau  ;  and  although  she  had 
the  prophecy  that  .Jacob  should  have  the  pre- 
eminence, she  did  not  leave  the  matter  in 
God's  hands,  but  suggested  a  deceit  by  which 
the  younger  obtained  the  blessing  belonging 
by  birth  to  the  elder  (xxv.  2S ,  xxvii.  1- 
xxviii.  .5).  She  died  apparently  while  Jacob 
was  in  Mesopotamia,  and  was  buried  iu  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  (xlix.  31). 

Re'cah,  in  A.  V.  Rechah. 
An  unknown  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Re'chab  [a  horseman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Eimmon,  a  Beerothite.  He 
was  a  captain  of  a  band  under  Ish-bosheth 
and  one  of  Ish-bosheth's  murderers  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2,  6). 

2.  A  Kenite  (1  Chron.  ii.  r>r>),  father  of  that 
■Tehonadab  who  was  invited  by  Jehu  to  mount 
liis  chariot  and  see  his  zeal  for  the  I>ord 
(2  Kin.  x.  1.5.  23),  and  who  ])lac<'d  his  tribe 
under  a  rule  of  life.     See  Rf.ch,\i:iti:s 

3.  Father  of  Malchijah,  the  ruler  of  Beth- 
haccherem  (Neh   iii.  14). 

Re'chab-ites. 

A  Kenite  tribe,  which  dwelt  among  the 
Israelites.  Their  chief  Jonadab,  son  of 
Eechab,  commanded  thorn  to  abstain  from 
wine  and  all  intoxicating  li(iuor,  not  to  live 
in  houses,  or  ]i!ant  or  jiosscss  vineyards,  but 
to  dwell  in  tents.  The  object  of  these  regu- 
lations was  the  preservation  of  i)riniitive 
sini])licity  of  manners.  When  Jeremiah 
tested  their  obedience  years  later  lie  found 
them  faithful.  A  jiromise  was  therefore  given 
them  that  they  should  never  want  a  man  to 
represent  them  in  all  succeeding  time  f.Ier 
XXXV.  1-lf)).  Professed  descendants  of  the 
sect  still  exist  iu  Jlesopotamia  and  Yemen. 

Re'chah.     See  Eecah. 


Re-cord'er. 

An  official  of  high  rank  in  the  Hebrew 
government  from  tlie  time  of  David  on  ward. 
He  was  called  Didxhir.  one  who  brings  to 
mind,  and  probably  derived  his  tiile  rioni 
his  otiicial  duty  of  recording  important 
events  and  advising  the  king  resiK'cting 
them.  .\t  any  rate  he  held  one  of  (he 
highest  offices  of  state.  He  was  nunibeied 
among  the  chief  officials  of  David  and  .Solo- 
mon (2  Sam.  viii.  16;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  The 
prefect  of  the  palace,  the  scril)e,  and  the 
recorder  represeuted  Ile/.ekiaii  iu  ])ublic 
business  (2  Kin.  xviii.  IS,  37);  and  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah  the  scribe,  the  governor  of 
the  city,  and  the  recorder  were  placed  iu 
charge  of  the  repairs  of  the  temple  ^2  Chrou. 
xxxiv.  8). 

Red  Sea. 

The  sea  called  by  the  Hebrews  Yam  snph, 
or  sea  of  sedge.  The  Greek  term,  of  which 
lied  Sea  is  the  literal  translation,  is  Ernthra 
Tdalassa,  used  by  Herodotus  (ii.  Mi,  the  Sep- 
tuagint  (  Ex.  xv.  4,  22),  Josei)lius  (.\ntiq.  ii. 
11,  1 ;  15,  1).  The  Greeks  derived  the  name 
from  Erythras,  a  fabulous  king  who  reigned 
in  the  adjacent  country  (.Strabo  xvi. ;  Pliny, 
His.  Nat.  vi.  23).  He  possibly  corresponds 
to  Edom,  or  represents  the  red-skinned 
people,  includiug  Edomites,  Himya rites,  and 
original  Phoenicians.  Not  unlikely  the  name 
denotes  sea  of  the  red  land,  contrasted  with 
the  black  soil  of  Egypt  (Ebers).  "The 
Eocene  and  Cretaceous  limestones  assume  by 
weathering  a  rich  reddish-brown  hue,  and 
under  the  evening  sun  the  eastern  range 
glows  with  a  ruddy  radiance,  which  in  the 
morning  is  equally  seen  on  the  western  clifls, 
while  these  colors  contrast  with  the  clear 
grc^enish-blue  of  the  sea  itself.  Such  an  ap- 
pearance would  naturally  suggest  to  early 
voyagers  the  name  Red  Sea  "  (Dawson,  Egypt 
anl  Syria,  59). 

By  the  Erytbrjean  Sea,  the  ancients  under- 
stood not  merely  the  Red  Sea  as  limited  by 
modern  geographers,  but  also  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  ultimately  the  Persian  (iulf.  In 
the  restricted  sense  iu  which  the  term  is 
used  in  modern  geography,  the  Red  Sea  is 
about  1190  miles  long,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  about  150  miles.  At  its  northern 
part  it  terminates  in  two  gulfs,  Suez  and 
Akaba,  which  enclose  between  them  the 
Siiiaitic  Peninsula.  The  gulf  of  Akaba  lies 
on  the  east,  and  is  about  100  miles  long  by  15 
broad.  At  its  northern  tnd  stood  the  towns 
of  Elath  and  Ezion-geber.  The  gulf  of  Suez, 
on  the  west  of  the  ])eninsula.  is  about  ISO 
miles  long  by  20  broad  ;  liut  it  formerly 
extended  farther  northward  and  included, 
in  i)rehistoric  times  at  least,  lake  Tiinseh 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes.  The  siiores  of  both 
lakes  abound  in  reeds,  and  this  feature  suf- 
ficiently accounts  for  the  Hebrew  designa- 
tion, sea  of  sedge.  The  Hebrew  term  Yam 
mph  denotes  the  Red  Sea  of  modern  geogra- 


Reed 


648 


Rehob 


phy,  or  at  least  so  much  of  it  as  embraces  the 
peuiusula  of  Sinai ;  for  it  lay  to  the  east  of 
Egypt  (Ex.  X.  19),  on  it  was  an  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  not  far  from  Sinai  (Num. 
xxxiii.  10,  11),  by  taking  the  way  of  the  Yam 
suph  the  Israelites  compassed  the  land  of 
Edom  (xxi.  4),  and  Ezion-geber  in  the  land 
of  Edom  was  on  this  sea  (1  Kin.  ix.  '26>.  The 
Yam  snph  was  crossed  by  the  Israelites,  and 
the  pursuing  Egyptian  hosts  sank  into  its 
deptlis  (Ex.  XV.  4,  22).  Brugsch  advocated 
the  view  that  the  sea  crossed  was  not  the 
Eed  Sea,  but  the  weedy  Serbonian  bog,  which 
is  separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by  a 
narrow  isthmus.  The  general  opinion,  how- 
ever, based  on  constant  Scrijiture  representa- 
tion, is  that  the  sea  crossed  by  the  Israelites 
was  the  gulf  of  Suez,  probably  at  a  point  im- 
mediately north  or  just  south  of  the  Bitter 
Lakes. 

The  navigation  of  the  sea  is  at  all  times 
somewhat  perilous,  from  the  sudden  changes 
of  the  wind  and  the  strength  with  which  it 
often  blows.  The  voyage  from  end  to  end 
was  rendered  slow  by  the  prevalent  wind  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  sea  blowing  toward 
the  south  during  nine  months  of  the  year, 
and  in  the  southern  part  blowing  northward 
during  the  same  period.  Besides  this,  the 
mariner  has  to  be  on  his  guard  against  coral 
reefs  and  small  islands,  which  in  many 
])laces  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Reed. 

1.  Any  tall,  broad-leaved  grass  growing  in 
a  wet  place.  It  is  called  kaveh  in  Hebrew, 
Jcalnmos  in  Greek  (Is.  xlii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20). 
When  an  odorous  variety  is  intended,  it  is 


laul 


translated  calamus  or  cane.  It  grows  or 
grew  in  the  Nile  and  elsewhere  in  the  water 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  15;  Is.  xix.  6;  xxxv.  7),  and  is 
so  tall  and  in  such  abundance  that  it  helps 
to  furnish  shelter  and  concealment  even  for 
the  bulky  hippopotamus  (Job  xl.  21).     It  is 


easily  shaken  by  the  wind  (1  Kin.  xiv.  15), 
and  so  fi-agile  that  if  one  lean  upon  it,  it  will 
break  with  a  ragged  fracture,  the  projecting 
points  entering  and  piercing  the  hand  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  21 ;  Is.  xxxvi.  6;  Ezck.  xxix.  (i, 
7).  In  this  last  respect,  it  aftords  a  lively 
picture  of  the  treatment  Egypt  had  given  to 
the  Israelites  when  they  leaned  upon  that 
power  in  seasons  of  emergency.  It  was  a 
reed  which  the  persecutors  of  our  Lord 
thrust  into  his  hand  for  a  scepter,  and  witlv 
which  they  afterwards  struck  him  on  tho 
head  ;  and  it  was  to  this  or  another  stem  of 
the  same  ])lant  that  the  sponge  was  aftixed 
which  they  di]>ped  in  vinegar  and  put  to  his 
lips  (Mat.'xxvii.  29,  30,  4H).  The  plant  re- 
ferred to  is  probably  Arundo  donax,  which 
grows  in  the  Nile  and  is  common  throughout 
Palestine,  is  at  least  10  feet  high,  and  has 
leaves  as  long  and  as  broad  as  those  of  a 
sword.  It  is  cultivated  in  France,  where  its 
long,  straight,  and  light  stems  are  made  into 
fishing  rods,  arrows,  fences,  poles  for  vines. 

A  reed  stalk  was  used  as  a  measuring  rod, 
and  came  to  denote  a  fixed  length  of  six 
long  cubits  (Ezek.  xl.  5  ;  xli.  8).  Likewise 
in  Baliylonia  six  cubits  made  a  reed  or  kanu. 

2.  The  rendering  in  Jer.  li.  32  of  the  He- 
brew "^(jam,  a  marsh.  It  does  not  seem  to 
be  a  plant,  and  is  translated  marsh  on  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V. 

Re-el-a'iah  [trembling  caused  by  Jehovah] . 

One  of  the  leading  men  who  accompanied 
Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
ii.  2).  Called  in  Neh.  vii.  7  by  the  synonj'- 
mous  name  of  Eaamiah. 

Re-fin'er. 

One  who  refines  the  precious  metals,  as 
silver  or  gold,  by  causing  them  to  pass  re- 
peatedly through  the  furnace  till  their  dross 
is  taken  away  (Zech.  xiii.  9;  cp.  Ps.  xii.  6). 
It  is  said  that  the  refiner  knows  when  the 
process  is  complete  by  seeing  his  image  re- 
flected in  the  precious  metal  purified.  Cxod 
is  compared  to  a  refiner  of  silver,  by  which 
is  meant  that  he  casts  his  people  into  the 
furnace  of  affliction,  till  they  are  refined 
and  purified  (Mai.  iii.  2,  3).  Then  they 
clearly  reflect  his  image  in  their  souls. 

Refuge.     See  City  of  Eefugk. 

Re'gem  [friend]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  47). 

Re-gem-me'lech  [friend  of  the  king]. 

A  man  sent  from  Bethel  with  comjianions 
to  put  a  question  to  the  priests  regarding 
fasting  (Zech.   vii.  2). 

Re-ha-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  comprehensive]. 

Son  of  Eliezer,  and  grandson  of  Moses  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  17;  xxiv.  21;  xxvi.  25). 

Re'hob  [an  open  space,  a  broad  street]. 

1.  A  place  situated  toward  Hamath ;  see 
Bkth-rehob. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28),  perhaps  the 


Behoboam 


649 


Behum 


same  as  Eebob,  which  belonged  to  Asher  (30). 
From  Rehob  the  Canaanites  were  not  ex- 
pelled (Judg.  i.  31).  Eehob  was  assigned  to 
the  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  31 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  75). 
The  site  is  unknown. 

3.  Father  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobali  (2 
Sam.  viii.  3,  12). 

4.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
£.  11). 

Re-ho-bo'am,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Roboam 
[the  peojile  is  enlarged]. 

Son  of  king  Solomon  by  Naamah,  an  Am- 
monitess,  one  of  his  wives  (1  Kin.  xiv.  31). 
Although  son  of  a  wise  father,  he  was  him- 
self a  man  of  small  mind.  On  the  death  of 
Solomon  about  931  B.  c,  representatives  of 
all  the  twelve  tribes  promptly  assembled  at 
the  central  city  of  Shechem  to  make  Re- 
hoboam,  who  was  his  lawful  successor,  king. 
Various  causes  more  or  less  remote  had  led 
to  jealousy  and  a  growing  coldness  between 
Judah  and  the  tribes  to  the  north  and  east ; 
see  History.  Recently  the  people  had  suf- 
fered under  grievous  taxation  levied  to  sup- 
jjort  Solomon's  splendor,  and  opportunity 
was  taken  to  lay  the  grievances  of  the  people 
before  the  future  ruler.  The  spokesman  was 
■Jeroboam,  an  able  man  who  had  been  an  of- 
ficial under  Solomon  and  had  been  told  by 
the  prophet  Ahijah  that  he  should  become 
king  of  ten  tribes.  The  popular  demand  was 
that  taxaticm  might  be  lightened.  Reho- 
boam  asked  three  days  for  deliberation.  He 
consulted  the  old  men  who  had  till  lately 
been  counselors  of  his  father,  who  advised 
him  to  accede  to  the  request  and  speak  good 
words  to  the  petitioners,  and  assured  him 
that  the  people  would  then  be  liis  servants 
forever.  He  next  consulted  the  young  men 
who  had  grown  up  with  him,  and  they  urged 
him  to  say  to  the  people  :  "  My  little  finger 
is  thicker  than  my  father's  loins.  And  now 
whereas  my  father  did  lade  you  with  a 
heavy  yoke,  I  will  add  to  your  yoke  ;  my 
father  chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I  will 
chastise  you  with  scorpions."  It  indicated 
the  mental  caliber  of  Rehoboam  that  he  re- 
jected the  counsel  of  the  sages  and  uttered 
the  words  of  folly  which  his  young  com- 
panions had  put  into  his  mouth.  The  effect 
was  instantaneous.  Ten  out  of  the  twelve 
tribes  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Reho- 
boam, departed  to  their  homes,  and  were 
forever  lost  to  the  house  of  David.  The 
king  sent  after  them  Adoram,  who  was  over 
the  tribute,  but  they  stoned  him  to  death, 
on  which  his  master,  fearing  that  the  next 
missiles  would  be  directed  against  himself, 
hastily  mounted  his  chariot,  and  drove  to 
.Terusalera  (1  Kin.  xii.  1-20;  2  Chron.  x.  1- 
19).  .Tudah  and  a  large  i)art  of  Benjamin, 
together  with  the  Simeonites,  were  left 
him.  He  mustered  the  entire  militia  of 
his  kingdom  to  attempt  the  subjugation  of 
the  revolted  tribes,  but  the  prophet  Shemaiab 
forbade  the  enterprise  (1    Kin.  xii.  21-24;  2 


Chron.  xi.  1-4).  He  therefore  contented  him- 
self with  fortifyinganumberof  cities  in. Tudah 
and  Benjamin  and  provisioning  the  garrisons 
(.')-12).  The  erection  of  the  golden  calves  by 
his  rival  at  Bethel  and  Dan  drove  .south- 
ward almost  the  whole  body  of  the  |)riests 
and  Levites,  which  greatly  increased  the 
strength  of  the  kingdom  of  Keholioam  ;  but 
after  three  years  he  himself  lajised  into  nlol- 
atry  (1  Kin.  xiv  21  24  ;  2  Chron.  .xi.  i;5-17  , 
xii.  1).  In  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  Shisliak, 
king  of  Egypt,  invaded  his  kingdom,  cai)tin- 
iug  some  of  the  fenced  cities,  ultimately  tak- 
ing Jeru.saleni  itself,  and  plundering  the  tem- 
ple aud  the  i)alace  (1  Kin.  xiv.  2.'>  28,  2 
Chron.  xii.  2-12)  •,  see  Ph.^raoh.  Rehoboam 
had  eighteen  wives  and  sixty  concubines, 
twenty-eight  sons  and  sixty  daughters  (21). 
Abijah  his  son  claimed  that  at  the  tune  of 
his  great  mistake  he  was  young  and  tender- 
hearted ;  in  reality,  he  was  at  that  time  forty- 
one  years  old.  He  reigned  .seventeen  years, 
and  died  about  915  b.  c,  leaving  his  son, 
Abijah,  to  ascend  the  throne  (1  Kin.  xiv.  21, 
31  ;  2  Chron.  xii.  13,   16). 

Re-ho'tooth  [broad  places,  streets ;  figura- 
tively roominess,  freedom]. 

1.  A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  valley  of 
Gerar.  Since  the  Philistine  herdsmen  did 
not  claim  it,  as  they  had  its  two  predecessors, 
he  named  it  Rehoboth,  meaning  room  itien 
xxvi.  22).  Robinson  identified  the  valley  as 
the  wady  Ruheibeh,  a  day's  journey  south 
of  Beer-sheba;  but  he  could  find  no  wells. 
Stewart  met  with  one,  which  was  subse- 
quently .seen  also  by  Rowlands.  Palmer  and 
Drake  fell  in  with  a  second  one,  which  had 
previously  escajted  notice  from  having  been 
covered  by  fallen  masonry. 

2.  A  suburb  of  Nineveh  (Gen.  x.  11)  ;  see 
Rehoboth-ir. 

3.  A  town  "  by  the  river"  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
37;  1  Chron.  i.  48).  "The  river"  commonly 
denotes  the  Euphrates.  Chesney  suggested 
as  its  site  Rahabeh,  3  miles  from  the  right 
(the  west)  bank  of  the  river,  8  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Khabour.  There  is  a  castle 
at  the  spot,  with  extensive  ruins  around. 
Four  or  five  miles  lowerdown,  and  on  the  east- 
ern bank,  is  a  second  Rahabeh,  called  Kaha- 
beh  Malik  (Royal  Rahabeh).  One  or  other 
is  probably  the  proper  site,  but  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  decide  on  their  relative  claims.  Jew- 
ish tradition  is  in  favor  of  the  second. 

Re-ho'tooth-ir  [open  spaces  or  markets  of 
the  city]. 

A  city  which  formed  part  of  the  great  city 
Nineveh  or,  as  we  would  say,  (Greater  Nine- 
veh (Gen.  X   11  ;  in  A.  V'.  the  city  Rehoboth). 

Re'hum  [beloved]. 

1.  A  chancellor  of  Persia  in  the  country 
beyond  the  river,  who  in  the  time  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  complained  against  the  Jews  for  re- 
building the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8,  9). 

2.  One  of  the  princiiial  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2). 


Rei 


650 


Rephidim 


(-'ailed  ill  Xeh.  vii,  7,  praljubly  by  a  coiiyist's 
error,  Neluuii. 

'.i.  A  chief  of  the  jiriests,  wlio  returned 
with  Zerubbahel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3. 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  lioiise, 
occupying  the  corresponding  position  in  the 
enumeration,  bears  the  name  Harim  (ver.  15). 
One  of  these  names  has  ])r<)bably  been  mis- 
written  by  transposing  the  Hebrew  letters. 
1.  One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x'.  25). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Bani.  He  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  17). 

Re'i  [friendly,  sociable]. 
One  who  did  not  join  in  Adonijah's  attempt 
to  usurp  the  throne  (1  Kin.  i.  y). 

Reins. 

The  kidneys.  They  were  supposed  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews  and  others  to  be  the  seatof 
longing  and  desire  (Ps.  vii.  9;  xvi.  7;  xxvi. 
2,  Ixxiii.  21;  Prov.  xxiii.  IG ;  Jer.  xii.  2). 

Re'kem  [variegation]. 

1.  One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  in  the  war  waged  by 
Moses  against  the  Midianites  because  they 
had  seduced  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  a  descendant  of  Caleb 
(1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

3.  A  city  of  the  Benjaniitcs  (Josh,  xviii. 
27).     Site  unknown. 

Rem-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  adorned], 
leather  of  king  Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 
Re'ineth  [probably,  a  high  place]. 
A  frontier  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  21). 
See  Jarmuth. 

Rem'mon  and  Rem-mon-meth'o-ar.  See 
RiMMON  1  and  2. 

Rem'nant. 

Tlie  ]i()rti()ii  of  the  people  that  survives  the 
judgment  sent  to  remove  the  dross  from  the 
kingdom  of  God  (Ezra  ix.  8:  Zech.  xiv.  2). 
Because  of  Jehovah's  love  for  his  jieople,  this 
godly  remnant  shall  be  gathered  from  the 
nations  among  which  Israel  has  been  scat- 
tered and  form  the  nucleus  of  a  new  Israel, 
holy,  living  in  accordance  with  Jehovah's 
law,  loyal  to  him,  and  defended  and  blessed 
by  him  (Is.  i.  26  ;  iv.  2-6;  vi.  13;  x.  20-23; 
xi.  11-xii.  0;  Jer.  xxiii.  3;  xxxii.  36-44; 
Amos  ix.  8-15  ;  Mic.  iv.  6-8;  v.  7,  8;  Zeph. 
iii.  13;  Zech.  viii.  12;  xiii.  9). 

Rem'phan.     See  Repiian. 

Re'pha-el  [(Jod  hath  healed]. 

A  Levitt!,  son  of  Shemaiah,  of  the  family 
of  Obed-edom,  and  a  doorkeeper  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

Re'phah  [riches]. 

-An  ancestor  of  Joshua  and  ]iro})ably  son 
of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Re-pha'iah  [.Tehovah  hath  healed]. 

1.  A  man  of  I.ssachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  2). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chrou.  ix. 


43).     Called  in  viii.  37  Eapha,  a  synonymous 
name,  he  hath  healed. 

3.  One  of  four  Sinieonite  captains  who  led 
an  expedition  into  Edom,  destroyed  a  com- 
munity of  Amalekites  who  were  dwelling 
there,  and  took  possession  of  their  land  (1 
Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

4.  A  sou  of  Hur  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict about  Jerusalem,  who  aided  in  repair- 
ing the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  9 1. 

5.  The  founder  of  a  family  which  is  loosely 
registered  with  the  royal  descendants  of 
David,  and  is  presumably  a  collateral  line 
sprung  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Reph'a-im,  in  A.V.  twice  Rephaims  (Gen. 
xiv.  5;  XV.  20)  [probably,  giants;  but  also 
explained  as  meaning  extinct  aborigines]. 

1.  A  people  of  large  stature  who  in  ancient 
times,  even  before  the  arrival  of  Abraham, 
dwelt  in  Palestine,  east  and  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan (Gen.  xiv.  5  ;  Deut.  ii.  11,  20  ;  iii.  11  ;  and 
Gen.  XV.  20;  Josh.  xvii.  15).  A  remnant  of 
them  appears  to  have  taken  refuge  among 
the  Philistines,  when  the  Hebrews  entered 
Canaan  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16,  18,  20,  21.  R.  V. 
margin). 

2.  A  valley  near  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem 
(Antiq.  vii.  4,  1 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13,  14).  south- 
west of  Jerusalem  and  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
(Josh.  XV.  8;  xviii.  16),  and  quite  fertile  (Is. 
xvii.  5) ;  presumably  once  inhabited  by  the 
Rephaiin.  The  Philistines  were  twice  de- 
feated there  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  18-22; 
xxiii.  13;  1  Chron.  xi.  15;  xiv.  9).  It  is 
probably  the  broad  valley,  about  three  miles 
long,  lying  southwest  of  Jerusalem,  begin- 
ning beyond  the  ravine  that  bounds  the  city 
on  the  south  and  west,  and  extending  half 
way  to  Bethlehem.  It  declines  rapidly 
toward  the  west ;  and  is  stony,  but  fertile. 

Re'phan,  in  A.  V.  Remphan. 

A  god  who  has  a  .star  associated  with  him, 
and  who  was  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness  (Acts  vii.  43).  The  jias-sage  is 
quoted  from  the  O.  T.  The  name  rejireseiits 
liaiphfiu,  a  corrupt  transliteration  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  of  Kairaii,  which  was  a  name  of 
Saturn  among  the  Syrians,  and  was  under- 
stood to  be  the  god  Chiun  (Amos  v.  26).  In 
view  of  this  extremely  i)robable  origin  of  the 
name  Rejihan,  the  projiosed  identification  of 
it  with  an  Egyi)tian  god  Reiii)ii  falls  to  the 
ground. 

Reph'i-dim  [expan.ses,  stretches]. 

A  cain])iiig  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  between  the  wilderness  of  Sin  and 
Sinai  (Ex.  xvii.  1;  xix.  2;  Num.  xxxiii.  12, 
15).  There  was  no  water  obtainable,  and  the 
Jieople  murmured  till  Moses,  accompanied  by 
elders,  went  forward  to  Horeb  by  divine 
command  and  smote  a  rock,  from  which  . 
water  at  once  issued  (Ex.  xvii.  5,  6).  The 
water  flowed  down  the  wady  to  the  camp  of 
the  Israelites  and  supitlied  them  during  their 
sojourn  at  mount  Sinai  also.  Reidiidiin  was 
the  scene  of  the  battle  with  Anialek,  when 


Resen 


651 


Reuben 


Moses  with  uplifted  hand  pointed  to  Jehovah 
as  the  ensign  under  which  Israel  fought  (Ex. 
xvii.  8-16).  The  situation  is  not  properly 
determined.  Rohin.son,  and  after  liini,  but 
independently,  Wilson,  fixed  it  at  the  spot 
where  a  wall  of  rocks  called  Wateiyah,  run- 
ning northeast  and  southwest,  ap])roachesthe 
wady  esh-Sheikh  ;  while  Burckhardt,  Stanley 
and  others  locate  it  in  the  ))eautiful  and  coru- 
parativel.y  well-watered  wady  Feiran.  See 
Mkrikah. 

Re'sen. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  a  suburb  of  Nineveh, 
and  part  of  the  complex  of  towns  known  as 
the  great  city.  It  was  situated  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah  (Gen.  x.  11,  12),  and, 
therefore,  it  is  not  the  town  Eesh-eni,  north 
of  Dur-sharrukin.  Its  exact  situation  is  un- 
certain. 

Resh. 

The  twentieth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  R  comes  from  the  same  sounte, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew 
names.  It  heads  the  twentieth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Cojiyists  experienced  some  difficulty  in  dis- 
tinguishing resh  from  daleth  (q.  v.). 

Re'sheph  [a  flame]. 

A  descendant  of  Ejjhraim  and  probably 
son  of  Beriah  (1  Chrou.  vii.  '25). 

Re'u,  in  A.  V.  once  Ragau  (Luke  iii.  35) 
[friend]. 

A  descendant  of  Eber  and  an  ancestor  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  18-26). 

Reu'ben  [behold  a  son]. 

1.  Jacob's  eldest  son,  the  first  by  his 
wife  Leah  (Gen.  xxix.  31,  o2  ;  xxxv.  23  ; 
xlvi.8;  1  Chrou. ii.l;  v.l).  Eeuben  wasguilty 
of  gross  misconduct  (Gen.  xxxv.  22)  ;  but 
when  his  brothers  plotted  to  kill  Joseph, 
Reuben  came  forward  with  the  proposal  to 
cast  him  into  a  pit,  designing  to  restore  him 
eventually  to  his  father.  He  was  not  with 
them  when  Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Midianite 
Ishmaelites,  and  was  greatly  moved  when, 
visiting  the  pit,  he  found  it  empty  (xxxvii. 
21-29).  When  the  brothers  found  themselves 
in  trouble  in  Egypt  twenty  years  later, 
Reuben  was  quick  to  remind  his  broihers  that 
he  liad  not  concurred  in  their  ])lot  to  take 
Joseph's  life  (xlii.  22-24).  When  Jacob  was 
reluctant  to  send  Benjamin  to  Egyi)t,  Reuben 
offered  two  of  his  sons  as  pledge  that  he 
would  bring  Benjamin  home  again  in  safety 
(37).  Reuben  had  four  sons  in  all:  Hanoch, 
Phallu,  Hezron,  and  Carmi  (Gen.  xlvi.  8,  9; 
Ex.  vi.  14 ;  1  Chron.  v.  3).  Jacob,  when 
about  to  die,  pronounced  Reuben  to  be  un- 
stable as  water  and  declared  that  he  should 
not  have  excellence.  By  his  heinous  deed 
he  had  forfeited  the  birthright  (Gen.  xlix. 
3,4). 

2.  The  tribe  formed  by  descendants  of 
Reuben,  and   the   territory    in    which    they 


dwelt.  The  tribe  was  divided  into  four  great 
tribal  families,  the  posterity  of  Reuben's  four 
sons  (Num.  xxvi.  5-11).  Its  prince  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness 
was  Elizur  (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  ]();  vii.  30-3.");  x. 
18).  At  that  lime  the  tribe  numbered  ■l(i..")()0 
fighting  men  (i.  20,  21)  ;  at  the  .second  census 
thirty-eight  years  later,  they  had  decreased 
to  43,730  (xxvi.  7).  The  Reubenite  chief 
was  head  of  the  cam])  made  nji  of  the  three 
tribes,  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  (Jad,  the  aggre- 
gate military  strength  of  wliich  was  ir)l,4.")() 
(Num.  ii.  10,  16).  The  sjjy  from  the  tribe 
wasShamnuia, .son  of  Zaccur  (xiii.4).  Dathan, 
Abirani,  and  On,  who  joined  llu;  Levite 
Kf)rah  in  revolt  against  Mosesand  Aaron,  were 
Reubenites  (xvi.  1-50 ;  xxvi.  9  ;  DcMit.  xi.  fi)  ; 
see  KoKAH  4.  After  the  battles  with  Silion 
and  Og,  the  Gadites  and  Reubenites.  witii 
whom  half  the  tribe  of  Manesseh  joined, 
being  rich  in  cattle,  ])etilioiie(l  Moses  to  be- 
allowed  to  .settle  east  of  tlie  Jordan,  that 
region  being  well  adai)ted  for  flocks  and 
herds.  Their  re(iuest  was  granted  on  condi- 
tion that  they  would  send  the  greater  num- 
ber of  their  warriors  across  the  .Jordan  Id 
help  their  brethren  in  the  war  with  the, 
Cauaanites  (Num.  xxxii.  1-42;  .losh.  xviii.  7). 
They  did  so,  and  took  part  in  all  of  Joshua's 
wars  in  Canaan  (Josh.  iv.  12).  Afterwards 
they  returned  with  honor  to  tlieir  own  ter- 
ritory ;  but  the  erection  of  a  memorial  altar 
by  them  and  their  Israelite  bretiiren  east  of 
•Jordan  led  to  a  temjiorary  misundersfand- 
ing  which  nearly  involved  tliein  in  civil  war 
(xxii.  1-34).  The  Reubenites  took  no  jiart  in 
the  contest  with  Sisera,  and  were  referred  to 
reproachfully  in  Deborah's  song  (Judg.  v.  ].">, 
16).  They  joined  in  war  with  the  Hagar- 
ites,  in  which  they  prevailed,  the  victcjrs 
making  a  great  slaughter  of  the  enemy, 
and  living  in  their  territory  to  the  time  of 
the  captivity  (1  Chron.  v.  18-22).  Ezekiel 
allotted  them  a  place  in  the  reoccupied 
Canaan  (Ezek.  xlviii.  6,  7),  and  name<l  a 
gate  after  them  in  the  restored  Jerusalem 
(31).  When  the  book  of  Revelation  records 
the  sealing  of  the  144,000,  it  assigns  Reuben 
a  quota  of  12,000  (Rev.  vii.  5).  The  boundary 
of  the  territory  of  Reuben  was  on  the  east 
the  country  of  the  Ammonites,  on  the  south 
the  river  Arnou  (Num.  xxi.  24),  on  the  west 
the  Dead  Sea  and  the  river  Jordan  (Josli. 
xiii.  23),  while  on  the  north  the  boundary 
line  ran  from  the  Jordan  south  of  Beth- 
nimrah  to  Heshbon  (Josh.  xiii.  17.  2():  xxi. 
37;  and  Num.  xxxii.  3();  Josh.  xiii.  27). 
Included  in  these  limits  were  Aroer,  on  the 
edge  of  the  valley  of  Anion,  and  the  city 
in  the  middle  of"  the  valley,  all  the  jilain 
by  Medeba,  Heshlxin  and  its  subordinate 
towns,  Dibon,  Bamoth-baal,  Betli-baal-meon, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  Mephaath,  Kiriathaim, 
Sibmah.  Zereth-shahar,  Beth-peor.  the  slopes 
of  Pisgah,  Beth-jeshimoth  ;  in  short,  the 
southern  part  of  the  .\mmonite  kingdom 
which  had   beeu   ruled  over  by  Sihon  (Josh. 


Reuel 


652 


Revelation 


xiii.  15-23).  The  four  cities  of  Bezer, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  and  Mephaath,  with 
their  suburbs,  were  assigned  to  the  Mera- 
rite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  7,  3(5,  37;  1  Chron. 
vi.  63,  78,  79);  the  first  of  these,  Bezer,  was 
a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  8;  1  Chron.  vi. 
78).  The  Reubenites  had  an  exposed  po.si- 
tion,  the  Moabites  being  in  their  immediate 
vicinity,  while  desert  marauders  could  in- 
vade their  territory  both  from  the  cast  and 
the  south.  If  the  list  of  Reubenite  cities 
given  in  this  section  be  compared  with  those 
in  Moabite  possession  incidentally  mentioned 
in  Is.  XV.,  xvi.,  Jer.  xlviii.,  and  on  the 
Moabite  stone,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the 
times  of  Mesha  and  these  prophets  Reuben 
had  its  limits  greatly  curtailed  by  Moabite 
conquest.  The  whole  territory,  which  is  a 
table-land  quite  capable  of  cultivation,  is  now 
deserted  by  its  settled  inhabitants,  and  is 
given  up  to  the  nomad  and  plundering  tribes 
of  the  desert. 

Reu'el,  in  A.  V.  onceRaguel  (Num.  x.  29)  in 
imitation  of  the  Greek  form  [friend  of  God]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2-4). 

2.  Moses'  father-in-law  (Ex.  ii.  18).  See 
Jethro. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Ibnijah  (1  Chron. 
ix.  8). 

4.  A  Gadite,  father  of  Eliasaph  (Num.  ii. 
14) ;  see  Deuel. 

Reu'mali  [exalted]. 

A  concubine  of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother 
(Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Rev-e-la'tion  [an  unveiling].  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  rerelatio,  unveiling;  hence 
to  reveal,  to  expose  to  sight,  and,  meta- 
phorically, to  disclose  to  the  mind  truth 
otherwise  unknown.  Greek  Apokalupsiis  ; 
whence  English  Apocalypse. 

In  the  O.  T.  the  noun  revelation  does  not 
occur ;  but  the  verb  reveal  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  making  known  secrets  (e.  g.  Prov. 
xi.  13)  and  then  of  God's  disclosure  of  his 
will  to  man  (e.  g.  Deut.  xxix.  29;  Is.  xxii. 
14:  Dan.  ii.  19,  22,  28;  Amos  iii.  7).  In 
the  N.  T.  revelation  is  used  for  the  disclosure 
by  God  or  Christ  or  the  Spirit  of  truth  con- 
cerning divine  things  previously  unknown 
(e.  g.  Rom.  xvi.  25;  1  Cor.  xiv.  (i,  2t) ;  2  Cor. 
'  xii.  1  ;  Gal.  i.  12;  Rev.  i.  1)  or  of  duty  spe- 
cially required  (Gal.  ii.  2),  and  then  for  the 
manifestation  or  appearance  of  persous  or 
events  previously  concealed  from  sight  (e.  g. 
Rom.  ii.  5 ;  1  Pet.  i.  13).  In  theology  reve- 
lation means  the  communication  of  truth  by 
God  to  man,  and  is  usually  ai)]iliod  to 
such  communications  as  liave  been  conveyed 
through  supernatural  agencies. 

The  Revelation  of  St.  John  tlie  Divine  is 
the  last  book  of  the  N.  T.,  also  called,  from 
the  Greek,  the  Apocalypse.  The  name  is 
given  to  it  because,  as  its  opening  words 
state,  it  is  a  disclosure  of  the  future,  and, 
therefore,   preeminently   a   revelation.      Its 


author  describes  it  as  a  communication  con- 
cerning "  things  which  must  shortly  come  to 
pass,"  which  God  gave  to  Jesus  Christ,  and 
which  Christ  gave  by  his  angel  to  his  ser- 
vant John,  to  be  in  turn  communicated  to 
the  church  (Rev.  i.  1-3).  The  work  is  ad- 
dressed to  seven  churches  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia:  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Perga- 
mum,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and 
Laodicea  (4,  11),  the  numlier  seven  being  se- 
lected probably  because,  as  the  sacred  num- 
ber, it  signified  completeness,  and  thus  indi- 
cated that  the  book  was  really  addressed  to 
the  whole  church.  The  author  calls  himself, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  prophet? 
(cp.  Is.  i.  1 ;  Joel  i.  1  ;  Amos  i.  1,  etc.),  simply 
John  (Rev.  i.  1,  4,  9:  xxii.  8),  and  relates 
that  the  visions  of  the  book  were  seen  by 
him  when  confined  in  the  island  of  Patmos 
"  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testimony  of 
Jesus "  (i.  9).  Patmos  lies  off  the  south- 
western coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  John  had 
been  banished  to  it  because  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian. This  points  to  a  period  of  persecution 
by  the  Roman  government.  The  opening 
vision  was  of  the  exalted  (Jhrist,  who  is  rep- 
resented in  a  symbolic  portraiture  as  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of  seve7i  golden  candlesticks 
which  represent  the  seven  (liurches  (10  '.20). 
Christ  gives  to  the  seer  messages  to  the  seven 
churches,  and  after  that  follows  a  succession 
of  other  visions.  The  revelation  is  said  to 
have  been  given  on  the  Lord's  day  (10),  by 
which  we  are  doubtless  to  understand  the 
fir,st  day  of  the  week.  The  visions  described 
are  of  a  highly  symbolical  character.  Many 
of  the  figures  and  much  of  the  language  are 
taken  from  the  O.  T.  prophets,  especially 
from  Daniel  and  Ezekiel,  and  the  meaning 
cannot  be  understood  without  constant  refer- 
ence to  them. 

Examining  the  book  more  closely,  we  find 
that  after  the  introduction  (i.  1-3)  and  saluta- 
tion (4-8),  it  consists  of  seven  chief  divisions, 
extending  to  xxii.  7,  after  which  the  book 
closes  with  an  epilogue  (8-21).  These  divi- 
sions constitute  in  fact  seven  visions,  or  series 
of  visions,  and  are  themselves  subdivided 
usually  into  seven  parts.  Each  series  opens 
with  a  vision,  which  presents  as  a  whole  the 
idea  of  the  series,  and  which  is  then  followed 
in  most  instances  by  a  sevenfold  representa- 
tion of  its  elements.  These  visions  are  prob- 
ably not  to  he  understood  as  representing 
events  which  were  to  follow  one  another  in 
history  in  the  tjrdcr  of  time,  but  as  symboli- 
cal portraitures  of  certain  religious  truths  or 
principles  which  were  to  be  realized  in  the 
experience  of  the  church.  The  whole  is  in- 
tended for  the  church's  comfort  and  warning 
amid  the  conflicts  of  time  and  in  preparation 
for  the  second  coming  of  her  L(U-d  (i.  7,  8; 
xxii.  7,  10,  17,  20).  The  seven  series  of 
visions,  which  show  the  analysis  of  the  book, 
are  the  following : 

1.  The  vision  of  the  glorified  Christ  amid 
his  church,   followed  l)y  .seven  messages  to 


Revelation 


053 


Revelation 


the  seven  churches  of  Asia  (i.  9-iii.  22). 
Here  the  main  thought  is  of  instruction, 
warning,  and  encouragement  for  the  church 
in  her  present  condition. 

2.  The  vision  of  God,  presiding  over  the 
destinies  of  the  universe  and  adored  by  all 
creation,  and  of  the  exalted,  but  redeeming, 
Lamb  of  God,  who  holds  in  his  hand  the 
sealed  book  of  the  divine  decrees  (iv.,  v.),  fol- 
lowed by  the  breaking  of  the  seals  in  seven 
visions,  whereby  is  portrayed  tlie  .sevenfold 
purpose  of  God  from  the  goin.g  forth  of 
Christ  to  conquer  unto  the  last  judgment 
(vi.  1-viii.  1).  Between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
.seals  an  episode  is  introduced,  wiiich  shows 
the  safety  of  the  peoide  of  God  amid  the 
judgment  which  befalls  the  world   (vii.). 

3.  The  vision  of  the  trumi)ets  (viii.  2-xi. 
19).  It  opens  with  the  vision  of  an  angel 
offering  the  prayers  of  the  saints  to  God 
(viii.  2-6).  Then  each  trunij)et  is  followed 
by  a  visi<m  of  destruction  uijon  the  sinful 
world,  ending  again  with  the  last  judgment. 
Between  the  sixth  and  seventh  trumpets  an 
episode  again  is  introduced,  descrijitive  of 
the  preservation  of  the  witnessing  church 
(X.  1-xi.  14).  The  main  thought  bere  appears 
to  be  that  in  reply  to  the  prayers  of  the 
saints  for  God  to  vindicate  his  truth,  they 
are  shown  the  desolations  which  befall  the 
sinful  world  amid  which  they  are  to  bear 
their  testimony. 

4.  The  vision  of  the  church,  under  the 
figure  of  a  woman,  bringing  forth  the  Christ, 
against  whom  the  dragon,  or  Satan,  wages 
war  (xii.),  followed  by  visions  of  the  beasts, 
which  Satan  will  use  as  his  agents  (xiii.),  of 
the  militant  church  (xiv.  1-5),  and  of  the 
advancing  stages  of  Chri.st's  conquest  (6-20). 
This  may  be  called  the  vi.sion  of  conflict. 

5.  The  vision  of  the  vials,  or  bowls, 
containing  the  last  plagues,  or  judgments 
of  God  (xv.,  xvi.).  The  opening  vision  (xv.) 
depicts  the  triumph  of  the  saints,  while  the 
seven  bowls  represent  the  sevenfold  judg- 
ment of  God  on  a  wicked  world  (xvi.). 

6.  The  vision  of  the  harlot  city,  Babylon 
(xvii.),  followed  by  the  victory  of  Christ 
over  her,  and  over  his  enemies  in  league 
with  her,  ending  again  in  the  last  judgment 
(xviii.  1-xx.  15).  Between  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth scenes  of  this  triumph  an  eiiisode  is  in- 
troduced (xx.  1-10),  which  is  probably  descrip- 
tive of  the  complete  safety  and  spiritual  de- 
liverance of  Christ's  people  throughout  the 
whole  period  of  the  age-long  battle.  Some 
scholars,  however,  place  the  division  between 
the  siyth  and  seventh  series  of  visions  at 
xix.  11. 

7.  The  vision  of  the  ideal  church,  the 
bride  of  Christ,  or  new  Jerusalem  (xxi.  1-81, 
followed  by  a  description  of  her  glorj'  (9- 
xxii.  7). 

General  agreement  prevails  among  both 
critical  and  devotional  students  of  the  Rev- 
elation that  the  book  as  it  stands  has  unity, 
and  a  unitj'  that  is  easily  recognized.     Struc- 


tural unity  is  ai)parent  in  its  having  a  frame- 
work consisting  of  seven  groujjs  of  usually 
seven  episodes  and  in  a  general  grammatical 
and  linguistic  similarity. 

The  author  of  the  book  of  the  Revelation 
was  a  Jewish  Christian,  with  a  uoljlt^  uuivei- 
salistic  outlook,  thoroughly  couversaiit  with 
the  contents  of  tin;  Old  Testament  and  with 
its  literary  forms,  and  able  to  mold  chaiac- 
teristic  proph(H'ies  of  Daniel  iind  Ezekiel  into 
his  own  picture  of  the  cluirch's  conflict  ajid 
final  glory  (see  Danikl  and  Ezkkiki.).  His 
name  was  John  (Rev.  i.  1,  4,  !) ;  xxii.  H). 
That  he  was  John  the  apostle  has  been  the 
constant  tradition  of  the  church  from  the 
earliest  time.  It  is  specifically  so  stated  by 
Justin  Martyr  in  the  middle  of  the  .second 
century,  by  Melito  also  and  Irenanis  of  the 
same  century.  It  is  confirmeil  also  by  a 
comparison  of  the  book  with  the  (Jospel  and 
First  Epistle  of  John,  for  all  three  books 
have  in  common  many  doctrinal  ideas  and 
many  more  ])eculiarities  of  language.  The 
Revelation,  indeed,  is  less  smoothly  written 
than  the  Gospel  or  Epistle;  but  that  isi)arlly 
because  of  its  subject,  whicli  led  the  author 
to  employ  unusual  expressions  in  his  de- 
scriptions, and  partly  because  he  was  bent  on 
repeating  and  combining  the  language  of  the 
older  prophets.  Some  scholars,  indeed,  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times  (as  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  \.  D.  247-265),  have  contended 
that  the  Revelation  and  the  Gospel  could  not 
have  been  written  by  the  same  person.  But 
examination,  as  well  as  the  steadfast  tradi- 
tion of  the  church,  makes  the  division  of 
authorship  both  improbable  and  unnecessary. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  trace  the  source 
of  the  Revelation,  especially  of  chapters  xii. 
and  xiii.  and  related  passages,  to  Babylonian 
mythology.  Thus  far  the  investigation — 1. 
Has  ignored  the  plain  meaning  of  these  chaji- 
ters,  which  unquestionably  depict  the  churcli 
opposed  by  Satan's  spiritual  i)o\ver  (Rev.  xii. 
3-17;  see  verse  9),  by  the  jiowers  of  the 
world  united  and  subservient  to  Satan  (xiii. 
1-10),  and  by  false  jiroijhecy,  like  Elijah 
calling  down  fire  from  heaven,  coming  in 
sheep's  clothing,  and  perhajis  impersonat- 
ing the  Lamb(xiii.  11-17).  2.  lias  overlooked 
the  inherent  symbolism  of  nature,  which 
speaks  to  poets  of  all  races  independently  of 
each  other.  3.  Has  assumed  details  for 
Babylonian  myths  for  which  there  is  no 
archffiological  evidence.  4.  Has  failed  to  see 
that  for  the  author  the  immediate  and  suf- 
ficient source  of  the  imagery  is  Hebrew 
Scripture  as  contained  in  Gen.  iii.  and  Dan. 
vii.  (see  Daxiei,).  while  the  imagery  and 
thought  of  Jer.  li.  1-12  lend  a  further  deep 
coloring  to  chap.  xvii. 

Concerning  the  date  of  the  Revelation,  two 
principal  opinions  hive  been  held.  One  as- 
signs it  to  the  year  or  two  immediately  i)re- 
ceding  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  A.  n.  70. 
This  was  after  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians by  Xero  had  broken  out,  and  it  is  sup- 


Revenger 


654 


Rhodes 


posed  that  the  terrors  of  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, combined  with  those  of  the  Nerouiaii 
persecution,  iirovide  many  of  the  lurid  fig- 
ures used  by  the  seer.  Most  rationalistic 
critics  also  accept  approximately  this  date, 
and  see  in  Revelation  no  inspired  pro]ilu'cy 
at  all,  but  only  a  human  vaticination  sug- 
gested by  the  calamities  of  the  age.  But  the 
traditional  opinion,  voiced  by  Irena-us  as 
early  as  a.  D.  175-200,  has  ever  assigned  Rev- 
elation to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Domitian, 
A.  D.  96.  The  testimony  is  strong  that  John 
was  imprisoned  in  Patmos  by  Domitian,  and 
returned  to  Ephesus  after  that  tyrant's  death. 
It  is  unlikely  that  so  specific  and  unanimous 
a  tradition  should  be  mistaken.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  seven  churches  likewise  suits  the 
later  date  better  than  the  earlier  ;  the  style 
does  not  require  the  Revelation  to  precede 
the  Gospel,  nor  are  most  of  the  reasons  ad- 
vanced ■  for  the  earlier  date  satisfactory  to 
those  who  believe  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
book. 

The  interpretations  of  Revelation  have 
been  innumerable.  Four  general  classes  of 
interpretation  may,  however,  be  distin- 
guished. (1)  The  prasterist  interpretation, 
which  regards  the  work  as  a  description  of 
what  was  taking  place  when  the  book  was 
written.  This  view  destroys  its  prophetic  char- 
acter, and  is  certainly  to  be  rejected.  (2)  The 
futurist  interpretation,  which  sees  in  the 
book  predi('tious  of  events  yet  to  be  fulfilled. 
This  view  is  met  by  the  dilficulty  that  all 
prophecy,  and  this  one  in  particular,  closely 
connects  itself  with  the  situation  of  the 
church  and  prophet,  to  whom  it  was  given. 
(3)  The  historico-prophetical  interpretation, 
which  sees  in  the  visions  a  successive  por- 
trayal of  the  events  of  Christian  history. 
Tile  difiiculty  with  this  view  is  that  few  ex- 
positors can  agree  on  the  details  of  the  ful- 
fillment, and  that  it  disregards  the  contem- 
poraneous character  of  the  seven  series  of 
visions.  (4)  The  spiritual,  symliolic  inter- 
l)retati<in,  which  regards  the  visions  as  figu- 
rative iiortraitures  of  certain  truths  or  prin- 
ciples, destined  to  find  their  place  in  the 
history  of  the  church,  and  the  c()ntenii)lation 
of  which  in  pictorial  representiition  is  in- 
tended to  encourage  and  comfort  Christ's 
peo])le  until  he  comes  again  in  glory  and  to 
judgment.  While  no  expositor  can  feel  sure 
that  he  has  understood  the  meaning  of  all 
the  contents  of  the  Revelation,  the  last 
nietliod  of  inter]iretation  has  the  advantage 
of  directing  the  attention  of  readers  to  cer- 
tain large  and  important  truths,  under  the 
form  of  pictures,  thus  making  this  most 
mysterious  hook  of  Scripture  jtractically 
heli)ful.  Ci.  T.  p.  (supplemented). 

Re-ven'ger.     Sec  Avkngkk  of  Blood. 

Re'zeph  [a  hearthstone  for  cooking  upon, 
a  ])avement  |. 

A  ]ilace  which  the  rahshaki  h  boasted  tli!\t 
the  Assyrians  liad  destioved  (2  Kin.  xix.  12: 


Is.  xxxvii.  12).  It  is  doubtless  the  town 
Rasappa,  long  residence  of  an  Assyrian  gov- 
ernor, the  modern  Rusafa,  some  miles  west 
of  the  Eu])hrates  on  the  route  to  Palmyra. 

Ee-zi'a.     See  Rizia. 

Re'zin. 

1.  A  king  of  Damascus.  About  738  B.  c. 
he  paid  tribute  to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria.  Four  years  later,  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz,  he  joined  with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel, 
in  an  eflbrt  to  cajiture  Jerusalem  and  place  a 
creature  of  their  own  upon  the  throne  of 
David.  They  failed,  after  eliciting  from 
Isaiah  a  celebrated  prophecy  (Is.  vii.  1-ix. 
12).  On  this  campaign,  before  attcniiiting  tft 
unite  his  troojis  with  those  of  I'ekali,  Kezia 
marched  to  Elath  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  and 
took  the  town  from  Judah  (2  Kin.  xvi.  6). 
The  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  had  been  pur- 
chased by  Ahaz ;  and  the  Assyrian  king, 
after  chastising  the  Philistines  for  their  par- 
ticipation in  the  hostilities  against  Judah,. 
marched  against  Damascus,  besieged  it  dur- 
ing the  years  733  and  732  B.  C,  ravaged  the 
surrounding  district,  finally  captured  the 
city,  and  slew  Rezin  (7-9,  and  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions). 

2.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  48  ;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'zon  [importance,  princeliness]. 

A  son  of  Eliada,  and  a  subject  of  Hadad- 
ezer,  king  of  Zobah.  When  David  ca]>- 
tured  Zobah,  Rezon  gathered  a  band  of  men, 
seized  Damascus,  and  founded  the  Syrian 
kingdom,  with  which,  while  it  lasted,  the 
Israelites  had  continual  relations,  hostile  or 
friendly  (1  Kin.  xi.  23-25). 

Rhe'gi-um. 

A  city  of  (ireek  origin  on  the  coast  of 
Italy,  opposite  to  Messina  in  Sicily.  Paul's- 
vessel  touched  at  Rhegium  after  having 
made  a  circuit  from  Syracuse  (Acts  xxviii. 
13).  Rhegium  is  now  called  Reggio,  and  is- 
the  ca])ital  of  Calabria.  It  is  a  town  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  cxpoi'ts  oranges,  lemons, 
wine,  oil,  etc. 

Rhe'sa. 

A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel,  and  an  au- 
cestor  of  t'hrist  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Rho'da  fa  rose  bush]. 

A  servant  girl  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Mark.  When  Peter,  after  having  l)een 
miraculously  released  from  prison,  knocked 
at  the  door  (jf  the  gate  of  Mary's  house. 
Rhoda  was  sent  to  see  who  was  there.  Oii 
hearing  Peter's  voice,  she  was  elated  with 
joy,  and,  forgetting  in  her  excitement  to  let 
Inm  in,  ran  back  to  tell  that  it  was  Peter. 
The  apostle  had  for  some  time  to  continue 
the  knocking  before  he  could  gain  admit- 
tance (Acts  xii.  13-16). 

Rhodes,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  xv.  23  Rhodus 
[a  nisc  bush]. 

An   island   oil'  the   coast  of  Caria,   in   the 


Ribai 


655 


Rimmon 


southwest  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  about  45 
miles  long  by  20  broad,  aud  is  remarkable  for 
its  orange  and  citron  groves.  The  island  was 
at  the  junction  of  great  commercial  routes  for 
coasting  vessels,  and  liecame  a  commercial 
center  which  ranked  with  Alcxanlria  and 
Carthage.  Its  capital,  also  called  Klmdes, 
was  famed  for  its  Colossus,  a  great  lighthouse, 
said  to  have  been  70  cubits,  or  about  lO."? 
feet,  high.  It  was  erected  lietween  300  and 
288  B.  V.  The  Rhodians  were  semi-inde- 
pendent under  the  Komans  (1  Mac.  xv.  23), 
except  during  nine  years  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  beginning  A.  D.  44,  and  again 
in  the  time  of  Vespasian.  The  vessel  in 
which  Paul  sailed  to  Palestine  from  Assos 
touched  at  Rhodes  (Acts  xxi.  1).  which  was 
then  a  splendid  city.  As  the  Rhodians 
long  remained  unsubdued  by  the  Romans, 
so,  led  by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  in 
A.  D.  1310  had  possessed  themselves  of  the 
island,  they  defied  the  power  of  the  Turks 
till  1522,  when  they  had  to  surrender  on 
terms,  the  knights  being  allowed  to  transfer 
themselves  to  the  isle  of  Malta.  Since  that 
time  Rhodes  has  remained  subject  to  the 
Turks. 

Ri'bai  [contentious]. 

A  Benjamite  of  Gibeah,  ami  the  father  of 
Ittai,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  29;  1  Chron.  xi.  31). 

Riblah  [fertility]. 

A  town  in  the  land  of  Hamath  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33;  xxv.  21).  The  Egyptians  were  en- 
camped there  when  Jehoahaz  was  brought  in 
as  a  prisoner  (.xxiii.  33).  When  Zedekiah 
was  captured  after  his  escape  from  Jerusa- 
lem, he  was  brought  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
then  encamped  at  RiV)lah,  who  put  out  his 
eyes,  and  had  him  Ixmnd  to  In-  carried  to 
Babylon.  His  sons  ami  the  ])rincesof  .ludali 
were  also  slain  at  Riblah  (xxv.  (i,  7,  21 ;  Jer. 
xxxix.  3-7:  lii.  9-11.  27).  Buckingham,  in 
1816,  met  with  ruins  at  a  place  called  by  him 
Rubla.  but  now  more  generally  si)elled  Rib- 
leh,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orontes,  about 
36  miles  north  by  east  of  Ba'al-bek,  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  plain  of  Coelesyria,  very 
suitable  for  the  encamjiment  of  a  great  army, 
and  with  easy  access  southward  or  north- 
ward if  commotion  arose.  The  ruins  consist 
of  low  mounds  surrounded  by  the  remains 
of  old  buildings.  It  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  it  is  identical  with  Riblah  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Palestine,  east  of  Ain 
(Num.  xxxiv.  11). 

Eid'dle. 

In  biblical  usage,  any  dark  saying,  of 
which  the  meaning  is  not  at  once  clear  and 
must  be  discovered  l)y  shrewd  thought  (Xum. 
xii.  8,  in  E.  V.  dark  speeches;  Prov.  i.  6, 
R.  V.  margin).  It  may  be  a  jiarable  (Ps. 
xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2;  in  E.  V.  dark  saying), 
and  be  proposed  merely  in  order  to  arouse 
attention  and  start  inr|uiry,  and  make 
the   truth   more  vivid   and    impressive,  the 


propounder  intending  to  give  an  explanation 
immediately  (Ezek.  xvii.  2-24) ;  or  the  riddle 
may  be  set  forth  for  men  to  guess,  as  the 
riddle  of  Samson  and  tho.se  of  Solomon  and 
Hiram  to  which  .Tosei)hus  refers  (Judg.  xiv. 
12-19;  Antic).  viii.  .">,  3).  Tlie  riddle  of 
Samson  was  ])r(>p()sed  in  verse.  It  was  not 
properly  a  riddle  at  all,  since  the  discovery 
of  its  meaning  was  not  within  the  realm  of 
possibility  for  the  Pliilistines.  It  was  not 
guessable,  for  they  were  not  ac(|uainted  with 
the  facts  on  whicli  it  was  based. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  fond  of  tlie 
riddle  or  enigma.  One  of  the  most  cele- 
brated was  put  into  the  moutli  of  lli<^ 
monster  named  till"  sjihinx,  wliicli  bad  tieen 
sent  to  ravage  tht'  territory  of  Tliel)cs.  .She 
asked:  "What  animal  goes  on  four  feet  in 
the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
in  the  evening?"  .^fter  many  had  failed, 
Oedipus  answered  that  it  was  man.  who  in 
infancy  creeps  on  all  fours,  at  maturity 
walks  on  two  feet,  and  iti  old  age  uses  a 
stafi".  Thereupon  the  sphinx  flung  herself 
to  the  ground  and  perished. 

Rie,  obsolete  .spelling  of  Rye.    See  Spelt. 

Rim'mon  I.,  in  A.  Y.  twice  Remmon  (Josh, 
xix.  7,  13) ;  in  R.  V.  once  Rimmono  1 1  Chron. 
vi.  77)   [a  pomegranate]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  whose  two  sons  were  cayi- 
tains  under  Ish-bosheth,  and  became  his  mur- 
derers (2  Sam.  iv.  2). 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judali  nciir  Ain 
(Josh.  XV.  32  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  32;  Zech.  xiv.  U)), 
so  near  indeed  as  to  form,  ajiparently,  one 
community  with  it  (Neh.  xi.  29).  It  was 
soon  transferred  with  Ain  and  other  towns 
to  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  7).  It  is  identitied 
with  the  ruin  Umm  er-Rumamin,  about  10 
miles  northeast  by  north  of  Beer-sheba. 

3.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun,  but  assigned 
to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xix.  13;  1  Cliron.  vi. 
77;  and  Josh.  xxi.  .35,  where  Dimnah  is 
doubtless  a  misreading,  resh  being  mistaken 
for  daleth,  q.  v.).  Methoar  in  A.  V.  of  .Josh. 
xix.  13  is  impro]ierly  regarded  as  jiart  of  the 
name;  whereas  it  describes  the  l)oundary  as 
"stretching"  to  Neah.  The  name  of  the 
town  is  preserved  in  Rummaneh,  a  village 
6  miles  north,  slightly  east,  of  Nazareth. 

3.  A  rock  near  Gibeah,  where  (ilM)  van- 
quished Benjamites  look  refuge  and  re- 
mained four  months  (.Fudg.  xx.  45-47:  xxi. 
13).  It  is  probably  the  detached  limestone 
eminence  3^  miles  east,  slightly  north,  of 
Bethel.  It  is  separated  from  all  ajiproach 
on  the  south,  the  north,  and  the  west  by 
ravines,  and  has  caverns,  in  which  the 
refugees  may  have  lived.  The  name  still 
lingers  in  Rammun,  a  village  on  the  summit. 

Rim'mon  II.  [thundenr]. 

A  Syrian  god.  who  had  a  temple  at  Damas- 
cus, in  which  Naaman  and  his  royal  master 
were  accustomed  to  bow  themselves  for  wor- 
ship (2  Kin.  v.  18).  In  Assyria  Kimmon,  or 
Ramman  as  his  name  wns  jnonounicd  there, 


Bimmono 


GoG 


Rock-ljadger 


was  numbered  among  the  twelve  great 
deities.  He  was  the  god  of  rain  and  storm, 
lightning  and  thunder.  Sometimes  he  was 
dreaded  as  the  destroyer  of  crops  and  tlie 
scatterer  of  the  harvest,  and  at  others  was 
adored  as  the  hird  of  fecundity.  He  was 
identical  with  Hadad,  the  supreme  god  of 
the  Syrians.  The  two  names  are  combined 
in  Hadad-Rimnion. 

Rira'mo-no.     See  Rimmon. 

Rim-mon-pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  Rimmon-parez 
[l>()megranate  of  the  breach  or  cleft]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  19,  20).  Situation 
unknown. 

Ring.     See  Ornament  and  Seal. 

Rm'nah  [a  wild  cry,  a  shout]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Shimon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  20). 

Ri'phath. 

A  people  descended  from  Gomer  (Gen.  x. 
3 ;  in  1  Chron.  i.  6  Diphath :  see  Daleth). 
Josephus  identifies  them  with  the  Paphla- 
gonians  (Antiq.  i.  6,  1).  The  name  is  per- 
haps preserved  in  the  Riphfean  mountains, 
which  were  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  skirt 
the  northern  shore  of  the  world. 

Ris'sah  [a  ruin,  or  dew,  rain]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  21,  22).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Rith'mah  [broom,  plant]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  18,  19) ;  perhaps 
hard  by  Kadesh  in  the  wady  known  as  Abu 
Ketemiit,  the  equivalent  of  the  ancient 
name ;  see  Kadesh  1. 

Riv'er. 

Of  several  words  translated  river,  only 
three  require  mention  here :  1.  Nahar,  a 
stream,  in  Greek  potamos,  applied  to  the 
largest  rivers  known  to  the  Hebrews,  as  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  (Gen.  ii.  14  ;  Rev.  ix. 
14),  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12), 
the  Jordan  (Mark  i.  5),  and  the  affluents 
of  the  Upper  Nile  (Zeph.  iii.  10).  The  river 
or  the  great  river  usually  denotes  the  Eu- 
phrates (Gen.  XV.  18;  xxxi.  21).  2.  Nahal, 
sometimes  a  perennial  stream  like  the  Jab- 
bok  (Deut.  ii.  37),  but  usually  a  winter 
torrent,  the  bed  of  which  is  dry  in  summer; 
a  wady.  See  Brook.  3.  Y''or,  a  stream, 
used  almost  exclusively  of  the  Nile  and  its 
mouths,  and  sounding  much  like  the  native 
lOi^yptian  name  of  that  river  (Gen.  xli.  1  ;  2 
ivin.  xix.  24;  Ezek.  xxix.  3).  It  once  de- 
notes the  Tigris  (Dan.  xii.  5-7;  cp.  x.  4,  R. 
V.  margin). 

Riv'er  of  E'gypt. 

1.  The  Nile,  and  specifically  its  most  east- 
ern channel,  the  Pelusiac  brau'di  (Gen.  xv. 
18)  ;  see  SiiiiiOR.  In  tliis  passage  the  two 
great  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Kiiplirates.  are 
named    broadly   as    the   boundaries  of    the 


promi.sed  laud.  The  brook  of  Egj'pt  or 
wady  el-'Arisli  was  commonly  regarded  as 
the  southwestern  limit  of  Palestine  ;  but  the 
country  between  this  wady  and  the  east- 
ern branch  of  the  Nile  was  mainly  desert, 
and  the  Nile  was  virtually  on  the  boundary 
of  Egypt.  The  pas.sage  means  that  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  should  possess  the 
land  as  far  as  Egypt.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arish  is 
well  established  ;  for  the  former  is  a  nahar 
and  the  latter  a  nahal. 

2.  A  great  wady  or  nahal,  uniformly  called 
in  the  R.  V.  the  brook  of  Egypt.  It  was  the 
southwestern  border  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv. 
5;  1  Kin.  viii.  65;  2  Kin.  xxiv.  7),  and  the 
limit  in  the  same  direction  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  4,  47).  It  was  known  to 
the  Assyrians  by  the  same  name  as  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  likewise  as  a  boundary.  It  is 
the  wady  el-'Arish,  a  watercourse  nominally 
dry,  but  which  after  heavy  rains  runs  north- 
ward from  the  desert,  being  fed  by  tribu- 
taries, one  of  which  passes  Kadesh-barnea. 
It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  about  50 
miles  south  of  Gaza. 

Ri-zi'a,  in  A.  V.  Rezla  [delight]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  UUa  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

Riz'pah  [a  hot  stone] . 

A  daughter  of  Aiah  and  concubine  of  Saul. 
On  her  account  the  quarrel  arose  between 
Ish-bosheth  and  Abner,  which  resulted  in 
Abner's  going  over  to  David  (2  Sam.  iii.  6-8). 
Her  children,  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth, 
were  put  to  death  during  the  famine  which 
arose  in  David's  reign  on  account  of  Saul's 
treatment  of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8- 
11). 

Road. 

An  inroad,  a  raid,  an  incursion  into  an 
enemy's  country  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  10,  in  R.  V. 
raid).  This  sense  is  now  obsolete  in  ordinary 
language.  When  a  road  in  the  modern  sense 
is  intended,  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  generally 
use  the  term  way,  or  sometimes  path.  See 
Palestine  5. 

Rob'ber.     See  Thief. 

Ro-bo'am.     See  Rehoboam. 

Rock. 

Rocks  were  found  nearly  everywhere  in 
the  hilly  and  niountiiinous  districts  of  Pales- 
tine. Some  had  definite  names,  as  the  rock 
of  Oreb  (Judg.  vii.  25),  the  rock  of  Etam 
(xv.  8).    See  Oreb,  Etam. 

Rock-badg'er. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  l^haphan,  on 
the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  where  coney  appears 
in  tlie  text.  Tlie  animal  intended  by  the 
Hebrew  word  is  small  and  wary,  dwells 
among  the  rocks  (Ps.  civ.  18;  Prov.  xxx. 
24,  2()),  and  chews  the  cud,  but  does  not  part 
the  hoof  (Lev.  xi.  5;  Deut.  xiv.  7).  The 
corres|)(mding  name  in  tlie  dialect  of  south- 
ern Arabia  denotes  the  Uyrax  syriacus,  the 


Rodanim 


657 


Romans 


so-called  rock-badger.  The  hyrax  looks  like 
a  ral)bit  or  badger,  but  has  more  affiuity  to 
the  rhiuoceros  and  the  tapir;  indeed,  its 
structure  is  so  anomalous  that  it  has  been 
given  a  whole  order,  Ili/vicoidea,  to  itself. 
It  moves  its  jaws  as  if  it  were  chewing  the 


'-^V.^'M*-!^  ^ 


Rock-badger  (Hyra   syriaais). 

cud,  but  it  does  not  really  ruminate.  The 
species  syriacus  is  found  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  northern  Palestine,  and  the  region 
round  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  fur  is  tawny,  with 
a  yellow  spot  on  the  back.  It  lives  in  clefts 
of  rocks,  but  does  not  scoop  out  a  hole. 
Small  parties  meet  together,  with  a  sentinel 
on  some  eminence  to  give  warning  of  danger. 
It  is  rarely  seen  except  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  when  it  comes  forth  to  feed. 

Rod'a-nim  [a  plural  form,  Rodanites]. 

A  people  descended  from  Javan  (Hebrew 
text  of  1  Chron.  i.  7;  and  Septuagint  and 
Samaritan  text  of  Gen.  x.  4).  If  Rodanim  is 
the  correct  reading,  the  people  of  Rhodes 
and  of  the  neighboring  islands  of  the  .lEgean 
Sea  are  probablj-  intended.     See  Dodanim. 

Roe. 

A  deer  (Capreoliis  cnprien,  the  Cervus  capre- 
olus  ©f  Linnseus)  which  is  described  under 
Roebuck  2  (2  Sam.  ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  xii.  8,  in 
Hebrew  fbi;  and  Prov.  v.  19,  A.  V..  in  He- 
brew ya'Hah)  ;  see  Gazelle  and  Doe. 

Roe'buck. 

1.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
F^hiin  Deut.  xii.  15,  22:  xiv.  5;  xv.  22;  1 
Kin.  iv.  23.     R.  V.  substitutes  gazelle  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  rendering  in  R.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Yohmnr.  The  animal  was  ceremonially  clean 
and  used  for  food  (Deut.  xiv.  5  ;  1  Kin.  iv. 
23,  in  A.  V.  fallow  deer).  Etymology  indi- 
cates that  its  color  was  reddish.  According 
to  Arabian  authorities,  it  casts  its  horns 
every  year,  which  is  characteristic  of  deer. 
In  northern  Galilee  the  name  yahmur  is  still 
given  to  the  roebuck  (Cupreolus  caprxa,  or 
Cerrus  capreolus).  In  Europe  it  is  a  small  deer 
about  two  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  but 
in  Asia  it  attains  to  a  larger  size.  In  sununcr 
it  is  dark  reddish-brown,- in  winter  yellowish- 
gray.  It  has  a  large  patch  of  white  on  the 
rump.  The  antlers  are  about  a  foot  long, 
with  three  points.  It  is  wild  over  a  great 
part  of  Eun)pe  and  Asia.  In  Palestiiie  it  is 
found  on  mount  Carmel  and  mount  Lebanon. 

42 


By  many,  however,  the  yahmur  is  identified 
with  the  bubale,  one  of  the  bovine  antelopes. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  stag,  has  a  long 
head,  a  narrow  forehead,  and  reddish  or  jiale 
brown  hair.     Its  flesh  is  most  savory. 

Ro'ge-lim  [Aill.rs.  ])erli:i).s.  or  spies]. 

A  town  in  Gilead  where  Harzillai  lived 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  27;   xix.  31).     Site  unknown. 

Roh'gsih  [clamor]. 

An  Asherite.  family  of  Keriali.  hou.se  of 
Heber  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

Roll. 

The  sheet  of  papyrus  or  the  parclmicnt  im 
which  documents  were  frequently  written  in 
ancient  times  was  rolled  up  or  wound  around 
a  stick,  like  a  modern  maj),  and  thus  consti- 
tuted a  roll  (Jer.  xxxvi.  2)  or  a  volume  in 
the  original  sense  of  the  term  (Ps.  xl.  7, 
A.  V.)  ;  see  Book.  The  word  rendered  roll 
in  Is.  viii.  1,  A.  V.,  should  be  translated 
tablet. 

Ro-mam-ti-e'zer  [I  have  exalted  help]. 
A  singer,  a  son  of  Heniau  (1  (;hron.  xxv.  4). 
He  obtained  the  twenty-fourth  lot  among  the 

courses  of  the  .singers  (31). 

Ro'mans. 

1.  Inhabitants  of  Rome  (1  ]\Tac.  viii.  1 ; 
Acts  ii.  10,  "sojourners  from  Rome,"  K.  V.). 

2.  Those  who  represent  the  Roman  gov- 
ernment (John  xi.  48;  Acts  xxv.  16;  xxviii. 
17). 

3.  Those,  wherever  born  or  of  whatever 
race,  who  possessed  the  rights  of  citizenship 
in  the  Roman  empire  (Acts  svi.  21,  .37.  38 ; 
xxii.  25,  26,  27,  29).  By  the  Porcian  Law, 
which  was  so  named  because  it  was  pro- 
posed and  carried  bj^  P.  Porcius  Lseca.  a 
tribune  of  the  jieople,  248  B.  c  it  was  de- 
clared that  no  magistrate  liail  the  right  to 
bind,  scourge,  or  kill  a  Roman  citizen.  The 
life  of  one  so  privileged  could  not  l)e  taken 
away  except  by  a  decision  of  the  whole 
people  met  in  the  comilia  centvnnta.  a  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  ]ieo])le,  voting  in  divi- 
sions called  centuries.  If  a  magistrate  or 
ruler  of  any  kind  gave  orders  to  .scourge  one 
entitled  to  the  protection  of  this  law,  the 
latter  had  only  to  utter  the  words,  "  I  am  a 
Roman  citizen,"  and  all  jirocedure  was  staye<l 
till  the  people  had  decided  on  his  case.  When 
the  power  formerly  possessed  by  the  i)eo])le 
was  transferred  to  the  emperor,  it  was  to 
him  that  the  right  of  a])peal  lay.  The  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizenship  were  first  limited 
to  residents  in  Rome  itself;  then  they  were 
extended  to  various  Italian  tribes  and  cities; 
then  to  the  greater  i)art  of  Italy  ;  then  to 
places  beyond  the  Italian  ]ieninsula  ;  and  .so 
on  and  on  till,  it  is  sjiid.  Caracalla  (.\.  D.  211- 
217)  conferred  them  on  every  inhabitant  of 
the  Roman  emi)ire.  During  the  tKinsitir)n 
period  individuals  who  had  rendered  .service 
to  Rome  might  be  declan'd  citizens,  or  the 
privilege  might  lie  ])urchased  for  moiH\v.  even 
in  towns  or  districts  which  were  not  as  ye.^ 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


658 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


enfranchised.  Sometimes  also  manumitted 
slaves  were  granted  citizenship.  These  ex- 
planations make  it  easy  to  understand  how 
Paul,  thT)ugh  of  Jewish  descent  (Phil.  iii.  5), 
could  still  be  a  Eoman  citizen  ;  and  how 
Claudius  Lysias  thought  it  worth  his  while 
to  purchase  the  privilege  for  a  great  sum  of 
money  (Acts  xxii.  2H)  ;  and  how,  wheu  he 
had  given  orders  that  Paul  should  be  scourged, 
and  was  informed  by  the  centurion  that  the 
apostle  was  a  Roman  citizen,  procedure  was 
immediately  stopped  (25-29).  One  can  also 
understand  the  alarm  of  the  authorities  at 
Philippi  when  they  had  taken  the  responsi- 
bility of  having  Paul  and  Silas  openly  beaten, 
and,  to  make  matters  worse,  uncondemned, 
without  first  taking  means  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  they  were  Roman  citizens 
(xvi.  36-38).  It  will  appear  also  that  Paul 
simply  exercised  his  legal  right  when  he 
took  his  appeal  to  Caesar;  that  is,  to  the 
Eoman  emperor  (xxv.  11). 

Ro'mans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

The  first  of  St.  Paul's  epistles  according  to 
the  order  in  which  they  are  placed  in  our 
N.  T.  In  order  of  composition,  however,  it 
was  the  sixth,  since  it  was  written  from 
Corinth,  as  appears  from  the  salutations  (cp. 
xvi.  23  with  1  Cor.  i.  14  and  2  Tim.  iv.  20), 
and  from  the  fact  that  it  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  PhcBbe,  a  servant  or  deacon  ess  of  the  church 
at  Cenchreae  (Rom.  xvi.  1),  which  was  near 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  18) ;  and,  if  so,  it  must 
have  been  written  during  the  visit  to  Greece 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  2,  3.  That  was  in  the 
winter  of  A.  D.  57-58.  The  apostle  had  long 
wished  to  visit  Rome  (Rom.  i.  10-12;  xv. 23), 
and  it  was  his  purpose,  his  work  in  the  east 
having  been  finished  (xv.  23),  to  visit  the 
capital  on  his  way  to  Spain  (28).  Before 
doing  so,  however,  he  was  determined  to  re- 
turn to  Jerusalem  to  present  the  gifts  of  the 
gentile  churches  (25,  26).  Not  knowing, 
however,  what  might  be  his  fate  on  this  dan- 
gerous journey  (30-32  ;  Acts  xx.  22),  he  sent 
this  letter  to  the  Christians  at  Rome,  where 
he  had  many  friends  (cp.  Rom.  xvi.),  for,  as 
the  apostle  of  the  gentiles,  he  considered  the 
church  at  Ronu;  to  be  under  his  care  (xv.  15, 
16),  although  he  had  never  visited  it.  The 
theme  of  the  epistle,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  ever  written  by  him,  was 
naturally  determined  by  the  controversies 
through  which  he  had  passed  and  by  the 
need  of  stating,  formally  and  completely, 
the  gospel  which  he  i)reached  among  the 
gentiles.  It  is  a  full  presentation,  therefore, 
of  the  way  of  salvation,  llcru-e  its  su])reme 
imjiortance.  That  he  addressed  it  to  the 
('hristians  at  Rome  indicates,  no  doubt,  his 
ajijireciation  of  tlie  infiuenct^  which  the 
church  of  the  world's  metro]>f)lis  would  exert, 
and  the  consequent  necessity  of  es1al)lisliing 
it  in  the  faith  that  it  might  resist  the  assaults 
of  error. 

Whereas  the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Gala- 


tians  is  the  mafjna  cliarin  of  universal  Chris- 
tianity, the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  its 
constitution.  The  epistle  may  be  analyzed 
as  follows :  After  the  salutation  (1-7)  and 
statement  of  his  interest  in  them  (8-15),  he 
ei)itoniizes  the  character  of  his  gospel  and, 
in  doing  so,  gives  the  theme  of  the  epistle: 
"The  gospel  is  the  power  of  God  unto  sal- 
vation to  every  one  that  believeth.  For 
therein  is  the  righteousness  of  God  revealed 
from  faith  to  faith"  (16,  17). 

He  then  proves  the  universal  need  of 
righteousness  (i.  18-iii.  20).  He  first  shows, 
that  the  gentile  world  is  in  a  state  of  sin  and 
just  condemnation  (i.  18-32),  and  then  that 
the  Jewish  world  is  no  exception,  but  is  like- 
wise guilty  before  God  (ii.).  To  the  objection 
that  this  destroys  the  privileges  of  the  Jew, 
he  replies  by  showing  that  their  privilege 
consisted  in  being  the  trustees  of  revelation, 
but  that  their  own  Scriptures  declared  them 
to  be  sinful  (iii.  1-19),  so  that  there  is  no  ex- 
ception to  the  universal  guilt.  In  fact,  the 
law  only  increases  the  consciousness  of  sin 
(20). 

He  then  states  the  righteousness  which 
God  has  provided  for  every  believer  through 
the  redemptive  and  sacrificial  work  of  Christ 
(iii.  21-30),  and  proves  that  this  way  of  salva- 
tion is  that  taught  in  the  O.  T.  (31-iv.  25),  that 
it  is  the  basis  of  Christian  experience  (v.  1-11 ), 
and  that  it  proceeds  upon  the  same  principle 
of  moral  government,  on  which  God  acted 
when  he  dealt  with  mankind  in  the  person, 
of  their  first  head  and  representative,  Adam 
(12-21). 

The  apostle  then  refutes  three  objections, 
which  would  be  brought  against  his  doctrine 
of  salvation  by  the  work  of  Christ  for  us  re- 
ceived through  faith  alone.  The  first  objec- 
tion is  that  on  this  doctrine  men  may  con- 
tinue in  .sin  and  yet  be  saved,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  because  faith  in  Christ  involves, 
vital  union  with  him,  whereby  the  believer 
rises  with  Christ  into  a  new  moral  life  (vi.  1~ 
14).  The  second  objection  is  that  Paul's  doc- 
trine of  deliverance  from  the  law  released 
men  from  moral  obligation,  to  which  he  re- 
plies no,  because  the  believer  accepts  a  new 
and  higher  obligation,  whereby  he  devote.s^ 
himself  to  the  will  of  God  (vi.  1.5-vii.  6). '  The 
third  objection  is  that  Paul's  doctrine  makes 
the  law  of  God  an  evil  thing,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  for  the  reason  that  the  law  cannot 
save  is  not  that  the  law  is  evil,  but  that  man 
is  sinful  and  cannot  keep  it  (7-25). 

Having  refuted  objections,  he  shows  (viii.) 
that  on  the  basis  of  Christ's  redemptive  work 
provision  is  made  for  the  spiritual  renewal, 
complete  sanctification,  and  final  glorification' 
of  those  who  are  in  Christ,  and  who,  being 
chosen  and  called  by  God,  will  certainly 
enjoy  the  perfect  fruition  of  God's  love. 
Having  thus  stated  the  gospel  way  of  salva- 
tion, the  apostle  proceeds  to  adjust  it  to  tlie 
fact  that  Israel,  the  chosen  people,  had  as  a 
nation  rejected  it.     He  does  this  by  teaching 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


659 


Rome 


tliat  the  saving  promise  of  God  had  never 
been  made  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  but  only 
to  the  "  election,"  the  true  seed  of  Abrahani, 
whom  God  had  chosen  (ix.  1-13),  and  he  jus- 
tifies from  Scripture  this  doctrine  of  sover- 
eign election  (14-29) ;  then,  further,  that  the 
rejection  of  the  Jews  was  due  to  tlieir  refusal 
of  the  very  way  of  salvation  taught  by  their 
own  Scriptures  (30-x.  21),  yet  that  the  re- 
jection of  Israel  was  not  complete,  for  the 
promised  remnant,  the  election,  did  believe 
(xi.  1-10),  and,  finally,  that  in  the  end  the 
Jews  will  be  converted,  and  with  the  gentiles 
trust  in  the  promised  Redeemer  (11-36). 

The  rest  of  the  ejjistle  consists  of  an  ex- 
hortation to  Christian  living  (xii.),  to  the 
performance  of  civil  and  social  duties  (xiii.), 
and  to  Christian  charity  and  unity  (xiv.  1- 
XV.  13),  ending  with  personal  messages  and 
salutations  (14-xvi.  27).  G.  t.  p. 

Did  the  epistle  to  the  Romans  in  early  days 
ever  exist  in  a  shorter  form  than  at  present? 
In  view  of  certain  phenomena  two  theories 
especially  have  attracted  attention.  They 
have  literary  interest,  but  no  doctrinal  im- 
jjortance.  According  to  one  theory,  an 
abridgment  of  the  epistle  was  prepared  for 
general  circulatiou  ;  being  shortened  by  the 
omission  of  local  references,  such  as"  in  Rome" 
(i.  7)  and  chapters  xv.  and  xvi.,  but  retain- 
ing the  entire  doctrinal  instruction  and  the 
essence  of  the  practical  appeal.  Evidence 
for  the  existence  of  the  epistle  in  this  shorter 
form  is  sought  in  tlie  presence  of  the  doxology 
(xvi.  25-27)  in  some  manuscripts  at  the  end 
of  chapter  xiv.  or  both  there  and  at  the  end 
of  chapter  xvi.;  in  the  lack  of  quotation 
from  chapters  xv.  and  xvi.  in  the  writings 
of  Tertullian,  Ireuieus,  and  Cyjjrian  ;  and  in 
the  apparent  omission  of  tliese  chapters  by 
Marcion.  Tlie  lack  of  citation  from  these 
chapters  is  without  significance,  however,  in 
view  of  their  character.  They  have  never 
been  much  quoted.  The  salutations  espe- 
cially do  not  lend  themselves  to  quotation. 
The  theory  of  an  abridged  edition  of  the 
epistle  must  rest  mainly  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  doxology  at  the  end  of  chapter  xiv.  in 
some  manuscripts.  This  is  a  frail  support ; 
and  it  is  especially  weak  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  no  extant  manuscript  is  an  abridgment, 
but  all  manuscripts  of  the  epistle  without 
exception  contain  chapters  xv.  and  xvi. 

The  other  theory,  and  one  widely  held,  is 
that  chapter  xvi.  did  not  form  apart  of  the 
epistle  originally,  but  constituted  a  brief 
note  commending  Phcebe  to  the  church  at 
E))hesus.  For  cliapter  xv.  is  not  easily  S('])a- 
rated  from  chapter  xiv.,  but  follows  it  natu- 
rally, and  simply  develops  the  appeal  that  is 
made  in  chapter  xiv.  to  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tian self-sacrifice  on  the  part  of  those  who 
are  strong  in  conscience.  Moreover,  chapter 
XV.  closes,  in  verse  33,  with  a  benediction 
such  as  occurs  at  the  end  of  other  letters 
written  by  Paul  (2  Cor.  xiii.  11;  1  Thes.  v. 
23;  2  Thes.   iii.  16;  Phil.   iv.   9),  and  forms 


the  natural  conclusion  to  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans.  Cha])ter  xvi.  would,  tlierefore,  seem 
to  be  apiiended.  Tiuit  the  latter  cliapter  was 
originally  a  letter  commending  I'liiclie  to 
the  church  at  Ephesus,  not  to  the  Christians 
in  Rome,  may  be  gathered,  it  is  argueil,  from 
the  following  considerations:  1.  ]l  is  in- 
tended to  accredit  I'ho'be  (xvi.  1).  2.  .\(|uila 
and  P7'iscilla,  to  whom  salutations  are  sent 
(xvi.  3),  were  certainly  living  in  Ephesus 
about  three  years  before  the  e|)istle  to  the 
Romans  was  written,  and  they  were  not  in 
Rome  when  Paul  wrote  the  .second  letter  to 
Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv.  19).  3.  The  reference 
to  Ejia^uetus,  "the  firstfruits  of  Asia  "  (Kom. 
xvi.  5,  R.  v.),  would  be  more  natural  in  a 
letter  to  Ephesus  than  to  Rome.  4.  It  is  un- 
likely that  Paul  would  have  as  many  ac- 
quaintances in  a  church  he  had  not  visited 
as  he  salutes  in  chapter  xvi.  The  objections 
to  this  theory  that  cliapter  xvi.  is  a  brief  note 
to  the  church  at  P^phesus  are — 1.  Salutations 
were  occasionally  addecl,  as  here,  after  a 
doxology  or  a  benediction,  even  wlii'ii  fol- 
lowed bv  Amen  (Phil.  iv.  20;  2  Thes.  iii.  l(i; 
cp.  2  Tim.  iv.  18).  2.  The  fact  that  chai.ter 
xvi.  forms  part  of  the  epistle  in  all  extant 
manuscripts.  3.  Aquila  and  Priscilla  mi- 
grated from  place  to  place  a  great  deal. 
They  were  residing  in  Rome  when  all  Jews 
were  notified  to  leave  the  city,  they  lived  at 
Corinth  for  about  a  year  and  a  half  and  ac- 
companied Paul  to  Ephesus,  where  actively 
Avorking  for  Christianity  they  remained  at 
least  until  he  returned  from  a  trip  to  Jerusa- 
lem. It  would  not  be  strange  if  they  went 
back  to  Rome,  especially  in  connection  with 
the  apostle's  plan  to  visit  tin;  city  an<l  intro- 
duce  the   Christian   religion  (.\cts    xi.x.   21). 

4.  That  Epsenetus,  a  convert  of  tlie  province 
of  Asia,  found  his  way  to  Rome  occasions  no 
surprise  ;  for  Christians,  .Tews,  and  gentiles 
were  constantly  going  to  the  imi)erial  capital 
for  various  reasons  from  all  i)arts  of  the 
world,  for  examjde,  Epa))hras  of  Colossse  and 
Aquila  of  Pontus  and   Ilerod   the    tetrarch. 

5.  The  persons  saluted  in  chapter  xvi.  Ix'ar 
names  that  are  jjroven  to  have  been  current 
in  Rome,  and  some  of  them  wer.'  common 
among  the  early  Christians  of  tlu'  city.  6.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  the  people  to 
whom  he  sends  greetings  were  in  evcrj-  case 
personal  acquaintances  of  the  apostle;  it  is 
enough  that  they  were  known  to  bin)  as 
earnest,  active  Christians  through  refer- 
ences to  them  in  letters  to  him  from  .•kcpiila, 
Priscilla,  and  others  concerning  atl'airs  in 
Rome. 

Rome. 

The  date  753  b.  c.  is  accepted  by  the  best  au- 
thorities for  the  traditional  founding  of  Rome 
by  Romulus,  who  became  its  first  Icing.  The 
little  kingdom  grew  in  size  and  importance, 
absorbing  its  immediate  neighbors  through 
the  reigns  of  seven  kings,  until  tiie  tyranny 
of  Tarquinius  Superlms  drove  the  people  to 


Borne 


660 


Rose 


take  the  government  into  their  own  hands 
and  establish  a  republic.  In  the  beginning, 
the  power  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
patrician  families,  the  plebeians  merely  ac- 
quiescing in  measures  taken.  The  plebs, 
however,  demanded  and  obtained  privilege 
after  privilege  until  every  Roman  citizen 
had  a  voice  in  the  government.  During  the 
period  of  the  republic,  Eonie  extended  her 
boundaries  at  first  over  all  Italy,  and  finally 
over  the  whole  known  world. 

Eome's  first  contact  with  Asia  occurred  190 
B.  c,  when  the  Eoman  army  defeated  An- 
tiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  at  the  battle 
of  Magnesia,  and  Kome  assumed  a  protectorate 
over  certain  cities  in  Asia  Minor  (cp.  1  Mac. 
i.  10).  Most  of  Rome's  conquests  after  this 
were  of  a  peaceful  nature,  other  nations 
willingly  acknowledging   lier  superiority. 

In  63  B.  e.  Judjea  became  formally 
subject  to  Rome,  being  taken  by  Pompey 
after  he  had  reduced  the  Seleucidan  kingdom 
to  the  level  of  a  province.  It  was  required 
to  pay  tribute,  but  was  left  for  a  time  under 
native  rulers. 

Meantime,  several  parties  jealous  of  each 
other  had  been  growing  up  in  the  state.  As 
the  result  of  an  internal  political  struggle, 
the  triumvirate  of  Cfesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus  was  formed  to  rule,  but  by  the  death 
of  Crassus,  and  the  defeat  of  Pompey  in  a 
civil  struggle,  the  power  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Caesar  alone.  This  did  not  last  long. 
Csesar  was  murdered  by  his  enemies  in  44  B.  c, 
yivil  war  again  broke  out,  a  .second  triumvi- 
rate was  formed  by  Antony,  Octavian,  and 
Lejiidns,  and,  like  the  first,  was  soon  reduced 
to  one  man,  Octavian.  Full  of  ambition, 
Octavian  had  himself  proclaimed  emperor 
with  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  the  Eoman 
empire  began. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  that 
Christ  was  born;  during  that  of  his  successor 
Tiberius,  that  the  crucifixion  took  ])lace. 
The  martyrdom  of  James  the  brother  of 
John  took  place  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  (Acts  xi.  28;  xii.  1,  2).  It  was  to  the 
emperor  Nero  that  Paul  ajjpealed  (xxv.  11). 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  prophesied  by 
our  Lord  (ISIat.  xxiv. ;  Mark  xiii. ;  J^uke  xix. 
41-44;  xxi.  5-36)  w-as  accomiiiislicd  in  the 
year  A.  D.  70  by  Titus,  who  afterwards  be- 
came emperor. 

When  the  empire  was  at  its  great^^st  size 
it  extended  .3000  miles  I'roni  east  to  west,  and 
20(10  from  north  to  south,  ami  contained  a 
poi)ulation  of  about   ]2O,()()0,000. 

VVeakened  by  excesses  and  corrujition 
within,  and  attacked  by  enemies  without, 
the  empire  began  to  fail,  receiving  its  first 
serious  check  on  the  final  sejiaration  of  the 
eastern  empire  in  39.5,  and  coiiiiiig  finally  to 
an  end  by  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Goth 
Odoacer  in  476. 

During  the  decline  of  Eonu-"s  civil  jiower 
the  Cliristiaus  there  had  tiecii  gmwing  in 
power  and  inllueuce.     Although  it  had  i)een 


the  policj^  of  Rome  to  tolerate  the  religions 
of  her  conquered  peoples,  the  Christians  were 
persecuted  almost  from  the  first.  This  was 
due  mainly  to  two  causes  :  their  uncompro- 
mising attitude  toward  all  heathen  rites  and 
religions,  and  their  unceasing  efforts  to  make 
converts.  The  persecutions  were  especially 
severe  under  Nero,  who  attempted  to  throw 
on  the  Christians  the  blame  for  some  of  his 
own  nefarious  deeds.  Persecutions  were  also 
very  severe  under  Domitian,  but  notwith- 
standing constant  imprisonment  and  death 
the  Christians  continued  to  grow  in  numbers 
and  influence  until  the  church  in  Rome  and 
the  bisho])  of  Rome  became  no  inconsiderable 
factor  in  the  general  growth  of  Christianity. 
The  Christian  religion  was  officially  adopted 
and  declared  the  religion  of  the  state  by  the 
emperor  Constantine  early  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. 

Roof.     See  House. 

Room. 

1.  A  chamber  or  other  apartment  in  a 
house  (Acts  i.  13).     See  Housk  and  Palack. 

2.  In  A.  V.  room  is  also  used  in  the  sense 
of  place  or  position  in  society,  a  meaning 
which  is  now  obsolete  (Mat.  xxiii.  6 ;  Luke 
xiv.  7,  8;  XX.  46).  Uppermost  or  chief  room 
is  the  translation  of  the  Greek  prutoklisia, 
first  place  for  reclining;  see  Meals.  The 
scribes  and  Pharisees  were  censured  for  seek- 
ing the  place  of  honor  at  feasts,  desiring  to 
recline  on  the  most  important  couch.  R.  V. 
substitutes  place  or  seat  for  room,  when  used 
in  this  obsolete  sense. 

Rose. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  H'ta^fieleth 
(Song  ii.  1  :  Is.  xxxv.  1),  in  the  English  ver- 
sions and  by  several  Jewish  scholars  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Modern  interpreters  are  di- 
vided in  opinion.  The  most  important  sugges- 
tions are  the  following  :  1.  Some  expositors, 
including  Tristram,  following  the  Targum 
of  Song  ii.  1,  and  sometimes  appealing  to  a 
doubtful  etymology,  understand  the  beauti- 
ful, white  sweet-scented  narcissus  {Na)-cissus 
tazetta),  common  in  spring  in  the  plain  of 
Sharon  and  in  the  hill  country.  2.  A  Syriac 
word,  seemingly  kindred  to  the  Hebrew 
name,  denotes  colchicum  and  the  crocus, 
which  are  strikingly  alike  and  which,  when 
the  rainy  season  sets  in,  carpet  the  fields 
with  bright  flowers.  The  prevalent  opinion, 
perhaps  represented  by  R.  V.  margin,  is  that 
meadow  saflFron  (Colchicum  autumnale)  is 
meant,  with  its  ])ale  lilac  flowers.  3.  An  As- 
syrian word  still  nearer  to  the  Hebrew  form, 
refers  to  marsh  plants,  so  that  the  Hebrew 
has  been  understood  by  some  interpreters  of 
late  to  denoti^  Ci/pcniy  Kt/rlacus,  known  al.so 
as  Ci/ppriis  papi/rus,  which  grows  on  the  Nahr 
el-'Aujah  in  the  plain  of  Sharon  and  in  other 
marshy  districts  of  Palestine.  It  flowers 
toward  the  end  of  autumn. 

The  true  ro.se  is  a  native  of  Media  and 
Persia.      It  was   early   transplanted   to   the 


Eosh 


(i(;i 


Kunners 


counti'it's  on  the  Mecliterraneiui,  iiiid  grows 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine.  The  maid 
who  recognized  tlie  voice  of  Peter  at  the 
gate,  was  named  Ehoda,  a  rose  (Acts  xii.  13) ; 
and  the  true  rose  is  prohably  intended  in 
Wisd.  ii.  8  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  xxxix.  V.i ;  1.  8, 
where  the  Greek  word  is  used.  Tristram, 
however,  judges  from  its  growing  at  Jericlio 
and  by  the  waters,  that  the  oleander  is  meant 
in  these  passages. 

Rosh  [in  Hebrewa  head,  a  chief,  a  prince]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  wlio  went  down  to 
Egypt  with  Jacob  and  his  sons  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21).  He  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  xxvi.  38),  because  probably,  like  Er 
and  Onan  of  Judah,  he  died  without  issue. 

2.  A  northern  people  mentioned  with 
Meshech  and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  3; 
xxxix.  1,  both  R.  V.  text).  Gesenius  be- 
lieves Rosh  to  be  the  Russians,  though  they 
are  nowhere  else  mentioned  by  this  or  any 
similar  name  for  centuries  afterwards.  The 
text  of  the  A.  V.  and  the  margin  of  the  R.  Y. 
render  Rosh  "chief  prince,"  in  which  case 
Rosh  as  a  proper  name  disappears. 

Ru'by. 

1.  The  plural,  rubies,  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  P'ninim,  which  occurs  only  in 
the  plural.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V.  has 
coral,  red  coral  or  pearls.  The  name  may 
signify  branches  and  thus  aptly  describe 
coral;  but  this  signification  is  not  estab- 
lished. It  was  ruddy  in  liue  (Lam.  iv.  7), 
and  was  precious  (Job  xxviii.  18;  Prov.  iii. 
15).  The  color  is  a  good  reason  for  not  re- 
garding it  as  a  pearl.  The  true  or  oriental 
ruby  is,  like  the  sapphire,  a  variety  of 
corundum.  It  is  a  clear,  bright  gem,  rich 
red  in  color.  The  spinel  ruby  is  a  deep  red, 
and  the  balas  ruby  a  rose-red,  variety  of 
spinel. 

2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Odem,  red  gem  (Ex.  xxviii.  17  ;  Ezek.  xxviii. 
13).     In   the   text   it   is   translated   sardius, 

I  which  is  the  better  rendering. 

j     Rue. 

A  plant,  in  Greek  pecjanon,  of  which  the 
Pharisees,  careful  about  minute  points,  were 
scrupulously  accurate  in  paying  tithes  (Luke 
xi.  42).  It  is  Kuta  grnveolens,  a  half  shrubby 
plant,  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  jiinnate 
bluish-green  leaves,  all  dotted  over  with 
odoriferous  glands  and  yellowish  corymbose 
flowers,  mostly  with  eight  stamens.  Its  odor 
is  very  powerful.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region.  It  was  cultivated  in 
Palestine  as  a  medicine,  and  perhaps  as  a 
condiment  for  food.  Had  it  been  wild,  it 
would  not  have  been  a  tithable  plant. 

Ru'fus   [red]. 

A  son  of  tliat  Simon  of  Cyrene  who  was 
compelled  to  bear  the  cross  of  Christ  (Mark 
XV.  21).  He  may  have  been  the  same  as  the 
Eufus  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a  saluta- 
tion (Rom.  xvi.  13). 


Rue. 

Ru-ha'mah  [she  bath  ol)taincd  mercy]. 

One  of  the  syinbi)lical  names  witli  which 
the  children  of  Judah  and  Israel  shall  event- 
ually greet  each  other  (Hos.  ii.  1). 

Rul'er. 

In  a  general  sense,  any  one  who  exercises 
authority.     More  particularl.y  : 

1.  OlHcer  of  a  synagogue  (Luke  viii.  41). 
See  Synagogue. 

2.  Member  of  the  sanhedrin,  wiiethcr 
priest  or  layman  (.John  iii.  1;  vii.  20;  Acts 
iv.  5  with  8  and  1.");  cp.  xxiii.  .^). 

3.  Arclion  or  civil  magistrate  of  a  city 
(Acts  xvi.  19 1.  In  Macedonia  and  regions 
under  Macedonian  influence  such  otiicials 
were  technically  called  politarchs  or  rulers 
of  the  city  (xvii!  6.  8). 

Ru'mah  [height,  higli  jjlace]. 

The  place  to  which  the  father  -^'f  Jehoia- 
kim's  queen  belongrd  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  .">()).  An 
ancient  opinion  is  that  it  was  tlie  same  as 
Arumah  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sliechem 
(cp.  Antiq.  X.  5,  2).  It  may,  however,  have 
been  the  town  in  Galilee  (\Var  iii.  7,  21),  per- 
haps Ruineh  near  Xazareth. 

Run'ners. 

A  class  of  soldiers  wlio  served  as  a  body- 
guard to  the  king  (  1  Sam.  xxii.  17.  in  A.  V. 
footmen,  K.  V.  guard),  wt-re  posted  at  the 
door  of  tiie  royal  palace  at  .lerusalein  ( 1  Kin. 
xiv.  27;  2  Kin.  xi.  19),  had  their  own  guard 
room  (1  Kin.  xiv.  28),  escorted  the  king  to 
the  temple  i2S),  and  executed  the  kins's 
commands  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17:  2  Kin.  x.  25). 
In  each  instance,  see  Fi.  V.  margin.  Perhaps 
they  ran  before  the  royal  chariot  (see  Fore- 

RUXXER). 


Rush 


662 


Sabbath 


Rush. 

The  rendering  of  the  Helirew  Gome'  in  Job 
viii.  11  and  Is.  xxxv.  7.     Sec  1'apyrus. 

Rust. 

A  corrosive  or  disfiguring  accretion,  in 
Greek  io-s,  which  denotes  the  rust  of  iron, 
the  verdigris  of  brass,  the  tarnisli  on  gold 
and  silver  (Jas.  v.  3).  The  Greek  word  brosis, 
eating,  corrosion,  is  used  in  Mat.  vi.  19,  20. 

Ruth  [possibly,  sightly]. 
A  Moabitess  married  first  to  Mahlon  of 
Bethlehem,  who  was  sojourning  in  Moab  with 
his  parents  and  lirother  because  of  a  famine 
inJudah.  The  three  men  died.  Ruth  left  her 
native  land  and  accompanied  her  mother-in- 
law  Naomi  to  Bethlehem.  While  gleaning 
in  the  field  of  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Naomi's 
deceased  husband,  she  found  favor  in  his 
eyes.  Custom  required  a  kiu.sman  of  Mahlou 
to  marry  Euth  ;  and  Boaz  took  her  to  wife, 
after  one  nearer  of  kin  than  he  had  refused. 
By  this  marriage  Euth  became  an  ancestress 
of  David.  The  transaction  lictwecn  IJnazand 
Euth  was  not  a  levirate  marriage  (Dtut.  xxv. 
7-10  ;  cp.  Euth  i.  11-13),  for  Boaz  was  not  a 
brother  of  Euth's  deceased  husband.  Custom 
required  that  when  the  widow  of  a  childless 
man  desired  to  sell  his  estate  if  there  was  no 
brother,  then  the  nearest  of  kin  and  heir  to 
the  deceased  should  buy  or  redeem  it  of  the 
widow  (iv.  3, 4,  9).  The  property  was  thereby 
retained  in  the  family.  Custom  was  also 
urgent  that  the  kinsman  voluntarily  assume 
levirate  duties  or  take  the  woman  to  wife, 
if  he  would  not  thereby  endanger  his  own 
inheritance  (iii.  9;  iv.  5,  6).  It  was  consid- 
ered magnanimous  to  do  so,  and  a  mark  of 
loyalty  to  the  family.  A  son  born  of  such 
union  was  legally  the  son  of  the  deceased 
(iv.  5,  10,  14,  17) ;  and  doubtless  ultimately 
received  the  firstborn's  right  in  the  estate. 
In  the  Hebrew  collection  the  Book  of  Ruth 
is  placed  among  the  rolls  which  were  pub- 
licly read  on  specified  anniversaries;  be- 
/cause,  its  scenery  being  the  harvest  field, /it 
(was  read  at  Pentecost,  the  harvest  festiva^. 
vln  the  Septuagint  and  in  Josephus'  enumera- 
tion of  the  canonical  books  it  .stands  im- 
mediately after  Judges,  as  in  the  English 
"version.  The  events  recorded  occurred  i^i 
the  days -of  the  .judges  (i.  1),  60  years  o^ 
more  before  David's  birth  (iv.  21,  22).  The 
marriage  of  a  pious  Israelite  with  a  Moabitess 
is  recounted,  and  the  issue  of  the  marriage  is 
an  ancestor  of  David.  After  the  exile  such 
a  marriage  would  liave  been  regarded  as 
discreditable,  and  would  not  have  been  in- 
vented. The  narrative  is,  accordingly,  his- 
torical. Its  historical  character  receives 
(•onlirmation  from  the  aiijiroiiriateness  of 
the  event  to  the  jieriod,  for  about  that  time 
friendly  intercourse  prevailed  between  Israel 
and  Moab  (1  Sam.  xxii.  3,  4).  The  event  is 
related  without  disapprobation  and  without 
explanation  or  ai)ology;  an  indication  that 
it  was  committed  to  writing  before  the  exile. 


The  language  is  also  as  pure  as  admittedly 
early  writings,  such  as  Judges  v.  The  book 
did  not  receive  its  final  literary  form  until 
a  considerable  time  after  the  event ;  for  it 
explains  the  drawing  off  of  the  shoe  in  mat- 
ters of  attestation  as  a  custom  of  former 
times  (iv.  7),  and  it  brings  down  the  geneal- 
ogy to  David. 
Rye.     See  Spelt. 


S. 


Sab'a-oth  [in  Hebrew,  hosts,  armies]. 

The  Lord  of  Sabaoth  is  the  same  as  Lord 
of  hosts,  the  second  part  of  the  title  being 
left  untranslated  (Eom.  ix.  29  with  Is.  i.  9; 
Jas.  V.  4).     See  Lord. 

Sa'bat.     See  Shebat. 

Sab'batli  [rest]. 

The  divinely  instituted  day  of  rest,  or- 
dained for  all  men.  God  having  completed 
the  work  of  creation  in  six  days  ceased  from 
creative  work  on  the  seventh  day.  And  God 
blessed  the  seventh  day,  and  halloM-ed  it ; 
because  that  in  it  he  rested  from  all  his  work 
which  he  had  made  in  a  creative  manner 
(Gen.  ii.  1-3) ;  see  Creation.  The  next  ref- 
erence to  a  division  of  time  into  periods  of 
.seven  days  occurs  in  the  account  of  the 
flood,  when  Noah  was  forewarned  of  the  im- 
minence of  the  storm  a  week  before  it  broke 
in  its  fury,  and  again  when  he  sent  forth  the 
birds  at  intervals  of  seven  days  to  discover 
through  them  the  stage  of  water  (Gen.  vii. 
4  ;  viii.  10,  12).  But  it  is  not  only  in  this 
express  mention  of  the  week,  but  also  in  the 
entire  chronology  of  the  flood,  when  inter- 
preted according  to  its  own  principles,  that 
the  hebdomadal  division  of  time  is  found  to 
liave  existed  at  that  early  date.  The  events 
are  measured  by  intervals  of  the  week  both 
in  the  Hebrew  narrative  and  in  the  Assyrian 
account;  see  Flood.  And  what  is  more, 
there  is  repeated  evidence  that  the  seventh 
day  was  regarded  as  a  season  of  divine  be- 
nevolence toward  man.  According  to  both  ac- 
counts, and  reckoning  from  the  day  when  the 
flood  began,  the  divine  power  which  caused 
the  storm  was  restrained  at  the  close  of  a  sixth 
day,  and  the  first  day  that  dawned  fair  and 
beautiful  was  a  seventh  day  ;  and  the  day 
when  the  inmates  of  the  ark  were  permitted 
to  disembark,  and  when  they  otlered  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving,  was  likewise  a  seventh 
day.  A  glance  at  the  chronology  will  show 
that  not  improbably  Noah  disi)atched  the 
birds  in  connection  with  the  conventional 
seventh  day  because  it  was  a  day  of  divine 
favor. 

From  the  days  of  Noah  until  the  exodus 
there  is  no  express  mention  in  the  Hebrew 
records  of  a  sanctification  of  the  seventh  day 
by  rest  from  la))or  and  by  religious  worship. 
There    is   no   reason    why  there   should  be. 


Sabbath 


663 


Sabbath 


There  was  no  event  specially  to  emphasize 
the  day.  And  probably  in  tliat  age  the  Sab- 
bath was  somewhat  less  sharply  marked  oli' 
from  the  other  days  of  the  week,  even 
among  the  people  of  God,  than  it  was  later ; 
for  the  nomad  shepherds  had  certain  labors 
which  must  be  performed,  and  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt  were  not  their  own  masters  and 
could  not  rest  on  the  seventh  day  :  but  when 
the  nation  was  organized  at  Sinai  a  different 
mode  of  life  was  adopted,  the  people  were 
able  to  frame  their  own  laws,  they  formed 
an  independent  community,  they  led  camp 
life  in  the  wilderness  and  exchanged  it  for  tlie 
settled  life  of  agriculturists  and  tradei's,  and 
as  a  natural  result  rest  on  the  Sabbath  made 
a  greater  outward  difference  than  it  had  done 
before.  Still,  in  both  the  Hebrew  and  Baby- 
hmian  literature  relating  to  the  period  before 
the  exodus  there  are  incidental  references  to 
a  period  of  seven  days  (Gen.  xxix.  27,  28). 
These  are  doubtless  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  use  the  term  week,  reck- 
oning seven  days  from  any  date  we  please. 
At  any  rate  time  was  frequently  measured 
by  periods  of  seven  days.  Several  causes 
doubtless  contributed  to  make  this  custom 
general,  among  others  the  phasing  of  the 
moon.  But  over  and  beyond  the  appropri- 
ateness of  a  lunar  subdivision  of  the  lunar 
month,  there  was  the  conception,  traceable  in 
the  narrative  of  the  flood,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  one  of  divine  rest  and  favor  toward 
men. 

It  is  disputed  whether  the  name  .Sabbath 
was  used  for  the  recurring  seventh  day  in 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  A  day  of  propitiat- 
ing the  gods  was  called  by  a  name  which 
may  be  pronounced  shabattu,  Sabbath.  But 
other  pronunciations  are  equally  possible, 
and  yield  a  sense  which  satisfies  the  given 
description  of  the  day.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  it  was  a  particular  day  of  the  week  or  a 
day  when  labor  was  suspended.  Tablets, 
copied  in  the  reign  of  Ashurbanipal,  about 
650  B.  c,  show  that  the  seventh,  fourteenth, 
nineteenth,  twenty-first,  and  twenty-eighth 
days  of  each  month  were  regarded  as  inaus- 
picious for  certain  specified  acts.  These 
unlucky  days,  it  will  be  observed,  are  not 
i'onnected  with  the  phasing  of  the  moon  ; 
for  it  does  not  quarter  on  the  nineteenth 
day,  and  in  months  of  thirty  days,  as  were 
those  in  question,  it  would  only  occasionally 
quarter  on  the  seventh  day.  The  unluckiness 
of  the  day  was  connected  with  the  number 
seven.  Not  only  was  the  recurring  seventh 
day  ill-fated,  but  also  the  nineteenth,  that  is 
the  forty-ninth  day,  the  seventh  seventh  day 
reckoned  from  the  first  day  of  the  preceding 
month.  These  recurring  seventh  days  were 
not  days  of  national  rest  when  the  tablets 
were  in  force ;  a  few  specified  acts  only  were 
dangerous  on  those  days.  Business  and  toil 
proceeded  as  usual.  The  most  that  can  at 
present  be  claimed  is  that  if  these  tablets 
bear  witness  to  the  Sabbath  at  all,  they  tes- 


tify to  the  degradation  of  the  nobler  concep- 
tion of  an  earlier  age.  Tliey  do  not  per- 
petuate the  thought  wliicji  is  di.scoverablt'  in 
even  the  A.ssyrian  narrative  of  the  flood. 
Theyare  not  up  to  the  standard  of  the  fourth 
commandment  as  ])rouiiilgate<l  in  Israel  cen- 
turies before  at  Sinai,  and  laniiliar  in  all  its 
loftiness  to  the  Israelites  of  the  time  of  Jere- 
miah, who  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Ashurbanipal. 

As  in  these  tablets,  .so  among  the  Hebrews, 
it  was  not  the  moon  which  determined  the 
Sabbath  ;  for  among  the  Hebrews  it  was  not 
the  seventh  day  only  which  was  sacred,  l)ut 
the  day  which  l)egau  and  which  consecrated 
the  seventh  month,  and  the  entire  seventh 
yeai",  and  the  completion  of  the  seventh 
seventh  year.  And  these  seasons  were  all 
associated  with  the  idea  of  rest,  of  worsiiip, 
of  liberty,  of  good  will  to  man,  and  of  divine 
favor. 

The  first  occurrence  of  the  name  Sabbath 
in  the  Hebrew  records  is  in  Ex.  xvi.  23. 
The  Israelites  had  not  reached  mount  Sinai, 
nor  had  the  ten  commandments  been  sjioken 
from  its  summit,  but  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sin  when  manna  began  to  be  given  a  doul)le 
amount  fell  on  the  sixth  day  ;  and  Moses 
said:  "This  is  that  which  tiie  Lord  liatli 
spoken,  To-morrow  is  a  .solemn  rest,  a  holy 
sabbath  unto  the  Lord  :  bake  that  which  ye 
will  bake, . . .  and  all  that  remaintth  over  lay 
up  for  you  to  be  kept  until  the  morning."  None 
fell  on  the  morrow,  and  Moses  .said  in  regard 
to  what  had  been  kejit  over:  "Eat  that 
to-day  ;  for  to-day  is  a  saV)bath  unto  the 
Lord :  to-day  ye  shall  not  find  it  in  the  field. 
Six  days  ye  shall  gather  it;  but  on  the  sev- 
enth day  is  the  sabbath,  in  it  there  shall  be 
none"  (2.3-26;  cp.  5). 

Shortly  afterwards  the  commandment  re- 
quiring the  Sabbath  to  be  kept  was  promul- 
gated with  nine  other  laws  by  Jehovah  at 
Sinai,  and  afterwards  written  by  the  finger 
of  God  on  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxxi.  IH; 
Dent.  ix.  10).  Like  its  conijianion  laws,  it 
was  of  perpetual  obligation.  It  commences, 
"  Remember  the  sabbath  day  to  keep  it 
holy,"  the  word  remember  being  apjiropri- 
ately  used,  since  the  jieople  did  not  now  for 
the  first  time  learn  that  the  Sabl)ath  existed. 
In  repeating  the  laws  forty  years  later  at 
Shittim,  Moses  recalls  the  fact  that  the  Lord 
their  God  had  commanded  them  to  observe  tlie 
day;  and  tlien  instead  of  stating  the  reason  for 
tlie  (prdin;it  inn  ot'the  .'^abliatb,  he  a.-^signs. Jeho- 
vah's deliverance  of  his  ])eoi)le  from  bondage 
or  labor  in  Egypt  as  tlie  reason  why  Israel 
specially  is  under  obligation  to  keep  the  day 
of  rest  instituted  l)y  (iod  (l)eut.  v.  In).  The 
Sabbath  was  to  be  kept  by  a  Iioly  convoca- 
tion for  the  worship  of  the  Lord  (Lev.  xxiii. 
3;  cp.  Ezek.  xlvi.  3).  and  should  be  a  sign 
showing  that  (4od  was  their  sanctifier  (Ex. 
xxxi.  13).  The  doctrine  clearly  was  that 
the  day  was  ordained  by  (iod;  that  it  was 
established  as  a  day  of  physical   rest  and  re- 


Sabbath 


664 


Sabbath 


freshment  for  man ;  that  the  obligation  to 
keep  it  ai-ises  from  God's  own  example,  his 
connecting  a  blessing  with  it,  and  his  ex- 
})litit  command,  and  that  his  redemption  of 
his  people  lays  them  under  special  obligation 
to  set  the  day  apart ;  that  it  is  to  be  observed 
by  God's  people  as  a  Sabbath  unto  him,  and 
is  to  include  a  holy  assemblage  for  worship. 
It  was  a  reminder  of  God's  complacency  in 
the  contemplation  of  his  finished  work,  and 
of  Jehovah's  redemption  of  his  people  from 
Egyptian  service.  In  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  worship  the  preeminence  of  the  Sab- 
bath over  the  other  days  of  the  week  was 
shown  by  the  otfering  upon  it  of  two  lambs, 
while  one  was  sacrificed  on  an  ordinary 
week  day  (Num.  xxviii.  9,  19).  The  twelve 
cakes  of  showbread  were  also  to  be  presented 
on  that  day  (Lev.  xxiv.  5-8  ;  1  Chron.  ix. 
32).  In  enforcing  the  law,  no  fire  was  al- 
lowed to  be  lit  by  an  Israelite  in  his  habita- 
tion on  the  Sabbath  day  ;  anyone  doing  work 
on  it  was  to  be  put  to  death  ;  and  one  who 
gathered  sticks  on  the  Sabbath  in  the  wilder- 
ness was  in  fact  stoned  to  death  (Ex.  xxxv.  3; 
Num.  XV.  32-36)  ;  .see  Punishment.  Isaiah 
(Ivi.  2-6  ;  Iviii.  13)  and  Jeremiah  (xvii.  21- 
27)  strongly  counseled  the  keeping  of  the 
day.  A  psalm  or  song  was  composed  for 
the  Sabbath,  in  which  delight  is  expressed 
in  the  worship  of  Jehovah  and  thought  is 
directed  to  God's  works  of  creation  (Ps. 
xcii).  Ezekiel  complains  that  the  Sabbaths 
had  to  a  large  extent  been  profaned  or  pol- 
luted (Ezek.  XX.  12,  24;  xxii.  8,  26;  xxiii. 
38).  In  Nehemiah's  time,  traders,  espe- 
cially those  of  Tyre,  continually  brought 
merchandise  to  Jerusalem  for  sale  on  the 
sacred  day,  till  Neheniiah  jieremptorily  for- 
bade the  practice  to  be  continued,  and  took 
strong  measures  against  those  who  attempted 
to  disregard  his  directions  (Neh.  x.  31 ; 
xiii.  15-22).  At  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  independence  under  the  Maccabee 
family,  the  Jews  were  of  oi)inion  that  they 
had  no  right  to  defend  themselves  on  the 
Sabbath  if  they  were  attacked  by  an  enemy. 
The  campaign  therefore  began  with  the 
slaughter  of  1000  unresisting  Jews,  consist- 
ing of  patriots  and  their  families.  The  sur- 
vivors resolved  in  future  to  defend  them- 
selves if  they  were  directly  attacked  on  the 
sacred  day,  i)ut  not  to  engage  in  oflensive 
oi)crations  (1  Mac.  ii.  31-41).  Even  then 
they  were  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  gen- 
tiles, who  labored  under  no  such  restriction. 
The  latter  pushed  on  siege  and  other  opera- 
tions on  the  Sal)bath  ujinidlcstcd,  ])r()vidcd 
they  abstained  fniiii  directly  attacking  the 
Jews.  Ponipey  laiscd  his  banks  and  mounted 
his  l>att(M-iiig-raiiis  against  .Jerusalem  on  the 
Sabbath  without  any  interference  from  the 
inhabitants,  but  delayeil  the  eflfbrt  to  breach 
the  walls  till  the  sacred  day  was  over  (Auti((. 
xiv.  4,  2  and  3).  In  the  time  of  our  Loixl 
th<^  Pharisees  ap])lied  the  law  to  the  most 
trivial    acts,    and    forbade   many    works   of 


necessity  and  mercy.  They  denounced  Jesus 
because  he  healed  .sick  people  on  the  Sabbath, 
though  if  ox,  or  ass,  or  sheep  fell  into  a 
pit  on  that  day,  they  dicl  not  consider  it  at 
all  unlawful  to  take  him  out  without  delay. 
They  also  led  forth  the  animals  to  be  watered 
just  as  on  ordinary  week  days  (Mat.  xii.  9- 
13  ;  Luke  xiii.  10-17).  It  was  not  merely  to 
healing  on  the  Sabbath  that  they  objected. 
When  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  passing  on  the 
Sabbath  through  the  grain  fields,  plucked 
some  of  the  ears,  and,  rubbing  them  in  their 
hands,  ate  them,  being  hungry,  the  I'harisees 
denounced  this  as  though  it  were  in  essence 
the  same  as  reaping,  threshing,  and  grinding. 
Our  Lord  made  a  notable  reply  :  "  The  sab- 
bath was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the 
sabbath  :  so  that  the  Son  of  man  is  Lord 
even  of  the  sabbath"  (Mark  ii.  23-28).  The 
Sabbath  was  instituted  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind,  its  obligation  lasts  as  long  as  man 
has  the  same  needs  as  at  creation,  the  Son 
of  man  is  not  the  slave  of  the  Sabbath,  but 
its  lord. 

The  day  for  synagogue  worship  was  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week.  Saturday  (Mat. 
xii.  9,  10  ;  Acts  xiii.  14).  The  apostolic  Chris- 
tian church  from  the  beginning  held  assem- 
blages for  worship  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  which  was  the  day  on  which  Christ 
rose  from  the  dead  for  our  justification  (Acts 
ii.  1,  probably;  xx.  7).  On  that  day  the 
apostle  Paul  directed  the  Chri.stians  of 
Galatia  and  Corinth  to  make  their  weekly 
contribution  to  the  charities  of  the  church 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2).  It  was  designated  the 
Lord's  day  (Eev.  J.  10) ;  see  Lord's  Day. 
This  day,  like  the  former  appointment  of  the 
seventh  day,  sets  apart  one  whole  day  in 
seven  to  be  a  Sabbath  unto  the  Lord.  It  is 
equally  a  reminder  of  the  Lord's  redemption 
of  his  people.  It  is  accompanied  by  the  same 
evidence  of  divine  favor  in  the  form  of 
]ihysical  and  sjiiritual  blessings. 

The  Sabbath  of  the  land  was  a  year  in 
which  the  land  of  Canaan  had  a  solemn  rest. 
It  came  round  once  every  seven  years.  In 
it  the  ground  was  not  sown  or  reajied,  nor 
the  vineyard  pruned,  nor  its  fruits  gathered 
in.  The  spontaneous  growth  of  field  and 
orchard  was  free  to  all.  In  the  Sabbatic  year 
also  the  creditor  released  the  Hebrew  debtor 
from  his  obligation  and  freed  the  Hebrew 
slave  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11  ;  I..ev.  xxv.  3-7;  Dent. 
XV.  1-18;  Neh.  x.  31).  On  the  completion 
of  .seven  such  Sabbatic  years,  that  is,  at  the 
end  of  forty-nine  years,  the  trumpet  was 
blown  to  i)roclaini  liberty  throughout  the 
laud,  and  tlii'  year  of  jubile  was  ushered  in 
(Lev.  xxv.  8-10);  see  Jubile.  Eeliable 
historical  notices  of  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbatical  year  are  the  covenant  of  Nehe- 
miah's time  (Neh.  x.  31),  the  1.50th  year  of 
the  Seleucidan  era  or  164-163  K.  o.  (1  Mac. 
vi.  49,  53  ;  cp.  Antiq.  xii.  9,  5),  the  178th  Se- 
leucidan year  or  136-135  B.  C.  (Antiq.  xiii.  8, 
1  ;  War  i.  2,  4),  the  decree  issued  by  Caesar 


Sabbath 


tiG.3 


Sackcloth 


exempting  the  Jews  from  tribute  during  the 
Sabbatic  year  (Autiq.  siv.  10,  6  ;  cp.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  4),  the  year  38-37  b.  c.  (Antiq.  xiv. 
1(>,  2  ;  XV.  1,  2),  and  the  year  before  the  fall 
of    Jerusalem,   A.   D.  68-69    (Talmud).      See 
also   Antiq.    xi.  8,   5.     If  the   Israelites   dis- 
obeyed God's  laws,  they. were  to  be  carried 
into  captivity,  the  land  lying  desolate,  hav- 
ing rest  and  being  left  to  enjoy  its  Sabbaths, 
or  the  rest  which  the  Israelites  had  not  al- 
lowed it  on  their  weekly  and  septennial  Sab- 
baths (Lev.  xxvi.  34-43).     Jeremiah  pro])he- 
sied    that    the    people    should   be   punished 
for    their    idolatry     by    the    desolation    of 
their  land  and  their  bondage  to  the  Baby- 
lonians for  seventy   years  (Jer.  xxv.  7-11). 
The  chronicler  also  connects  the   captivity 
with  the  disobedience  of  the  people  and  the 
pollution  of   the  temple ;  and  he  adds  that 
they  were  servants  unto  the  Babylonians  for 
seventy  years,  as  Jeremiah  had  foretold  they 
should  be,  until  the  land  had  enjoyed  her 
Sabbaths  ;  for  as  long  as  she  lay  desolate  she 
kept  Sabbath,  to  fulfill  three  score  and  ten 
years    (2    Chron.     xxxvi.    14,     IG,    20,    21). 
It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  words  that 
the  people  had  ignored  the  Sabbatic  year  ex- 
actly seventy  times,  or  that  the   neglected 
Sabbatic  years  were  continuous  ;  and  it  is  not 
stated  that  the  Sabbatic  year  was  neglected. 
Doubtless  it  had  been  neglected  sometimes, 
for    an    idolatrous    and    disobedient   people 
would   scarcely   obey    an    injunction    when 
obedience  would  apparently  involve  pecuni- 
ary loss. 

Evidently  any  period  of  time  which  was 
kept  as  a  Sabbath  could  be  called  a  Sabbath. 
Not  only  were  the  seventh  day  and  the  sev- 
enth year  Sabbaths,  but  also  the  day  of  atone- 
ment on  the  tenth  dav  of  the  seventh  month 
(Lev.  xxiii.  .32). 

A  Sabbath-day's  journey  was  a  journey  of 
limited  extent  proper,  in  the  estimation  of 
the  scribes,  on  a  Sabbath  day.  The  expres- 
sion occurs  in  Acts  i.  12,  where  this  is  stated 
to  be  the  distance  between  mount  Olivet  and 
Jerusalem,  or  from  Jerusalem  to  a  place  on 
the  mountain  from  which  Bethany  was  visible 
(Luke  xxiv.  50).  If  the  measurement  be  made 
from  the  eastern  gate  of  .Jerusalem  (the  Jew- 
ish method  of  reckoning)  to  the  site  of  the 
church  of  the  Ascension,  crowning  the 
mount  of  Olives,  the  distance,  as  the  crow 
flies,  will  be  about  2250  English  feet;  but  in 
actual  travel  it  will  be  considera))ly  more. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  mount  was  dis- 
tant 6  or  7  stades  from  the  city  (Antiq.  xx.  8, 
6 ;  War  v.  2,  3).  The  regulation  of  the  Sali- 
bath-day's  journey  had  its  origin  in  the  in- 
junction not  to  leave  the  camp  on  the  Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  29).  It  was  reckoned  at  2000 
cubits,  partly  on  the  erroneous  interpretation 
of  Num.  XXXV.  5,  according  to  wliich  the 
district  pertaining  to  a  Levitical  city  ex- 
tended 2000  cubits  from  the  wall  on  every 
side,  and  partly  on  the  belief,  derived  from 
Josh.  iii.  4,  that  the  camp  of  the   Israelites 


was  2000  cubits  from  the  tabernacle,  to  which 
of  course  they  might  go  on  the  Saitbatli.  A 
man  migiit  travel  on  the  Sabbath  within  the 
city  where  he  resided  as  far  as  its  limits  al- 
lowed, be  the  city  never  so  large. 

Sa-be'ans. 

The  jieojjle  of  Sheba  (Is.  xlv.  14),  a  nation 
far  oti"  (Joel  iii.  8)  ;  also  the  people  of  Seba 
(Is.  xlv.  14  ;  ci>.  Ezek.  xxiii.  42). 

Sab'tah  and  Sabta. 

A  Cushite  jieople  ((icn.  x.  7  ;  1  fhron.  i.  9), 
probably  of  southern  Arabia.  Tlie  imjiortant 
city  of  Sabbatha  or  Sal)ota  in  tin;  country  of 
the  Chatramotites  (lladranjaut)  is  strongly 
advocated,  but  the  identification  is  doubtful. 
Gesenius  suggests  Sabat,  Saba,  or  Sabai,  near 
the  modern  Arkiko,  au  Abyssinian  town  on  a 
bay  of  the  Ked  Sea. 

Sab'te-ca,  in  A.  V.  Sabtecha  and  Sabte- 
cbah. 

A  Cushite  peojile  (Gen.  x.  7 ;  1  Chron.  i.  9), 
probably  of  southern  Arabia.  ]\Iore  precise 
geographical  details  cannot  be  given. 

Sa'car  [merchandise]. 

1.  A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  35).  In  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  33  Sharar. 

2.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 
Sack'but. 

A  mediaeval  wind  instrument,  having  a 
long  bent  tube  of  brass  with  a  movable  slide 
for  changing  the  pitch  of  the  tone,  as  in  the 
trombone.  The  instrument  referred  to  by 
this  name  in  the  Euglish  version  of  Dan.  iii. 
5,  belonged  to  an  entirely  different  class.  It 
was  a  stringed  instrument.  It  is  called  in 
Aramaic  sahJ/ka',  which,  if  Semitic,  |)robably 
describes  the  lacing  of  the  strings.  The  name 
is  evidently  identical  with  the  (irei'k  mim- 
buke,  which  was  an  instrument  of  music 
somewhat  like  the  harp  or  lyre,  but  with 
only  four  strings.  Strabo  affirms  that  the 
Greek  word  is  of  barbarian,  i.  e.  orientil.  ori- 
gin ;  and  Athenseus  states  that  the  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  the  Syrians. 

Sack'cloth. 

A  coarse  cloth,  of  a  dark  color,  usually  ■ 
made  of  goat's  iiair  (Rev.  vi.  12).  It  was 
called  in  Hebrew  snk,  from  wl.u-h  the  Eng- 
lish Word  is  derived.  It  was  worn  customarily 
by  mourners  (2  Sam.  iii.  31  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  1,  2), 
often,  if  not  habitually,  by  prophets  (Ls. 
XX.  2 ;  Rev.  xi.  3).  and  by  captives  (1 
Kin.  XX.  31  ;  cp.  Is.  iii.  24).  The  garment 
of  .sackcloth  jirobably  resembled  a  .s;ick.  with 
openings  made  for  the  neck  and  arms,  and 
slit  down  the  front.  It  was  cast  about  the 
loins  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34;  1  Kin.  xx.  31),  and 
girded  on  (2  Sam.  iii.  31  ;  Ezek.  vii.  18;  Joel 
i.  8)  ;  and  was  usually  Avorn  over  other  rai- 
ment (Jon.  iii.  fi;  cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  10),  but 
sometimes  next  to  the  skin  (1  Kin.  xxi.  27; 
2  Kin.  vi.    30:  Job  xvi.  15;  Is.  xxxii.  11). 

The  cloth  was  .tIso  used  for  making  sacks, 
which  were  known  by  tlie  same  name  as  the 
material  (Cien.  xlii.  25;  Josh.  ix.  4). 


Sacrifice 


666 


Saffron 


Sac'ri-fice.    See  Offkkings. 

Sad'du-cees. 

A  Jewish  party,  the  opponents  of  the. 
Pharisees  (Autiq.  xiii.  10,  6).  They  were 
comparatively  few  in  numher,  but  they  were 
educated  men,  and  mostly  wealthy  and  of 
good  position  (ibid.  ;  xviii.  1,  4).  The 
name,  judged  by  the  orthography,  is  derived 
from  Zadok,  which  was  often  written  Sad- 
douk  in  Greek.  The  rabbins  say  that  the 
party  took  its  name  from  its  founder  Zadok, 
who  lived  about  300  B.  c. ;  but  since  it 
appears  that  the  members  and  adhei"ents  of 
the  highest  priestly  aristocracy  constituted 
the  party,  it  is  now  generally  believed  that 
the  name  refers  to  the  high  priest  Zadok, 
who  officiated  in  David's  reign,  and  in  whose 
family  the  high-priesthood  remained  until 
the  political  confusion  of  the  Maccabsean 
times,  his  descendants  and  partisans  being 
Zadokites  or  Sadducees. 

In  opposition  to  the  Pharisees,  who  laid 
great  stress  on  the  tradition  of  the  elders, 
the  Sadducees  limited  their  creed  to  the  doc- 
trines which  thev  found  in  the  sacred  text 
itself.  They  held  that  the  word  of  the 
written  law  was  alone  binding  (Antiq.  xiii. 
10,  6).  They  maintained  the  right  of  private 
interpretation  (xviii.  1,  4).  They  held  to 
the  letter  of  Scripture,  even  when  it  led  to 
severity  in  the  administration  of  justice  (xx.  9, 
1).  In  distinction  from  the  Pharisees,  they 
denied  :  1.  The  resurrection  and  future  retri- 
bution in  Sheol,  asserting  that  the  soul  dies 
with  the  bodv  (Mat.  xxii.  23-33;  Acts  xxiii. 
8;  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  4  ;  War  ii.  8,  14).  2.  The 
•existence  of  angels  and  spirits  (Acts  xxiii. 
■8).  3.  Fatalism  :  contending  for  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  teaching  that  all  our  actions  are 
in  our  own  power,  so  that  we  are  ourselves 
the  causes  of  what  is  good  and  receive  what 
is  evil  from  our  own  folly,  and  affirming  that 
God  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing  good  or 
not  doing  what  is  evil  (Antiq.  xiii.  5,  9;  War 
ii.  8,  14).  In  denying  immortality  and  the 
resurrection,  they  were  relying  on  the  ab- 
sence of  an  ex])licit  statement  of  these  doc- 
trines in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  they  failed  to 
hold  the  faith  of  the  patriarchs  regarding 
Sheol,  which,  though  it  was  undeveloped,  yet 
contained  the  germs  of  the  later  biblical  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  a 
future  retribution.  The  patriarchs  unques- 
tionably believed  in  the  continued  existence 
of  the  soul  after  death.  In  affirming  that 
there  is  neither  angel  nor  spirit,  the  Saddu- 
cees were  setting  themselves  against  the 
elaborate  angelology  of  the  .Judaism  of  their 
time;  but  they  went  to  the  other  extreme, 
and  again  fell  short  of  the  teaching  of  the 
law  (Ex.  iii.  2:  xiv.  19).  They  probably  at 
first  emphasized  the  truth  that  God  dii-ects 
affairs  with  respect  to  man's  conduct,  pun- 
ishing or  rewarding  in  this  life  according  as 
man's  deeds  are  good  or  evil.  If  they  actu- 
ally taught,  as  Josephus    affirms  they  did, 


that  God  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing 
good  or  refraining  from  evil,  they  rejected 
the  clear  teaching  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 
they  professed  to  believe  (Gen.  iii.  17  ;  iv.7  ; 
vi.  5-7).  It  is  probable  that  they  began  by 
denying  what  is  not  expressly  taught  in  the 
letter  of  Scripture ;  but  as  they  yielded  more 
fully  to  Greek  influence,  they  adopted  the 
principles  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
and  refused  to  accept  any  doctrine  which 
they  could  not  prove  by  pure  reason. 

As  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Saddu- 
cees, Schiirer  suggests  that  the  priestly  house 
of  Zadok,  which  was  at  the  head  of  afl'airs 
in  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  B.  C.  under 
the  Persian  and  Grecian  kings,  began,  un- 
consciously perhaps,  to  place  political  above 
religious  considerations.  In  the  time  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  the  family  of  the  high  priest 
was  worldly  and  inclined  to  resist  the  strict 
separation  of  Jew  from  gentile.  See  Elia- 
SHiB  5.  In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  a  large  number  of  priests  were  friendly 
to  Greek  culture  (2  Mac.  iv.  14-16),  and  the 
high  priests  Jason,  Menelaus,  and  Alcimns 
were  pronounced  Hellenizers.  The  people 
took  a  determined  stand  under  the  Macca- 
bees for  purity  of  Israel's  religion  ;  and  when 
this  jiarty  triumphed  and  the  Maccabees  se- 
cured the  high-priesthood,  the  Zadokites 
were  forced  into  retirement  and  driven  to 
politics,  and  they  continued  to  be  ready  to 
neglect  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the 
elders  and  favor  Greek  culture  and  influ- 
ence. John  Hyrcauus,  Aristobulus,  and 
Alexander  Jannseus  (135-78  b.  c.)  favored 
the  Sadducees,  and  the  conduct  of  political 
afl'airs  was  largely  in  their  hands  under  the 
Eomans  and  the  Hei'ods,  for  the  high  priests 
of  this  period  were  Sadducees  (Acts  v.  17 ; 
Antiq.  xx.  9,  1).  The  Sadducees,  as  well  as 
the  Pharisees,  who  visited  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  wilderness,  were  addressed  by  him  as 
a  generation  of  vii)ers  (Mat.  iii.  7).  They 
joined  with  the  Pharisees  in  demanding 
from  our  Lord  a  sign  from  heaven  (Mat.  xvi. 
1-4),  and  Jesus  warned  his  disciples  against 
both  (6-12).  The  Sadducees  attempted  to 
embarrass  him  by  putting  to  him  an  ensnar- 
ing question  regarding  the  resurrection,  but 
he  refuted  their  arguments,  and  reduced 
them  to  silence  (xxii.  23-33).  They  joined 
with  the  priests  and  the  captain  of  the 
temple  in  persecuting  Peter  and  John  (Acts 
iv.  1-22).  Both  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
were  in  the  sanhedrin  which  tried  Paul, 
and  the  apostle,  taking  note  of  the  fact, 
cleverly  set  them  at  variance  with  each  other 
(xxiii.  6-10). 

Sa'doc  [Hebrew  Sndol-,  just,  righteous]. 
An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

Saffron. 

A  fragrant  i)lant  (Song  iv.  14),  called  in 
IIe])rew  kavkom,  in  Arabic  karkam.  It  is  the 
safl'rou  crocus  (Crocus  sativus),  a  native,  appa- 


Sala 


667 


Salt 


rently,  of  northern  Italy  and  of  western 
Asia.  From  a  remote  period  of  antiquity  it 
has  been  largely  cultivated  in  southern  Eu- 
rope and  Asia.  The  flowers  are  light  violet 
in  color,  veined  with  red.  The  dried  stigmas, 
pulverized  or  pressed,  yield  a  yellow  dye. 
Clothing  and  rooms  were  sprinkled  with 
water  scented  with  safi'ron,  olive  oil  i)erfumed 
with  it  was  used  as  an  ointment,  food  was 
spiced  with  it,  and  it  was  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

Sa'la  and  Salah.     See  Shelah. 

Sal'a-mis. 

A  city  on  the  east  or  southeast  coast  of 
Cyprus,  traditionally  reported  to  have  been 
built  by  Teucer,  from  the  island  of  Salamis, 
oft'  the  coast  of  Greece.  It  contained  syna- 
gogues of  the  Jews,  in  which  Paul  on  his 
first  missionary  journey  preached  (Acts  xiii. 
4,  5).  The  place  Was  subsequently  named 
■Constantia,  and  is  now  called  Famagusta. 

Sa-la'thi-el.     See  Shealtiel. 

Sare-cab,  in  A.  V.  Sal'cah  and  Sal'chah 
[perhaps,  a  road]. 

A  city  of  Bashan,  near  Edrei  (Deut.  iii. 
10;  Josh.  xii.  .5;  xiii.  11).  It  was  on  the 
boundary  of  Og's  kingdom,  and  afterwards 
■constituted  the  northern  limit  of  the  Gadites 
(1  Chron.  v.  11).  It  is  now  known  as  Sal- 
khad,  a  slight  modification  of  the  ancient 
name,  3.5  miles  east  of  Edrei,  and  6(5  east, 
very  slightly  north  of  the  Jordan,  opposite 
to  Beth-shean,  in  Samaria. 

Sa'lem  [complete,  peaceful,  peace]. 

A  natural  abbreviation  of  the  name  Jeru- 
salem, the  city  or  foundation  of  peace  (Ps. 
Ixxvi.  2;  and  probably  Gen.  xiv.  18).  See 
Melchizedek  and  Shalem. 

Sa'lim  [perhaps,  Aramaic  sh'^lim,  com- 
pleted]. 

A  place  near  which  were  the  waters  of 
^15non  (John  iii.  23) ;  see  iENON. 

Sal'lai  [perhaps,  exalted]. 

1.  A  chief  of  a  family  of  Bcnjamites  who 
resided  at  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  8). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  20)  ;  see  Sallu. 

Sal'lu  [elevation,  exaltation]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Meshnllam  and  a 
chief  of  a  family  resident  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  came  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  liouse,  which 
occupies  the  same  position  in  the  correspond- 
ing catalogue,  bore  the  name  Sallai  (ver.  20). 
One  of  the  two  names  has  probably  been 
misread,  the  difference  being  merely  that 
Detween  a  jod  and  a  vau  (q.  v.). 

Sal'ma.     See  Salmon. 

Sal'mai,  in  A.  V.  Shalmai,  in  E.  V.  of 
Ezra  ii.  4.')  Shamlai ;  the  forms  being  con- 
fused in  the  Hebrew  text  itself 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 


bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  Ad;  Neh.  vii.  18). 

Sal'mon  or  Salmah  or  Salma. 

Father  of  Hoaz.  Jle  was  a  man  of  Judali, 
descended  through  Perez,  Ikv.ron,  and  liani 
(Ruth  iv.  18-21 ;  jMat.  i.  -1  ;  Luke  iii.  32).  hi 
the  Hebrew  text  of  Kuth.  iv.  20,  not  21,  the 
form  Salmah  is  u.sed,  of  vvhicli  Salma  is  tlie 
later  orthograi)hy  (1  Chron.  ii.  11).  He  lias. 
sometimes  liecn  thought  to  have  Itecn  tlie 
auccstiir  ol'  the  iiihal)itaMts  of  Ik-tlilehem, 
mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii.  .51,  .">1.  JJut  the 
genealogy  of  Salma,  ancestor  of  the  Bethle- 
hemites,  is  traced  back  by  the  lino  of  Caleb, 
not  of  Ram.  The  ditfcn  iit  lineage  ]>rol)ably 
indicates  a  different  iktsoii  :  though,  ofcuuisc, 
genealogies  may  inliatwine.  For  Salmon  of 
Ps.  Ixviii.  14,  see  Z.\lm()N. 

Sal-mo'ne. 

A  promontory,  constituting  the  most  east- 
erly portion  of  Crete  (.\cts  xxvii.  7).  It  is 
called  Salmonia  in  an  inscription.  It  is  now 
known  as  Cape  Sidcro. 

Sa'lom.     See  Saeu. 

Sa-lo'me  [probably,  whole,  perfect,  integ- 
rity, peaee]. 

The  wife  of  Zebedec,  and  the  mother  of 
James  and  John  (cp.  Mat.  xxvii.  56  with  Mark 
XV.  40  and  xvi.  1).  She  was  one  of  the 
Christian  women  who  from  a  distance  saw 
the  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  .56),  and  who 
went  to  the  sepulcher  of  our  Lord  on  the 
resurrection  morning  with  sweet  spices  to 
anoint  his  body  (Mark  xvi.  1). 

Salt. 

Salt  of  poor  quality  could  })e  scraped  up 
on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  when  the 
salty  water  had  evaporated,  or  be  cut  from 
the  neighboring  clifl's.  It  was  used  in  Canaan 
and  the  adjacent  regions  as  a  condiment  and 
preservative  for  animal  food  (Job  vi.  (i ; 
Ecclus.  xxxix.  2G).  Under  the  law,  it  was 
presented  with  offerings  of  all  kinds  (Lev. 
ii.  13;  Ezek.  xliii.  24;  .\nti(i.  iii.  9,  1).  Salt 
land  is  unfruitful  (.lob  xxxix.  fi),  and  when 
a  captured  city  was  doomed  to  utter  destruc- 
tion the  final  .step  sometimes  was  to  sow  it 
with  salt.  Abimeleeh  thus  treated  Shcchem 
(Judg.  ix.  45).  Salt  ])reserv('s  from  corrui)- 
tion  and  renders  food  ])alatable,  and  is  there- 
fore used  figuratively  for  tlie  true  disciiiles 
of  Jesns,  who  by  their  precepts  and  exam- 
ple raise  the  moral  tone  of  society  (Mat.  v. 
13;  Mark  ix.  .50;  Luke  xiv.  34).  Salt  is  also 
used  for  wholesome  diaracter  and  speech 
(Mark  ix.  50  ;  Col.  iv.  6).  Tlie  impure  salt 
of  Syria,  when  expo.sed  to  the  rain  and  sun 
or  stored  in  damp  houses,  is  apt  to  lose  its 
taste  and  liecome  useless.  It  cannot  be  used 
like  much  other  refuse  as  a  fertilizer,  for  it  is 
good  for  notliing  (Mat.  v.  13;  Luke  xiv.  .35). 
During  the  convulsion  in  which  the  guilty 
cities  of  the  plain  were  destroyed,  Lot's  wife, 
lingering  in  tlie  doomed  region,  perished, 
and  was  transformed  into  a  pillar  of  salt  (Gen. 


Salt,  City  of 


608 


Salutation 


xix.  26;  Wisd.  X.7;  Antiq.  i.  11,  4).  Shewas 
probabh'  overwhelmed  by  a  shower  of  salt  or 
iiicriisted  with  salt. 

A  covenant  of  salt  was  a  covenant  of  per- 
manent continuance  and  perpetual  obligation 
(Lev.  ii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  19;  2  ('luon.  xiii.  5). 

Salt,  Cit'y  of. 

A  city  in  the  wilderness  of  Jndah.  It  is 
mentioned  along  with  En-gedi  on  the  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  from  which  therefore,  pre- 
sumably, it  was  not  far  distant  (Josh.  xv.  62). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Salt,  Valley  of. 

A  valley  in  which  the  army  of  Da- 
vid slew  18,000  men  of  Aram  (2  Sam. 
viii.  13)  or  rather  Edom  (14 ;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  12  ;  cp.  1  Kin.  xi.  15-17;  Ps.  Ix.  title)  ; 
see  Daleth.  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  slew 
10,000  Edomites  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  and 
then  took  their  capital,  Sela  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7  ; 
2  Chron.  xxv.  11).  The  natural  locality  in 
which  to  look  for  the  valley  of  Salt  is  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  there 
is  a  range  of  hills  5  miles  in  length,  con- 
sisting of  layers  of  salt,  and  between  this 
chain  and  the  sea  is  a  valley  6  or  8  miles 
long.  It  is  against  this  identification,  how- 
ever, that  the  Hebrew  word  ge'  applied  to 
it  is  the  appropriate  one  for  a  glen  rather 
than  a  broad  valley.  It  may  have  been  a 
gorge  descending  from  tlie  Edomite  hills,  in 
the  direction  of  the  salt  range. 

Salt  Sea. 

Tlie  name  given  in  the  O.  T.  to  what  is 
now  generally  called  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xiv. 
3;  Num.  xxxiv.  3,  12;  Deut.  iii.  17;  Josh. 
XV.  2,  r>).    See  Dead  Sea. 

Salt'wort. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  3faUunh,  sa- 
line plant  (Job  xxx.  4  ;  in  A.  V.  mallows). 
It  was  used  as  food  by  the  very  poor.  Two 
genera  of  plants  are  commonly  so  designated, 
Salicornia  and  l^alsola,  but  neither  is  suitable 
for  food.  The  plant  intended  is  probably 
some  other  cheriopod,  as  spinach  or  better 
sea  purslane  {AtrijAex  halinuis).  This  latter 
is  a  bush.  It  grows  abundantly  in  salt 
marshes  along  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  small,  thick, 
sour  leaves  would,  in  extreme  need,  furnish 
a  miserable  food. 

Sa'lu  [elevated,  exalted]. 

A  Simeonite,  father  of  Zimri  whom  Phine- 
has  slew  (Num.  xxv.  14 ;  in  A.  Y.  of  1  Mac. 
ii.  26  Salom). 

Sal-u-ta'tion. 

ATTiong  the  Hebrews  salutation  on  meeting 
consisted  in  the  expression  of  good  wislies  or 
a  solemn  blessing.  The  forms  most  iirevalent 
were:  1.  "Blessed  1)0  thou  of  Ihe  I^ord,"  or 
"God  be  gracious  unto  thee,"  or  the  equiv- 
alent (Gen.  xliii.  20 :  Ruth  iii.  10;  1  Sam.  xv. 
13).  2.  "The  Lord  be  with  thee,"  to  which 
the  rejoinder  was,  "  "^I'lie  Lord  bless  Ihee" 
(Euth  ii.   4).     3.   "  Peace  be  unto  thee,"    or 


"  Peace  be  upon  thee,"  peace  meaning  wel- 
fare (Luke  xxiv.  36).  This  was  the  common- 
est of  all  salutations,  and  is  still  in  use  among 
the  Jews.  The  reply  is:  "  LTpon  thee  be 
peace."  If  the  occasion  made  the  words  ap- 
propriate, the  form  was:  "Peace  be  unto 
thee,  and  to  thine  house"  (1  Sam.  xxv.  6; 
Luke  X.  .5).  4.  "Hail!"  a  common  saluta- 
tion in  the  Greek  period  (Mat.  xxvi.  49; 
xxvii.  29;  xxviii.  9;  Luke  i.  28).  5.  "Let 
the  king  live  forever"  was  the  salutation 
addressed  by  a  subject  to  the  Hebrew  mon- 
arch (1  Kin.  i.  31),  and  was  employed  in  the 
Babylonian  and  Persian  courts  (Neh.  ii.  3  ; 
Dan.  ii.  4  ;  iii.  9  ;  v.  10 ;  vi.  6,  21). 

At  parting  a  blessing  was  invoked  (Gen. 
xxiv.  60;  xxviii.  1  ;  xlvii.  10  ;  Josh.  xxii.  6), 
which  eventually  assumed  the  conventional 
form,  "  Go  in  peace,"  or  "  Farewell  "  (1  Sam. 
i.  17;  XX.  42;  2  Sam.  xv.  9;  Mark  v.  .34; 
Acts  xvi.  36)  ;  and  the  rejoinder  to  a  superior 
might  be,  "  Let  thy  servant  find  grace  in  thy 
sight"  (1  Sam.  i.  18). 

Abraham  and  Lot  rose  up  to  meet  passing 
strangers,  bowed  before  them  to  the  earth, 
and  pressed  hospitality  upon  them  (Gen. 
xviii.  2 ;  xix.  1)  ;  Boaz  exchanged  greeting 
with  his  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  4)  ;  travelers  on 
the  road  saluted  workmen  in  the  field  (Ps. 
cxxix.  8)  ;  members  of  a  family  greeted  each 
other  in  the  morning  and  after  long  separa- 
tion (Ex.  iv.  27  ;  Prov.  xxvii.  14).  The  salu- 
tation was  often  withheld  from  men  of  a  dif- 
ferent religion  (Mat.  v.  47) ;  and  rightly  so, 
when  it  was  apt  to  lead  to  fellowship  and  to 
imply  a  wish  for  the  success  of  a  bad  cause 
(2  John  11).  Messengers  might  be  charged 
to  salute  no  man  by  the  way  (2  Kin.  iv.  29  ; 
Luke  X.  4),  for  the  formality  incident  to  of- 
fering a  greeting  and  receiving  a  response  in- 
volved delay.  The  bow  was  not  a  mere  nod, 
but  profound  obeisance  or  prostration  ;  and 
in  deferential  greeting  a  rider  dismounted 
from  his  beast  or  left  his  chariot  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
23;  2  Kin.  v.  21). 

Letters  in  Palestine,  before  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews,  and  in 
Egypt,  always  began  with  salutations.  The 
greetings  are  all  framed  on  the  same  model. 
A  son  begins  a  letter  to  his  father  thus  :  "  To 
Dudu,  my  lord,  my  father,  speaketh  thus 
Aziru  thy  son,  thy  servant.  At  the  feet  of 
my  father  I  prostrate  myself.  LTnto  the  feet 
of  my  father  may  there  be  peace."  A  sub- 
ject addresses  his  liege,  the  king  of  Egypt, 
after  this  manner:  "To  the  king  my  lord, 
my  god,  my  sun-god,  speakelh  thus  Yapahi 
thy  servant  and  the  dust  of  thy  feet.  At  the 
feet  of  the  king  my  lord,  my  god,  my  sun- 
god,  seven  times  seven  times  I  prostrate  my- 
seli"."  The  governor  of  a  district  writes  to 
his  equals:  "To  the  kings  of  Canaan,  ser- 
vants, my  brothers,  thus  the  king."  And 
Pharaoh  begins  a  letter  to  a  neighboring 
monarch  with  the  words:  "To  Kallima-Sin, 
king  of  Karduniyash,  my  brother,  speaketh 
thus  Nibnuariya  [Amenophis  iii.]   the  great 


Samaria 


669 


Samaria 


king,  king  of  Egypt,  thy  brother.  To  me  is 
peace  [welfare].  May  peace  be  to  thee  and 
thy  house,  to  thy  children,  magnates, 
horses,  chariots,  in  thy  land  may  there  be 
abundant  peace." 

The  usual  epistolary  salutation  in  the 
Greco-Roman  period  in  Palestine  was  briefer, 
more  direct,  more  businesslike,  and  in  it 
the  name  of  the  writer  commonly  stands 
first.  "  King  Alexander  to  his  brother  Jon- 
athan, greeting"  (1  Mac.  x.  IS).  "King 
Demetrius  unto  the  nation  of  the  Jews, 
greeting  "  (25  ;  and  so  Acts  xv.  '23  ;  xxiii.  26  ; 
Jas.  i.  1).  The  letter  was  frequently  con- 
cluded with  a  salutation,  derived  from  Latin 
usage,  "Farewell"  (Acts  xv.  29;  xxiii.  30). 
To  the  brief  salutation  after  the  Latin  man- 
ner, the  Hebrews,  following  their  own  cus- 
toms, often  added  a  prayer  for  peace  (2  Mac. 
i.  1).  Their  salutation  also  was  often  elab- 
orate (1-5),  and  the  old  order  was  frequently 
observed  (ix.  19,  20).  The  salutations  with 
which  Paul  begins  his  letters  are  equally 
manifold  (Rom.  i.  1-7).  In  the  epistles  to 
Timothy  he  wishes  his  true  child  in  the  faith, 
grace,  mercy,  and  peace  ;  but  his  usual  greet- 
ing is,  "  Grace  unto  you  and  peace,"  and  he 
was  apt  to  close  his  letters  with  salutations 
from  himself  and  others  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  v.  26- 
28,  his  first  letter). 


Shemer ;  and  as  it  expres.sed  the  idea  of 
watching,  guarding,  keeping,  it  suggested  an 
appropriate  designation  for  a  city  on  a  hill. 
Accordingly  Omri  called  the  city  f^hom'ron, 
place  of  watch  (1  Kin.  xvi.  21).  The  emi- 
nence which  the  city  <;rowned  was  some- 
times denominated  the  mountain  of  Samaria 
(Amos  iv.  1 ;  vi.  1).  It  stood  in  the  midst  of 
a  fertile  valley  (Is.  xxviii.  1).  The  site  was  so 
well  chosen  that  the  city  continued  to  lu-  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  to  tlie  captivity  of  the 
ten  tribes,  the  successive  sovereigns  reigning, 
and  at  their  death  being  buried,  there  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  28,  29;  xx.  43;  xxii.  10,  .37,  51,  etc.). 
Scarcely  was  Samaria  built  before  hostilities 
arose  between  Benbadad  I.,  king  of  Syria, 
and  Omri.  The  fornu!r,  if  his  son  s])okc  the 
truth,  had  the  advantage,  and,  to  jilease  the 
victor,  Omri  had  to  make  streets  in  Samaria 
for  Syrian  merchants  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Ahab,  Omri's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, the  city  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  Benhadad  II.  (1-21).  In  or  near  the  cap- 
ital was  a  pool,  on  the  side  of  which  the  royal 
attendants  washed  the  ])lood-stained  chariot 
in  which  Ahab's  body  was  brought  home  from 
Eamoth-gilead  (xxii.  38).  In  the  days  of 
probably  Joram  it  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  Benhadad  II.  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-vii.  20). 
The  elders  of  Samaria,  afraid  of  displeasing 


Sebiisticli,  anciently  Samaria,  as  seen  from  the  east-northeast,  with  ^fountains  of  Ephraim  in  the 
background  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  the  distance. 


Sa-ma'ri-a. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  ten  tribes  during  the 
longest  period  of  their  history.  It  wa«  built 
or  commenced  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel,  on  a 
hill  purchased  for  two  talents  of  silver  or 
about  §3800.     The  former  r)\vner's  name  was 


Jehu,  obeyed  his  order  to  murder  .Miab's 
seventy  sons  (x.  1-10).  All  along  from  the 
commencement  of  the  city  it  bad  been  a 
place  notorious  for  its  idolatry.  .Miab  bad  led 
the  way  in  this  heathen  worshij)  l)y  rearing 
a  temple  and  an  altar  to  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvi. 


Samaria 


670 


Samaria 


32),  and  as  in  his  reign  reference  is  made  to 
400  prophets  of  the  Asherah  who  ate  at 
Jezebel's  table  (xviii.  19),  it  is  probable  that 
the  idol  so  named  remained  till  Jehu's  reign 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  6).  Attendant  on  this  idolatry 
was  great  corruption  of  morals  (Hos.  vii.  1-8  ; 
xiii.  16  ;  Amos  iv.  1 ;  viii.  14).  Against  these 
idolatrous  practices  Elijah  worked  (1  Kin. 
xviii.).  Elisha  made  the  city  his  headquar- 
ters (2  Kin.  V.  3-9  ;  vi.  32). '  And  doubtless 
Hosea  labored  there.  Samaria  and  the  king- 
dom were  threatened  with  j  udgmeut  by  many 
prophets  (Is.  vii.  9 ;  viii.  4 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  5 ; 
Ezek.  xvi.  46,  51,  53,  55  ;  xxiii.  33  ;  Hos.  viii. 
5,  6  ;  xiii.  16  ;  Amos  iii.  12  ;  Mic.  i.  5-9).  At 
length,  the  menaced  infliction  came.  The 
siege  was  begun  by  the  Assyrians  under  Bhal- 
maneser,  724  b.  c,  and  three  years  later,  in 
722,  the  city  was  captured  by  the  king  of  As- 
syria (2  Kin.  xvii.  3-6).  The  glory  of  the  cap- 
ture is  claimed  by  Sargon,  Shalmaneser's  suc- 
cessor, who  in  that  year  ascended  the  throne ; 


province  of  Syria.  Gabinius  fortified  it  anew 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4  ;  xiv.  4,  4  ;  5,  3).  It  was 
rebuilt  and  refortified  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  called  it  Sebaste,  a  Greek  word  corre- 
sponding to  Augustus,  the  title  of  his  patron, 
the  first  Eoman  emperor  (xv.  8,  5).  At  Sa- 
maria the  evangelist  Philip  labored  success- 
fully (Acts  viii.  5-8),  and  the  doubtful  con- 
version of  Simon  Magus  took  place  (9-13). 
To  follow  up  Philip's  success,  Peter  and  John 
came  for  a  time  from  Jerusalem  (14-25).  The 
site  has  been  thoroughly  identified  as  es-Se- 
bustieh,  a  village  and  ruin  on  a  hill  6  miles 
northwest  of  Shecliem,  in  the  center  of 
Palestine.  The  sides  are  steep,  the  summit 
a  table-land  about  a  mile  from  east  to  west. 
There  are  broken  columns,  large,  sometimes 
carved,  stones,  evidently  from  important 
buildings,  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  Some  of 
this  debris  has  descended  from  higher  to 
lower  levels,  recalling  the  i^rophecy  of  Micab 
(i.  6). 


Herod's  Colonnade  at  Sebustieh. 


jce  Sargon.  The  conquerors  repeopled  the 
town  with  foreigners  (24) ;  see  Samakitan. 
In  332  or  331  B.  c.  Alexander  the  Great  took 
Samaria,  and  transferred  its  inhabitants  to 
Shechem,  placing  Syro-Macedonians  in  their 
room.  About  the  year  109  B.  c.  Samaria  was 
besieged  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  drew 
around  it  a  wall  of  circumvallation  80  stades 
or  about  9  miles  in  extent.  The  city  held  out 
for  a  year,  but  was  ultimately  forced  by  fam- 
ine to  surrender.  The  victor  demolished 
it  entirely,  attempting  to  efface  all  proofs  that 
a  fortified  city  had  ever  stood  on  the  hill 
(Antiq.  xiii.  10,  2  and  3  ;  War  i.  2,  7  and  8). 
It  was  agaiji  inhabited  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander Jannteus.     Pompey  annexed  it  to  the 


2.  The  territory  occupied  by  the  ten  tribes, 
or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  personified  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  32  ;  xxi.  1 ;  2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Neh.  iv.  2  ; 
Is.  vii.  9  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  5  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  46 ;  Amos 
iii.  9).     See  Israel. 

3.  The  district  of  Samaria,  occupying  cen- 
tral Palestine,  between  Galilee  on  the  north 
and  Judsea  on  the  south  (1  Mac.  x.  30). 
Joscphus'  description  of  its  limits  (War  iii. 
3,  4,  and  5)  is  not  very  intelligible,  but  he 
makes  it  plain  that  the  northern  limit  passed 
through  "a  village  tliat  is  in  the  great  plain 
called  Ginea."  This  is  apparently  En-gan- 
nim  (Josh.  xix.  21 ;  xxi.  29),  at  the  southern 
angle  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  The  south- 
ern limit  was  the  to])archy  Acrabattene,  some 


Samaritan 


671 


Samaritan 


6  or  7  miles  south  of  Shechem.  Samaria  ex- 
tended to  the  Jordaii  on  the  east,  but  did  not 
reach  the  Mediterranean  on  tlie  west.  Acclio 
belonged  to  Judaja.  The  Talmud  makes 
Antipatris  the  western  limit.  It  compre- 
hended the  old  territories  of  Manasseli  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  of  Ephraim,  with  a  por- 
tion of  Issachar  and  Benjamin.  Pompey,  in 
63  B.  c,  attached  it  to  the  province  of  Syria 
(Antiq.  xiv.  4,  4).  In  A.  D.  6  the  emperor 
Augustus  erected  Judaia,  Samaria  and  Idu- 
msea  into  a  division  of  the  prefecture  of 
Syria,  called  the  province  of  .TiuUea,  and 
placed  it  under  procurators  (xvii.  13,  5;  cp. 
11,  4),  and  this  arrangement  obtained  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord. 

Sa-mar'i-tan. 

In  the  only  passage  in  which  the  word  is 
found  in  the  O.  T.  {2  Kin.  xvii.  29)  it  means 
an  individual  belonging  to  the  old  kingdom 
of  northern  Israel.  In  later  Hebrew  litera- 
ture it  signifies  an  inhabitant  of  the  district 
of  Samaria  in  central  Palestine  (Luke  xvii. 
11).  How,  then,  did  the  Samaritan  nation- 
ality or  race  arise '?  When  Sargon  captured 
Samaria,  he  carried  into  captivity,  by  his 
own  account,  '27,280  people.  That  he  left 
many  Israelites  in  the  land  is  evident.  Find- 
ing that  the  remaining  Israelites  were  re- 
bellious, he  began  a  sj-stematic  course  for 
their  denationalization.  He  introduced  col- 
onists from  Babylonia  and  Hamath  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  24)  and  Arabia,  who  continued  to  prac- 
tice idolatry  in  their  new  home.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  country  had  been  thinned,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  interrupted,  by  these 
wars,  so  that  opportunity  was  afforded  for 
wild  beasts  to  multiply,  which  God  used  as  a 
scourge.  Lions  killed  some  of  the  idolaters. 
The  newcomers  concluded  that  they  did  not 
understand  how  to  worship  the  particular 
god  of  the  country,  and  they  informed  the 
king  of  Assyria.  He  sent  them  a  priest  from 
among  the  captive  Israelites,  who  took  up 
his  residence  at  Bethel  and  began  to  instruct 
the  people  regarding  Jehovah.  He  was  un- 
able to  persuade  them  to  abandon  their  an- 
cestral idolatry.  They  erected  images  of 
their  gods  on  the  high  places  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and  combined  their  idolatries  with  the 
worshi])  of  Jehovah  (25-33).  This  dual  wor- 
ship they  kept  up  until  after  the  fall  of  Je- 
rusalem (34-41).  Esarhaddon  continued  the 
policy  of  his  grandfather,  Sargon  (Ezra  iv.  2), 
and  the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,  perhaps 
Ashurbanipal,  completed  the  work  by  adding 
to  the  population  people  from  Elam  and  else- 
where (9,  10). 

The  new  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire 
was  weak,  and  Josiah  or  his  agents  traversed 
its  whole  extent,  everywhere  destroying  the 
high  places  with  which  it  abounded  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  fi,  7).  The  idols  were  still  on  these 
high  places,  but  it  is  probable  that  idolatry 
was  decreasing  under  the  influence  of  the 
Israelites   who   remained    in    the   land    and 


through  the  teaching  of  the  priests.  And 
this  act  of  .Josiah's  was  another  blow  to  it. 
Several  decades  later  some  among  the  Samari- 
tans were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  for  worship  (Jer.  xli.  5).  When 
Zerubbabel  led  back  his  band  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans 
asked  permission  to  participate  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temple  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  w'orshiped  the  God  of  Israel  ever  since 
the  time  of  Esarhaddon  (Ezra  iv.  2). 

There  was  early  a  repugnance  on  the  part 
of  most  of  the  Jews  to  social  and  religious 
association  with  the  Samaritans,  and  this 
feeling  developed  into  intense  antipathy  as 
years  rolled  on  (Ezra  iv.  3  ;  Ecclus.  1.  25,  26  ; 
Lukeix.  .52,  53  ;  John  iv.  9).  The  Samaritans 
were  neither  of  ]iiire  Hebrew  blood  nor  of 
uncontaminated  worship.  Josephus  (Antiq. 
ix.  14,  3)  ^ays  that  when  the  Jews  were  in 
prosperity,  the  Samaritans  claimed  that  they 
were  allied  to  them  in  blood  ;  but  when  they 
saw  them  in  adversity,  they  declared  that 
they  had  no  relationship  to  them,  but  were 
descended  from  the  Assyrian  immigrants. 
When  the  offer  of  the  Samaritans  to  assist 
in  rebuilding  the  temple  was  rejected  by 
Zerubbabel,  Jeshua,  and  their  associates,  the 
Samaritans  made  no  further  efforts  at  con- 
ciliation, but  did  their  best  with  other  ad- 
versaries to  prevent  the  completion  of  the 
work  (Ezra  iv.  1-10)  ;  they  also  opposed  the 
rebuilding  later  on  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iv.  1-23).  Their  leader 
on  the  latter  occasion  was  Sanballat,  the 
Horonite.  It  was  he  whose  son-in-law  was 
put  out  of  the  priesthood  by  Nehemiah  ;  and 
the  father-in-law  probably  founded  the  Sa- 
maritan temple  on  mount  Gerizim,  which  he 
designed  for  the  use  of  the  expelled  digni- 
tary ;  see  Sanballat.  Henceforward  fugi- 
tives from  discipline  at  Jerusalem  were  ac- 
customed to  go  to  the  rival  edifice  on  mount 
Gerizim  where  they  were  sure  of  obtaining  a 
warm  welcome  (Antiq.  xi.  8,  7).  During  the 
persecution  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  they 
declared  that  they  were  not  of  the  same  race 
as  the  Jews,  and  gratified  the  tyrant  by  ex- 
pressing a  desire  that  their  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  might  in  future  be  dedicated  to 
.Jupiter,  the  defender  of  strangers  (2  Mac.  vi. 
2).  About  129  B.  c.  John  Hyrcanus  took 
Shechem  and  Gerizim,  destroying  the  Sa- 
maritan tem])le  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1)  :  but  the 
worshipers  continued  to  offer  their  adora- 
tions on  the  summit  of  the  hill  where  the 
sacred  edifice  had  stood.  They  did  so  when 
our  Lord  was  on  earth  (John  iv.  20,  21). 

In  the  time  of  Christ  their  theological 
tenets  did  not  essentially  differ  from  those 
of  the  .Jews,  and  especially  of  the  Sadducean 
sect.  They  shared  with  them  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  coming  Messiah  (John  iv.  25).  They, 
however,  accepted  no  more  of  the  O.  T.  than 
the  Pentateuch.  The  main  cause  for  the 
Sam.iritans'  receiving  the  gospel  so  gladly 
when  Philip  preached  to  them  was  the  mira- 


Samaritan  Pentateuch 


Sampsames 


cles  which  he  wrought  (Acts  viii.  5,  6) ;  but 
another  undoubtedly  was  that,  unlike  Juda- 
ism, Christianity  followed  the  example  and 
teaching  of  its  founder  and  admitted  Sa- 
maritans within  its  pale  and  to  the  same 
privileges  as  those  possessed  by  the  Jewish 
converts  (Luke  x.  29-37;  xvii.  16-18;  John 
iv.  1-42).  About  150  Samaritans  still  exist  at 
a'.id  around  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem. 

Sa-mar'it-an  Pen'ta-teuch. 

The  Samaritans  possessed  the  Pentateuch 
in  Hebrew.  It  was  quoted  by  Jerome,  Euse- 
bius,  and  other  Christian  fathers.  In  A.  D. 
Ifiltj  Pietro  della  Valle  purchased  a  copy  from 
the  Samaritans  of  Damascus,  which  was 
])laced  in  1623  in  the  library  of  the  Oratory 
in  Paris.  By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury fifteen  other  copies,  more  or  less  com- 
plete, had  reached  Europe,  and  the  number 
has  since  been  increa.sed.  Morin,  or  Morinus, 
who  first  studied  it,  considered  the  Samaritan 
text  vastlj'  superior  to  that  of  the  Masoretes. 
Controversy  on  the  subject  went  on,  with 
occasional  intervals,  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
till,  in  1815,  the  great  Hebrew  scholar  Ge.se- 
nius,  who  had  made  a  very  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  Samaritan  text,  proved  it  to  be 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Hebrevi'  Masoretes, 
and  of  small  critical  value.  Most  of  the 
Samaritan  rolls,  containing  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  supposed  not  to 
be  older  than  the  tenth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  ;  one  or  two  in  the  custody  of  the 
Samaritans  at  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem, 
are  con.sidered  to  be  older.  The  several 
rolls  are  in  the  Samaritan  character,  that  on 
the  Maccab£ean  coins,  which  was  also  that  of 
the  Hebrews  before  they  introduced  the 
present  square  letters.  The  Samaritan  text 
frequently  diflers  from  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Masoretes.  In  Deut.  xxvii.  4  we  read 
that  Moses  directed  the  people  when  they 
pas.sed  the  Jordan  to  set  up  certain  stones  in 
mount  Ebal,  plaster  them,  and  write  on  them 
the  law.  Here  the  Samaritans  have  substi- 
tuted Gerizim  for  Ebal,  to  increase  the  ven- 
eration for  their  sacred  mountain.  There  are 
various  other  less  important  variations;  see 
Chronology.  Most  of  them  are  manifestly 
due  to  the  haste  of  the  scribes  or  to  altera- 
tions which  they  deliberately  made.  In 
about  2000  places  the  text  agrees  with  that 
of  the  Septuagint  against  the  Hebrew  read- 
ings, which  indicates  that  the  Greek  trans- 
lators used  a  Hebrew  text  much  like  that 
pos.sessed  by  the  Samaritans.  An  interesting 
inquiry  is :  At  what  date  and  how  did  the 
Samaritans  obtain  this  Pentateuch  ?  An  old 
and  still  widely-received  opinion  is  that  they 
did  so  by  transcribing  copies  of  the  sacred 
volume  which  had  existed  among  them  prior 
to  the  disruption  of  the  monarchy,  under 
Rehoboam  9.31  b.  c.  Another  view  is  that 
the  volume  was  circulated  among  them  by 
the  priest  who  was  sent  to  instruct  the 
heathen   colonists   brought  from   Assyria   to 


repeople  Samaria  after  its  original  inhab- 
itants had  been  carried  captive,  about  722 
B.  c.  A  third  opinion  is  that  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  was  carried  from  Jerusalem  by  a 
renegade  priest  about  the  time  that  the  tem- 
ple was  built  on  mount  Gerizim.  The  form 
of  the  letters  and  the  alteration  already 
mentioned  of  Ebal  into  Gerizim  in  the  sacred 
text  atford  a  certain  slight  sujiport  to  the 
third  hypothesis.  At  any  rate  the  change 
was  made  after  Gerizim  had  become  the 
scene  of  temple  wor.ship. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  Samaritan  version  of 
the  Pentateuch,  made  into  the  dialect  of  the 
Samaritans  early  in  the  Christian  era.  They 
possess  an  Arabic  translation  also,  made  in 
the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  a  book  of 
Joshua,  founded  on  the  canonical  book  of 
the  same  name  and  written  about  the  thir- 
teenth century  A.  D.,  and  some  other  litera- 
ture. 

Sa'mecli,  in  A.  E.  V.  Samekh. 

The  fifteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  of  the  English  alphabet  orig- 
inally corresponds  to  it,  and  s  is  forced  into 
service  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names  which 
contain  it,  as  Joseph.  It  heads  the  fifteenth 
section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each 
verse  of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Sam-gar-ne'lJO  [Shumgir-Nabu,  be  gracious, 
Nebo !] 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes  who  en- 
tered Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3). 

Sam'lah  [a  garment]. 

A  king  of  the  Edomites,  a  native  of  Mas- 
rekah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36,  37). 

Sa'mos  [a  height  by  the  seashore]. 

An  island  about  80  miles  in  circumference 
off"  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  by  west 
of  Ephesus,  and  nearly  opposite  to  the 
promontory  of  Trogyllium.  After  the  defeat 
of  Antiochns  the  Great  by  the  Romans  at 
Magnesia,  in  190  B.  c.  it  was  independent 
(1  Mac.  XV.  23)  ;  but  it  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Pergamos,  and  along  with  Pergamos 
it  pa.ssed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  in 
133  B.  c.  At  the  time  Paul  reached  it  (Acts 
xs.  15),  it  still  enjoyed  the  autonomy  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  the  Romans  in  19  b.  c.  Its 
inhabitants  were  noted  for  commercial  enter- 
prise.    Many  of  their  coins  still  exist. 

Sam-0-thra'ce,  in  A.  Y.  Sam-o-thra'ci-a 
[Samos  of  Thrace]. 

An  island  in  the  archipelago  off"  the  coast 
of  Thrace  and  opjtosite  the  mouth  (jf  the 
Hebrus.  It  has  an  area  of  about  30  square 
miles,  and  has  in  it  a  mountain  .5000  feet 
high.  Paul's  vessel  made  a  straight  cour.'se 
to  the  island  from  Troas,  in  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
xvi.  11). 

Samp'sa-mes. 

A  country,  rather  than  a  king,  which  was 
friendly  to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  23).  Not  iden- 
tified. ' 


Samson 


673 


Samson 


Sam'son  [sunnj',  little  sun,  perhaps,  de- 
stroyer] . 

One  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hebrew 
judges.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Danite  called 
Manoah,  was  born  at  Zorah,  within  the  limits 
of  the  southern  tei'ritory  of  Dan,  and  had 
his  birth  and  his  subsequent  career  announced 
beforehand  to  liis  parents  by  the  angel  of  tlie 
Lord.  He  was  a  Nazirite  from  his  birth, 
no  razor  coming  upon  his  head,  and  no  wine 
or  strong  drink  entering  into  his  mouth.  As 
long  as  he  submitted  to  these  restrictions  he 
was  capable  of  heroic  achievements  against 
the  Philistines  (Judg.  xiii.  1-24).  Circum- 
stances conspired  at  this  time  to  separate 
Judah  and  Dan  from  the  rest  of  the  Hebrews 
and  to  compel  these  two  tribes  to  act  alone. 
They  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  Philistines, 
who  had  promptly  embraced  the  opportunity 
to  oppress  tliem.  Isolated,  Judah  was  able 
to  do  little  more  than  harass  the  oppressors 
by  bold  deeds  and  stratagems.  The  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  early  moved  Samson  to  com- 
mence his  lifework  in  the  camp  of  Dan  (25)  ; 
but  almost  from  the  outset  he  showed  one 
conspicuous  weakness  in  his  character.  He 
was  the  slave  of  passion.  He  was  betrothed 
to  a  Philistine  woman,  a  native  of  Timnath  ; 
but  she  married  another  man,  and  in  revenge 
Samson,  aided  perhaps  by  his  friends,  caught 
300  jackals  or  foxes,  tied  them  together  in 
pairs  by  the  tails,  with  a  burning  torch  be- 
tween, and  turned  them  loose  amidst  the  rip- 
ened grain  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1-xv.  5). 
The  Philistines  invaded  Judah  and  demanded 
that  Samson  be  delivered  unto  them.  He 
permitted  his  craven  countrymen  to  bind 
him  in  whom  they  failed  to  perceive  their 
deliverer.  But  when  he  was  about  to  be 
surrendered  to  the  uncircumcised  Philistines 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  mightily  upon 
him,  and  he  snapxied  the  ropes  asunder.  The 
Philistines,  amazed  at  his  display  of  strength, 
feared  him.  He  seized  the  jawbone  of  an 
ass,  and  as  the  Philistines  turned  to  flee,  he 
pursued  them  and  slew  a  thousand  men  in 
round  numbers.  They  fell  in  several  heaps. 
Samson  acknowledged  that  the  work  was  of 
CTod,  and  confessed  his  own  need  of  help  lest 
he  die  of  thirst.  God  in  his  providence 
caused  a  spring  to  give  forth  its  water.  The 
men  of  Judah  now  recognized  him  as  their 
deliverer  (6-20).  Afterwards  he  fearlessly 
went  to  Gaza,  and  there  he  fell  into  sin.  The 
Gazites  thought  that  their  opportunity  had 
come  to  seize  him,  and  they  shut  the  city 
gates ;  but  at  midnight  he  came  to  the  gate, 
and,  finding  it  closed,  laid  hold  of  its  doors 
and  plucked  them  and  the  bar  away  and 
carried  them  to  the  top  of  a  hill  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Hebron.  An  entanglement  with  the 
woman  Delilah,  from  the  valley  of  Sorek, 
caused  his  ruin.  By  direction  of  her  country- 
men, she  importuned  him  to  tell  her  in  what 
his  great  strength  lay.  At  first  he  gave  her 
deceitful  answers,  but  at  last  he  revealed  the 
secret.  If  his  head  were  shaVed,  he  would 
43 


become  weak  as  another  man.  The  Philis- 
tines at  once  shaved  his  head,  and  found 
that  his  strength  had  departed.  They  tliere- 
fore  put  out  his  eyes,  and  made  him  grind  in 
the  prison  house  at  Gaza.  They  brought  him 
out  to  exhibit  him  to  the  people  on  occasion 
of  a  great  festival  and  public  sacrifice  to 
their  god  Dagon.  His  hair  had  by  this  time 
begun  again  to  grow,  and  he  was  again  ful- 
filling his  Nazirite  vow.  The  great  temple 
was  full  of  people,  and  some  three  thousand 
more  were  on  the  roof.  Sam.son  knew  the 
structure  of  the  building,  for  he  had  been  in 
Gaza  before  when  he  possessed  his  sight.  He 
asked  the  lad  who  attended  him  to  let  him 
rest  himself  against  the  two  middle  pillars 
on  which  the  roof  was  supported,  and  grasp- 
ing them  he  prayed  to  God  for  one  more 
manifestation  of  favor  and  the  gift  of  strength 
that  he  might  be  avenged  on  the  Philistines. 
He  then  dragged  the  pillars  from  their  posi- 
tion, brought  down  the  roof  and  perished  with 
a  multitude  of  his  foes  (xvi.  1-31).  Notwith- 
standing the  defects  in  his  character,  the  N.  T. 
names  him  with  tho.se  Hebrew  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Samson  had  the  strength  of  a  man  in  a 
preternatural  degree.  When  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord  impelled  him  from  time  to  time,  he 
accomplished  his  great  deeds.  His  strength 
did  not  reside  in  his  long  hair.  His  unshorn 
locks  were  the  external  evidence  of  his  rela- 
tion to  God,  a  public  profession  that  he  was 
acting  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord.  When  he 
allowed  his  hair  to  be  cut,  he  broke  his  vow, 
and  it  is  significantly  said  that  the  Lord 
abandoned  him.  His  marvelous  strength 
failed  when  God  left  him,  and  it  returned 
when  God  granted  his  prayer.  His  preter- 
natural strength  was  a  sign,  testifying  to  the 
men  of  Judah  that  this  Nazirite  was  indeed 
called  of  God  to  deliver  them  from  their 
enemies,  and  bearing  witness  among  the 
Philistines  to  the  superiority  of  the  servant 
of  .Jehovah. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  group 
the  deeds  of  Samson.  Ewald,  led  by  a 
favorite  theory  of  his.  thought  he  could  dis- 
cover a  drama  in  five  acts.  In  fact  the  nar- 
rative itself  describes  five  groups  of  related 
deeds.  1.  Those  that  resulted  from  his 
wooing  of  the  woman  of  Timnath  ;  namely, 
his  rending  the  lion,  slaughter  of  thirty 
Philistines  at  Ashkelon,  release  of  the  jack- 
als bearing  burning  torches  among  the 
ripened  grain  of  the  Philistines,  and  a  defeat 
of  the  Philistines  who  had  burned  the  woman. 
2.  The  events  at  the  rock  of  Etara,  when  his 
fellow-countrymen  asked  permission  to  de- 
liver him  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines, 
and  he  broke  his  bonds  of  rope  in  the  presence 
of  the  uncircumcised,  slew  a  thousand  of 
their  number  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass, 
and  by  prayer  obtained  water  to  quench  his 
thirst.  3.  The  visit  to  Gaza,  when  he  car-, 
ried  off  the  doors  of  the  city  gate.  4.  His 
passion  for  the  Philistine  woman  Delilah. 


Samuel 


374 


Samuel 


when  he  broke  the  seveii  greeu  withes 
wherewith  she  had  bound  him  and  then  the 
nine  cords  with  which  she  next  bound  him, 
and  tore  away  the  web  with  which  she  had 
woven  his  locks.  5.  A  blind  slave  at  Gaza, 
when  he  pulled  down  the  pillars  on  which  the 
roof  of  Dagon's  temple  rested.  The  particu- 
lar achievements  in  the  five  groups  are 
twelve  as  enumerated.  Samson's  name  may  be 
interpreted  as  meaning  sunny,  and  a  strenu- 
ous eflbrt  has  been  made  by  Eoskofl",  Stein- 
thal,  and  others  like  minded,  to  connect  them 
with  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules  or  with 
the  Babylonian  Izdubar  or  otherwise  with 
the  sun-god  Shamash.  Hercules  wandered  in 
search  of  adventures,  slew  a  lion,  slept,  was 
sold  as  a  slave,  immolated  himself  volun- 
tarily. Izdubar  overcame  the  lion,  rejected 
the  advances  of  Ishtar,  the  goddess  of  love. 
Hercules  is  a  sun-myth.  The  story  of  Izdu- 
bar is  the  history  of  an  ancient  king  of 
Erech  embellished  with  legend  and  wrought 
out  into  an  epic  in  twelve  parts;  see  Nim- 
ROD.  But  with  neither  the  .sun-god  nor  the 
king  of  Erech  is  Samson  to  be  identified ; 
for — 1.  The  ancient  Hebrews  themselves  as- 
signed Samson  to  a  time  well  within  their 
historical  period,  in  the  generation  before 
Samuel  and  Saul.  2.  The  Hebrew  account 
of  Samson  states  definitely  the  place  of  his 
birth  and  his  deeds,  and  gives  the  location 
of  his  grave.  3.  The  enumeration  of  twelve 
labors  is  a  matter  of  some  importance  to 
those  who  would  identify  Samson  with  Her- 
cules or  Izdubar,  but  in  itself  the  number  is 
not  of  consequence.  And  the  number  twelve 
is  not  so  readily  made  out.  The  cry  of  Sam- 
son to  God  for  drink  can  scarcely  be  called  a 
labor  of  Samson's.  The  narrative  speaks  of 
other  deeds  of  Samson  which  it  does  not  .spe- 
cify ( Judg.  xiii.  2.5),  showing  that  the  narrator 
did  not  think  of  twelve  achievements  only. 
4.  While  the  strength  which  Samson  exer- 
cised was  the  gift  of  God  and  was  not  in- 
herent in  him  as  a  man,  while  it  failed  when 
he  was  left  to  himself,  yet  it  was  preter- 
natural in  the  sense  that  what  he  accom- 
plished by  it  might  have  been  a  work  of 
nature,  but  was  not.  In  most  of  the  exam- 
ples afforded  of  it,  it  finds  parallels  in  human 
annals.  David  without  a  weajion  slew  a  lion 
and  a  bear  ;  Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer, 
and  Eleazar  and  Shammah  and  Abishai  each 
single-handed  performed  prodigies  of  valor 
e()ual  to  Samson's  (1  Sam.  xiv.  1-17 ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  9-12,  IK),  and  modern  history  presents 
other  parallels.  The  nature  of  the  feats  per- 
formed in  carrying  off  the  doors  of  Gaza's 
gate  and  in  dragging  the  two  columns  from 
their  position  cannot  be  determined  until 
information  is  at  hand  regarding  the  stnuv 
ture  of  these  particular  doors  and  the  archi- 
tecture of  Dagon's  temple.  The  deeds  may 
have  been  superhuman  and  miraculous. 

Sam'u-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Shemuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  ;{:5)  [name  of  God]. 


The  earliest  of  the  great  Hebrew  prophets 
after  Moses  and  the  last  of  the  judges.  His 
father,  Elkanah,  was  a  Levite,  family  of 
Kohath,  house  of  Izhar  (see  Elkanah  4) ; 
he  was  a  Zophite,  because  descended  through 
Zophai  or  Zuph  (1  Sam.  i.  1 ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
26,  35)  ;  and  he  was  a  man  of  the  hill 
country  of  Ephraim  or  an  Ephraimite,  be- 
cause the  family  had  been  assigned  resi- 
dence in  that  tribe  (Josh.  xxi.  5 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  66).  Elkanah  lived  in  Eamah  or,  as  it 
was  called  to  distinguish  it  from  other  towns 
of  the  name,  Eamathaim  of  the  Zophites  (1 
Sam.  i.  1,  19;  ii.  11).  He  had  two  wives, 
Peninnah  and  Hannah.  Hannah  had  no 
child  and  prayed  earnestly  to  God  that  she 
might  give  birth  to  a  boy,  vowing  that  if  her 
prayer  were  answered  the  infant  should  be 
devoted  for  life  to  Jehovah,  apparently  as  a 
Nazirite,  for  she  added,  "There  shall  no 
razor  come  upon  his  head "  (cp.  Num.  vi. 
1-5).  Her  petition  was  granted.  She  named 
the  boy  Samuel ;  and  when  he  was  weaned 
she  brought  him  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh, 
and  put  him  in  charge  of  the  high  priest,. 
Eli,  to  train  him  for  his  sacred  duties  (1 
Sam.  i. ;  ii.  1-17).  While  yet  a  child  he 
ministered  before  God,  clad  in  the  simi)le 
linen  ephod  which  was  worn  by  ordinaiy 
priests  when  engaged  in  the  sanctuary  and 
even  by  laymen  (ii.  18).  He  lived  at  the 
tabernacle,  sleeping  in  some  chamber  con- 
nected with  it,  opened  the  doors  of  the  sanc- 
tuary in  the  morning,  and  otherwise  assisted 
Eli  in  his  ministrations  (iii.  1,  3,  15).  He 
had  not  advanced  beyond  early  boyhood 
when  Jehovah  revealed  to  him  the  approach- 
ing doom  of  Eli's  house  for  the  foolish  in- 
dulgence which  the  father  had  shown  to  his- 
unworthy  sous  (iii.  1-18).  Josephus  says  that 
Sanuiel  was  twelve  years  old  at  this  time 
(Antiq.  v.  10,  4).  His  statement  is  about 
right;  but  his  authority  for  it  is  unknown. 
By  the  time  that  the  child  had  reached  man- 
hood all  Israel,  from  Dan  even  to  Beer-sheba, 
knew  that  he  was  established  to  be  a  prophet 
of  the  Lord,  for  the  Lord  revealed  himself 
to  Samuel  in  Sliiloh  (1  Sam.  iii.  20,  21).  Soon 
afterwards  the  judgment  threatened  against 
Eli  and  his  house  began  by  the  death  of  Eli's 
two  sons  in  battle,  the  capture  of  the  ark  by 
the  Philistines,  and  the  death  of  Eli  on  hear- 
ing the  fatal  news  (iv.  1-22).  The  ark  was 
soon  restored  to  the  Israelites ;  but  it  was 
kept  in  seclusion  and  placed  for  safe  keeping 
with  a  proper  guardian  at  Kirjath-jeai-im 
until  the  i)eople  should  be  spiritually  pre- 
pared to  receive  it.  Samuel  was  an  ac- 
credited ])r()phet  and,  since  the  death  of  Eli, 
the  chiif  religious  authority  in  the  land. 
He  addressed  himself  to  the  work  of  reform- 
ing the  i)eople.  Twenty  years  after  the 
re.storation  of  the  ark  he  found  the  moral 
condition  of  the  nation  improved,  and  he 
convoked  an  assemlily  at  Mizpali,  near  the 
jilace  where  the  ark  had  been  lost,  to  make 
confession    of  sin,  to  fast   before  the  Lord, 


Samuel,  Books  of 


675 


Samuel,  Books  of 


and  to  beseech  a  return  of  his  favor.  Tlie 
Philistines  gathered  their  forces  to  battle 
when  they  heard  of  this  assembly ;  but 
Samuel  exhorted  the  peo))le  to  i)ray  for  de- 
liverance, and  he  himself  besought  the  Lord 
for  Israel.  A  thunderstorm  discomfited  the 
Philistines,  the  Israelites  discerned  the  hand 
of  God,  embraced  the  ojiportunity,  pursued 
the  enemy,  and  gained  such  a  victory  over 
the  Philistines  as  deterred  those  x'ertinacious 
foes  from  again  invading  the  land  while  Sam- 
uel was  at  the  head  of  afl'airs  (1  Sam.  vii.  3-14) ; 
.see  Philistines  and  Samuel,  Books  of. 
This  signal  deliverance  indicated  that  God 
had  raised  up  Samuel  to  be  judge,  in  the 
usual  sense  of  defender  and  director.  Like 
Deborah,  and  more  fully  like  Moses,  Samuel 
was  accredited  prophet  and  judge.  In  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  he  went  annually  in 
circuit  to  Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpah ;  but 
his  residence  was  at  Ramah,  where  a  com- 
pany of  prophets  gathered  about  him  to  be 
at  his  service  in  the  work  of  reform  (vii. 
15-17;  xix.  18-20).  Here  he  built  an  altar 
to  the  Lord ;  for  God  had  forsaken  Shiloh, 
the  ark  was  in  necessary  seclusion,  the  cov- 
enant was  in  abeyance  because  the  Israelites 
had  broken  it  by  their  idolatries  and  sacri- 
lege, and  he  was  Jehovah's  representative ; 
see  Altar.  During  the  years  of  his  vigorous 
administration  the  laud  enjoyed  freedom 
from  foreign  domination.  When  he  was  old 
he  made  his  two  sons  judges  at  Beer-sheba. 
They  proved  themselves  unworthy  of  their 
high  trust,  taking  bribes  and  perverting  jus- 
tice. Their  misconduct  and  the  threatening 
attitude  of  the  surrounding  heathen  nations 
produced  the  request  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelite  elders  and  people  for  the  institution 
of  kingly  government ;  and  Samuel  was  di- 
vinely commissioned  to  anoint  first  Saul, 
and  when  he  was  rejected,  David  ;  see  the  de- 
tailed account  in  Samuel,  Books  of.  Samuel 
died  while  David  was  a  fugitive  from  Saul  in 
the  wilderness  of  En-gedi.  He  was  buried 
in  his  house  at  Eamah,  all  Israel  lamenting 
his  loss  (xxv.  1).  On  the  night  before  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  Saul  desired  the  woman 
with  the  familiar  spirit  at  En-dor  to  call  up 
Samuel  from  Sheol  (xxviii.  3-25) ;  see  Saul. 
Heman,  one  of  David's  singers,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Samuel  (1  Chron.  vi.  .33,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  28). 
Samuel  is  in  the  list  of  O.  T.  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith   (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Sam'u-el,  Books  of. 

Two  books  of  the  O.  T.  They  were  orig- 
inally one,  as  appears  from  the  Masoretic 
note  to  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24,  which  states  that 
this  verse  is  the  middle  of  the  book.  They 
are  treated  as  one  by  .Tosephus  in  his  enu- 
meration of  the  books  of  the  G.  T.,  and  in  He- 
brew manuscripts.  The  division  was  intro- 
duced into  the  printed  Hebrew  Bible  in  1517, 
and  was  derived  from  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate.  As  Samuel  is  the  leading  person 
during  the  first  half  of  the  period  covered, 


as  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  prophets 
that  Israel  ever  had,  the  organizer  of  the 
kingdom,  the  agent  in  the  selection  of  both 
Saul  and  David  for  the  throne,  and  the  coad- 
jutor of  Saul  so  long  as  the  king  remained 
faithful  to  his  theocratic  obligations,  the  book 
appropriately  bears  Samuel's  name.  As  it 
contains  the  history  of  the  first  two  kings, 
it  is  divided  in  the  Septuagint  into  two  books, 
and  called  First  and  Second  of  Kingdoms; 
and  the  two  books  which  continue  the  his- 
tory, and  are  known  in  the  English  version 
as  First  and  Second  Book  of  the  Kings,  are 
called  Third  and  Fourth  of  Kingdoms  in  the 
Septuagint.  Jerome  substituted  Book  of 
Kings  for  Book  of  Kingdoms  in  his  Latin 
version. 

The  work  is  divisible  into  three  sections : 
1.  Samuel,  the  pro])het  and  judge  (i.-vii.), 
including  his  birth  and  early  life,  the  causes 
which  led  to  his  call  to  the  prophetic  office 
(iii.  20),  and  which  left  him  as  prophet  in 
possession  of  the  sole  authority  and  opened 
the  way  for  his  judicial  administration  (iv.), 
his  reformatory  work,  and  the  attestation  of 
his  right  to  the  judgeship,  which  was  afforded 
by  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Philistine 
oppression  by  his  hand  (vii.  1-12).  Summary 
of  his  administration  (13-17).  2.  Saul  the 
king  (viii.-xxxi.),  including  (a)  The  popular 
demand  for  a  king  in  Samuel's  old  age  and 
Samuel's  promise  to  accede  to  it  (viii.),  the 
interview  between  Samuel  and  Saul  and  the 
anointing  of  Saul  in  private  (ix.  1-x.  16),  the 
public  assembly  called  by  Samuel  at  Mizpah, 
and  the  selection  of  Saul  by  lot  (17-26), 
the  dissatisfaction  of  a  portion  of  the  people 
(27),  the  occasion  which  won  the  peo]ile  for 
their  divinely  appointed  king  and  his  induc- 
tion into  office  (xi.),  Samuel's  farewell  ad- 
dress (xii.).  (b)  Revolt  against  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Saul's  failure  to  observe  his  theo- 
cratic obligations  (xiii.),  the  feat  of  Jonathan, 
leading  to  the  rout  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1- 
46),  summary  of  Saul's  wars  (47,  48),  his 
family  (49-51),  the  particulars  of  one  of 
these  wars,  that  with  Amaiek,  in  which  Saul 
again  and  in  aggravated  manner  show\s  his 
contempt  for  his  theocratic  obligations  (xv.). 
Then  follows  (c)  An  account  of  the  latter 
years  of  Saul's  reign,  with  special  reference 
to  the  relations  between  the  king  and  David 
(xvi.-xxxi.)  ;  Saul  having  been  rejected  by 
God.  Samuel  by  divine  direction  anoints 
David  (xvi.  1-13),  Saul  troubled  by  an  evil 
spirit  summons  David  as  hariiist  to  court 
(14-23),  David  slays  Goliath  and  becomes  a 
permanent  altnche  of  Saul's  court  (x^•ii.  1- 
xviii.  5),  jealousy  of  Saul  and  his  attempts 
on  David's  life  (6-xix.  17),  flight  of  David 
from  court  and  his  wandering  life  (18-xxvii. 
12),  invasion  of  the  Philistines  and  Saul's 
in(|uiry  of  the  woman  with  the  familiar 
spirit  (xxviii.),  David,  expelled  from  the 
Philistine  camp,  pursues  a  marauding  band 
of  Amalekites  (xxix.,  xxx.),  battle  of  (iilboa 
and   death    of    Saul    (xxxi.).     3.   David    the 


Samuel,  Books  of 


676 


Samuel,  Books  oi 


king  (2  Sam.  i.-xxiv.).  Announcement  of 
Saul's  death  to  IJavid  (i.),  contest  for  the 
throne  between  David,  supported  by  the  men 
of  Judah,  and  Ish-bosheth  as  head  of  the 
other  tribes  (ii.-iv.),  David  made  king  by  all 
Israel   (v.   1-3),   his    reign   (4-xxiv.).       See 

DrtVID. 

The  author  of  the  double  book  was  a 
])roi)het,  for  it  is  placed  among  the  prophets  in 
the  Hebrew  canon.  Samuel  wrote  a  book  and 
laid  it  U]i  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam.  x.  25),  and 
part  of  the  double  book  may  be  derived  from 
the  History  of  Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29) ;  but  scarcely  half  of  the  book 
could  have  come  from  his  pen,  for  he  died 
before  the  end  of  Saul's  reign  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1). 
It  was  written  after  David's  death  (2  Sam. 
v.  5).  An  allusion  to  the  kings  of  Judah 
probably  indicates  that  the  book  was  not 
completed  until  after  the  division  of  the 
Israelites  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6),  but  the  distinction 
between  Israel  and  Judah  existed  in  the 
time  of  David  (xi.  8;  xvii.  52;  xviii.  6;  2 
Sam.  iii.  10 ;  xxiv.  1).  From  Jer.  xv.  1 
it  has  been  inferred  that  Jeremiah  was  ac- 
quainted with  1  Sam.  xii.  There  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  captivity,  and  it  is  universally 
believed  that  the  book  was  composed  before 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

There  were  several  documents  relating  to 
the  period  treated  in  the  book,  such  as  the 
History  of  Samuel  the  Seer,  the  History  of 
Nathan  the  Prophet,  and  the  History  of  Gad 
the  Seer  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29),  but  the  author 
does  not  mention  the  sources  whence  he  de- 
rived his  information,  as  do  the  authors  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles,  and  it  is  uncertain 
what  records  he  used.  Wellhausen  presents 
an  analysis  of  the  books  and  their  sources 
(Prolegomena^).  1.  Samuel  as  a  youth.  He 
is  in  training  for  the  jiriesthood,  and  he 
foretells  the  collapse  of  the  government 
which  existed  before  the  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished (1  Sam.  i.-iii.).  The  story  was  in- 
vented after  Samuel's  career  had  made  him 
noted.  Chap.  ii.  1-10  is  an  addition  of  un- 
known origin,  and  verses  27-36  are  a  Deuter- 
onomistic  but  preexilic  insertion  (pp.  126, 
281,415;  cp.  Kittel  ii.  29,  Anm.  6).  2.  Ac- 
count of  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Eli  (iv.-vi.) ; 
but  iv.  lb**  is  an  addition  (p.  254).  3.  Saul's 
elevation  to  the  throne.  There  are  two  ac- 
counts of  this,  (a)  According  to  one  account, 
Saul  was  privately  appointed  king  by  Samuel, 
who  is  a  seer,  and  uses  his  authority  to  arouse 
Saul  to  the  help  of  Israel  (ix.  1-x.  16) ;  but 
i.x.  9  is  a  gloss,  and  x.  8  is  from  a  later  hand. 
Samuel  bade  Saul  to  await  the  fitting  opjwr- 
tunity  to  come  forward  (x.  7),  and  about  a 
month  later  (ver.  27'',  R.  V.  margin)  the 
opi)ortunity  is  afibrdcd  by  the  investment  of 
Jabesh-gilead  l)y  the  Anirnonitcs.  Saul  sum- 
mons the  people  to  amis,  leads  them  against 
the  foe,  is  victorious,  is  hailed  as  deliverer, 
and  is  taken  to  Gilgal  and  made  king  (xi.) ; 
but  verses  12-14  are  an  interpolation  by  the 


author  of  viii.  and  x.  17  seq.,  intended  to 
harmonize  this  account  with  his  own.  The 
Philistines  in  Israel  and  their  defeat  by  Saul 
and  Jonathan  (xiii.,  xiv.,  exce})t  that  xiii. 
7-15,  with  X.  8,  are  from  a  later  hand,  but  older 
than  chap.  vii.).  (b)  According  to  the  other 
account,  Samuel  called  the  ])eople  to  repent- 
ance (vii.  2-4).  Then  he  suumioned  them  to 
Mizpah,  near  Jerusalem,  to  pray  for  relief 
from  the  oppression  of  the  Philistines.  The 
Philistines  fell  ujion  the  assembly,  but  were 
routed  and  driven  from  the  borders  (5-14). 
Samuel  administered  the  government  suc- 
cessfully until  he  became  old  (15-17).  Samuel 
having  grown  old  and  his  sons  proving  ill- 
fitted  to  rule,  the  elders  of  Israel  ask  for  a 
king,  desiring  to  cast  oft"  the  rule  of  God 
and  become  like  other  nations  (viii.).  Saul 
was  accordingly  chosen  king  by  lot  at  Mizpah 
(x.  17-27"),  and  Samuel  delivered  a  farewell 
address  ( xii. ).  4.  Chap.  xv.  is  a  secondary  pro- 
duction. It  is  the  original  from  which  xiii. 
7-15  is  copied,  and  it  is  closelj'  related  to 
xxviii.  3-25.  5.  There  are  two  complete 
documents  about  David,  which  supplement 
each  other.  The  first  is  contained  in  1  Sam. 
xvi.-2  Sam.  viii.  The  second  account  em- 
braces 2  Sam.  ix.-l  Kin.  ii.  It  is  mutilated 
at  the  beginning,  but  is  otherwise  intact,  ex- 
cept that  2  Sam.  xxi.-xxiv.  are  additions. 
The  first  account  embodies  a  history  of  David 
from  his  anointment  by  Samuel  to  his  fligh-t 
from  Saul.  It  is  connected  with  1  Sam.  xiv. 
52  in  xvi.  14.  David,  as  a  brave  man,  recom- 
mended by  his  skill  in  playing  the  harp, 
comes  to  Saul's  court  and  is  made  his  armor- 
bearer  (xvi.  14-23)  ;  but  ver.  14  .shows  marks 
of  the  redactor.  Something  followed  this 
originally,  telling  of  wars  with  the  Philis- 
tines, but  quite  different  from  the  fight  be- 
tween David  and  Goliath,  which  now  stands 
here.  In  the  conflict  with  the  Phijistines 
David  acquits  himself  with  distinction,  is  pro- 
moted step  by  step,  and  is  given  the  king's 
daughter  to  wife  (xviii.  6-30) ;  but  the  reflec- 
tions on  Saul  are  due  to  a  late  reviser.  Chap, 
xviii.  29",  Septuagint,  is  continued  in  the  ref- 
erence to  the  popular  applause  which  is  ac- 
corded David,  and  which  arouses  the  jealousy 
of  Saul,  so  that  in  a  fit  of  madness  he  hurls 
a  spear  at  David  (xix.  9,  10).  After  discu.ss- 
ing  the  matter  with  Jonathan,  David  fled. 
Saul  slew  the  priests  at  Nob,  because  their 
chief  had  befriended  David  (xxi.  2-7,  E.  Y. 
1-6;  xxii.  6-23).  The  fugitive  gathered 
a  band  of  desperate  men  about  him  and 
abode  in  the  wilderness  of  .Tndah  (xxii. 
1-5).  There  are  various  additions  to  this 
continuous  history  of  David.  The  anointing 
of  David  (xvi.  1-13),  which  depends  on  the 
legend  of  the  battle  of  the  sheidierd  boy 
with  Goliath  (xvii.  1-xviii.  5).  Saul's  jnir- 
pose  to  slay  David  is  urged  by  Jonathan  as  a 
reason  why  David  should  hide  himself  (xix. 
1-7),  which  is  a  late  addition,  for  it  shows 
ac(|uaintance  with  chap.  xvii.  After  Saul 
had  hurled  his  spear  at  David,  the  latter  fled 


Samuel,  Books  of 


677 


Samuel,  Books  of 


for  the  first  time  (xix.  8-10).  But  David  is 
still  at  home,  and  with  the  aid  of  his  wife 
escapes  a  second  time,  fleeing  to  Samuel  in 
Samah  (xix.  11-24) ;  but  verses  18-24  are 
corrupt  and  were  unknown  to  the  author  of 
XV.  35.  Verse  18  seems  to  look  back  to  xvi. 
1-13.  David  is  in  Gibeah.  The  king  misses 
him  at  the  feast;  and  when  the  deadly 
hatred  of  Saul  is  proven,  David  finally  flees 
for  good  (xx.)  ;  but  this  account  is  impossible 
in  its  present  setting.  David  at  Nob  obtains 
the  sword  of  Goliath  from  the  high  priest 
(xxi.  8-10,  E.  V.  7-9).  For  fear  of  Saul 
David  flees  that  day  to  Achish,  king  of 
Gath  (11-16,  E.  V.  10-15).  The  account 
of  David's  life  iu  the  wilderness,  a  fu- 
gitive from  Saul  (xxiii.-xxvii.),  contains 
three  additions  to  the  early  document, 
namely,  xxvii.  7-12;  xxvi.  1-25;  and  xxiii. 
14-xxiv.  23,  E.  V.  22.  The  last  two 
are  parallel.  Chapter  xxvi.  was  placed  be- 
fore chapter  xxvii.  on  account  of  xxvi.  19, 
and  the  passage  xxiii.  14-xxiv.  23  was  placed 
before  xxv.  to  avoid  juxtaposition  with 
xxvi.  Chapter  xxviii.  1,  2  is  the  immediate 
continuation  of  chapter  xxvii.,  and  is  itself 
continued  in  xxix.-xxxi.  Verses  3-25,  Saul's 
interview  with  the  woman  of  En-dor,  is 
closely  related  to  xv.,  which  is  the  original 
from  which  xiii.  7-15  is  copied.  Neither 
XV.  nor  xxviii.  belongs  to  the  fundamental 
tradition.  Each  is  a  prelude  to  the  events 
that  follow. 

Biblical  critics  of  all  schools  are  agreed 
that  the  author  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  de- 
rived the  material  for  his  history  from  various 
sources,  and  all  critics  would  rejoice  to  have 
these  sources  definitely  determined.  But  all 
are  not  agreed  that  Wellhausen's  analysis, 
which  is  essentially  that  of  the  divisive 
school,  is  successful  nor  that  his  method  is 
legitimate.  The  analysis  is  based  upon  con- 
tradictions which  are  alleged  to  exist  be- 
tween certain  parts  of  the  narrative.  To 
this  allegation  of  contradictions  and  conse- 
quent evidence  of  diversity  of  document  it 
is  replied  : 

I.  The  author  saw  no  contradictions  be- 
tween these  separate  parts. 

II.  The  argument  that  contradictions  exist 
in  the  account  rests  upon  a  special  private 
exposition  of  the  narrative,  and  unon  a 
manipulation  of  the  text,  which  combine  to 
produce  inconsistencies.  Other  interpreta- 
tion is  valid  which,  without  eflFort,  shows  a 
consistent  narrative  throughout.  1  Sam.  vii. 
13,  14  is  said  to  be  irreconcilably  contradic- 
tory to  all  else  that  has  been  transmitted. 
Subseqtiently  we  find  the  domination  of  the 
Philistines  in  no  wise  overthrown  :  t^ey  not 
only  continue  to  press  across  the  borders  in 
Samuel's  lifetime,  but  they  are  in  possession 
of  the  Israelite  land,  one  of  their  oflScials 
dwells  at  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  (Wellhausen). 
Driver,  with  more  caution,  says:  "The  con- 
sequences of  the  victory  at  Eben-ezer  are  in 
vii.  13  generalized  in  terms  hardly  reconcil- 


able with  the  subsequent  history :  contrast 
the  picture  of  the  Philistines'  ascendancy 
immediately  afterwards  (x.  5 ;  xiii.  3, 19),  etc." 
The  passage  does  not  aflirm,  as  Wellhausen 
assumes  it  does,  that  the  Israelites  captured 
Ekron  and  Gath.  They  may  have  done  so  ; 
the  passage  states  that  Israel  recovered  pos- 
session of  its  ancient  territory.  The  Philis- 
tines came  no  more  as  occupants  within  the 
border  of  Israel,  but  Israel  delivered  its 
border  from  Ekron  to  Gath  out  of  the  hand 
of  the  Philistines  (vii.  13,  14  ;  cp.  border,  Jer. 
xxxi.  17).  The  hand  of  the  Lord  was  against 
the  Philistines  all  the  days  that  Samuel  ruled 
(ver.  13) ;  all  his  days  being  equivalent,  as 
the  expression  frequently  is  iti  Scripture,  to 
his  administration.  The  Philistines,  how- 
ever, repeatedly  crossed  the  border  of  Israel 
afterwards.  They  did  so  before  Samuel 
died.  They  even  placed  ofiicers  in  towns  of 
Judah  for  the  collection  of  tribute,  as  David 
did  in  Damascus  (2  Sam.  viii.  (i ;  in  E.  V., 
garrisons).  But  they  did  not  settle  in  the 
country  again,  nor  did  they  expel  the  He- 
brews who  inhabited  it  (as  Judg.  i.  34-36). 
By  the  victory  at  Eben-ezer  Samuel  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  dominion  of 
the  Philistines  and  recovered  the  borders  of 
Israel,  and  during  his  vigorous  administra- 
tion the  dread  of  his  name  deterred  the 
Philistines  from  renewing  their  invasions, 
and  his  presence  inspired  the  Israelites  with 
confidence  ;  but  when  he  grew  old,  and  began 
to  relinquish  the  reins  of  government  to  his 
ineflicient  sons,  the  people  lost  heart  at  the 
thought  of  their  inveterate  enemies.  Samuel 
was  too  old  to  lead  them  to  battle,  his  sons 
were  despicable,  the  Ammonites  and  the 
Philistines  were  as  mighty  as  ever  and  only 
biding  their  time.  The  senility  of  a  ruler, 
or  the  accession  of  a  new  and  untried  king, 
was  usually  the  opportunity  for  which  a 
waiting  foe  watched.  Nahash  the  Ammonite 
may  have  already  begun  to  harass  the  Israel- 
ites across  the  Jordan  (1  Sam.  xii.  12),  though 
this  interpretation  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
"Make  us  a  king,"  the  elders  of  Israel  said 
to  Samuel,  "that  he  may  go  before  us  and 
fight  our  battles"  (viii.  5-20).  The  claim  of 
a  foreign  prince  to  suzerainty  over  a  ])eople 
might  be  ignored  fin-  years ;  but  in  time, 
when  the  former  lord  became  strong  enough, 
he  himself  visited  the  refractory  with  an 
army  and  punished  them,  or  else  trusting  to 
the  fear  which  his  prowess  had  begun  to  in- 
spire, on  noting  the  weakness  and  helpless- 
ness of  his  former  tributaries,  he  sent  his 
oflicials  to  inquire  why  the  tribute  had  been 
withheld,  and  to  receive  it  anew  If  the 
demand  was  acceded  to,  the  domestic  gov- 
ernment of  the  subject  people  was  not  dis- 
turbed. This  latter  cour.se  the  Philistines  pur- 
sued. When  the  inability  of  Israel  to  offer 
resistance  became  evident,  perhaps  after  the 
rejection  of  Samuel  by  the  representatives  of 
the  people  was  known,  the  Philistines  as- 
serted their  authority  (ix.  16),  sent  ofiicials 


Samuel,  Books  of 


678 


Samuel,  Books  of 


into  the  country  (x.  5),  and  ultimately,  as  a 
precautionary  measure,  perhaps  not  until 
Saul  was  proclaimed  king  at  Gilgal,  went  so 
far  as  to  forbid  tires  in  the  forges  lest  the 
Israelites  should  provide  themselves  with 
weapons  (xiii.  19-22). 

When  the  eiders  of  Israel,  dismayed  by 
the  strength  of  the  hostile  nations  by  which 
they  were  surrounded,  demanded  a  king,  the 
aged  Samuel  was  hurt  at  the  slight  which 
was  apparently  put  upon  him  ;  but  he  was 
divinely  informed  that  the  people  were  not 
rejecting  him,  but  through  lack  of  faith 
were  repudiating  the  rule  of  the  invisible 
King,  and  he  was  instructed  to  accede  to  the 
popular  request.  Accordingly  he  dismissed 
the  elders  with  the  jjromise  that  he  would  do 
as  they  desired  (1  Sam.  viii.). 

Shortly  after  this  God  revealed  to  the 
prophet  that  a  man  of  Benjamin  should  come 
to  him,  and  that  he  should  anoint  this  Ben- 
jamite  to  be  king  and  the  deliverer  from  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  ix.  16).  When  Saul  arrived 
Samuel  entertained  him,  and  in  the  evening 
the  two  sat  on  the  housetop  and  communed 
together.  The  subject  of  their  conversation  is 
not  hard  to  divine.  The  prophet  told  Saul 
of  his  call  to  deliver  Israel  from  the  newly 
reimposed  yoke  of  the  Philistines,  instructed 
him  out  of  his  experience  how  to  meet  the 
foe,  and  informed  him  upon  what  conditions 
he  might  have  God's  help  in  war.  On  the 
morrow,  before  Saul  left,  Samuel  privately 
anointed  him,  gave  him  several  signs  by 
which  he  should  know  of  a  surety  that  God 
had  called  him  to  the  work,  and  dismissed 
him  with  the  charge  to  be  governed  by  provi- 
dential indications,  "and,"  said  the  prophet, 
"go  down  to  Gilgal  and  tarry  seven  days  till 
I  come  and  show  thee  what  thou  shalt  do  " 
(x.  7,  8).  The  n)eaning  of  this  charge  must  be 
gathered  from  the  housetop  conference  and 
from  the  event  (ix.  16-2.5;  xiii.  8).  Saul  was 
not  to  proclaim  himself  king  nor  to  attempt  to 
free  the  nation  from  Philistine  domination 
until  circumstances  indicated  the  time,  and 
then  he  was  to  make  Gilgal  the  rendezvous 
and  wait  seven  days  for  the  j)r(iphet  to  come  to 
offer  sacrifice,  to  entreat  the  favor  of  the  Lord 
on  the  undertaking,  and  to  instruct  him  (x. 
8;  xiii.  12).  The  object  of  this  delay  at  Gil- 
gal was  to  declare  publicly  that  the  king  was 
merely  the  vicegerent  of  heaven,  to  show 
the  people  that  Saul  recognized  that  his  luyal 
authority  did  not  inchide  the  priestly  otlice, 
that  king  and  projiliet  nnist  work  together. 
It  was  clearly  the  idea  of  the  two  men  that 
they  should  cooperate.  Saul  observed  the 
principle  that  underlay  this  advice.  For  a 
time  he  exalted  the  proi)het  and  ranked  him- 
self only  as  a  colaborer  (xi.  7),  and  he  felt 
that  he  needed  to  know  the  will  of  the  Lord 
through  the  prophet  (xxviii.  15)  ;  and  Samuel 
for  his  part,  when  Saul  was  established  on 
the  throne,  purposed  .still  to  assist  the  people 
of  God  (xii.  23),  and  even  after  Saul's  .sin  and 
God's  rejection  of  him  Sanniel  went  up    to 


Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  where  Saul  held  court, 
to  "assist  him  in  the  administration  of  the 
kingdom  by  instructing  him  as  to  God's  will 
(xiii.  15). 

As  directed  by  Samuel,  Saul  returned  to 
his  father's  house.  The  signs  occurred,  and 
especially  when  he  met  a  band  of  jjrophets, 
jirophesying  as  they  passed  the  station  of 
the  Philistine  official,  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
smote  him  there,  and  he,  too,  prophesied. 
His  countrymen  were  worshiping  God  while 
their  enemies  triumphed  over  them.  He  dis- 
cerned the  anomaly  and  iiru])he.sied.  The 
man  was  awakening  to  the  religious  aspect  of 
his  appointed  work  (1  Sam.  x.  9-13). 

Samuel  now  fulfilled  his  promise  to  the 
representatives  of  the  nation.  He  did  not 
use  his  authority  to  place  Saul  on  the  throne  ; 
the  matter  was  too  delicate  and  the  issues  too 
great.  He  summoned  the  people  to  Mizpah 
and  the  choice  was  left  to  God.  The  lot  was 
cast  before  the  Lord,  and  Saul  was  chosen,  a 
man  of  fine  appearance,  fitted  to  call  forth 
the  admiration  and  win  the  confidence  of  the 
people  ;  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  the 
border  tribe  between  north  and  south,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  ancient  and  growing  dis- 
sension in  the  nation.  The  choice  was  pub- 
licly committed  to  God  in  order  to  secure  the 
allegiance  of  the  j)ious  part  of  the  people  for 
the  divinely  appointed  king.  The  people 
shouted  "  God  save  the  king,"  and  the  king- 
dom was  formally  established  (1  Sam.  x.  24, 
25).  The  precautions  taken  by  Samuel  were 
fully  justified  by  the  event.  The  selection, 
although  made  by  God  himself,  did  not  ap- 
prove itself  to  all  the  people ;  there  were 
jealousies,  and  the  dissatisfied  asked  in  dis- 
dain, "  How  shall  this  fellow,  out  of  one  of 
the  smallest  families  of  a  small  tribe,  save 
us?"  (27).  But  Saul  quietlj-  retired  to  his 
father's  house,  accomi>anied  by  certain  men 
of  valor,  to  bide  his  time  and  await  devel- 
opments. He  made  no  claim  to  the  throne 
in  the  face  of  disaffection  ;  he  did  not  begin 
a  civil  war  to  secure  the  crown  ;  but  he  let 
the  matter  drop  until  God  should  change  the 
heart  of  the  people  and  place  him  on  the 
throne  without  shedding  the  blood  of  his 
brethren.  He  devoted  himself  to  attending 
to  his  father's  estate. 

About  a  month  elapsed  in  this  manner  (1 
Sam.  X.  27,  E.  V. margin).  Nahash  the  Ammon- 
ite had  pushed  his  invasion  almost  to  the  Jor- 
dan and  was  now  besieging  Jabesh  in  Gilead. 
The  people  of  that  town  were  in  sore  straits. 
Nahash  imposed  ignominious  conditions  of 
surrender,  as  a  taunt  to  all  Israel.  The  men 
of  Jabesh,  however,  .secured  a  week's  respite 
in  order  to  send  messengers  into  all  the 
coasts  of  Israel.  Some  of  these  messengers, 
or  all  of  them,  came  to  Gibeah  and  made 
known  their  distress.  Saul  was  in  the  field, 
but  when  he  returned  and  learned  the  ex- 
tremity of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and  the 
reproach  oft'ered  to  Israel  by  their  heathen 
foe,  the  Spirit  of  God  came  mightily  upon 


Samuel,  Books  of 


679 


Samuel,  Books  of 


him.  and  he  sent  through  all  the  borders  of 
Israel  calling  the  people  to  follow  him  and 
Samuel.  They  responded  as  one  man.  Saul 
led  them  to  victory,  raised  the  siege  of  Ja- 
besh,  and  put  Nahash  to  flight  (xi.  1-11). 
The  Philistines  had  no  cause  to  forbid  the 
relief  of  Jabesh  in  Gilead  ;  ou  the  contrary, 
it  was  to  their  advantage  that  the  country 
tributary  to  them  should  be  kept  intact.  The 
same  story  of  subject  peoples  being  left  by  the 
sovereign  state  to  settle  their  own  domestic  dis- 
putes and  fight  out  their  quarrels  with  their 
neigh))ors  is  familiar  in  the  annals  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt.  Flushed  with  victory  and  proud 
of  their  leader,  the  people  asked  :  "  Who  is  he 
that  said.  Shall  Saul  reign  over  us?  bring 
the  men  that  we  may  put  them  to  death." 
Saul  forbade  slaughter,  and  at  Samuel's  sug- 
gestion tlie  people  went  to  Gilgal,  which  was 
not  far  otf,  renewed  the  kingdom  and  made 
Saul  king,  and  this  act  being  accomplished, 
Samuel  formallj'  delivered  the  government 
into  Saul's  hands  (xi.  12-xii.  25). 

Saul  w'as  now  king,  but  the  work  which  he 
had  been  raised  up  to  do  was  only  begun. 
The  Ammonites  were  driven  from  the  bor- 
ders, but  the  Israelites  still  suflered  the  hu- 
miliation of  subjection  to  the  Philistines, 
They  managed  indeed  their  own  internal 
affairs ;  they  had  a  king  of  their  own  with 
a  roj'al  guard  of  three  thousand  men  ;  but 
they  ]iaid  tribute  to  the  Philistines,  must 
tolerate  Philistine  officials  in  their  borders, 
and  were  compelled  to  keep  their  forges  idle. 
Saul  was  biding  his  time.  Two  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  present  questionable  Hebrew  text, 
passed  by,  wlien  the  opportunity  arrived. 
Jonathan  s)iu)te  the  Philistine  official  at  Geba, 
and  the  Philistines  assembled  their  armies  to 
avenge  the  insult  and  quell  the  insurrection. 
The  time  for  action  had  come ;  Saul  blew  the 
trumpet  for  war,  and  the  Lsraelites  assembled 
after  him  at  Gilgal.  This  was  what  Samuel 
had  charged  him  to  do  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1-7).  Well- 
hausen  excludes  the  interview  between  Sam- 
uel and  Saul  at  Gilgal  from  the  original  nar- 
rative as  being  a  late  addition.  He  bases  his 
exclusion  of  it  on  the  change  of  place  be- 
tween verses  4  and  16.  Wellhausen  identi- 
fies Gibeah  of  Benjamin  with  Geba  of  Benja- 
min (vers.  3,  4,  16).  He  may  be  right  in  so 
doing,  for  the  two  names  are  confused  also 
in  the  text  of  Judges.  But  he  does  not  ac- 
curately give  the  statements  of  the  Hebrew 
account.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  narra- 
tive," he  says,  "Saul  is  at  Gibeah,  and  there 
the  Philistines  seek  for  him,  stopping  before 
the  place  because  they  meet  with  resistance 
there.  Suddenly  it  is  silently  assumed  (xiii. 
7)  that  Saul  has  remained  at  Gilgal  since  his 
selection  as  king."  In  view  of  verse  4,  this 
is  misrepresentation  on  the  part  of  Well- 
hausen. What  the  passage  plainly  says  is 
quite  different.  Saul's  troops  were  in  Mich- 
mash  and  Bethel  and  Jonathan's  in  Gibeah 
of  Benjamin  when  Jonathan  smote  the  Phi- 
listine official  in  Geba  (2,  3).    Then  Saul  blew 


the  trumpet  and  the  people  gathered  together 
after  him  to  Gilgal  (3,  4;  cp.  7).  According 
to  the  analysis  of  Wellhausen,  xiii.  1-6  is 
continued  in  verse  16,  "  Now,  as  for  Saul  and 
Jonathan  and  the  jjcople  that  were  found 
with  them,  they  were  dwelling  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  and  the  Philistines  had  encamped 
in'Michmash."  This  is  straightforward  and 
consistent;  but  Wellhausen  continues:  "In 
xiii.  16  the  reader  again  has  the  impression 
that  Saul  had  been  long  at  Gil)eah  with  his 
men,  when  the  enemy  pitched  their  camp 
opposite.  Only  thus  can  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  circumstantial  participle  and  the 
inchoative  perfect  be  understood."  But  the 
statement  of  Wellhausen  is  again  inaccurate. 
The  narrative  had  left  the  Philistines  at 
Michmash  (ver.  5)  and  Saul  at  Gilgal  accord- 
ing to  Wellhauseu's  analysis  (ver.  4),  and 
still  at  Gilgal,  if  verse  7  be  included  in  the 
narrative.  Now  it  states  that  Saul  and  his 
men  were  abiding  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
but  the  Philistines  had  encamped  in  Mich- 
mash. The  same  difficulty,  if  difficulty 
it  be,  lies  against  the  narrative  which  Well- 
hausen calls  original,  as  against  the  narrative 
which  appears  in  the  present  Hebrew  text. 
This  simply  means  that  the  section  which 
Wellhausen  omits,  verses  7  to  15,  is  in  place, 
which  tells  of  the  events  at  Gilgal,  and 
concludes  by  saying  that  Samuel  arose  and 
went  up  from  Gilgal  unto  Gibeah  of  Ben- 
jamin ;  and  Saul  after  having  numbered  his 
troops,  was  with  Jonathan  and  these  men  at 
Geba  of  Benjamin.  The  departure  from 
Gilgal  is  expressly  stated  with  regard  to 
Samuel,  and  it  is  not  necessary  explicitly  to 
repeat  it  in  regard  to  Saul  and  his  men,  it  is 
understood  of  itself.  And  the  author  used 
the  participle  to  indicate  the  continuing  cir- 
cumstance that  Saul  was  abiding  at  Geba. 

The  passage  is  intelligible  with  the  present 
Hebrew  text.  The  supposed  difficulty  like- 
wise vanishes  when  the  text  is  emended  by 
the  aid  of  the  Septuagint.  The  Greek  trans- 
lation has  an  additional  clause,  and  Driver 
conjectures  that  the  original  text  read : 
"And  Samuel  arose  and  gat  him  up  from 
Gilgal  [and  went  on  his  way.  And  the  rest 
of  the  people  went  up  after  Saul  to  meet  the 
men  of  war ;  and  they  came  from  Gilgal]  to 
Gibeah  of  Benjamin  and  Saul  numbered," 
and  so  forth.  "The  omission  in  the  Maso- 
retic  text  is  evidently  due  to  the  recurrence 
of  '  from  Gilgal '  "  (  Teict  of  Samuel,  p.  78).  In 
view  of  verse  16  this  new  text  justifies  Well- 
hauseu's identification  of  Gibeah  and  Geba 
in  this  chapter  ;  but  it  implies  that  verses  7 
and  8^  form  an  integral  part  of  the  original 
narrative.  And  this  result  Driver  accepts, 
rejecting  Wellhauseu's  exclu.sion  of  x.  8  and 
xiii.  7-15,  from  the  original  narrative  {In- 
troduction^, p.  176).  Thus  either  with  the 
Masoretic  text  upon  which  the  English  ver- 
sion is  based,  or  with  the  text  as  emended 
by  the  aid  of  the  Septuagint,  the  entire  chap- 
ter is  a  unit. 


Samuel,  Books  of 


fiSO, 


Samuel,  Books  of 


But  while  1  Sam.  xiii.  is  a  unit  in  itself,  it  is 
asserted  to  be  distinct  in  authorship  from 
chap.  XV. ;  for  in  these  two  chai)ters  there 
is  a  double  and  contradictory  account  of 
Saul's  rejection  by  God.  But  the  assertion 
cannot  stand  examination.  Samuel  indeed 
twice  rebuked  Saul  at  Gilgal,  but  he  only 
once  declared  that  God  had  rejected  Saul 
from  being  king.  When  at  the  beginning  of 
his  reign,  when  al)out  to  undertake  the  spe- 
cial work  to  which  he  had  been  called,  Saul 
failed  to  obey  Samuel's  charge  to  wait  seven 
days  until  the  prophet  should  come  to  im- 
plore God's  aid  by  sacrifice,  he  was  rebuked 
but  he  was  not  rejected  :  "  Hadst  thou  been 
faithful  to  the  theocratic  requirements,  thy 
kingdom  would  have  been  established  for- 
ever ;  but  now  it  shall  not  continue.  God 
hath  chosen  a  man  after  his  own  heart  and 
appointed  him  to  be  prince  over  his  people" 
(xiii.  13,  14).  Saul  is  not  declared  unworthy 
to  be  king  over  God's  people,  Samuel  does 
not  abandon  him,  but  goes  to  the  capital, 
where  he  can  still  assist  him.  The  ]>rophet 
only  declares  that  Saul's  kingdom  shall  not 
continue  forever ;  it  shall  eventually  pass 
from  Saul's  family  under  the  control  of 
another.  But  after  Saul's  second  flagrant 
violation  of  his  theocratic  obligations,  when 
he  disobeyed  the  command  of  God  in  the 
war  with  Amalek,  he  was  rejected  from  being 
king  (xv.  23);  and  Samuel  abandoned  him 
and  came  no  more  to  see  him  until  the  day 
of  his  death  (34,  35),  a  man  of  a  different 
tribe  was  anointed  (xvi.  1,  13),  the  spirit 
which  qualified  the  theocratic  king  for  his 
high  office  departed  from  Saul  and  came 
mightily  upon  David  (13,  14),  and  not  Saul, 
but  David,  became  the  deliverer  of  Israel 
(xvii.). 

The  account  of  Samuel's  judgeship  and  of 
Saul's  elevation  to  the  throne,  the  earlier 
years  of  his  reign,  and  his  rejection  by 
God,  is  thus  found  to  be  capable  of  consist- 
ent interpretation  throughout.  Examination 
of  the  history  of  David  reveals  its  consistency 
likewise.  See  David  and  Jonathan.  There 
is  no  ground,  therefore,  for  the  assumption 
that  contradictory  documents  have  been 
combined  to  form  the  First  Book  of  Samuel. 

III.  It  further  appears  that  while  the  con- 
tents of  the  alleged  documents  into  which 
the  narrative  has  been  distri})nted  are  con- 
sistent, they  also  imply  each  other.  (1)  The 
original  narrative  in  1  Sam.  ix.  16,  and  x.  5, 
implies  that  the  Philistines  had  renewed  the 
exercise  of  sovereignty  over  Israel.  The  ex- 
plaiialion  is  found  in  the  preceding  cha])ter, 
wliich  is  alleged  to  be  a  later  narrative  ;  for 
the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Philistines 
and  other  ancient  foes,  when  Samuel  began 
to  relax  the  reins, of  government,  is  imjilied 
in  viii.  1,  5,  20.  The  original  narrative  thus 
requires  chap.  viii.  as  an  integral  i)art.  The 
only  escape  is  to  magisterially  declare  that 
the  Israelites  had  been  subject  to  the  Philis- 
tines  ever  since   the   ark    was   taken,    that 


Samuel  never  delivered  Israel  from  the  Phi- 
listine yoke,  that  the  story  of  the  second 
battle  of  Ebenezer  is  a  pure  fabrication  (vii. 
2-17).  And  this  dogmatic  assertion  Well- 
hausen  does  not  hesitate  to  make.  He  says 
that  "there  cannot  be  a  word  of  truth  in 
the  entire  narrative."  Driver  does  not  ex- 
plicitly deny  that  the  event  occurred,  but  he 
admits  that  chaps,  ix.  and  x.  do  not  connect 
directly  with  vii.  1,  and  says  that  "it  is 
probable  that  the  original  sequel  of  iv.  l**  to 
vii.  1,  has  here  been  omitted  to  make  room 
for  vii.  2  flf."  In  other  words,  vii.  2-17  and 
viii.  aflbrd  a  consistent  picture  of  the  times, 
as  has  been  already  shown  ;  and  it  is  the 
theory  of  the  divisive  critics  which  fails  to 
explain  the  existing  phenomena.  (2)  The 
original  narrative  in  xi.  implies  the  public 
selection  of  Saul  to  be  king  which  is  related 
in  the  alleged  later  narrative  (x.  17-27).  If, 
as  asserted,  Saul  had  only  been  anointed  in 
private  (x.  1),  what  gave  him  such  respect  in 
the  eyes  of  the  people  a  month  later  that 
men  from  all  the  tribes  sprang  to  arms  at  his 
summons  and  followed  him  to  the  relief  of 
Jabesh  in  Gilead?  Chapter  xi.  requires  that 
some  event  preceded  like  that  which  is  re- 
corded in  the  alleged  later  narrative  (x.  17-27). 
(3)  The  original  narrative  of  David's  career, 
it  is  said,  first  mentions  him  as  an  adult  man, 
accustomed  to  arms,  who  is  skillful  in  play- 
ing the  harp  and  is  accordingly  summoned 
by  Saul  to  court,  to  soothe  him  with  music 
whenever  he  is  suflering  from  his  malady 
(xvi.  14-23),  and  it  is  continued  in  xviii.  6- 
30.  But  it  is  manifest  that  these  two  pas- 
sages do  not  connect ;  xviii.  6  refers  to  the 
return  of  David  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
Philistine  (R.  V.  margin,  Philistines).  The 
account  of  the  combat  between  David  and 
Goliath,  which  is  assigned  to  a  different  and 
later  author,  intervenes  and  supplies  the 
missing  link ;  but  this  has  been  eliminated 
from  the  original  narrative  by  the  divisive 
critics,  largely  on  the  allegation  that  in  xvii. 
33  David  is  represented  as  a  youth,  and  in 
verses  55-58  Saul  does  not  know  David.  On 
other  equally  valid  interpretation  these  al- 
leged inconsistencies  with  the  original  narra- 
tive do  not  exist.  See  David.  To  make 
them  out  the  divisive  critics  are  obliged  to 
discard  xvii.  14.  Saul  is  not  asking  who 
David  is,  but  is  inquiring  who  and  what 
David's  father  is.  That  something  is  needed 
between  xvi.  23,  and  xviii.  6,  is  admitted. 
Wellhausen  says  it  was  something  quite  dif- 
ferent from  what  now  stands  there,  because 
chap,  xvii,  tells  of  David's  killing  but  one 
man,  whereas  xviii.  7  speaks  of  him  as 
having  slain  his  ten  thousand.  As  though 
the  slaying  of  their  champion,  and  thereby 
putting  the  Philistines  to  flight,  was  not  in 
the  language  of  song  the  slaying  of  ten  thou- 
sand !  The  author  of  the  Book  of  Samuel 
evidently  understood  it  so.  Thus  the  original 
narrative  of  David's  career  implies  the  exist- 
ence of  the  alleged  later  .story,  and  again  the 


Sanballat 


681 


Sarah 


only  escape  from  this  dilemma  is  to  assert 
that  some  part  of  the  orii^inal  narrative  has 
heen  replaced  by  somethiiin  quiti'  diU'crciit. 
The  Book  of  Samuel  does  not  make  the  dif- 
liculty.  It  is  the  theory  which  fails  to  ex- 
plain the  existing  phenomena. 

San-ballat  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath  given 
life]. 

An  influential  Samaritan  (Neh.  ii.  10).  He 
was  a  lloronite.  Tliis  designation  scarcely 
means  a  native  of  Horonaim  in  Moah,  else  he 
would  probably  be  called  a  Moabite ;  but 
rather  describes  him  as  a  man  of  Beth-horon 
(cp.  iv.  2;  vi.  2).  He  was  opposed  to  the  re- 
building of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehe- 
miah  and  tried,  unsuccessfully,  to  stop  it  (iv. 

7,  8).  Next  he  plotted  with  others  to  invite 
Nehemiah  to  a  conference,  and  assassinate 
him  when  he  came  (vi.  1-4).  This  new  de- 
A'ice  failing,  he  tried  intimidation,  but  in 
vain  (5-14). 

Sanballat  the  Horonite  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  high  priest  Eliasliib,  great-grandfather 
of  Jaddua;  was  associated  with  Tobiah  the 
Ammonite ;  and  opposed  the  rebuilding  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes.  A  son  of  the 
liigh  priest  Joiada  took  Sanballat's  daughter 
to  wife,  and  for  this  otfense  was  expelled 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  1;  iv.  3,  7;  xiii. 
4,  28).  Josephus  mentions  one  Sanhallat,  a 
Cuthean  by  birth,  whom  Darius,  the  last  king 
[of  Persia,  336-330  B.  c]  sent  to  Samaria 
as  governor  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  2 ;  8,  2),  but  who, 
on  the  defeat  of  Darius,  went  over  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  B.  C.  (8,  4).  His  daugh- 
ter Nicaso  was  taken  to  wife  by  Manasseh, 
brother  of  the  high  priest  Jaddua.  This  for- 
eign marriage  otfended  the  Jewish  authori- 
ties, and  they  drove  Manasseh  from  the  altar 
at  Jerusalem  ;  but  Sanballat,  with  the  appro- 
bation of  Alexander,  built  a  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  and  made  his  son-in-law  its  priest 
(7,  2;  8,  2  and  4).  Thesestatementsof  the  Jew- 
ish historian  do  not  accord  with  the  facts  of 
Sanballat's  history  already  recited.  The  older 
commentators  thought  that  Josephus  speaks 
of  a  later  Sanballat.  Josephus,  however, 
doubtless  has  in  mind  Sanballat  the  Horonite 
and  the  marriage  referred  to  in  Neh.  xiii.  28; 
but  he  has  probably  lowered  the  date  of  San- 
ballat 100  years  to  confc^rm  the  facts  to  his 
belief  that  the  son-in-law  of  Sanballat  not 
only  founded  or  greatly  promoted  the  Samari- 
tan religion,  but  also  built  the  temple  on 
Gerizim,  and  that  this  temple  was  erected 
after  Alexander's  conquest  of  the  country 
(Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1  ;  200  years  before  128  B.  c. 
or  thereabout),  and  that  Alexander  and  the 
high  prie.st  Jaddua  were  contemporaries  ( xi. 

8,  5).  Josephus  assigns  a  false  date  here  ;  as 
he  also  does  when  he  dates  Nehemiah' s  com- 
mission in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Xerxes, 
who  reigned  but  21  years  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  7),  in- 
stead of  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  succes- 
sor,  Artaxerxes  (Neh.   ii.    1),   and  when   he 


dates  the  arrival  of  Ezra  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Xerxes  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  2),  in- 
stead of  21  years  later,  in  the  seventh  year 
of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  vii.  1,  8),  and  when  he 
confounds  Onias  I.  with  Onias  III.,  who  lived 
a  century  later  (1  Mac.  xii.  7,  20 ;  Antiq.  xii. 
4,  10). 

San'dal.     See  Clothing,  Shoe. 

San'he-drin  and  Sanhedrim  [Talmudic 
Hel)rew,  fi-om   Greek  siuiedriun.   a    council]. 

The  name  generally  given  by  writers  on 
Jewish  antiquities  and  history  to  the  highest 
Jewish  assembly  for  government  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord.  The  English  version  uses  the 
more  familiar  word  council ;  see  Council. 

San-san'nah  [a  palm  leaf]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31) ;  i)erhaps  the  same  as  Hazar- 
susah,  which  occupies  the  corresponding  po- 
sition in  the  list  of  cities  assigned  to  the 
Simeonites  (cp.   Josh.  xix.  .5). 

Saph  [a  basin,  foundation,  threshold]. 

A  Philistine  giant,  slain  by  Sibbechai  in  a 
battle  at  Gob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  xx.  4  Sippai. 

Sa'pMr.     See  Shaphir. 

Sap-pM'ra  [beautiful,  or,  less  probably,  a 
sapphire] . 

The  wife  of  that  Ananias  who  was  struck 
dead  for  having  lied  unto  God.  She  shared 
her  husband's  sin  and  its  penalty  (Acts  v. 
1-10). 

Sap'phire. 

A  pi-ecious  stone  (Tobit  xiii.  16),  called  in 
Hebrew  sappir,  in  Greek  sappheiros.  It  was 
the  middle  gem  in  the  second  row  of  the  high 
priest's  breasti^late  (Ex.  xxviii.  18),  and 
adorned  the  second  foundation  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  It  was  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish  (Lam.  iv.  7),  and  was  of  great 
value  (Job  xxviii.  16  ;  cp.  Song.  v.  14  ;  Is. 
liv.  11).  The  sapphire  is  one  of  the  three 
varieties  of  corundum,  the  others  being 
corundum  proper  and  emery.  It  is  of  a  blu- 
ish color,  and  transparent  or  translucent  (cp. 
Ex.  xxiv.  10).  It  is  inferior  in  hardness  only 
to  the  diamond,  and  is  still  greatly  prized. 
The  ancients  obtained  it  from  India  and 
Ethiopia.  Fine  specimens  are  brought  from 
Ceylon. 

Sa'rah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Sara  (Heb. 
xi.  11 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  6)  [a  princess]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Abraham,  ten  years  his 
junior,  married  to  him  in  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
dees  (Gen.  xi.  28-31 ;  xvii.  17).  .She  was  also 
his  half-sister,  being  the  daughter  of  his 
father,  but  not  of  his  mother  (xx.  12).  Her 
name  was  originally  Sarai,  meaning  perhaps 
princely  or  contentious.  When  Abraham 
departed  from  Haran  to  go  to  Canaan,  Sarai 
was  about  sixty-five  years  old  (xii.  4).  Evi- 
dently she  was  a  well-preserved  woman  :  for 
she  lived  to  be  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years  old  ;  and  shortly  after  leaving  Haran, 
when  about  to  enter  Egypt,  Abraham  feared 


Sarai 


682 


Sargon 


lest  her  beauty  should  attract  the  Egyptians 
and  lead  to  his  murder,  and  he  represented 
that  she  was  his  sister,  keeping  back  the  fact 
that  she  was  his  wife  (10-20).  Years 
later  he  did  so  again  at  the  court  of  Abime- 
lech,  king  of  Gerar  (xx.  1-18).  Why  he  did 
so  is  not  stated,  nor  is  it  said  that  Abimelech 
was  influenced  by  her  beauty.  The  king  of 
Gerar  may  have  thought  of  the  desirability 
of  an  alliance  with  the  powerful  Hebrew 
chieftain,  and,  with  this  end  in  view,  deter- 
mined to  take  a  woman  of  the  immediate 
family  of  Abraham  into  his  harem,  as  was 
frequently  done  by  pi'inces  of  that  period 
when  they  concluded  alliances.  Sarai  had 
a  female  slave,  Hagar,  but  she  herself 
worked  for  the  household  with  her  own 
hand  (xviii.  6).  Sarai  wae  childless;  and 
when  about  seventy-five  years  old  she  con- 
cluded that  she  was  an  obstacle  to  the 
promise  made  to  Abraham  of  numerous  pos- 
terity, and  she  entreated  her  husband  to 
take  Hagar  as  a  secondary  wife.  He  did  so, 
ajjparently  without  asking  divine  direction 
before  doing  so,  and  became  the  father  of 
Ishmael  (xvi.  1-16).  Afterwards  Sarai,  when 
about  eighty-nine,  received  a  promise  from 
God  that  she  should  herself  bear  a  son  (cp. 
Heb.  xi.  11,  12),  and  in  the  course  of  a  year 
gave  birth  to  Isaac  the  child  of  promise.  It 
was  when  this  xiromise  was  made  to  her  that 
God  changed  her  name  to  Sarah,  meaning 
pri-ncess  (Gen.  xvii.  15-22  ;  xviii.  9-15;  xxi.  1- 
5).  When  Isaac  was  weaned,  his  parents  made 
a  great  feast,  at  which  Sarah  saw  Ishmael, 
Hagar's  son,  mocking.  She  insisted  that  both 
mother  and  son  should  be  sent  away  (9-21). 
Sarah  died  at  Kirjath-arba  (Hebron)  at  the 
age  of  127  (xxiii.  1,  2),  and  was  buried  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelab,  which  Abraham  pur- 
chased at  that  time  for  a  family  sepulcher. 

2.  For  Sarah  of  Num.  xxvi.  46,  A.  V.,  a 
diflferent  word  in  Hebrew,  see  Serah. 

Sa'rai.     See  Sarah  1. 

Sar'a-mel.     See  Asaramel. 

Sa'raph  [burning,  fiery]. 

A  descendant  of  Shelah,  the  son  of  Judah. 
At  one  time  he  exercised  dominion  in  Moab 
(1  Chron.  iv.  22). 

Sar'dine.     See  Sardius. 

Sar'dis. 

A  city  first  of  the  Mseonians  and  then  the 
capital  of  Lydia.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot 
of  mount  Tmolus,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Pactolus,  a  tributary  of  the  Hermus.  Most 
of  the  city  was  on  a  somewhat  swampy  plain, 
but  the  citadel  was  on  a  hill  flanked  on  one 
side  by  a  precipice.  It  was  the  capital  of  a 
very  fertile  region.  One  of  its  kings  was 
f'ra'siLs,  who  was  proverbial  for  his  wealth. 
In  546  B.  c.  it  was  captured  by  Gyrus  the 
Great,  and  afterwards  became  the  seat  of  a 
Persian  satrap.  The  burning  of  Sardis  by 
the  Athenians,  499  B.  c,  l)ronght  on  tlu> 
Persian  invasion  of  Greece  iu  the  reigns  of 


Darius  and  Xerxes.  In  334  B.  c.  it  sur- 
rendered to  Alexander  the  Great,  after  his 
victory  at  the  Granicus.  In  214  b.  c.  it  was 
taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  but  he  lost  it 
again,  after  having  been  severely  defeated,  in 
190  B.  c,  by  the  Eomans  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia.  They  annexed  it  for  a  time  to 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  but  in  129  b.  c. 
constituted  the  Roman  jn-ovince  of  Asia, 
within  the  limits  of  which  Sardis  fell.  Jews 
dwelt  in  the  city  (Autiq.  xiv.  10,  24),  and  a 
Christian  community  early  grew  up  there 
(Eev.  i.  11;  iii.  1,  4).  Sardis  (now  called 
Sert-Kalessi)  is  only  a  miserable  hamlet,  con- 
sisting of  a  few  houses.  But  there  are  re- 
mains in  its  vicinity  of  a  magnificent  temple, 
coming  down,  it  is  believed,  from  Lydian 
times,  with  the  ruins  of  a  course  for  foot- 
racing, a  theater,  and  Christian  churches. 
The  citadel  is  of  sandstone,  partly  rent 
asunder  as  if  by  one  of  the  earthquakes 
which  have  frequently  visited  the  region. 

Sar'di-us,  in  A.  V.  of  Eev.  iv.  3  Sardine. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  which  the  Greeks 
called  sai'dios  and  sardion.  It  was  a  precious 
stone  (Eev.  iv.  3),  and  constituted  the  sixth 
foundation  of  the  wall  about  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (xxi.  20).  Two  sorts,  distinguished  by 
their  color,  were  known  by  the  name  of 
sardius :  the  transparent  red  being  our  car- 
nelian  and  the  brownish  red  being  the  variety 
of  carnelian  to  which  we  restrict  the  name 
sardius.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  found 
near  Sardis,  whence  it  derived  its  name,  but 
the  finest  qualities  were  brought  from  Baby- 
lon. The  best  carnelians  now  come  from 
India ;  some  also  occur  in  Arabia,  whence 
the  ancient  Hebrews  may  have  obtained 
them. 

In  the  O.  T.  sardius  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Hebrew  ^Odem,  reddish  gem.  It  was  the 
first  stone  in  the  first  row  on  the  higlupriest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17),  and  was  one  of 
the  stones  with  which  Tyre  adorned  itself 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13).  The  marginal  reading  is 
ruby,  but  the  Septuagint  renders  'odem  by 
sardion.  So  does  Joseph  us  in  one  place 
(War  V.  5,  7),  while  in  another  he  has  sar- 
donyx, which  is  but  another  variety  of  chal- 
cedony (Antiq.  iii.  7,  5). 

Sar'do-nyx. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  called  by  the 
Greeks  snrdonnx.  finger-nail  onyx.  It  forms 
the  fifth  foundation  of  the  wall  surrounding 
the  New  Jerusalem  (Eev.  xxi.  20).  It  is  like 
the  onyx  in  structure,  but  includes  layers  of 
carnelian  along  with  others  of  white,  whitish- 
brown,  or  sometimes  of  black  color.  It  was 
obtained  chiefly  in  India  and  Arabia  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii.  23). 

Sa-rep'ta.     See  Zarepiiatii. 

Sar'gon  [Assyrian  Sharnil^inu,  the  consti- 
tnted  king]. 

A  king  of  Assyria,  mentioned  by  name  in 
Scripture  in  Is.  xx.  1  only.  He  succeeded 
the  la.st  Shalmaneser.     He  was  perhaps  of 


Sargon 


683 


Satan 


royal  blood,  as  he  claims  ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  he  usurped  the  throne,  assuming  the 
name  of  Sargon,  an  ancient  and  celebrated 
Babylonian  king.  He  either  secured  the 
throne  and  then  completed  the  siege  of  Sa- 
maria, which  Shalmaneser  had  begun  in  724 
B.  c,  or  else  he  ascended  the  throne  immedi- 
ately after  the  fall  of  Israel's  capital,  and, 
perhaps  as  the  general  who  had  brought 
these  military  operations  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination, claimed  the  capture  as  an  act  of 
his  accession  year.  The  biblical  record  is 
not  clear  (2  Kin.  xvii.  1-6).  The  Hebrew 
writer  relates  that  Shalmaneser  came  against 
Hoshea,  and  proceeds  by  saying  that  the 
king  of  Assyria  found  conspiracy  in  Hoshea 
and  cast  him  into  prison,  and  that  the  king 
of  Assyria  besieged  Samaria  three  years,  and 
in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea  took  the  city. 
Until  the  claim  of  Sargon  to  have  captured 
Samaria  came  to  light,  readers  of  the  Hebrew 
narrative  inferred  that  Shalmaneser  was  the 
cimqueror  of  Samaria.  But  the  inference 
was  not  warranted,  for  the  writer  continues 
to  speak  of  the  king  of  Assyria,  where  it  is 
probable  that  he  does  not  mean  the  conqueror 
of  Samaria  (ver.  24,  26,  27).  He  does  not 
specify  the  particular  king,  but  uses  the  gen- 
eral title  ;  and  when  he  recurs  to  the  siege, 
he  names  Shalmaneser  as  the  besieger,  but 
continues  by  saying,  "They  took  it"  (xviii. 
9,  10).  At  any  rate,  Samaria  fell  in  the  clos- 
ing months  of  722  B.  c.  and  Sargon  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  12th  of  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  of  that  year.  Immediately  after  his 
accession,  the  Babylonians,  assisted  by  the 
Elamites,  revolted,  and  Sargon  was  for  a 
time  unable  to  reduce  them  to  subjection. 
In  720  the  remaining  Israelites  of  Samaria 
in  alliance  with  the  men  of  Hamath  rebelled, 
but  Sargon  subdued  them,  and  placed  captive 
Hamathites  as  colonists  in  Samaria.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  allied  forces  of 
Hanun,  king  of  Gaza  and  Sib'e,  better  known 
to  readers  of  the  Bible  as  So,  the  tartan  of 
Eg;\'pt  in  a  battle  fought  at  Eaphia.  Sargon 
took  Carchemish,  the  capital  of  the  Hittites, 
in  717,  and  with  the  capture  of  their  capital 
the  empire  of  the  Hittites  fell.  In  716  his 
armies  waged  war  in  Armenia,  in  715  they 
were  still  engaged  in  war  in  Armenia,  and 
were  carrying  on  operations  in  Media.  In 
this  year  also  Arab  tribes  were  planted  as 
colonists  in  Samaria  by  his  orders,  and  he  re- 
ceived tribute  from  Pharaoh  of  Egypt.  He 
boasts  of  having  subjugated  Judah.  The 
tablet  on  which  this  boast  appears  was  in- 
scribed before  the  close  of  714,  to  judge  from 
its  contents.  The  combined  Assyrian  and 
Hebrew  data  point  to  the  end  of  71">  or  the 
beginning  of  714  as  the  date  when  Hezekiah 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Assyria  by 
beginning  to  pay  tribute.  Merodach-baladan 
incited  the  nations  from  Elam  to  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  to  revolt  from  Assyria.  In  711, 
therefore,  Sargon  dispatched  troops  against 
Ashdod,  and  in  710  he  captured  Babylon  and 


assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Babylon.  He 
began  to  erect  a  new  palace  and  town  10 
miles  northeast  of  Nineveh  in  712  and  named 
it  Dur-sharrukin,  Sargousburg.  The  ruins 
are  known  as  Khorsabad  ;  see  Nineveh. 
He  took  up  his  residence  there  about  707. 
He  was  murdered  in  705  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Sennacherib. 

Sa'rid  [survivor]. 

A  village  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Zebu- 
lun  (Josh.  xix.  10,  12).  Conder,  reading  with 
Septuagint  and  Syriac  version  d  instead  of 
r,  places  it  doubtfully  at  Tell  Shadud,  on  the 
northern  part  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  5 
miles  southwest  of  Nazareth. 

Sa'ron.     See  Sharon, 

Sar'se-cMm. 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes  who  en- 
tered Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3). 

Sa'ruch.    See  Serug. 

Sa'tan  [Hebrew  safan,  an  adversarv] . 

The  devil  (Mat.  iv.'l  with  10,  11  ;  Mark  i. 
1.3) ;  preeminently  "  the  adversary  "  (Job  i.  6 ; 
Zech.  iii.  1,  margin),  because  animated  by 
a  disposition  hostile  to  all  goodness  and 
the  chief  opponent  of  God  and  man  (Job  ii. 
3;  Luke  xxii.  3;  cp.  1  Chron.  xxi.  1  and  Ps. 
cix.  6,  but  see  R.  V.),  aiming  to  undo  the 
work  of  God  (Mark  iv.  15),  seeking  to  per- 
suade men  to  sin  (Luke  xxii.  3 ;  Acts  v.  3 ; 
xxvi.  18),  desirous  of  leading  them  to  re- 
nounce God  (Job  ii.  5  ;  Mat.  iv.  9,  10),  and 
endeavoring  to  prevent  their  acceptance  and 
salvation  by  God  (Zech.  iii.  1,  2).  He  is  some- 
times influential  in  bringing  about  physical 
sickness,  pecuniary  loss,  bereavement  (Job  i. 
11-22;  ii.  4-7;  Luke  xiii.  16).  He  is,  how- 
ever, under  the  control  of  God.  Only  by 
God's  permission  can  he  pursue  his  malicious 
designs  (Job  i.  12 ;  ii.  5,  6  ;  Luke  xxii.  32). 
When  permission  is  granted  him  to  carry 
out  his  evil  plots,  it  is  only  that  he  may  be- 
come an  instrument  in  furthering  the  divine 
plan.  In  Job's  case,  the  vain  etforts  of  Satan 
to  induce  the  patriarch  to  sin  resulted  in  dis- 
ciplining his  character  and  maturing  his  faith 
in  God.  In  the  fully  revealed  doctrine  of 
Satan,  which  is  seen  in  the  N.  T.,  he  is  the 
god  of  this  world  who  has  access  to  the  hearts 
of  men.  deceives  them,  and  receives  their 
witting  or  unwitting  obedience  (Luke  xxii. 
3  ;  Acts  V.  3  ;  xxvi.  18  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  2  Thes. 
ii.  9  ;  Rev.  xii.  9).  He  is  the  ruler  of  a  king- 
dom, having  principalities,  powers,  and  de- 
mons under  him  (Mat.  xii.  24,  26 ;  Luke  xi. 
18  ;  Rev.  xii.  7). 

Satan  was  the  seducer  of  Adam  and  Eve 
(2  Cor.  xi.  3  ;  Rev.  xii.  9).  This  fact  may 
have  become  known  to  them.  If  not,  it  was 
discerned  as  soon  as  the  existence  of  the 
devil  and  his  work  became  known,  for  the 
temptation  of  Eve  came  from  without  through 
the  persuasions  of  an  irrational  creature. 
The  malignant  spirit  behind  the  serpent, 
hostile  to  good,  seeking  to  undo  the  work  of 


Satrap 


God,  and  su pern atu rally  lending  speech  to  the 
reptile,  or  communicating  with  the  mind  of 
the  woman,  so  that  she  thought  she  heard 
articulate  speech,  was  evidently  Satan.  This 
doctrine  went  hand  in  hand  with  the 
doctrine  concerning  the  devil,  and  received 
the  highest  sanction  (Wisd.  ii.  24 ;  John 
viii.  44;  Rom.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xi.  3;  Eev. 
xii.  9) ;  see  Serpent.  Satan  produced  de- 
moniacal possession  (Mat.  xii.  22-29 ;  Mark 
iii.  22-27;  Luke  xi.  14-23).  He  approached 
Jesus  with  temptation  (Mat.  iv.  1-11).  He 
steals  the  word  from  the  heart  of  the  igno- 
rant or  inattentive  hearer  (Mark  iv.  15).  He 
entered  into  the  heart  of  Judas  before  the 
commission  of  the  great  crime  (Luke  xxii.  3  ; 
John  xiii.  27).  He  had  to  do  with  Peter's 
fall  (Luke  xxii.  31).  It  was  imder  tempta- 
tion by  Satan  that  Ananias  and  Sapphira  lied 
to  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  v.  3).  He  hindered 
Paul  in  his  ministry  (1  Thes.  ii.  18),  having 
previously  sent  a  messenger  to  buffet  him 
(2  Cor.  xii.  7).  Pergamos,  where  a  faithful 
Christian,  Antipas,  suffered  martyrdom,  was 
a  place  where  Satan  dwelt  (Rev.  ii.  13). 
Men  with  hearts  unchanged  are  under  Satan's 
power  (Acts  xxvi.  18).  An  assembly  of  those 
who  have  grievously  erred  from  the  faith, 
and  perhaps  from  morality,  is  the  synagogue 
of  Satan  (Rev.  ii.  9 ;  iii.  9 ;  cp.  1  Tim.  v.  15). 
Those  who  are  expelled  from  the  church  are 
said  to  be  delivered  to  Satan  ;  but  tJiis  is  de- 
signed to  produce  their  reformation,  and  not 
their  destruction  (1  Cor.  v.  5;  1  Tim.  i.  20). 
There  are  depths  in  Satan  which  inexperi- 
enced Christians  fail  to  fathom  (Rev.  ii.  24). 
He  is,  moreover,  so  plausible  that  he  seems 
to  be  an  angel  of  light  (2  Cor.  xi.  14).  He 
sometimes  gains  advantages  over  Christians 
(ii.  11),  but  he  shall  ultimately  be  bruised 
under  their  feet  (Rom.  xvi.  20).  He  is  the 
real  agent  in  the  operations  carried  on  by 
the  man  of  sin  (2  Thes.  ii.  1-12),  but  the  day 
will  come  when,  after  a  temporary  triumph, 
Satan  shall  be  expelled  from  the  earth,  and, 
being  bound,  shall  be  cast  into  the  abyss 
(Rev.  xii.  9;  xx.  1,  2).     See  Devil. 

Simon  Peter  was  called  Satan  when  he 
took  it  upon  him  to  contradict  Clnist's  proph- 
ecy of  his  death  and  rcsuircction,  for  he 
was  a  stumbling-block  to  Christ,  opjiosed  him, 
and  minded  not  the  things  of  God  (Mat.  xvi. 
23;  Mark  viii.  33). 

Sa'trap  [from  Persian  IchnJiafrapdwan,  ab- 
breviated kliHliatrapd,  protector  of  the  land, 
in  Hebrew  '"hashdrapan]. 

The  official  title  of  the  viceroy,  who,  in 
behalf  of  the  Persian  monarch,  exercised 
the  civil  and  military  authority  in  several 
small  provinces  conilnued  in  one  government. 
Each  of  these  provinces  had  its  own  governor 
(Ezra  viii.  36  and  Esth.  iii.  12,  in  A.  V.  lieu- 
tenant). The  title  is  used  in  Aramaic  his- 
torical documents  written  after  the  Persian 
conquest,  in  referring  to  high  officials  of  the 
Babylonian  empire  and  of  the  kingdom  ruled 


684  Saul 

by  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  iii.  2  and  vi.  1,  in 
A.  V.  prince). 

Sa'tyr. 

A  sylvan  god  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
a  companion  of  Bacchus.  At  lir.st  he  was 
represented  with  long-pointed  ears,  snub  nose, 
and  goat's  tail.  At  a  later  period  goat's  legs 
were  added.  He  was  supposed  to  possess  a 
half  brutal  and  lustful  nature.  Satyr  is  the 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  S"ir,  he  goat,  and 
is  applied  to  wild  animals  or  demons  which 
should  dance  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon 
(Is.  xiii.  21)  and  of  the  Edomite  cities  (xxxiv. 
14).  The  word  commonly  signifies  a  he  goat. 
In  two  pas.sages  it  denotes  an  object  of  idola- 
trous worship  (Lev.  xvii.  7  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  15, 
both  E.  v.).  In  the  latter  place  it  is  mentioned 
with  calf  idols,  suggesting  that  it  refers  to  idols 
having  the  likeness  of  goats.  In  Is.  xiii.  21, 22 
it  is  associated  with  wild  animals,  in  xxxiv.  14 
with  a  creature  of  the  night  also,  which  may 
be  either  some  nocturnal  animal  (in  A.  V. 
the  screech  owl)  or  a  nocturnal  demoji ;  see 
Night  Monstek.  In  the  adaptation  of 
Isaiah's  words  in  Revelation,  the  language  is 
quoted  from  the  Septuagint  and  the  word 
demons  is  used  (Rev.  xviii.  2,  R.  V.).  Accord- 
ingly, interpreters  dispute  whether  the  He- 
brew prophet  meant  that  wild  goats,  ostriches, 
wolves,  jackals,  and  other  beasts  of  the  desert 
should  wander  among  the  forsaken  ruins,  or 
whether  he  introduced  into  the  imagery  of 
his  poetic  description  a  popular  belief  in  de- 
mons which  appeared  in  the  form  of  goats 
and  haunted  desert  places. 

Saul  [asked  (of  God)]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  from  Rehoboth,  on  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,  38,  in  R.  V. 
Shaul). 

2.  The  first  king  of  Israel,  son  of  Kish,  a 
Benjamite  ;  see  Kish.  The  prophet,  Samuel 
had  grown  old  ;  his  sons  showed  by  their  con- 
duct that  they  did  not  possess  his  upright 
character  and"  could  not  carry  on  his  work  ; 
and  the  surrounding  nations  were  evidently 
ready  to  harass  and  oppress  Israel  (1  Sam.  viii. 
1,  3,  20  ;  xii.  12).  The  elders  of  Israel  accord- 
ingly came  to  Samuel  and  demanded  that  the 
form  of  government  be  changed  and  that  a 
visible  king  be  set  over  them,  so  that  they 
might  be  like  the  well-organized  nations 
about  them,  and  have  one  who  could  lead 
them  to  victory  over  their  foes  (viii.  4.  5,  19, 
20).  Although  the  ultimate  organization  of 
the  Hebrews  as  a  kingdom,  with  an  earthly 
monarch  as  the  representative  of  Jehovah, 
had  long  been  contemplated  (Gen.  xvii.  (>, 
16;  XXXV.  11;  Deut.  xvii.  14-20),  yet  the 
spirit  of  tlie  people  in  demanding  a  king  at 
this  crisis  was  irreligious.  Tliey  lacked 
abiding  faith  in  God,  without  which  the  rule 
of  Jeliovah  as  theocratic  king  was  impossi- 
ble. They  were  turning  from  faith  in  the 
invisible  God  to  put  contidcnce  in  a  visible 
king.  By  divine  direction  Samuel  informed 
the  elders  what  the  people  would  have  to  en- 


Saul 


685 


Saul 


dure  from  a  king,  but  on  their  persisting  in 
their  demand,  he  iiromised  to  do  as  they  de- 
sired and  dismissed  them. 

The  elevation  of  Saul  to  the  throne.  About 
this  time  the  asses  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite, 
went  astray,  and  liis  son,  Saul,  was  sent  to 
seek  them.  Saul  was  at  the  time  a  young 
man,  perhaps  thirty-live  years  old  ;  and  he 
was  head  and  shoulders  taller  than  any  of  the 
people.  Not  finding  the  asses,  after  three 
days'  search,  he  was  about  to  give  up  the 
quest  and  return  home.  His  servant,  how- 
ever, suggested  one  further  effort.  Persons 
of  whom  the  servant  made  inquiry  concern- 
hig  the  asses  probably  told  him  that  there 
WHS  a  man  of  God  in  the  neighboring  city 
who  might  give  the  desired  information,  and 
he  persuaded  Saul  to  go  to  him.  The  man 
of  God  was  Samuel,  who  had  been  told  by 
God  to  expect  a  Benjamite  and  to  anoint  him 
prince  over  Israel.  Saul  and  his  family  in 
Gibeah  knew  Samuel  well  by  report  (1  Sam. 
X.  14-16),  but  Saul  seems  not  to  have  met  the 
prophet  before  and  not  to  have  understood 
that  Samuel  was  the  man  of  God  of  whom 
the  people  spake.  He  refers  to  him  as  the 
man  (ix.  7),  and  on  meeting  him  at  the  city 
gate  does  not  know  him  (18,  19).  Samuel  in- 
formed Saul  that  the  asses  had  been  recov- 
ered, intimated  to  him  that  he  would  be  chosen 
king,  and  put  him  in  the  place  of  honor  at 
the  sacrificial  feast  which  he  was  about  to 
celebrate.  Next  morning,  as  the  guest  was 
leaving  the  town,  the  prophet  took  a  vial  of 
oil,  poured  it  upon  his  head,  and  having 
kissed  him,  said,  "  Is  it  not  that  the  Lord 
hath  anointed  thee  to  be  prince  over  his  in- 
heritance?" and  charged  him  not  to  disclose 
the  secret,  to  go  to  Gilgal  at  the  proper  time 
and  tarry  there  seven  days,  until  he  himself 
should  come  and  offer  sacrifice  and  give  in- 
struction (ix.  20-x.  16).  Samuel  soon  sum- 
moned the  people  to  Mizpah.  The  choice  was 
left  to  God.  The  lot  was  cast,  and  Saul  was 
chosen.  But  he  had  hidden  himself.  When 
he  was  brought  from  his  hiding  place  and  stood 
forth,  towering  above  the  multitude,  he  was 
received  with  enthusiasm.  God  had  selected 
a  man  of  fine  appearance  in  order  to  win  the 
admiration  and  confidence  of  all  the  Israel- 
ites, and  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
which  stood  on  the  border  between  Ephraim 
and  Judah,  in  order  to  satisfy  both  north  and 
south.  Samuel  had  committed  the  choice  to 
God  in  order  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the 
godly  men  for  the  king.  A  large  company  of 
men,  obedientto  God,  escorted  Saul  lidinc  ;  but 
certain  men  of  Belial  were  nevertheless  dissat- 
isfied, and  Saul  retired  to  private  life  until 
private  jealousies  should  be  overcome.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  his 
father's  fields.  A  month  later  (x.  27,  E.  V. 
margin)  the  town  of  Jabesh  in  Gilead  was 
straitly  besieged  by  the  Ammonites.  At  the 
request  of  the  citizens,  the  besiegers  scorn- 
fully granted  a  truce  of  seven  days  in  order 
that  the  townspeople  might  invoke  the  aid 


of  their  fellow-countrymen.  The  messen- 
gers, or  some  of  them,  came  to  Gibeah  with, 
their  mournful  story.  Saul  heard  it  when 
he  returned  from  the  field.  The  Spirit  of 
God  stirred  him.  He  sent  summons  to  the 
tribes  to  follow  him  and  Samuel  to  the  rescue 
of  their  imperiled  brethren.  Jabesh  was  re- 
lieved. The  people  asked  where  were  they 
who  had  refused  to  recognize  Saul  as  king, 
and  they  carried  Saul  to  Gilgal,  the  nearest 
place  of  customary  sacrifice,  where  he  was 
inducted  into  office  and  Samuel  laid  down 
his  judgeship  (xi.  1-xii.  25) ;  see  Samuel, 
Books  of. 

The  reign  of  Saul.  The  age  of  Saul 
when  he  began  to  reign  is  unknown,  as  the 
Hebrew  text  of  1  Sam.  xiii.  1  is  defective, 
the  numeral  being  omitted.  The  number 
thirty  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint.  He 
was  at  any  rate  old  enough  to  have  a  sou 
capable  of  holding  a  military  command.  Saul 
established  a  small  standing  army  of  3000 
men  ;  2000  of  these  were  with  him  at  Mich- 
mash  and  Bethel,  and  1000  were  stationed 
with  Jonathan  at  Gibeah  (xiii.  2).  Jonathan 
smote  a  Philistine  garrison,  or  rather  deputy, 
at  Geba  (3) ;  see  Garrison.  The  Philistines 
heard  thereof,  and  held  the  Israelites  in 
abomination.  The  Israelites,  learning  of 
their  danger,  responded  to  Saul's  summons  to 
assemble  at  Gilgal  (3,  4),  whither  Samuel  had 
promised  to  come  in  this  emergency  and  en- 
treat the  favor  of  the  Lord  (8,  11,  12 ;  x.  8). 
A  Philistine  army  advanced  into  the  land  of 
Israel  and  pitched  at  Michmash.  Great  fear 
seized  the  Israelites,  Samuel  intentionally 
delayed  to  appear,  the  people  began  to  scatter 
and  leave  the  king,  and  a  descent  of  the 
Philistines  upon  Saul  and  his  decreasing 
forces  seemed  imminent  (xiii.  8,  11,  12)  ;  and 
therefore  Saul  presumed  to  conduct  the  sac- 
rifice. But  Samuel  came,  rebuked  the  king 
for  transgressing  God's  command  (x.  8),  and 
declared  that  Saul  on  account  of  his  disobedi- 
ence should  not  found  a  dynasty  (xiii.  9-14). 
Samuel  went  up  to  Saul's  town  of  Gibeah, 
where  he  would  be  near  the  king.  Saul  and 
Jonathan  took  post  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
while  the  Philistines  lay  encamped  at  Mich- 
mash. By  a  feat  of  valor,  Jonathan  started 
a  panic  in  the  garrison  of  the  Philistines, 
which  spread  to  their  camp  and  to  their 
prowling  bands.  Saul  took  advantage  of  it, 
and  secured  a  victory  (xiii.  15-xiv.  46). 
Afterwards  Samuel  directed  Saul  to  wage 
a  war  of  extermination  against  the  Amalek- 
ites.  Saul  undertook  the  war,  but  he  spared 
the  best  of  the  cattle  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord 
at  Gilgal,  and  also  saved  their  king.  For 
this  second  act  of  disobedience,  by  which  he 
showed  that  he  could  not  be  trusted  to  act  as 
God's  instrument.  l)ut  desired  to  assert  his 
own  will  in  God's  kingdom,  he  was  rejected 
from  being  king  (xv.  1-35) ;  see  Samuel, 
Books  of.  Samuel,  therefore,  was  sent  to 
Bethlehem  to  anoint  David  king  (xvi.  1-13). 
The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  now  departed  from 


Saul 


686 


Saviour 


Saul,  and  he  began  to  be  troubled  by  an  evil 
spirit.  A  harper  was  required  to  charm  away 
his  melancholy  madness,  and  David  was  se- 
lected to  discharge  the  duty  (14-23).  The 
plaudits  with  which  the  youthful  son  of  Jesse 
was  welcomed  on  returning  from  his  great 
victory  over  Goliath  so  excited  Saul's  jeal- 
ousy that  before  long  the  hero  was  a  fugitive, 
pursued  with  relentless  fury  by  the  now  vin- 
dictive monarch  (xvii.-xxx.)  ;  see  David. 
At  last  the  end  came.  The  Philistines,  in- 
vading the  Israelite  territory,  pitched  in 
Shunem,  near  the  valley  of  Jezreel.  Saul, 
following  to  give  them  battle,  established  his 
headquarters  on  the  slope  of  mount  Gilboa. 
Sad  forebodings  of  his  fate  troubling  him,  he 
made  a  night  journey  quite  close  to  the  Phi- 
listine camp,  to  En-dor,  where  lived  a  womaiii 
who  was  reputed  to  have  the  power  of  calling 
up  even  the-dead,  and  he  was  there  informed 
that  he  and  his  sons  should  jjerish  on  the 
morrow  (xsviii.  1-25).  The  nidrrow  came, 
and  the  battle  began.  The  Philistine  anhers 
did  great  execution  in  the  Israelite  ranks. 
They  slew  three  of  Saul's  sons,  including  the 
eldest,  the  unselfish  and  heroic  Jonathan. 
They  seriously  wounded  Saul  himself,  on 
which  he  called  to  his  armor-bearer  to  thrust 
him  through.  The  young  man  declined  the 
responsibility,  whereupon  the  erring  monarch 
fell  upon  his  sword,  and  died.  The  victori- 
ous Philistines,  finding  his  corpse,  severed 
the  head  from  the  body,  and  aihxed  the  lat- 
ter, with  the  bodies  of  his  sons,  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean,  whilst  they  sent  his  armor  as 
a  trophy  to  be  kept  in  the  temple  of  i\shtaroth. 
The  men  of  Jabesh-gilead,  whom  Saul  had 
saved  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  feeling 
gratitude  for  their  deliverance,  crossed  the 
Jordan  by  night  to  Beth-shean,  took  down 
the  bodies,  and  gave  them  honorable  inter- 
ment, while  David  mourned  the  fate  of  the 
Lord's  anointed  and  the  beloved  Jonathan 
in  plaintive  poetry  (xxxi.  ;  2  Sam.  i.).  The 
length  of  Saul's  reign  is  not  stated  in  the  O.  T., 
but  both  Paul  and  Josephus  are  able  to  assign 
it  forty  years  (Acts  xiii.  21 ;  Antiq.  vi.  14,  9). 
Saul  and  the  tpomnn  of  En-dor.  The  old 
man  covered  with  a  robe,  who  figures  in  the 
interview  between  the  woman  of  En-dor  and 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3-19),  has  been  explained 
in  three  different  ways.  He  was  the  woman's 
accomplice,  and  when  he  appeared  she  uttered 
a  loud  cry,  and  she  pronounced  the  man  who 
had  come  to  seek  her  aid  to  be  Saul.  The 
loud  cry  was  her  customary  trick.  She  knew 
that  the  king  was  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
she  had  at  once  detected  that  her  visitor  was 
he,  in  his  tall  stature,  in  his  bearing,  in  his 
words,  and  in  the  manner  of  his  attendants. 
Or  else  the  appearance  was  a  sjiirit,  quite  un- 
expected by  her,  at  which  she  uttered  a 
loud  cry,  because  she  was  really  startled.  If 
an  unexpected  appearance,  it  was  either  the 
devil,  as  Luther  and  Cnlvin  lielieved,  and  as 
those  understand  who  think  that  certain  phe- 
nomena of  ancient  sorcery  and  modern  s])ir- 


itualism  are  due  to  Satanic  agency  (see  Devil 
and  Demoniac),  or  else  Samuel,  reappearing 
as  did  Moses  and  Elijah  on  the  mount  of 
Transfiguration  (1  Chron.  x.  13,  Septuagint 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  20),  and  so  most  of  the  evangel- 
ical interpreters  since  the  Eeformation.  The 
basis  for  the  oiiinion  that  Samuel  appeared  is 
that  the  narrator  refers  to  the  person  as 
though  he  is  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  14, 
15,  It),  20),  and  that  the  words  spoken  by 
him  were  fulfilled.  The  biblical  recorder 
simply  describes  what  occurred.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  woman  was  a  law- 
breaker, and  was  also  condemned  by  the 
religion  of  Jehovah.  Moreover,  she  alone 
saw  the  apparition,  and  she  described  the 
appearance  in  most  vague  terms — an  old 
man  rising  from  the  earth  and  covered  with 
a  robe.  This  description  would  apply  to  any 
aged  person,  but  Saul  concluded  that  Samuel 
had  really  appeared.  The  words  which  were 
uttered  by  the  robed  figure  boldly  forecast 
the  future  as  a  fortune  teller  does  or  else 
predicted  it  with  full  knowledge.  The  words 
came  true,  but  they  were  in  part  fulfilled  by 
Saul's  own  deliberate  act.  If  Samuel  him- 
self appeared,  then  this  is  the  sole  instance 
recorded  in  Scripture  where  the  spirit  of  a 
departed  saint  has  returned  to  earth  and 
conversed  with  men,  since  the  case  of  Moses 
and  Elijah  in  converse  with  the  transfigured 
Christ  is  not  analogous.  Moreover,  it  would 
be  strange,  indeed,  if,  after  God  had  refused  to 
answer  Saul,  either  by  dreams  or  by  prophets, 
his  servant  Samuel  should  appear,  and  espe- 
cially if  he  should  appear  at  an  interview 
strictly  forbidden  by  God,  and  at  the  behest 
of  a  woman  who  was  condemned  alike  by 
the  law  of  the  land  and  by  the  law  of  God 
(Ex.  xxii.  18;  Lev.  xx.  27;  Deut.  xviii.  10- 
14;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  3,  9;  1  Chron.  x.  13). 

3.  The  original  name  of  the  apostle  Paul 
(Acts  vii.  58  ;  xiii.  9). 

Sav'iour. 

One  who  saves  from  any  evil  or  danger 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  5;  Neh.  ix.  27)'.  In  the  O.  T.  it 
isspeciallyusedofGod,  Jehovah,  viewed  as  tlie 
deliverer  of  his  chosen  people  Israel  (2  Sam. 
xxii.  3;  Ps.  cvi.  21;  Is.  xliii.  3,  11  ;  xlv.  15, 
21 ;  xlix.  26  ;  Ixiii.  8 ;  Jer.  xiv.  8 ;  Hos.  xiii.  4). 
The  Greek  word  soter,  preserver,  deliverer 
(Herod,  vii.  139),  is  used  by  the  classical 
writers  specially  of  their  gods,  though  some- 
times a  king  assumed  the  title,  as  did  Ptolemy 
Soter  and  Demetrius  I.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  used 
of  God  the  Father  (1  Tim.  i.  1 ;  iv.  10;  Titus 
i.  3;  iii.  4 ;  Jude  25),  but  especially  of  Jesus 
Christ  the  Son,  who  saves  his  people  from  their 
sins  (Mat.  i.  21),  delivering  them  out  of  tbeir 
sinful  condition  and  misery,  from  guilt,  the 
wrath  of  God,  the  power  of  sin  and  the  do- 
minion of  Satan,  and  bringing  them  into  a 
state  of  salvation  in  blessed  communion  with 
God  (Luke  xix.  10;  Acts  v.  31  ;  Rom.  v.  H- 
11  ;  Phil.  iii.  20,  21 ;  1  Tim.  i.  15;  2  Tim.  L 
10 ;  Tit.  ii.  13,  14  ;  Heb.  vii.  25). 


Saw 


GS7 


School 


Saw. 

A  toothed  tool  for  cutting  wood  and  for 
shaping  stone  (1  Kin.  vii.  9  ;  Is.  x.  l.'j).  Vic- 
tims of  persecuting  rage  were  sometimes 
sawn  asunder  (Heb.  xi.  37).  If  David  cut 
the  Ammonites  of  Rabhah,  and  other  towns 
which  fell  into  his  hands,  with  saws,  harrows, 
and  axes  (2  Sam.  xii.  31  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  3),  it 
was  an  act  of  exceptional  severity  on  his . 
part,  and  foreign  to  all  else  that  is  known  of 
his  character.  A  change  of  resh  to  mem  in 
the  verb  used  in  Chronicles,  and  of  resh  to 
daleth  in  the  verb  in  Samuel,  would  make 
the  record  state  that  David  exacted  labor 
from  the  captives  (2  Sam.  xii.  31,  R.  V. 
margin). 

The  saws  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
had,  so  for  as  known,  but  one  handle.  The 
blade  was  usually  of  bronze,  let  into  the 
handle  or  bound  to  it  by  thongs.  The  teeth 
commonly  inclined  toward  the  handle.  The 
wood  was  i)laced  perpendicularly  in  a  frame, 
and  was  sawn  downward.  The  Assyrians 
used  a  double-handled  saw  also,  with  a  blade 
of  iron. 

Scape'goat.     See  Az.vzel. 

Scarlet. 

A  bright,  rich  crimson,  not  the  hue  of  re- 
cent origin  known  as  scarlet.  The  coloring 
matter  was  obtained  by  the  Israelites  from 
an  insect  (Coccu.t  Uicix),  called  l-i'mw::  by  the 
Arabs,  whence  the  Eniilish  word  crimson  is 
derived.  The  insect  abounds  in  Palestine  on 
the  holm  oak  {Quercus  cocci f era).  The  fe- 
male alone  yields  the  coloring  matter.  She 
attains  the  form  and  size  of  an  ordinary  pea, 
is  violet-black  in  color,  covered  with  a  whit- 
ish powder,  and  wingless.  Filled  with  eggs 
containing  red  matter,  she  adheres  to  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  the  oak,  and  feeds  on  its 
juices.  From  the  resemblance  of  the  insect 
to  a  berry,  the  Greeks  called  it  kokkox,  berry. 
It  is  related  to  the  cochineal  insect  of  Mexico 
(Coccus  cacti) ;  but  it  yields  a  much  less 
valuable  dye,  and  has  been  supplanted  com- 
mercially by  its  Mexican  congener.  The 
color  was  called  by  the  Hebrews  shard,  bright- 
ness, crimson,  sh'ni  tola'ath,  brightness  of  the 
worm,  worm  crimson,  tola^ath  shani,  worm  of 
brightness,  crimson  worm,  tola',  worm,  and 
in  Greek  kokkinos,  pertaining  to  the  coccus. 

The  color  and  the  method  of  obtaining  it 
were  early  known  (Gen.  xxxviii.  28).  It 
was  much  used  in  the  hangings  of  the  taber- 
nacle and  in  the  high  priest's  vestments.  It 
was  employed  in  the  ceremony  attending  the 
purification  of  the  leper,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  water  of  separation  (Lev.  xiv.  4; 
Num.  xix.  6;  Heb.  ix.  19). 

Scep'ter. 

A  rod  held  in  the  hands  of  kings  as  a  token 
•of  authority  (Ps.  xlv.  6:  Amos  i.  5;  Wisd. 
X.  14 ;  Heb.  i.  8 ;  War  i.  5.3,  9).  It  has  been 
used  from  time  immemorial.  The  staflE"  was 
not,  however,  a  symbol  of  royal  sovereignty 
exclusively.      It  might  be   carried   by   any 


leader  ( Judg.  v.  14,  R.  V.  ;  Baruch  vi.  14) , 
among  the  Greeks  by  kings,  judges,  heralds, 
and  sjjcakers  given  the  floor  by  the  herald 
(Iliad  i.  238;  ii.  100;  vii.  277;  xxiii.  568). 
Nor  is  the  Hebrew  name  shebet  a  specific 
term,  but  it  denotes  any  i-od,  such  as  the 
walking  stick,  which  was  often  carried  as  a 
mark  of  dignity  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  the  shep- 
herd's stall"  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Ps.  xxiii.  4; 
Mic.  vii.  14),  or  the  rod  used  in  threshing 
cummin  (Is.  xxviii.  27).  The  royal  scepter 
was  doubtless  often  of  wood.  The  scepter 
of  Ahasuerus  was  made  of  gold  (Estli.  iv.  11), 
and  so  too  was  the  famed  scepter  of  Aga- 
memnon (Iliad  ii.  100).  A  reed  was  placed  in 
Christ's  hand  when  he  was  mocked  as  king 
(Mat.  xxvii.  29). 

Sce'va. 

A  member  of  one  of  the  Jewish  families 
from  which  the  high  priests  were  ordinarily 
chosen.  His  seven  sons  were  exorcists  (Acts 
xix.  14). 

School. 

There  were  no  schools  for  children  in 
ancient  Israel.  But  instruction  was  not 
lacking.  Parents  gave  their  children  re- 
ligious instruction  (Gen.  xviii.  19;  Deut.  vi. 
7;  Susanna  3;  2  Tim.  iii.  15).  The  older 
people  had  opportunity  for  obtaining  further 
knowledge  from  the  priests  and  Levites,  who 
could  be  found  at  the  sanctuary  and  in  the 
towns  assigned  to  them  throughout  tlie  land, 
and  who  occasionally  itinerated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  publicly  teaching  the  statutes  of  the 
law  (Lev.  x.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xvii.  7-10  ;  Hag.  ii. 
11).  Every  seven  years,  at  the  feast  of  tab- 
ernacles, the  law  was  read  publicly  in  the 
audience  of  as.sembled  Israel  (Deut.  xxxi.  10- 
13 ).  The  great  festivals  themselves,  and  songs 
written  for  the  purpose  (19,  30  ;  xxxii.  1-43), 
kept  alive  the  knowledge  of  those  events  at 
the  birth  of  the  nation  which  obligated  the 
Israelites  as  a  people  to  serve  Jehovah,  their 
redeemer  and  bountiful  benefactor.  The 
prophets  by  their  public  preaching  spread 
religious  knowledge  and  quickened  religious 
life.  Business  negotiations  and  legal  pro- 
cesses were  conducted  in  the  open  street, 
affording  constant  instruction  to  tlie  public 
through  eye  and  ear.  Reading  and  writing 
were  perhaps  not  uncommon  among  the 
young  (Judg.  viii.  14  ;  Is.  x.  19). 

In  the  Greco-Roman  period  the  education 
of  the  young  was  carefully  attended  to  (con. 
Apion.  i.  12;  ii.  19).  Elementary  schools 
were  established  in  connection  with  the 
synagogues,  where  the  children  were  taught 
to  read  from  the  Scriptures,  to  write, 
and  to  cipher.  About  75  B.  c.  attend- 
ance upon  this  primary  instruction  was 
made  compulsory,  and  under  Gamaliel 
the  age  for  attendance  was  fixed  at  six 
years.  Slaves  and  others  were  employed 
as  tutors  by  the  wealtliy  (Antiq.  xvi.  8,  3). 
The  scribes  also  imparted  advanced  instruc- 
tion.    The  subject  which  they  discussed  was 


Schoolmastei 


688 


Scourge 


the  law.  Chambers  connected  with  the  outer 
court  of  the  temple,  and  outside  of  Jerusa- 
lem a  room  in  the  syuagogue,  were  used  as 
lecture  rooms  (Luke  ii.  46).  The  instruction 
was  nominally  free,  but  it  is  said  that  in  the 
time  of  Herod  the  Great  the  porter  collected 
entrance  money.  Not  only  was  instruction 
imparted  directly  to  the  pupils  in  these 
schools,  but  learned  men  held  public  dis- 
l)Utations  with  each  other  there  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  scholars. 

School'mas-ter. 

The  rendering  in  Gal.  iii.  24,  25,  A.  V.,  of 
the  Greek  I'aidugi'Hjos,  one  who  leads  a  boy,  a 
pedagogue.  It  is  tran.slated  tutor  in  the 
K.  V.  of  this  passage  and  1  Cor.  iv.  15.  The 
p(uihiijMH»t,  or  pedagogue,  in  a  Greek  house- 
hold was  a  trusted  slave,  to  whose  care  the 
children  were  committed  (Life  76  ;  Herod, 
viii.  75).  He  always  accompanied  them 
when  they  were  out  of  doors.  He  was  re- 
sponsible for  their  personal  safety,  guarded 
them  from  physical  evil  and  bad  company, 
and  led  them  to  and  from  school.  The 
law  as  a  pedagogue  led  us  to  Christ.  It 
prepared  us  to  receive  him  as  our  Redeemer.  It 
displayed  the  justice  of  God  and  convinced 
us  that  we  were  unrighteous ;  its  threaten- 
ings  pressed  us  to  seek  refuge  from  the  wrath 
and  curse  of  God  ;  it  made  apparent  the  in- 
ability of  man  to  obtain  salvation  by  the 
works  of  the  law ;  it  exhibited  the  plan  of 
salvation  in  types  and  ceremonies  and  ex- 
cited to  faith  in  the  coming  Redeemer  (Gal. 
iii.  24  ;  Rom.  iii.  19-21 ;  iv.  15  ;  vu.  7-25). 

Sci'ence. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Maddn^  and 
the  Greek  Gndxis  in  Dan.  i.  4  and  A.  V.  of  1 
Tim.  vi.  20.  The  word  is  not  used  in  its 
modern  sense.  It  does  not  denote  knowledge 
gained  by  observation  of  phenomena  and 
systematized.  The  Hebrew  and  (4reek  words 
mean  simply  knowledge.  The  false  knowl- 
edge spoken  of  by  Paul  is  the  teaching  of 
Judaizing  and  mystic  sects  in  the  apostolic 
age,  which  they  boastfully  claimed  to  be 
certain  (cp.  Col.  ii.  8),  against  which  Paul 
urgently  warns  men  (1  Cor.  viii.  1,  7),  and 
whicli  counterfeits  the  true  knowledge  which 
he  praised  and  in  which  he  desired  Chris- 
tians to  grow  (xii.  8;  xiii.  2;  Phil.  i.  9). 

Scor'pi-on. 

A  small  animal  with  a  tail  armed  with  a 
sting  which  inflicts  great  pain  (Rev.  ix.  5, 
10).  It  was  called  'akrah  by  the  Hebrews, 
'and  xkorpioii  by  the  Greeks.  It  aliounds  in 
Palestine,  and  is  common  in  the  wilderness 
south  of  Jiulah  (T)eut.  viii.  15) ;  see  Akhabhim. 
Rehoboani  threatened  to  chastise  his  sub- 
jects, not  with  vvliips,  but  with  scor])ions  (1 
Kin.  xii.  11;  2  Chron.  x.  14),  which  many 
interpreters  think  mean  whips  armed  with 
sharp  points  to  make  the  lash  more  severe. 
The  scorpion  is  a  small  invertebrate  animal  of 
the  order  Ardchriido.  It  is  closely  akin  to  the 
higher  spiders,  having,  like  them,  eight  legs; 


but  it  differs  in  shape,  and  in  having  the 
poison  bag  not  in  proximity  to  the  jav\'S,  but  at 


Scorpion. 

the  extremity  of  the  tail.  It  has  a  pair  of  nip- 
pers like  the  lobster.  The  tail  is  long  and 
jointed,  and  capable  of  being  curled  uji  over 
the  back.  The  last  joint  is  swollen,  contains 
the  venom  gland,  and  is  armed  with  a  jier- 
fiiratcd  sting  by  means  of  which  tlie  poison 
is  discharged.  The  scorpion  feeds  princi- 
pally on  beetles  and  locusts,  which  it  seizes 
with  its  nippers  and  stings  to  death.  Some 
eight  or  more  species  exist  in  Palestine.  The 
largest  is  about  eight  inches  long,  and  black. 

Scourge  and  Scourg'ing. 

Scourging  is  severe  jiunishment  or  torture 
by  lashing.  It  was  not  imposed  as  a  penalty 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  not  even  according  to 
Lev.  xix.  20  (see  R.  V.  against  A.  V.).  The 
law  authorized  beating,  when  the  culprit  lay 
down  and  was  smitten  on  the  back  (Dent. 
XXV.  2,  3)  ;  but  this  was  not  scourging,  and 
is  distinguished  from  scourging  (2  Cor.  xi.24, 


Roman  Scourges. 

25).  Scourging  is  perhaps  alluded  to  by  Re- 
hoboam  as  a  known  punislnneiit  (1  Kin.  xii. 
II.  11),  and  it  was  employed  by  Antiochus 
Iqiilihanes  to  drive  the  Jews  by  its  tortures 


Screech  Owl 


689 


Scripture 


to  eat  swine's  flesh  (2  Mac.  vi.  30;  vii.  1). 
As  a  legal  penalty  it  was  recognized  by  the 
later  Jewish  law,  which  prescribed  beating 
or  scourging  for  ecclesiastical  offenses  ;  such 
as  transgression  of  ceremonial  ordinances  for 
which  the  Mosaic  law  did  not  specify  the 
punishment,  disobedience  of  the  orders  of 
the  sauhedrin,  and  heresy.  Rods  were  used 
for  beating  (2  Cor.  xi.  25) ;  and  for  scourging 
a  whip  was  employed,  which  consisted  of 
three  thongs,  one  of  ox  hide  and  two  of  ass's 
hide.  The  number  of  stripes  ranged  from  a 
few  blows  up  to  thirty-nine,  this  limit  being 
set  in  order  to  avoid  all  danger  of  exceeding 
the  forty  blows  allowed  by  the  Mosaic  law 
in  corporal  punishment  (Deut.  xxv.  2,  3). 
When  the  punishment  was  inflicted  in  the 
synagogue  (Mat.  x.  17;  xxiii.  34),  it  was  ad- 
ministered by  the  haszan  or  attendant;  but 
culprits  were  also  beaten  before  the  san- 
hedriu  (Acts  v.  40). 

The  Romans  used  a  scourge  of  cords  or 
thongs,  made  more  painful  by  various  ex- 
pedients which  cruelty  suggested.  Pieces  of 
lead  or  brass,  or  small,  sharp-pointed  bones, 
were  attached  to  the  lashes.  The  Romans 
employed  scourging  as  a  punishment  or  as 
torture  to  extract  confession  or  testimony. 
After  the  Porcian  law  of  248  B.  c.  and  the 
Sempronian  law  of  123  B.  c,  Roman  citizens 
were  exempted  from  scourging  (Livy  x.  9) ; 
but  free  persons  not  Roman  citizens  might  be 
beaten,  and  slaves  scourged,  and  lawless  gov- 
ernors did  not  scruple  to  scourge  free  pro- 
vincials and  Roman  citizens  (War  ii.  14,  9  ; 
Tacitus,  Hist.  iv.  27).  Criminals  condemned 
to  crucifixion  were  ordinarily  scourged  be- 
fore being  e.xecuted  (Livy  xxxiii.  36) ;  so 
Jesus,  and  many  of  the  Jews  before  the 
revolt  and  after  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans  (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  Warii.  14,  9;  v. 
11,1).  The  victim  was  stripped  to  the  waist, 
and  bound  in  a  stooping  position,  with  the 
hands  behind  the  back,  to  a  post  or  pillar. 
The  suflering  under  the  lash  was  intense. 
The  body  was  frightfully  lacerated.  The 
Christian  martyrs  at  Smyrna  about  A.  D.  15.5 
were  so  torn  with  the  scourges  that  their 
veins  were  laid  bare,  aud  the  inner  muscles 
and  sinews,  and  even  the  bowels,  were  ex- 
posed (Eiisebius,  Hist.  iv.  15). 

Screech  Owl. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lilith,  a 
nocturnal  being  (Is.  xxxiv.  14 ;  in  R.  V. 
night  monster).  It  frequents  the  ruins 
of  cities.  Tristram  believes  it  to  be  the 
tawny  owl  (Si/rnium^  nluco),  which  is  found 
in  Gilead,  Bashan,  Lebanon,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  breaking  in  on  the  stillness 
of  night  with  its  hooting.  See  Night  Mon- 
STKR  and  S.'^.TVR. 

Scribe. 

1.  A  public  writer  (Ezek.  ix.  2',  who  was 
employed  as  an  amanuensis  to  write  at  dic- 
tation (Jcr.  xxxvi.  4.  18,  32i,  and  to  draw  up 
legal  documents  (xxxii.  12,  probablyj. 
44 


2.  A  secretary;  a  government  or  other  clerk 
(2  Kin.  xii.  10 ;  Ezra  iv.  8).  Levites  were 
employed  as  scribes  for  the  business  of  repair- 
ing the  temple  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  13). 

3.  A  copier  of  the  law  and  other  parts  of 
the  Scriptures  (Jer.  viii.  8).  The  most  noted 
of  these  earlier  scribes  was  the  priest  Ezra,  who 
was  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
had  set  his  heart  to  seek  the  law  of  the  Lord 
and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutes  and 
judgments  (Ezra  vii.  6,  10).  In  this  latter 
respect  he  is  the  prototype  of  the  scribes  of 
later  times,  who  were  professional  interpre- 
ters of  the  law.  In  the  N.  T.  they  are  called 
(jrammateis,  or  more  exactly  nomikoi,  rendered 
lawyers,  and  uomodidaskaloi,  teachers  of  the 
law.  They  devoted  themselves :  1.  To  the 
study  and  interpretation  of  the  law,  which 
it  will  be  remembered  was  both  civil  aud  re- 
ligious; and  to  determining  its  application  to 
the  details  of  daily  life.  The  decisions  of  the 
great  scribes  became  the  oral  law  or  tradition. 

2.  To  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  generally 
in  regard  to  historical  and  doctrinal  matters. 

3.  To  teaching,  each  noted  scribe  having  a 
company  of  disciples  about  him  ;  see  School. 
The  profession  of  scribe  received  a  great  im- 
pulse after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  ex- 
ile, when  prophecy  had  ceased  and  it  only 
remained  to  study  the  completed  Scriptures 
and  make  them  the  basis  of  the  national  life. 
The  scribes  were  becoming  numerous  in  the 
Maccabiean  period  (1  Mac.  vii.  12),  and  at  the 
time  of  Christ  had  attained  paramount  influ- 
ence among  the  people.  The  sanhedrin 
counted  many  of  them  among  its  members 
(Mat.  xvi.  21;  xxvi.  3).  Though  there  were 
candid  men  among  them  who  believed  in 
Christ's  teaching  (viii.  19),  yet  the  mass 
of  them  were  hopelessly  prejudiced  again.st 
him.  Thej^  murmured  at  or  found  fault  with 
much  that  he  and  his  disciples  said  or  did 
(xxi.  15),  and  they  had  a  large  share  in  the 
responsibility  for  his  death,  "^rhey  were  also 
associated  with  the  rulers  and  elders  in  the 
]iersecution  of  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  5, 
etc.),  and  in  that  which  led  to  the  martyr- 
dom of  Stephen  (vi.  12)  ;  but  the  section  of 
them  which  agreed  with  the  Pharisees  in 
opinion  took  Paul's  part  with  respect  to  the 
resurrection  (xxiii.  9). 

Scrip. 

A  bag  or  wallet  for  carrying  provisions  or 
articles  required  on  a  journey  (Mat.  x.  10,  in 
R.  V.  wallet).  The  scrip  of  modern  Palestine 
is  the  skin  of  a  kid  stripped  off  whole  from 
the  carcass  and  tanned,  and  slung  from  the 
shoulder  by  straps.  Every  shepherd  and 
farmer  has  such  an  article.  David  when  a 
shepherd  carried  one  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40). 

Scrip'ture. 

A  writing,  a  narrative  or  other  matter 
committed  to  writing  (Dan.  x.  21,  in  R.  V. 
writing);  especially  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Hebrews,  viewed  either  collectively  or 
iudiviJuallj',  or  even  a  single  passage  or  quo- 


Scythian 


690 


Seba 


tation  from  them,  as  in  Mark  xii.  10 ;  xv.  28  ; 
Luke  iv.  21  ;  John  xix.  37.  When  this  col- 
lection of  sacred  documents  is  thought  of  as 
forniiug  one  hook,  the  word  is  singular,  the 
Scri})ture  (John  vii.  42  ;  x.  35  ;  xvii.  12  ;  xix. 
2y  ;  Gal.  iii.  22).  More  frequently  the  many 
documents  from  ditferent  authors  which  con- 
stitute the  O.  T.  are  in  mind  and  the  plural 
is  used,  the  Scriptures  (Mat.  xxi.  42  ;  Luke 
xxiv.  27  :  John  v.  39  ;  Rom.  i.  2).  The  epis- 
tles of  Paul  at  once  took  their  place  with  the 
other  Scriptures  as  authoritative  (2  Pet.  iii. 
16).    See  Canon,  Inspikation. 

Scyth'i-an. 

A  native  of  Scythia.  This  name  was  ap- 
plied originally  to  the  region  immediately 
north  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  east  of  the  Car- 
pathian mountains.  When  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great  revealed  the  existence 
of  men  in  Asia  like  the  European  Scythians 
in  race,  an  Asiatic  Scythia  hegan  to  be  recog- 
nized ;  and  finally,  all  northeastern  Europe 
and  central  and  northern  Asia  were  supposed 
to  be  traversed  by  the  nomad  Scythian  race. 
They  were  far  behind  in  civilization  ;  so  that 
at  last  the  name  Scythian  was  used  as  we 
now  use  Tartar,  or  the  Greeks  and  Eomans 
used  the  term  Barbarian  (2  Mac.  iv.  47  ;  Col. 
iii.  11) ;  see  Beth-shean. 

Sea. 

1.  The  ocean  or  general  gathering  of  the 
waters,  as  distinguished  from  the  dry  land 
of  the  globe  (Gen.  i.  10  ;  Ps.  viii.  8  ;  Eev.  vii. 
1-3;  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  more  or  less  detached  portion  of  that 
ocean  (Gen.  xlix.  13  ;  Acts  x.  6),  or  a  large 
inland  lake  of  fresh  or  salt  water  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11,  12  ;  Mat.  iv.  18).  The  chief  seas 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  to  do  were  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Eed  Sea,  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  Mediterranean 
was  referred  to  as  the  sea,  or  was  called  the 
great  sea,  the  sea  of  the  Philistines,  the 
hinder  or  western  sea,  in  A.  V.  the  utmost 
and  uttermost  sea ;  see  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  Dead  Sea  was  variously  known  as 
the  Salt  Sea,  the  eastern  sea,  sea  of  the 
Arabah  or  the  plain,  and  according  to  A.  V. 
of  Zech.  xiv.  8,  the  former  sea  ;  see  Dead 
Sea.  The  sea  of  Galilee  was  also  named  the 
sea  of  Chinnereth,  lake  of  Gennesaret,  and 
sea  of  Tiberias ;  see  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

3.  A  large  river  with  its  network  of 
branches,  channels,  and  irrigating  canals,  as 
the  Euphrates  (Jer.  li.  36,  42)  and  the  Nile 
(Nab.  iii.  H). 

4.  The  large  basin  in  Solomon's  temple 
where  the  priests  washed  their  hands  and 
feet  preparatory  to  ministering  in  the  sanc- 
tuary or  at  the  altar  (1  Kin.  vii.  39)  ;  see 
Molten  Sp:a. 

Sea  Mew. 

The  rendering  in  R.  V.  of  Lev.  xi.  16  and 
Dent.  xiv.  15  of  the  Hebrew  noun  Shahaph,  a 
bird  ceremonially  unclean.  The  A.  V.  makes 
it  the  cuckoo.     The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 


regard  it  as  a  sea  mew  or  gull.  Sea  mew  is 
an  indefinite  term,  broad  enough  to  include 
gulls,  terns,  and  petrels,  all  of  which  abound 
on  the  shore  and  lakes  of  Palestine.  If  any 
single  species  is  meant,  perhaps  it  is  the 
Sterna  JiuviutUis,  the  common  tern,  or  sea 
swallow.  This  bird  looks  lean,  which  the 
name  shahaph  may  denote;  and  it  might 
be  included  under  the  designation  sea  mew, 
for  the  Steniinw,  or  terns,  are  a  sub-family 
of  the  La)  idle,  or  gulls.  It  is  plentiful  along 
the  shores  of  Palestine. 

Sea  Mon'ster. 

Any  great  fish  of  the  sea  (Gen.  i.  21 ;  Job 
vii.  12  ;  in  A.  V.  whale).  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  Tannin.  See  Dragon.  In 
Lam.  iv.  3,  the  Hebrew  tannin,  although  it 
is  singular  number,  stands  in  the  Hebrew 
before  a  plural  verb.  It  is  doubtless  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  tannim,  jackals.  This  reading 
is  adopted  by  the  R.  V. 

Seal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tahash  in 
R.  v.,  with  porpoise  on  the  margin  (Ex. 
xxvi.  14 ;  XXXV.  7 ;  Num.  iv.  25 ;  Ezek.  xvi. 
10)  ;  in  A.  V.  badj  er.  Its  skin  was  used  for 
the  outer  covering  of  the  tabernacle  and  for 
sandals.  Tahash  >  orresponds  to  the  Arabic 
tuhas,  which  eml  -aces  seals  and  specially 
denotes  the  dugi  ng  {Halicore  hemprichii). 
The  latter  belongs  to  the  order  Sirenia,  of 
which  the  nearest  allies  are  mammals  of  the 
whale  order.  It  is  generally  ten  to  twelve 
feet  long,  with  a  round  head,  breasts  for 
suckling  its  young,  and  a  fish-like  tail.  The 
color  is  slaty  above  and  white  below.  It  is 
believed  to  be  one  of  the  animals,  if  not  in- 
deed the  animal,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
fabled  mermaid,  half  woman,  half  fish.  It 
is  common  among  the  coral  banks  of  the  Red 
Sea,  whence  it  extends  as  far  as  the^coasts  of 
Australia. 

2.  A  signet  ring  or  cylinder,  engraven  with 
the  owner's  name  or  some  design,  or  both 
(Ex.  xxviii.  11 ;  Esth.  viii.  8).  It  was  worn 
on  the  finger,  if  a  ring,  or  was  strung  on 
a  cord  and  hung  around  the  neck  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  18,  R.  V. ;  Jer.  xxii.24).  Men  affixed 
their  seal  as  .signature  to  letters  or  other  docu- 
ments (1  Kin.  xxi.  8;  Neb.  ix.  38;  Esth.  viii. 
8;  Jer.  xxxii.  10,  44;  John  iii.  33).  These 
were  usually  written  on  clay,  and  the  seal 
was  pressed  on  the  soft  material  and  left  its 
mark  (Job  xxxviii.  14).  Chests,  boxes,  tombs, 
or  anything  which  required  to  be  guarded 
from  being  opened,  were  sealed  with  the  signet 
of  the  person  who  had  authority  to  prohibit 
intrusion  (Job  xiv.  17;  xli.  15;  Dan.  vi.  17; 
Mat.  xxvii.  66;  Rev.  v.  1). 

Se'ba. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7),  who  probably 
dwelt  originally  in  southern  Arabia.  Seba  is 
associated  with  Sheba  as  a  remote  southern 
country  (Ps.  Ixxii.  10)  ;  and  with  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  as  though  in  Africa,  whither  many 
Cushites    migrated    (Is.    xliii.   3 ;    xlv.    14). 


Sebam 


691 


Sela-hammahlekotli 


Joseph  us  identifies  Seba  with  the  isle  of 
Meroii  (Antiq.  ii.  10,  2).  The  region  so  named 
is  situated  between  the  Nile  and  its  affluent, 
the  Atbara.  It  is  about  400  miles  long  by 
200  broad.  But  this  district  is  not  called 
Seba  in  Egyptian  documents,  and  was  known 
to  the  Hebrews  as  Cush.  Kather  then  is 
Seba  identical  with  the  neighboring  country 
on  the  Red  Sea,  possessing  the  harbor  Saba 
and  the  town  Sabai. 

Se'bam,  in  A.  V.  Shebam.    See  Sibmah. 

Se'toat.     See  Shebat. 

Sec'a-cah  [hedge,  iuclosure]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  (31).  Conder  places  it  doubtfully  at  the 
ruin  called  Sikkeh  or  Dikkeh,  about  2  miles 
east  of  Bethany. 

Se'cu,  in  A.  V.  Sechu  [hill,  watchtower]. 

A  village  near  Samuel's  town  of  Kamah  (1 
Sam.  six.  22),  probably  in  the  direction  of 
(iibeah  (9).  Conder  doubtfully  suggests  as 
its  site  Shuweikeh,  about  '.i  miles  northwest 
by  north  of  er-Ram  (Ramah  1). 

Se-cun'dus  [second,  secondary;  following, 
favorable]. 

A  man  of  Thessalonica  who  accompanied 
Paul  from  Macedonia  into  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
XX.  4). 

Seer.     See  Prophet. 

Se'gub  [exalted]. 

1.  The  youngest  or  younger  son  of  Hiel. 
He  died  when  his  father  set  uj)  the  gates  of 
Jericho,  which  he  was  then  fortifying  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  34).  completing  the  fulfillment  of 
the  curse  pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vi. 
26). 

2.  Son  of  Hezron,  by  a  daughter  of  Machir 
(1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22). 

Se'ir  [hairy,  shaggy]. 

1.  A  land  and  its  inhabitants.  Seir  was 
the  mountain  range  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21;  Num.  xxiv.  18;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15).  The 
original  inhabitants  of  these  mountains  were 
Horites  or  cave  dwellers  (Gen.  xiv.  G).  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  20  the  original  population  is 
personified  as  an  individual  and  the  tribes 
descended  from  it  are  classed  as  children 
(cp.  Mizraim  or  Egypt,  Gen.  x.  6,  IIJ).  Seir 
is  elsewhere  used  collectively  for  the  people 
(Ezek.  XXV.  8).  Esau  took  up  his  abode  in 
mount  Seir  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  and  his  descend- 
ants dispossessed  the  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  12; 
Josh.  xxiv.  4).  A  remnant  of  the  Amalek- 
ites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  48;  xv.  7;  2  Sam.  viii.  12) 
took  refuge  in  the.se  mountain  fastnesses, 
but  were  finally  destroved  by  the  Simeonites 
(1  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

2.  A  ridge  on  the  boi'der  line  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah  west  of  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh. 
XV.  10).  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  that 
on  which  the  village  of  Saris  stands. 

Se'i-rah,  in  A.  V.  Se'i-rath  [a  hairy  ani- 
mal, she  goat].  Applied  to  a  locality,  it  may 
mean  shaggy  with  trees. 

A  locality  in  mount  Ephraim,  probably  in 


the  southeastern  part,  to  which  Ehud  escaped 
after  murdering  Eglon  (Judg.  iii.  26 1. 

Se'la,  in  A.  V.  once  Selah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7) 
[rock]. 

A  place  in  Edom  taken  by  Amaziah,  king 
of  Judah,  and  named  by  him  Joktheel  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  7).  It  is  scarcely  referred  to  in 
Judg.  i.  36;  but  probably  in  2  Chron.  xxv. 
12;  Is.  xlii.  11;  Obad.  3;  and  perhaps  in  Is. 
xvi.  1.  The  inhabitants  dwelt  high,  among 
clefts  (Obad.  3).  These  indications  point  to 
the  ravine  called  by  the  Greeks  Petra,  which 
is  simply  a  tran.slation  of  tlie  Hebrew  Sela. 
About  300  B.  c.  Petra  passed  from  tbe 
Edoniites  to  the  Nabathsean  Arabs.  The 
dynasty  which  now  began  to  rule  in  Petra 
contained  several  kings  of  the  name  of 
Aretas,  one  of  whom  is  mentioned  in  2 
!  Cor.  xi.  32.  The  kingdom  of  the  Nabathae- 
ans  came  to  an  end  in  a.  d.  105  and  Arabia 
Petrtea  was  made  a  province  of  the  Roman 
empire.  See  Nebaioth.  The  place  was 
rediscovered  by  Burckhardt  in  1812,  and 
has  since  been  visited  by  various  travelers. 
It  lies  in  the  nook  of  a  deep  chasm  excavated 
by  water  on  the  northeastern  flank  of  mount 
Hor.  The  valley,  with  branching  side  val- 
leys, may  be  4500  feet  long  by  740  to  1500 
broad,  and  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  pre- 
cipitous sandstone  clitfs.  The  main  gorge  is 
called  wady  Mfisa,  the  valley  of  Moses, 
though  probably  he  was  never  there.  A 
rivulet  traverses  it  through  its  whole  length. 
The  variegated  colors  of  the  rock — red, 
brown,  purple,  yellow — add  to  the  beauty  of 
the  spot.  There  are  tombs,  remains  of  tem- 
ples, an  amphitheater,  a  triumphal  arch,  etc., 
most  of  them  apparently  of  Roman  times. 
Besides  these,  there  are  tombs  and  dwelling 
houses  in  the  adjacent  clitfs,  some  of  which 
may  be  of  older  date.  On  the  height  above, 
overlooking  the  ancient  city,  is  the  great 
high  place ;  and  yet  other  altars  stand  on 
neighboring  lofty  sites. 

Se'lab  [elevation]. 

A  word  occurring  seventy-one  times  in 
the  Psalms,  as  well  as  in  Hab.  iii.  3,  9,  13. 
Stainer  gives  six  distinct  opinions  as  to  its 
meaning:  (1)  a  pause;  (2)  a  repetition,  like 
da  capo;  (3)  the  end  of  a  strophe;  (4)  a 
playing  with  full  power  { fortissim.o)  ;  (5)  a 
bending  of  the  body,  an  obeisance  ;  and  (6) 
a  short,  recurring  symphony  (ritonieUo).  It 
probably  means  an  orchestral  interlude  (cp. 
opinion  6)  or  a  change  from  piano  to  forie. 

Se-la-ham-mah'le-koth  [rock  of  division 
or  escapes]. 

A  cliff  in  the  wilderness  of  Maon.  It  was 
so  called  because  David  on  one  side  of  the 
eminence  eluded  Saul  on  the  other  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  28).  Conder  points  out  that  about  8 
miles  east-northeast  of  Maon  there  is  a 
cliff  at  the  wady  el-Malaki,  a  narrow  but 
deep  chasm,  impassable  except  by  making  a 
circuit  of  many  miles.  Saul  might  here  have 
come  near  enough  to  see  David,  and  yet  not 


Seled 


692 


Seneh 


have  been  able  to  reach  the  place  where 
David  was,  except  by  making  a  long  detour. 

Se'led  [exultation]. 

A  man  of  Judali,  family  of  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  30). 

Se-leu'ci-a  [relating  to  Seleucus]. 

A  city  on  the  seacoast  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi. 
8),  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes.  It 
was  built  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  town  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  founder  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Syria,  and  was  the  seaport  of  Antioch, 
which  lay  about  20  miles  up  the  river. 
Pompey  made  the  city  free.  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas sailed  thence  for  Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  4). 
At  es-Suweidiyeh,  about  4  miles  to  the  south, 
two  piers  of  the  harbor  are  called  Paul  and 
Barnabas. 

Se-leu'cus. 

A  king  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  vii.  1  ;  2  Mac.  iii. 
3),  called  Philopator.  He  was  son  and  suc- 
ce.ssor  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  reigned 
from  187-175  B.  c,  when  he  was  murdered 
by  Heliodorus,  one  of  his  courtiers.  He  was 
followed  on  the  throne  by  Antiochus  Epipli- 
anes ;  see  Antiochus.     During  his  father's 


SeleuciLS  I'hilopator. 

reign  he  fought  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Magnesia.  During  his  own  administration 
he  sought  to  strengthen  his  kingdom,  and 
was  conciliatory  toward  the  Jews;  although 
it  is  said  that  he  attempted  to  plunder  the 
temple  (2  Mac.  iii.  4-40),  possibly  to  help 
raise  the  enormous  tribute  which  he  was 
compelled  to  pay  the  Komans. 

Sem.     See  Shem. 

Sem-a-chi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  sustained]. 

A  Levite,  descendant  of  the  doorkeeper 
Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

Sem'e-in,  in  A.  V.  Semei  [Greek  from 
Hebrew  Shim'i,  Shimei]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  2G). 

Sem-it'ic. 

The  languages  which,  speaking  broadly, 
were  or  are  vernacular  to  the  descendants  of 
Shem  are  called  Shemitic  or  Semitic,  the 
former  being  derived  from  the  Hebrew  Shem, 
and  the  latter  ultimately  from  the  Greek  form 
Sem.  The  Semitic  languages  constitute  one  of 
the  leading  families  of  l;in<;uages.  As  not  all 
the  descendants  of  Shem  speak  these  tongues, 
and  some  do  so  who  are  descended  from  other 


sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  proposed  to  call 
them  the  Syro-Arabian  languages,  but  the 
term  Semitic  holds  its  place.  Doubtless  there 
was  at  first  but  one  Semitic  language,  but 
the  separation  of  the  tribes  speaking  it  led 
ultimately  to  its  divergence  into  several  dia- 
lects. In  each  the  roots  of  the  words  are 
nearly  always  triliteral,  the  three  radical 
letters  being  three  consonants.  Many  tri- 
literals  appear  to  be  based  on  preexisting  ))i- 
literals ;  and  it  is  even  supposed  by  some 
that  originally  there  were  but  two  radical  con- 
sonants. The  various  modifications  of  mean- 
ing were  produced  from  these  roots  by  the  nse 
of  vowels,  tif  which  three  only,  a,  i,  and  u, 
were  originally  employed  :  thus  the  three 
consonants  k,  s,  r  suggest  the  idea  of  cutting 
oif,  and  knsar  denotes  he  reaped,  k'$or  reap, 
koser  reaper,  kaslr  harvest,  kasUr  reaped. 
The  meaning  was  also  modified  by  laying 
stress  on  certain  of  the  consonants  and  by 
means  of  atfixes :  thus  (jadal  he  became 
large,  giddal  he  magnified,  gaddel  magnify, 
mifidal  a  tower. 

The  Semitic  family  of  languages  falls  into 
two  great  divisions,  northern  and  southern. 
The  northern  division  subdivides  into  an 
eastern  group  consisting  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  ;  a  central  group  composed  of 
the  various  dialects  of  the  Aramaic  language, 
embracing  Syriac,  Neo-Syriac.  Mandaitic, 
and  the  dialect  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  in 
the  east,  and  in  the  west  Samaritan,  the 
so-called  Chaldee  of  the  Bible,  Targums, 
and  Jerusalem  Talmud,  and  the  dialect  of 
the  Palmyrene  and  Nabathsean  inscriptions; 
and  a  western  grouj)  containing  Hebrew, 
Moabite,  and  Phoenician.  The  southern  di- 
vision is  subdivided  into  Arabic,  Himyaritic 
or  Sabfean  of  southern  Arabia,  and  Ge'ez  or 
Ethiopic  and  Amharic  of  Africa. 

Semitic  writing  is  in  most  of  the.dialects 
from  right  to  left:  that  is,  in  the  other  direc- 
tion from  English.  Hence  the  title-])age  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible  is  at  what  looks  like  the 
end  of  the  volume.  F'rom  this  it  reads  back- 
ward, till  it  ends  at  what,  if  it  were  English, 
would  be  called  the  beginning  of  the  book. 

The  intellectual  ability  of  the  Semitic  race 
is  shown  by  the  place  which  the  Jews  take 
in  every  Christian  country  where  they  set- 
tle. Its  prowess  is  also  great;  but  in  by- 
gone history,  whenever  the  Semites  and  the 
Aryans  have  encountered  each  other  in  war, 
the  contest,  however  severe  and  protracted, 
has  in  the  long  run  ended  in  favor  of  the 
Aryans.  Thus  the  Aryan-Persian  termi- 
nated the  Semitic-Babylonian  empire.  Aryan 
Eome  ultimately  destroyed  Semitic  Carthage, 
and  the  Aryan  warriors  of  Europe,  after  a 
time,  set  bounds  to  the  Saracen  Semites. 

Se-na'ah.     See  Hassenaah. 

Se'neh  [thorn  bush,  bramble]. 

A  sharp  rock,  one  of  two  which  flanked  a 
pass  running  east  and  west  between  Mich- 
mash  and  Gibeah.    It  was  the  more  southerly 


Senir 


693 


Sennacherib 


of  the  cliffs,  aud  nearer  Gibeah  than  Mich- 
mash.  It  was  between  these  two  rocks  that 
Jonathan  and  las  armor-bearer  passed  when 
they  were  going  to  surprise  the  Philistine 
garrison  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4,  5).  It  overlooked 
the  wady  Suweinit,  about  3|  miles  southeast 
by  south  of  Michmasli. 

Se'nir,  in  A.  V.  twice  Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  9 ; 
Song  iv.  8)  [coat  of  mail]. 

The  Amorite  name  of  Hermon  (Deut.  iii. 
9).  In  Song  iv.  8  Senir  and  Hermon  are  dis- 
tinguislied,  each  probably  being  a  distinct 
peak  of  the  giant  mountain.  Fir  timber  was 
obtained  on  Senir  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5). 

Sen-nacli'e-rib  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath 
increased  the  brothers]. 

A  son  of  Sargon,  who  succeeded  to  the 
Assyrian  throne  on  the  murder  of  his  father, 
on  the  12th  of  Ab,  705  B.  c.  Though  a  war- 
rior, he  was  inferior  to  Sargon  in  ability. 
He  was  boastful,  cruel,  and  not  wise  enough 
to  perpetuate  his  conquests  by  conciliating 
those  whom  he  had  vanquished.  On  his 
accession  Merodach-baladan  of  Babylon  at- 
tempted to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke. 
Sennacherib  defeated  him  and  his  ally,  the 
king  of  Elam,  placed  Belibni  on  the  Baby- 
lonian throne,  aud  returned  in  triumph  to 
Nineveh,  laden  with  capfives  and  spoil.  Dis- 
content and  rebellion  manifested  themselves 
in  the  west  also,  among  the  peoples  who  had 
submitted  to  Sargon.  To  quell  this  revolt, 
Sennacherib  in  701  appeared  in  Phcenicia, 
capturing  Gi'eat  and  Little  Zidon,  Zarephath, 
Achzib,  and  Accho,  but  Tyre  appears  to  have 
held  out.  Neighboring  states  hastened  to 
announce  their  submission.  Proceeding  to 
the  Philistine  country,  he  took  Ashkelou, 
Beth-dagon,  and  Joppa.  Next  he  invested 
and  captured  Lachish,  sent  a  detachment  of 
his  troops  to  Jerusalem,  secured  the  release 
of  the  dethroned  king  of  Ekron  from  Jeru- 
salem, defeated  the  combined  armies  of  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia  at  the  battle  of  Eltekeh,  and 
added  Ekron  to  his  conquests.  On  this  cam- 
paign he  not  only  took  Lachish  and  Eltekeh, 
cities  of  Judah,  but  by  his  own  account 
took  46  fortified  towns  of  Judah,  carried 
away  200,1. ")0  people  captive,  and  .seized  mul- 
titudes of  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  and 
sheep.  His  career  of  conquest  was  cut  short 
by  the  plague,  which  devastated  his  army 
and  compelled  him  to  return  to  Nineveh. 
No  express  mention  is,  of  course,  to  be  ex- 
pected in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  his 
failure  to  possess  himself  of  Jerusalem,  but 
it  is  clearly  implied  ;  for  he  is  unable  to  tell 
of  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  he  apparently 
covers  up  the  inglorious  conclusion  of  the 
campaign  by  placing  at  the  close  of  his  nar- 
rative the  account  of  the  tribute  which  he 
received  from  Hezekiah.  Here  is  his  own 
account  of  the  matter:  "  Hezekiah  himself 
I  shut  up  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  in  .Jerusalem, 
his  royal  city.  I  erected  fortifications  against 
liim  and  blocked  the  exits  from  the  gate  of 


his  city.  I  severed  his  towns,  which  I  plun 
dered,  from  his  dominions  aud  gave  them  to 
Mitinti,  king  of  Ashdod,  Padi,  king  of  Ekron, 
and  Silbel,  kingof  (iaza.  Thus  I  diminished  his 
country.  To  the  former  contribution,  tluir  an- 
nual gift,  I  added  the  tribute  of  subjection  to 
my  sovereignty  and  imposed  it  on  them.  The 
fear  of  the  glory  of  my  sovereignty  over- 
whelmed him,  even  Hezekiah ;  and  he  sent 
after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  royal  city,  tlie  Arabs 
and  his  loyal  subjects,  whom  he  had  brought 
for  the  defense  of  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city, 
and  had  furnished  with  pay,  along  with 
thirty  talents  of  gold,  800  talents  of  i)ure 
silvei',  precious  stones,  couches  of  ivory, 
thrones  of  ivory,  elephants'  hides,  ivory, 
rare  woods  of  various  kinds,  a  vast  treasure, 
as  well  as  his  daughters,  the  women  of  his 
palace,  and  others ;  and  he  .sent  his  am- 
ba.ssador  to  offer  homage."  A  story  was  told 
the  Greek  historian  Herodotus  by  the  Egyp- 
tian    priests    that    Sennacherib    advanced 


Sennacherib  on  his  Throne  at  Lachi,sh. 

against  Egypt,  and  had  reached  Pelusium, 
when  immense  numbers  of  field  nnce  de- 
stroyed the  bowstrings  of  the  Assyrians, 
who  next  morning  commenced  their  flight 
from  the  country.  For  the  series  of  historic 
events  in  which  Sennacherib  and  Hezekiah 
figure  as  antagonists,  .see  Hezekiah.  Sen- 
nacherib's fiiilure  against  Jerusalem  was  in 
701  B.  c.  In  the  meantime  new  troubles  for 
Sennacherib  arose  in  Babylonia  :  and  in  the 
third  year  of  Belibni,  in  700  B.  c.  the  Assyrian 
king  marched  to  the  south,  removed  Belibni, 
and  placed  his  own  son  Ashurnadinshum 
on  the  throne.  Freed  from  concern  for  the 
south  Sennacherib  next  turned  his  attention 
to  the  northwest  and  brought  Cilicia  under 
the  Assyrian  yoke.  In  694  he  made  a  novel 
expedition  by  .ship  and  attempted  to  root 
out  the  followers  of  Merodach-baladan  from 
their  last  refuge,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ulai. 


Senuah 


694 


Sepulcher 


The  campaign  was  in  a  measure  successful ; 
but  the  Elamites  invaded  Babylonia,  seized 
Ashurnadinshuni,  and  placed  a  Babylonian 
king  on  the  throne,  who  held  the  country 
for  a  year  and  a  half.  But  though  Sennach- 
erib took  Erech,  captured  the  Babylonian 
king,  and  devastated  Elani,  yet  another 
Babylonian  king  ascended  the  throne,  and 
the  Assyrians  did  not  succeed  in  finally 
chastising  Babylonia  until  689.  Then  Sen- 
nacherib advanced  against  Babylon,  captured 
and  plundered  the  city,  massacred  the  in- 
habitants, fired  the  buildings,  razed  the  walls 
and  temples,  and  flooded  the  ruins  with  water 
from  the  Euphrates  and  its  canals.  The  last 
eight  years  of  his  reign  were  mostly  peace- 
ful. He  had  some  time  before  surrounded 
Nineveh  with  a  wall,  8  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. About  695  B.  c.  he  finished  a  great 
palace  whi.ch  he  had  built  for  himself  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Nineveh.  It  was  1500 
feet  long  and  700  broad,  with  great  courts, 
halls,  and  chambers.  He  restored  another 
palace,  and  constructed  a  system  of  canals 
by  which  he  brought  good  drinking  water 
to  the  city.  After  a  reign  of  twenty-four 
years  and  five  months,  he  was  assassinated 
on  the  20th  of  Tebet,  which  pcissihly  fell  at 
the  close  of  681,  but  more  probably  corresponds 
with  January,  680.  The  deed  was  done  by 
two  of  his  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
who  were  excited  against  him  because  his  fa- 
vorite in  the  family  wasanother  brother,  Esar- 
haddon  (2  Kin.  xix.  37 ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  21). 

Se-nu'ah.     See  Hassenuah. 

Se-o'rim  [barley]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  constituted  the  fourth  course 
when  David  distributed  the  priests  into  di- 
visions (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  8). 

Se'phar  [numbering]. 

A  place  which  form- 
ed the  limit  in  one  di- 
rection of  the  territory 
settled  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Joktan  (Gen. 
X.  30).  It  was  prob- 
ably in  southern  Ara- 
bia. Despite  the  first 
letter,  it  is  commonly 
identified  with  Zafar, 
which  begins  with  the 
Arabic  pointed  za 
(teth).  Two  places 
bore  this  name.  One 
was  a  seaport  in  Ha- 
dramaut,  near  the  in- 
cense mountain  ;  the 
other  was  in  southern 
Yemen,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  Himyar- 
ite  kings. 

Seph'a-rad. 

A  jilace  to  which  the  people  of  Jerusalem 
were  to  be  carried  away  captive  (Obad.  20). 


Its  situation  is  unsettled.  Sparda,  a  district 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Persian  inscrip- 
tions along  with  Ionia,  Armenia,  and  Cappa- 
docia,  and  probably  identical  with  Sardis  in 
Asia  Minor,  has  been  suggested.  It  is  named 
in  Assyrian  inscriptions  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Esarhaddon,  680-668  B.  c.  (Ex]iository 
Times,  xiii.  308).  Perhaps  happier  is  the 
identification  with  Shaparda,  which  Sargon, 
who  transported  Israelites  to  the  cities  of 
the  Medes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  6),  and  boasts  of 
having  subjugated  Judah,  mentions  as  a  dis- 
trict of  southwestern  Media. 

Seph-ar-va'im  [twin  Sipparas]. 

A  place  from  whicli  the  Assyrians  brought 
colonists  to  inhabit  Samaria  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24, 
31).  Not  improbably  the  same  town  is  re- 
ferred to  in  xviii.  34  and  xix.  13.  On  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  above  Baby- 
lon and  hard  b}'  the  border  of  Mesopotamia 
stood  the  famous  city  of  Sijipar.  It  was  a 
seat  of  the  worship  of  the  sun-god,  and 
hence  was  known  as  Sippar  of  Shamash. 
But  Anunit,  wife  of  the  god  of  the  sky,  was 
also  specially  worshiped  there,  apparently  in 
a  distinct  section  of  the  city.  Hence  there 
was  also  Sippar  of  Anunit.  The  duality  of 
the  town  sufficiently  explains  the  Hebrew 
name,  which  is  dual  in  form  and  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  twin  cities  of  Sippara.  It  is  now 
called  Abu  Habba. 

Se'phar-vites. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  31). 

Se-phe'la.     See  Shephelah. 

Sep'tu-a-gint.     See  Versions. 

Sep'ul-cher. 

The  Hebrews,  as  a  rule,  buried  their  dead 
in  caverns,  natural  or  artificial  (Gen.  xsiii. 
9;  Is.  xxii.  16;  Mat.  xxvii.  60;  John  xi.  38), 
natural  caves  being  often  extended  by  exca- 


VKSTIBULE 


OPEN        COURT 


iiiibs  of  the  Kings. 

vation  (Gen.  1.  5).  The  clifis  near  Jerusalem 
are  full  of  such  sepulchers.  The  entrance  to 
the  cavern  or  its  chambers  was  closed  by  a 


Sepulcher 


695 


Sepulchers  of  the  Kings 


stone  (Mat.  sxvii.  60)  to  exclude  jackals  and 
other  beasts  that  prey  upon  dead  bodies.  It 
was  desirable  that  the  sepulclu'rs  should  he 
at  a  distance  from  human  habitations.  They 
might  be  in  gardens  attached   to  dwellings 


Sealed  Stone  at  Entrance  of  a  Tomb. 

(2  Kiu.  xxi.  18,  26),  or  within  the  city  walls 
(1  Kin.  ii.  10)  ;  but  they  were  generally  out- 
side the  town.  Even  then  trees  or  gardens 
might  surround  them  (John  xix.  41).  Often, 
however,  they  were  excavated  liigh  up  in  the 
face  of  a  precipitous  cliff,  with  their  entrance 
far  above  the  ground.  Frequently  the  tomb 
was  whitewashed  (Mat.  xxiii.  27),  not  only 


shaft  into  the  side  of  the  cavern  and  closed 
by  a  flat  stone  or  door,  or  a  shelf  for  bodies  was 
hewn  around  the  chamber.  Sometimes  there 
were  doulile  tiers  of  niches  or  shafts.  Coffins 
were  not  necessary  ;  but  occasionally  among 
the  wealthy  the  body  was  inclosed  in  a  stone 
sarcophagus,  and  placed  in  the  tomb.  The 
entrance  was  sometimes  richly  ornamented. 
Sonietimesa  monument  was  erected.  It  might 
consist  of  a  simple  pillar  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  17,  E. 
v.),  or  it  might  assume  the  form  of  a  mauso- 
leum (1  Mac.  xiii.  27).  The  Hebrews  and 
their  neighbors  were  fond  of  family  burial 
places,  and  the  sepulcher  with  its  chambers 
and  niches  was  adapted  to  this  purpose  (Gen. 
xlix.  29-31 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  32  ;  1  Kin.  xiii.  22  ;  1 
Mac.  ix.  19;  xiii.  25).  Public  burial  places 
were  used  by  the  poor  and  were  provided  for 
strangers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6 ;  Jer.  xxvi.  23  ;  Mat. 
xxvii.  7).  When  the  Palestine  explorers 
found  a  grave  dug  down  in  the  ground  and 
covered  with  earth,  they  assumed  it  to  be  a 
Christian  tomb ;  but  if  they  found  one  run- 
ning horizontally  into  a  clitf,  they  presumed 
it  to  be  Jewish.     See  Grave. 

Sep'ul-cher,  Ho'ly.     See  Calvary. 

Sep'ul-chers  of  the  Kings,  or  of  Da'vld. 

The  royal  burial  place  in  the  city  of  David, 
not  far  from  the  king's  garden  and  the  pool 
of  Shelah  (1  Kin.  ii.  10;  2  Chron.  xxi.  20; 
Neh.  iii.  15,  16),  and  doubtless  in  the  field  of 
burial  which  behmged  to  the  kings  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  23 ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xv.  7).  Theodoret  quotes 
Josephus  as  saying  that  the  tomb  is  near  Si- 
loam,  is  in  fashion  like  a  cave,  and  reveals  the 


Portal  of  the  so-called  Tombs  of  the  Judges,  near  Jerusalem. 


for  cleanliness  and  beauty,  but  also  that  it 
might  be  clearly  seen  and  not  touched,  for 
the  touch  brought  defilement.  Inside  the 
sepulcher  the  individual  grave  was  sunk  in 
the  floor  and  covered  by  a  slab  of  stone,  or 
was  cut  as  a  niche  in  the  wall,  or  driven  as  a 


roj'al  lavishness  (Qusest.  6  in  iii.  Reg.).  It  con- 
sisted of  several  chambers  (Antiq.  vii.  15,  3). 
It  was  robbed  of  large  treasure  by  John  Hyr- 
canus;  and  the  report  of  the  sum  which  that 
prince  had  obtained  led  Herod  the  Great  to 
search  it,  in  the  hope  of  securing  additional 


Serah 


696 


Seraphim 


plunder;but  lie  became  frightened,  abandoned 
the  search,  and  erected  a  propitiatory  monu- 
ment of  white  stone  at  its  mouth  (ibid. ;  xiii.  8, 
4  ;  xvi.  7,  1  ;  War  i.  2,  5).  It  was  extant  in  the 
time  of  Christ  (Acts  ii.  29).  All  the  kings 
from  David  to  Hezekiah  inclusive  were  bur- 
ied in  the  city  of  David.  The  comivon  royal 
sepulcher  was  by  implication  ordinarily  used  ; 
but  Asa  and  i)robably  Hezekiah  had  tombs 
of  their  own  (2  Chron.  xvi.  14  ;  xxxii.  iJ^,  R. 
v.),  and  Jehoram,  Joash,  Uzziah,  and  Ahaz 
were  not  admitted  to  the  royal  sepulcher 
(xxi.  20;  sxiv.  25;  xxvi.  23;  xxviii.  27). 
Manasseh,  Anion,  and  Josiah  were  buried  at 
Jerusalem  in  their  own  tombs  (2  Kin.  xxi.  18, 
2(j;xxiii.30with2Chron.  xxxv.  24).  Jehoahaz 
died  in  Egypt,  and  Jehoiachin  and  Zedekiah 
doubtless  in  Babylonia.  Jehoiakim  was  prob- 
ably left  unburied. 

The  caverns  of  the  kings,  which  are  re- 
ferred to  by  Josephus  (War  v.  4,  2),  may  be 
what  is  now  known  as  the  grotto  of  Jeremiah. 

Se'rah,  in  A.  V.  once  Sarah  (Num.  xxvi. 
4G)   [abundance]. 

A  daughter  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17 ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  30). 

Se-ra'iah  [soldier  of  Jehovah] 

1.  A  son  of  Kenaz  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

2.  A  scribe  who  had  held  oifice  under  David 
(2  Sam.  viii.  17) ;  see  Shavsha. 

3.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Asiel  (1  Chron.  iv. 
35). 

4.  One  of  those  sent  to  arrest  Baruch  the 
scribe  and  Jeremiah  the  prophet  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
26). 

5.  The  chief  priest  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
captured  Jerusalem.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Riblah  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
18-21 ;  Jer.  lii.  24-27).  He  was  the  father  of 
Jehozadak,  who  was  carried  into  captivity ; 
and  the  grandfather  of  Jeshua,  who  was  high 
priest  immediately  after  the  exile;  and  he 
was  also  an  ancestor  of  Ezra,  the  scribe  (1 
Chron.  vi.  14,  15;  Ezra  iii.  2;  vii.  1). 

6.  "A  quiet  prince,"  or  "the  chief  cham- 
berlain," or  the  "quartermaster,"  the  son  of 
Neriah.  He  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon 
(Jer.  li.  59-H4,  A.  V..  R.  V.,  and  margin). 

7.  The  son  of  Tanhumeth,  a  Netophathite 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

8.  One  of  those  who  accompanied  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  {Ezra  ii.  2).  Called  in 
Nell.  vii.  7  Azariah. 

9.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubhabel  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  (ver.  12).  Possibly  the  same 
as  number  8. 

10.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house  and  probably  of  the  father's  house  just 
mentioned,  who  with  Nehemiah  signed  the 
covenant  to  keep  separate  from  the  heathen 
and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Nob.  x.  2). 
Probably  also  he  is  identical  with  the  follow- 
ing. 

11.  A  priest,  son  of  Hilkiah  and  ruler  of 


the  house  of  God  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  11 ; 
cp.  the  preceding).  The  name  Azariah  oc- 
curs in  the  corresponding  place  in  1  Chron. 
ix.  11.  Difl'erent  jiersons  are  probably  in- 
tended, of  whom  Azariah  lived  before  and 
Seraiah  after  the  exile.  Possibly,  however, 
ditl'erent  persons  are  intended,  each  of  whom 
lived  after  the  exile,  Azariah  being  a  prede- 
cessor of  Seraiah.  Or  the  text  may  be  cor- 
rupt ;  in  one  of  the  passages  the  name  may 
have  been  misread  by  a  copyist ;  or  as  both 
names  belong  to  the  high-priestly  genealogy 
and  succeed  each  other  there  (1  Chron.  vi. 
12-15),  something  may  have  slipped  from  the 
text,  as,  for  example :  ' '  Seraiah,  son  of ' '  may 
have  been  lost  before  Azariah  in  Chronicles, 
or  "son  of  Azariah"  after  Seraiah  in  Nehe- 
miah. 

Ser'a-phim. 

Celestial  beings  who  stood  before  the  en- 
throned Lord  when  he  appeared  in  vision  to 
Isaiah.  Each  had  six  wings ;  with  twain  he 
covered  his  face,  and  with  twain  he  covered 
his  feet,  and  with  twain  he  did  Hy.  And 
one  cried  unto  another,  and  said  :  "  Holy, 
holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts:  the  whole 
earth  is  full  of  his  glory  "  (Is.  vi.  2,  3).  The 
pro])het  having  confessed  his  sinfulness,  one 
of  the  seraphim  flew  unto  him,  having  a  live 
coal  in  his  hand,  which  he  had  taken  with 
the  tongs  from  olf  the  altar;  and  he  touched 
the  prophet's  mouth  with  it,  and  said  :  "  Lo, 
this  hath  touched  thy  lips ;  and  thine  in- 
iquity is  taken  away,  an(l  thy  sin  purged." 

Scripture  atlbrds  no  further  information 
regarding  the  seraphim.  They  are  men- 
tioned in  this  one  passage  only.  What  were 
they?  1.  Gesenius  derives  their  name  from 
the  Arabic  sharafa,  high,  noble.  The  Arabic 
root  would  regularly  be  saraph  in  Hebrew ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  by  the  Hebrews.  No  other  wiord  in 
Hebrew  is  traceable  to  this  root.  Gesenius 
has  sought  his  derivation  outside  of  the  He- 
brew lexicon.  These  facts  stamp  his  ex- 
planation as  improbable.  2.  Cheyne  conjec- 
tures that  the  seraphim  are  the  serpent-like 
lightning,  referring  to  the  fact  that  saraph 
and  s'raphim  denote  the  fiery  serpents  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  6,  8;  Is.  xiv.2i»;  xxx. 
6).  But  even  if  the  words  serajihim  and 
fiery  serpent  have  the  same  form  in  the 
singular  number,  which  is  uncertain,  and 
if  they  are  from  the  same  Semitic  root, 
which  is  probable,  they  yet  need  not  signify 
the  same  beings  or  similarly  shajied  beings. 
Shape  is  not  denoted  by  the  name.  The 
common  characteristic,  which  finds  expres- 
sion in  the  word,  is  burning,  in  the  transitive 
sense;  n<)t  ardent  or  glowing  beings,  but 
beings  that  burn  things.  Nor  do  the  sera- 
phim resemble  serpents  outwardly,  for  they 
have  hands,  feet,  and  wings.  Cheyne  admits 
that  Isaiah  did  not  regard  them  as  animals 
in  form.  3.  The  serai>hini  are  identical 
with  the  Egyptian  griffins,  serref  (Dillmann, 


Sered 


697 


Servant  of  Jehovah 


quoting  L.  Stern),  and  were  borrowed  by  the 

Israelites.  If  so,  they  were  personifications 
of  natural  objects  or  phcnoniciia  ;  and  in  the 
vision  of  Isaiah  they  syniholically  represent 
the  powers  of  nature  attendant  upon  nature's 
Lord  (cp.  Zech.  vi.  1-8,  R.  V.).  4.  They  are 
an  order  of  angels.  So  the  Jews  understood. 
The  Targum  inserts  the  word  in  Ezek.  i.  8 ; 
Zech.  iii.  7.  They  are  consuming  beings, 
who  cry  "Holy,  holy,  holy,"  who  are  most 
impressed  with  the  attribute  of  holiness  in 
God,  worship  him  most  fondly  in  that  char- 
acter, and  execute  his  purposes  of  holiness 
in  the  world  (Delitzsch,  modified).  The  con- 
clusive argument  in  favor  of  this  theory 
against  the  third  is  that  their  adoration  of 
holiness  in  God  and  their  employment  in  the 
ministry  of  atonement  indicate  moral  beings, 
and  not  physical  powers  personilied. 

Se'red  [fear]. 

A  son  of  Zebiilun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Ser'gi-us  Pau'lus  [P'^ulns  means  small, 
little]. 

The  proconsul  of  Cj'prus,  which  consti- 
tuted a  senatorial  province  in  Paul's  time 
(Acts  xiii.  5-12) ;  see  Cyprus.  The  inscrip- 
tion on  a  coin  found  at  ancient  Soli,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  island,  mentions 
"  Paulus  proconsul." 

Se'ron  [perhaps,  a  Greek  form  of  Hiram 
(cp.  Herod,  vii.  98)]. 

Commander  of  the  army  of  Syria  (1  Mac. 
iii.  i:i)  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
He  attempted  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the 
Jews,  but  was  defeated  by  Judas  Maccabseus 
near  Beth-horon  in  166  B.  c.  (14-24).  Josephus 
states  that  Serou  lost  his  life  in  the  battle 
(Antiq.  xii.  7,  1). 

Ser'pent. 

1.  An  animal  which  creeps  on  its  belly 
(Gen.  iii.  1,  14) ;  having  head,  tail,  and  body 
(15 ;  Ex.  iv.  4),  but  no  limbs.  It  is  generically 
called  nahnsh  in  Hebrew,  ophis  in  Greek 
(Gen.  iii.  1.3  with  2  Cor.  xi.  3 ;  Nnm.  xxi.  9 
with  John  iii.  14).  As  it  wriggles  along,  its 
mouth  is  apt  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
dust,  which  it  licks  (Mic.  vii.  17 ;  cp.  Gen. 
iii.  14;  Is.  Ixv.  25).  The  bite  of  some  species 
infuses  ftital  poison  into  the  wound  (Num. 
xxi.  6;  Ps.  Iviii.  4;  Prov.  xxiii.  .32).  Some 
can  be  charmed  (Ecc.  x.  11).  The  serpent  is 
found  in  the  wilderness  and  in  inhabited 
districts,  by  the  road,  in  hedges,  on  rocks,  in 
walls  (Gen.  xlix.  17;  Num.  xxi.  6;  Prov. 
XXX.  19;  Ecc.  x.  8;  Amos  v.  19). 

The  fiery  serpents  which  bit  the  children 
of  Israel  in  the  wilderness  and  caused  death 
(Num.  xxi.  6),  were  a  kind  of  snake  found 
in  Arabia  and  elsewhere,  whose  bite  pro- 
duces the  fiery  burning  of  inflammation  and 
thirst.     See  Brazen  Serpent. 

The  serpent  of  the  temptation  was  an  or- 
dinary snake,  one  of  the  beasts  of  the  field, 
comparable  with  them  in  subtlety  and  skill 
in  securing  prey,  and,  after  it  was  involved 


in  the  temptation  of  man,  cursed  among 
them  (Gen.  iii.  1,  14).  Perhaps  Eve  saw 
nothing  more  than  a  snake ;  but  the  devil 
was  in  this  serpent,  as  afterwards  the  demons 
were  in  men  and  in  the  swine,  controlling 
ir,  lending  it  supernatural  subtlety,  and  using 
it  as  a  means  by  which  to  approach  Eve  ( Wisd. 
ii.  24;  John  viii.  44;  Rom.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor. 
xi.  3;  Rev.  xii.  9) ;  see  Satan.  It  suflered  in 
the  punishment,  as  did  other  innocent  ani- 
mals when  made  the  instruments  of  sin 
(Lev.  XX.  15,  16).  Its  mode  of  locomotion 
was  not  new,  it  had  doubtless  always  crept ; 
but  now  this  groveling  on  the  earth  and  ac- 
cidental swallowing  of  dust  is  made  the 
memorial  of  its  degradation.  It  does  not 
suffer  thereby,  save  as  it  is  loathed  and  killed 
by  man.  But  the  more  distinctly  man  recog- 
nizes that  the  evil  spirit  was  the  serpent's 
master,  the  more  does  man  transfer  his  en- 
mity to  the  archfiend. 

2.  A  species  of  serpent,  in  Hebrew  pethen 
(Ps.  xci.  13,  in  E.  V.  adder).     See  Asp. 

Se'rug,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saruch  [shoot, 
branch]. 

Son  of  Rcu,  father  of  Nahor,  and  ancestor 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  20,  23;  1  Chron.  i.  26; 
Luke  iii.  35). 

Serv'ant. 

One  who  serves,  in  Hebrew  usually  'ebed. 
It  is  a  general  term,  including  voluntary  and 
involuntary  service,  and  embracing  all  who 
are  under  obligation  of  any  kind  to  render 
service  to  another,  from  the  slave  captured 
in  war  or  purchased  at  a  price,  to  the  envied 
official  of  a  king  and  the  willing  worshiper 
of  God  (Gen.  xxxix.  1  with  xii.  12;  xl.  20; 
Ex.  xxxii.  13;  Acts  xvi.  17).  It  is  system- 
atically employed  by  orientals  when  ad- 
dressing a  superior,  whether  man  or  God 
(Gen.  xxxii.  4,  20;  1.  18;  Dent.  iii.  24; 
2  Sam.  ix.  2  ;  Luke  ii.  29  ;  Acts  iv.  29)  ;  and 
is  applied  to  conquered  nations  compelled 
to  pay  tribute  to  their  conqueror  (2  Sam.  viii. 
2).  God  also  designates  his  worshipers  serv- 
ants (Gen.  xxvi.  24 ;  Num.  xii.  7  ;  2  Sam. 
vii.  5).    See  Minister,  Slave. 

Ser'vant  of  Je-ho'vah. 

One  who  acknowledges  Jehovah  as  his  God 
and,  by  implication  of  the  term,  faithfully  per- 
forms his  will ;  as  Abraham  (Ps.  cv.  6),  Moses 
(26),  David  (exxxii.  10 1,  Isaiah  (Is.  xx.  3). 

The  prominent  figure  in  Is.  xl.-lxvi.  The 
view  most  widely  entertained  by  modern 
commentators  is  that  the  servant  of  the  Lord 
in  these  chapters  is  Israel,  the  eye  of  the 
prophet  being  fixed  sometimes  on  the  nation 
as  a  whole,  sometimes  on  the  godly  portion, 
sometimes  oa  that  perfect  representative  of 
Israel,  that  Israelite  indeed,  Christ.  Against 
other  views  there  may  be  urged :  1.  The 
servant  of  chapter  liii.  is  interpreted  by  the 
Jewish  Targums  as  Messiah.  2.  The  prophet 
Zechariah  apparently  identifies  the  Branch, 
a  familiar  designation  of  Messiah,  with  the 
servant  whereby  the  iniquity  of  the  land  is 


Setli 


698 


Seveneh 


taken  away  (Zech.  iii.  8-10;  cp.  Jer.  xxiii. 
5-8).  3.  The  description  of  the  siifl'eriiig 
servant  of  chapter  liii.  actually  rinds  its 
counterpart  in  Christ. 

The  interpreter  of  Is.  liii.  must  be  ever 
mindful  of  certain  controlling  facts  :  1.  When 
this  chapter  was  penned,  the  Hebrews  were 
fully  acquainted  with  the  sense  of  guilt 
(Gen.  xxxix.  9;  2  Sam.  xii.5-13;  Is.  vi.5-7; 
cp.  Pss.  xxxii.and  li.).  2.  The  godly  among 
the  Israelites  recognized  themselves  as  sin- 
ful and  as  involved  in  the  guilt  of  the  nation, 
in  its  disobedience  to  God's  law  and  in  its 
failure  to  fulfil  the  purpose  of  its  selection  to 
be  God's  servant  among  men.  Israel's  best 
men  felt  this  truth  keenly  (Neli.  i.  f!,  7; 
Dan.  ix.  5-11,  20).  Israel  was  a  unit,  a 
solidarity  :  the  sin  of  a  part  of  the  people  in- 
volved all  in  guilt  (Deut.  xxi.  1,  7,  8 ;  Josh, 
vii.  1,  11,  13,  15,  25  ;  Judg.  xx.  6,  10,  13).  3. 
When  this  chapter.  Is.  liii.,  was  written,  the 
Israelites  were  familiar  with  the  sjmbolism 
of  atonement.  Those  critics  who  regard  this 
proi)hecy  as  an  utterance  of  Isaiah  as  a  rule 
believe  that  the  book  of  Leviticus  had  been 
in  existence  for  centuries,  while  those  who 
accept  this  chapter  as  a  product  of  the  exilic 
times  hold  it  to  be  later  than  Ezekiel  and 
■written  after  the  sacrificial  system  had  long 
beer,  in  operation.  The  prophecy  was  uttered 
when  the  truths  were  well  known  that  God 
might  pardon  after  sutRcient  punisliment 
had  been  inflicted  (Is.  xl.  2),  yet  the  mere 
punishment  of  sin  or  compensation  for  an 
injury  does  not  cleanse  the  siiiuer.  Punish- 
ment and  restitution  and  cleansing  are  re- 
quired (Is.  iv.  3,  4;  vi.  6.  7;  liii.  10;  Lev.  v. 
14-16;  Num.  v.  5-8;  Ps.  li.  2,  7).  4.  The 
doctrine  of  substitution  was  also  known.  It 
pervades  the  chapter  (verses  5,  6,  11, 12).  It 
was  publicly  illustrated  on  the  annual  day 
of  atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  20-22).  5.  To  fulfil 
these  conditions  and  satisfy  the  creed  of 
Israel,  the  servant  of  Jehovah  must  be  of 
sufticient  worth  to  be  .substituted  for  Israel, 
must  be  identical  with  Israel  in  order  that 
he  may  really  represent  Israel  before  God 
and  that  it  may  be  said  that  Israel  has 
actually  met  its  obligations  in  him;  and  yet 
the  servant  must  be  distinct  from  Israel  so 
as  not  to  be  involved  iu  Israel's  guilt  and  to 
have  no  obligation  of  service  to  discharge  for 
himself.  These  doctrinal  requirements  point 
not  obscurely  to  the  need  of  divinity  in  him 
who  fills  the  office  assigned  to  the  Lord's 
servant  in  Is.  liii. 

Seth,  in  A.  V.  once  Sheth  (1  C'hron.  i.  1) 
[ajjpointed,  substituted] . 

A  son  of  Adam.  He  was  born  after  the 
murder  of  Abel,  for  whom  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent he  became  a  substitute  (Gen.  iv.  25  ;  v. 
.3).  He  became  the  father  of  Enos,  and  died 
at  the  age  of  912  (Gen.  v.  6-8 ;  Luke  iii.  38). 

Se'thur  [hidden]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (Num.  xiii.  13). 


Sev'en. 

Seven  is  an  ordinary  numeral,  and  it  was 
commonly  used  without  religious  signifi- 
cance ;  but  it  was  also  a  sacred  number 
among  the  Hebrews  and  other  Semites,  and 
also  among  the  Aryans  of  Persia  and  even 
of  Greece  (Iliad  xix.  243).  Its  .sacredness  is 
traceable  to  remote  anticinity.  It  is  seen  in 
the  seven  pillars  of  wi.sdom's  house  (Prov. 
i\'.  1),  the  seven  locks  into  which  Samson, 
who  was  consecrated  to  God,  braided  his  hair 
(Judg.  xvi.  13,  19),  the  seven  victims  to  atone 
for  the  broken  covenant  (2  Sam.  xxi.  6,  9), 
the  seven  stones  of  the  ancient  Arabs  smeared 
with  the  blood  of  the  covenanting  parties 
(Herod,  iii.  8),  the  seven  lambs  to  attest  the 
coiiiClusion  of  a  treaty  (Gen.  xxi.  28-30),  the 
Hebrew  words  for  oath  and  taking  an  oath, 
which  incorporate  the  number  seven,  and 
the  sacredness  of  the  seventh  portion  of 
time.  The  idea  that  seven  derived  its  sacred 
character  from  the  fact  that  three  plus  four 
make  seven,  is  pure  fancy.  It  was  sacred  be- 
cause men  saw  that  God  recognized  the  num- 
ber. He  placed  seven  luminaries  in  the  sky, 
sun,  moon,  and  five  planets.  He  caused  the 
moon  to  phase  every  seven  days.  These 
phenomena,  however,  were  but  confirmatory 
and  served  as  reminders  of  a  greater  recog- 
nition. God  had  blessed  the  seventh  day 
and  hallow^'d  it.  Far  more  was  needed  than 
the  signs  of  the  sky  to  originate  the  sacred- 
ness of  seven.  Twelve  did  not  become  a 
sacred  number,  although  God  made  the 
moon  to  mark  off  twelve  months  in  the  year, 
placed  twelve  starry  signs  in  the  zodiac,  and 
made  the  sun  to  conform  its  course  to  the  zo- 
diac and  to  return  in  spring  as  nearly  at  the 
conclusion  of  twelve  lunar  months  as  the 
moon  renews  itself  after  four  phasings. 
Man  noted  these  phenomena  in  the  earliest 
times,  adopted  them  into  his  daily  life  and 
language,  and  celebrated  certain  of  them 
with  religious  festivals.  In  Babylonia  man 
even  made  twelve  the  basis  of  an  arithmeti- 
cal system,  and  in  Assyria  his  pantheon  con- 
tained twelve  great  gods.  Notwithstanding 
all  this,  twelve  did  not  become  a  sacred 
number  ;  but  seven  did  become  a  sacred  num- 
ber, and  the  seventh  portion  of  time  a  sacred 
season  ;  and  not  merely  was  the  recurring 
seventh  portion  of  time  sacred,  but  it  in- 
volved a  benediction.  It  was  cherished  in 
hoary  antiquity  as  a  season  of  divine  favor 
toward  man,  when  the  manifestation  of  God's 
good  will  was  to  be  expected.    See  Sabbath. 

Se-ve'neli,  in  A.  V.  Sy-e'ne  [Egyptian 
s?/w,  aflbrding  entrance]. 

A  town  constituting  the  extreme  limit  of 
Egypt  in  one  directioTi.  Which  direction  de- 
pends on  the  translation  of  Ezek.  xxix.  10; 
XXX.  6.  If,  as  is  probable,  the  preferable  ren- 
dering is  that  of  the  margin,  "  from  Migdol  to 
Syene,"  then  the  town  of  Seveneh  is  in  the 
south  of  Egy])t,  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia, 
and  is  the  Eoman  Syene,  the  modern  Assouan, 


Shaaibim 


699 


Shallum 


on  the  Egyptian  side  of  the  first  cataract, 
where  a  few  remains  of  the  ancient  city  ex- 
ist. Here,  or  on  the  ishmd  hard  ))y,  the  bor- 
der garrison  was  stationed  i  Herod,  ii.  30). 
On  the  island,  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
Persian  conquest  of  Egypt,  a  Jewish  colony 
maintained  a  temple  to  Jehovah  ( Elephan- 
tine y)apyri) ;  see  Altar. 

Sha-al'bim,  once  Sha-al-ab'bin  (Josh, 
xix.  42)   [foxes] . 

An  Araorite  city  within  the  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh,  xix  42),  which  the  Aniorites  did  not 
yield  (Judg.  i.  35)  until  some  time  after  the 
settlement  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  land  (1 
Kin.  iv.  9).  Not  identified.  Selbit,  3  miles 
northwest  of  Aijalou,  has  little  in  its  favor. 

Sha-al'bo-nite. 

A  native  or  inha})itant  either  of  an  un- 
known town  called  Shaalbon,  .)r  more  prob- 
ably of  Shaaibim  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  32  ;  1  Chron. 
xi.33). 

Sha'a-lim,  in  A.  Y.  Sba'lim  [foxes]. 

A  district  apparently  in  Ephraim,  through 
which  Saul,  ou  leaving  the  land  of  Shalishah, 
jiassed  in  quest  of  his  father's  asses  (1  Sam. 
ix.  4).     Situation  unknown. 

Sha'aph. 

1.  A  son  of  Jahdai,  included  in  the  regis- 
try of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  Caleb  by  his  concubine  Maacah. 
He  was  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mad- 
niannah  (1  Chron.  ii.  49). 

Sha-a-ra'im,  in  A.  V.  once  Sharalm  [two 
gates]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josb. 
XV.  36),apparently  west  of  Socoh  and  Azekah 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  52  with  1).  Not  identified. 
Sa'ireh  among  the  hills,  5  miles  northeast  by 
north  of  Socoh,  has  not  the  proper  location  ; 
and  the  tell  and  village  of  Zakariya,  on  either 
side  of  wady  es-Suntand  about  2h  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  Socoh,  have  only  one  consonant 
in  common  with  Shaaraim,  and  besides  appear 
to  be  named  after  the  prophet  Zechariah, 
whose  grave  is  shown  there. 

2.  A  town  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  31) ;  see 
Sharuhen. 

Sha-ash'gaz. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Estb. 
ii.  14). 

Shab'be-tliai  [pertaining  to  the  Sabbath]. 
A  chief  Jjcvite,  prominent  in  Ezra's  time 
(Ezra  X.  15;  Neh.  viii.  7;  xi.  16). 

Sha-chi'a. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chron. 
viii.  10). 

Sha'drach  [probably  Babylonian,  Shudur- 
<i]cu,  decree  of  the  moon-god]. 

The  name  given  by  the  prince  of  the 
eunuchs  at  Babylon  to  Hananiah,  one  of  the 
three  faithful  Hebrews  afterwards  miracu- 
louslv  saved  from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan. 
i.  7;"iii.  12-30). 


Sha'ge-e,  in  A.  Y.  Shage  [wandering]. 

A  Hararite,  tiie  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  34).  Some  exposi- 
tors would  read  Agee  instead  of  Shage,  ou 
the  ground  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  11.  The  more 
appropriate  comparison  with  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32, 
33,  and  the  reading  of  Lncian's  recension  of 
the  Septnagint  render  more  i)robable  the  con- 
jecture that  the  name  is  really  Shammab  ;  see 
Shammah  4. 

Sha-ha-ra'im  [the  double  dawning]. 
j        A  Benjamite,  who  had  numerous  descend- 
.ants  (1  Chron.  viii.  8). 

Sha-haz'u-mah,  in  A.  V.  Sha-haz'i-mali, 

as  in  Hebrew  margin  [not  improbably,  lofty 
places] . 

A  town  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix.  22).     Situation  unknown. 

Sha'lem  [entire,  safe]. 

A  town  near  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18), 
according  to  the  Gi'eek,  Latin,  and  Syriac 
versions,  followed  by  A.  Y.  It  is  scarcely 
Salem  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  for  that  town  is  prob- 
ably Jerusalem  ;  nor  Salim,  4  miles  east  of 
Shechem,  which  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
O.  T.  The  word  is  probably  a  common  noun, 
to  be  rendered,  with  K.  V.,  in  peace  or  safety. 

Sha'lim.     See  Shaalim. 

Shari-shah,  in  A.  Y.  Shalisha  [a  third 
part] . 

A  district  apparently  in  the  hill  country 
of  Ephraim,  traversed  by  Saul  in  quest  of 
his  father's  asses  (1  Sam.  ix.  4).  Its  situation 
is  unknown.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
same  as  Baal-shalishah. 

Sbal'le-cheth  [casting  out] . 

A  gate  of  Solomon's  temple  on  the  west 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  IH). 

Shal'lum  [retribution]. 

1.  A  son  of  Naphtali  (1  Chron.  vii.  13) ;  see 
Shillem. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  through  Shaul 
(1  Chron.  iv.  24,  25). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Sisamai 
(1  Chron.  ii.  40,  41). 

4.  The  chief  porter  at  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  ix.  17,  18).  If  before  the  exile,  as  is 
probable,  he  is  mentioned  by  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  XXXV.  4).  He  was  a  son  of  Kore,  a  Kor- 
hite,  and  he  and  his  family  were  keejjers  of 
the  gates  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  ix.  19). 
The  name  Shallum  may  be  equivalent  to  Me- 
shelemiah  or  Shelemiah  (xxvi.  1,  14),  whether 
the  registry  of  chapter  ix.  be  referred  to  the 
time  before  or  after  the  exile.  A  comparison 
of  ix.  21  with  xxvi.  2  raises  a  strong  pre- 
sumption against  the  identification.  If  not- 
withstanding this,  the  registry  be  regarded 
as  post-exilic  and  Shallum  be  identified  with 
Shelemiah,  then  Shallum  is  not  the  name  of 
a  person,  but  of  the  family,  in  the  registry. 

5.  A  son  of  Jabesh,  who  murdered  king 
Zechariah  and  reigned  in  his  stead  over  the 
ten  tribes,  but  in  a  month  was  himself  assas- 
sinated by  Menahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  8-15). 


Shallun 


700 


Shaimaneser 


6.  Father  of  a  certain  Jeliizkiali  (2  Chron- 
xxviii.  12). 

7.  A  member  of  the  high-priestly  family 
of  Zadok,  and  an  ancestor  of  Ezra.  He  lived 
several  generations  before  the  capture  of  Je- 
rusalem by  Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  12- 
1.5 ;  Ezra  vii.  2).  Called  Mcshnllam  in  1 
Chron.  ix.  11 ;  see  Meshullam  4. 

8.  A  son  of  Tikvah,  and  the  husband  of 
Huldah,  the  prophetess,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  the  officer  who  had  charge  either  of 
the  priests'  garments  which  were  kept  in  the 
temple  or  of  the  king's  wardrobe  (2  Kin. 
xxii,   14  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22). 

9.  Uncle  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  father  of 
Hanameel  (Jer.  xxxii.  7,  8).  He  was  not  a 
member  of  the  high-priestly  family,  as  some 
have  thought ;  for  his  son  lived  at  Anathoth, 
a  town  where  priests  of  Ithamar's  line  dwelt 
(1  Kin.  ii.  26),  and  the  high  priests  of  this 
time  belonged  to  the  line  of  Eleazar. 

10.  Another  name  for  Jehoahaz,  son  of 
Josiah,   king  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  30-34) ; 

see  jEHf)AH.\Z. 

11  and  12.  A  porter  of  the  temple,  and  a 
son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
24,  42). 

13.  A  son  of  Hallohesh,  ruler  of  half  the 
district  of  Jerusalem.  With  his  daughter, 
he  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neb.  iii.  12). 

Shal'lun  [perhaps,  spoliation]. 

A  ruler  of  part  of  Mizpah,  who  repaired 
the  gate  of  the  fountains  at  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  15). 

Shal'mai.     See  Salmai. 

Shal'man. 

Tiglath-pileser  mentions  Salamanu  of  Moab 
among  the  various  princes  who  were  tribu- 
tary to  him  (II.  R.  07,  (iO),  and  Schrader  be- 
lieves that  this  person  is  Shalnian,  the  de- 
stroyer of  Beth-arbel,  to  whom  Hosea  refers 
(Hos.  X.  14),  and  that  Beth-arbel  is  the  town 
of  that  name  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pella. 
These  identifications  may  be  correct,  but  they 
are  unsupported.  It  is  not  known  that  Sala- 
manu of  Moab  invaded  the  land  of  Israel, 
but  it  is  known  that  Shaimaneser  of  Assyria 
did.  In  the  light  of  present  knowledge,  it 
is  more  natural  to  regard  Shalman  as  an  ab- 
breviation of  Shaimaneser,  exactly  such  an 
abbreviation  as  is  Benhadad,  and  to  think 
of  Beth-arbel  as  being  the  town  of  Galilee, 
from  which  Shalmaueser'.s  army  was  cer- 
tainly not  far  distant.     See  Shalmankser  4. 

Shal-ma-ne'ser  [Assyrian  ShultiKntii-axlKO-- 
iilu,  god  Shulman  is  chief]. 

The  name  of  several  Assyrian  kings : 

1.  The  builder,  or  rather  rebuilder,  and 
fortifier  of  the  town  of  Calah  (q.  v.).  He 
reigned  about  1300  b.  v. 

2.  The  son  of  Ashurnasirpal.  He  reigned 
from  about  860  to  825  k.  v.,  and  was  the  first 
Assyrian  king  who  came  into  conflict  with 
tlie  Israelites.      He  was  energetic  and  ])er- 


sistent  in  purpose.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates 
witli  hostile  intent  as  early  as  his  first  year 
and  wasted  the  Hittite  country  as  far  as  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  lie  repeatedly  crossed 
the  river  later,  besides  waging  war  in  the 
countries  north,  east,  and  south  of  Nineveh. 
To  resist  him  in  the  west,  the  Syrian  league 
was  formed,  which  included  Damascus,  Ha- 
math,  and  the  twelve  kings  of  the  coast,  and 
was  at  times  reenforced  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
neighboring  nations.  Thus,  for  instance,  tlie 
army  of  Ahab  of  Israel  was  found  fight- 
ing side  by  side  with  the  men  of  Damascus 
against  the  common  Assyrian  foe  at  Karkar 
in  854  B.  c. ;  see  Ahab,  Benhadad.  Shai- 
maneser claims  to  have  won  the  battle  of 
Karkar ;  but  he  gained  nothing  if  be  did, 
and  at  once  led  his  army  back  to  Nineveh. 
After  three  years  he  returned,  but  his  on- 
ward course  was  again  stopped  by  the  allies. 
The  following  year,  the  eleventh  of  his  reign, 
he  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  jtlundered 
many  towns  of  the  kingdom  of  Hamath,  but 
he  was  again  checked.  In  his  fourteenth 
year  he  returned  and  conquered.  The  power 
of  the  league  was  broken.  In  his  eighteenth 
year,  842  b.  c,  he  defeated  Hazael  of  Damas- 
cus at  mount  Hermon.  The  kings  of  Tvre 
and  Sidon,  and  Jehu  of  Israel,  in  dismay 
hastened  to  make  submission  by  sending 
tribute. 

3.  King  from  783  to  773  b.  c.  His  reign 
does  not  touch  Hebrew  history. 

4.  Successor  of  Tiglath-pileser.  Before  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  and  even  afterwards, 
he  was  known  by  the  name  of  Ululai,  in 
Greek  Iloulaios  (Ptolemy's  canon).  He 
reigned  from  the  25th  of  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  727  b.  c,  to  the  12th  of  Tebet,  722  b. 
C.  In  725  he  undertook  an  expedition  to 
foreign  parts.  According  to  the  Syrian  an- 
nals cited  by  Josephus,  Shaimaneser  overran 
Phoenicia.  On  the  approach  of  the  Assyrians, 
Sidon,  Acre,  and  Tyre  on  the  mainland  re- 
volted from  the  dominion  of  island  Tyre  and 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  invader. 
The  Assyrian  king  thereupon  withdrew.  He 
returned,  however,  to  war  against  the  island. 
His  ships,  manned  by  his  Plurnician  subjects, 
were  scattered  by  the  Tyrians  in  a  naval  en- 
gagement. After  this  defeat  Shaimaneser 
marched  away,  leaving  troops  enough  to 
maintain  a  siege  of  the  city,  which  was  sus- 
tained for  five  years  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2),  when 
Tyre  submitted  to  Sargon.  When  Shaima- 
neser arrived  in  the  west,  Hoshea  7)aid  him 
tribute,  as  he  had  done  to  his  predecessor,  but 
he  soon  stopped  his  payments,  relying  u])on 
So  of  Egyjit  to  aid  him  in  fighting  the  As- 
syrians, and  ]i('rha|)s  (  ucouraged  ))y  th<'  st<'rn 
resistaiice  of  Tyre.  Shaimaneser  jtromjitly  had 
him  seized  and  imprisoned.  It  is  (juite  ])roba- 
ble  that  Hoshea  had  gone  forth  with  his 
troops  to  oppose  Shaimaneser  and  was  de- 
feated and  cai)tured  ;  and  that  this  battle 
took  ])lace  at  tlui  strategic  ])oint  and  noted 
battleground,  Arbela  in  '.Jalilee.     This  c<m- 


Shama 


roi 


Shammua 


jecture,  which  identifies  Shaiman  of  Hos.  x. 
14  with  Shalnianest  r,  is  alluring  ;  but  it  is 
only  conjecture.  After  seizing  the  king, 
wliether  at  Arbela  or  elsewhere,  Shalmaneser 
laid  siege  to  the  capital.  Samaria  stood  this 
siege  for  three  years  and  then  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvii.  1-6; 
xviii.  9,  10).     Whether  Shalmaneser  was  still 


Sham'mali  [desolation]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17).  He  became 
a  duke  of  Edom  (17). 

2.  Tliird  son  of  Jesse,  and  brother  of 
David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  9;  xvii.  13).  Sec 
Shime.^  .1 

3.  One  of  David's  first  three  mighty  men, 


Shalmaneser  receiving  the  Tribute  of  Jehu. 


on  the  tlirone  or  had  just  been  succeeded  by 
Sargon,  is  still  a  ((uestiou  ;  see  Sargon. 

Sha'ma  [hearing,  or  he  hath  heard]. 
A  son  of  Hotham,  the  Aroerite.     He  was 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 

Sham-a-ri'ah.     See  Shemariah. 
Sha'med.     See  Shemed. 
Sha'mer.     See  Shemer. 
Sham 'gar. 

A  local  Hebrew  judge,  the  son  of  Anath. 
He  lived  not  long  before  Deborah  and  Barak. 
In  his  days,  througli  the  opjiression  of  the 
Philistines,  the  highways  were  unoccupied, 
and  the  travelers  walked  through  byways 
(.Judg.  V.  6).  Shamgar  made  himself  feared 
by  the  Philistines.  Their  dead,  slain  from 
time  to  time  by  his  oxgoad,  at  length 
amounted  to  six  hundred.  Thus  he  was  a 
savior  of  Israel  (iii.  31). 

Sham'hutli  [desolation]. 

An  Izi-ahite,  David's  captain  for  the  fifth 
month  {1  Chron.  xxvii.  8).  Perhaps  identi- 
cal with  Shammah,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men.     See  Shammah  4. 

Sha'mir  [a  thorn]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
I  Josh.  XV.  48)  ;  probably  represented  by  the 
ruin  Somerah,  about  13  miles  west-southwest 
of  Hebron. 

2.  A  town  in  mount  Ephraim,  which  the 
judge  Tola,  though  a  man  of  Issachar,  made 
bis  residence,  and  where  he  was  buried 
(Judg.  X.  1,  2).     Site  unknown. 

3.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Micah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24). 

Sham'ma  [desolation]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 


a  son  of  Agee,  a  Hararite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11). 
Shammah  the  Hararite  is  named  in  ver.  33 ; 
and  in  view  of  1  Chron.  xi.  .34  and  textual 
considerations,  is  reasonably  believed  to  be 
this  person  mentioned  again  as  father  of 
Jonathan.  The  words  in  Samuel  and  Chron- 
icles are  to  be  read:  "Jonathan,  son  of 
Shammah  the  Hararite." 

4.  A  Harodite,  also  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  25).  In  1  Chron.  xi.  27 
the  plural  form  Shammoth  is  used.  Sham- 
huth  of  1  Chron.  xxvii.  8  is  perhaps  another 
external  and  unessential  variation  of  this 
man's  name. 

Sham'mai  [waste]. 

1.  A  son  of  Onara,  house  of  Jerahmeel, 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chrou.  ii.  28). 

2.  A  son  of  Rekem,  house  of  Caleb,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

3.  A  son  of  a  certain  Ezrah,  registered 
with  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Sham 'moth  [desolations].  See  Sham- 
mah 4. 

Sham-mu'a,  in  A.  V.  once  Shammuah  (2 
Sam.  V.  14)   [something  heard,  fiime]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Reuben  sent  to  spy  the  land  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xiii.  4). 

2.  A  son  of  David  by  Bath-sheba,  born  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5) ;  see 
Bath-shua.  He  bore  an  uncle's  name  (ii.  13). 
In  1  Chron.  iii.  5  he  is  called  Shimea ;  an  un- 
essential variant,  having  the  same  meaning 
as  Shammua,  differing  only  in  the  mode  of 
formation. 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Jeduthun 
(Neh.  si.  17). 

4.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim.  He  was  head  of  the  father's  house 
of  Bilgah  (Neh.  xii.  18). 


Shamsherai 


702 


Shealtiel 


Sham'she-rai. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Cliron. 
viii.  26). 

Sha'pham. 

A  Gadite  dwelling  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v. 

12). 

Sha'phan  [hyrax,  rock  badger]. 

A  scribe  in  the  reign  of  Josiab.  When 
Hilkiah  found  the  book  of  the  Law,  he  gave 
it  to  Shaphan,  who  read  it  at  first  privately, 
and  then  to  the  king.  Afterwards  he  was 
one  of  those  who  went  to  Huldah,  the 
prophetess,  to  consult  her  regarding  the 
threatenings  contained  in  the  book  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  8-14).  He  was  the  fatlier  of  Ahikam 
(Jer.  xxvi.  24;  xxxix.  14),  Geniariah  (xxxvi. 
10),  and  Jaazaniah  (Ezek.  viii.  11),  and  the 
grandfather  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 

Sba'phat  [he  hath  judged]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  who  was  sent  to  spy  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  5). 

2.  A  Gadite  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

3.  Son  of  Adlai,  and  David's  overseer  of 
the  herds  that  were  in  the  valleys  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

4.  Father  of  the  prophet  Elisha  (1  Kin. 
xix.  16). 

5.  A  son  of  Shemaiah,  registered  with  the 
descendants  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

Sha'pher.     See  Shephkr. 

Sha'pMr,  in  A.  V.  Sapliir  [beautiful]. 

A  town  in  Judah  (Mic.  i.  11).  Not  identi- 
fied. Robinson  and  others  locate  it  at  es- 
Suwafir.  5  miles  southeast  of  Ashdod. 

Sha'rai  [perhaps,  free]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Shar'a-im.     See  Shaaraim. 

Sha'rar  [firm]. 

A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33).  Called  in  1  Chron. 
xi.  3.5  Sacar. 

Slia-re'zer,  in  A.  V.  Sherezer  in  Zech.  vii. 
2  [protect  the  king]. 

1.  A  son  of  Sennacherib.  With  one  of  his 
brothers  he  murdered  his  father  (2  Kin.  xix. 
37;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 

2.  A  man  sent  from  Bethel  to  the  priests 
at  Jerusalem  to  inquire  whether  the  fasts 
should  be  kept,  now  that  the  cause  for  them 
no  longer  existed  (Zech.  vii.  2). 

Snar'on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saron  (Acts  ix. 
35)  [a  plain]. 

1.  The  seacoast  between  Joppa  and  Carmel, 
and  extending  back  to  the  hills  of  Samaria. 
It  was  a  fertile  region  (Is.  xxxv.  2),  a  pasture 
land  for  flocks  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29  ;  Is.  Ixv. 
10)  ;  but  like  a  desert  when  devastated  (Is. 
xxxiii.9).  Among  its  flowers,  lilies  and  anem- 
ones are  prominent ;  see  Lily,  Rose.  Lydda 
was  at  its  southern  limit  (cj).  Acts  ix.  3.")).  Its 
length  is  about  .50  miles,  its  breadth  9  or  10. 
It  is  not  flat,  but  agreeably  undulated,  with 
here  and  there  groves  of  oak,  and  with  ex- 


cellent pasturage,  except  that  in  places  thorns. 
and  thistles  too  much  abound. 

2.  A  pasture  region  east  of  the  Jordan 
(1  Chron.  v.  16).     Situation  undetermined. 

Sha-ru'hen. 

A  village  in  the  territory  of  Simeon  (Josh, 
xix.  6),  apparently  the  place  called  Shaaraim 
(1  Chron.  iv.  31)  and  Shilhim  (Josh.  xv.  32). 
The  fortified  town  Sherohan  or  Sheruhan.on 
the  road  from  Egypt  to  Gaza,  a  place  often 
mentioned  in  Egyptian  military  records,  is 
probably  intended. 

Sha'shai  [whitish,  pale]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Sha'shak. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  14,  2.5). 

Sha'ul  [asked]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  from  Rehoboth  on  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,  in  A.  V.  Saul ; 
1  Chron.  i.  48). 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  by  a  Canaanitish 
woman  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15;  1  Chron. 
i.  48).  He  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  13). 

3.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  descended  through 
Korah,  Abiasaph,  and  Tahath  (1  Chron.  vi. 
24). 

Sha'veh  [a  plain]. 

A  valley,  afterwards  called  the  king's  dale, 
near  Salem,  in  which  the  king  of  Sodom  met 
Abraham  after  the  defeat  of  Chedorlaomer 
(Gen.  xiv.  17,  18).  Absalom  reared  a  memorial 
pillar  for  himself  there  (2  Sam.  xviii.  18), 
which  according  to  Josephus  stood  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  Jerusalem  (Antiq.  vii. 
10,  3). 

Sha'veh-kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  V.  Shaveh 
Kiriatbaim  [plain  of  Kiriathaim]. 

A  plain  near  the  city  of  Kiriathaim,  in  the 
territory  afterwards  assigned  to  Reuben.  It 
was  at  fir.st  inhabited  by  Emim  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Shav'sha  and  Shisha  [original  Hebrew 
orthograjjhy  and  meaning  of  name  un- 
known]. 

A  scribe  of  David  and  afterwards  of  Solo- 
mon (1  Chron.  xviii.  16;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  Prob- 
ably identical  with  the  scribe  Seraiah  (2  Sam. 
viii.  17)  and  doubtless  with  the  scribe  Sheva 
(2  Sam.  XX.  25). 

She'al  [an  asking]. 

A  son  of  Bani  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

She-al'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chnm.  iii.  17 
and  of  N.  T.  Salatniel,  the  Greek  form  [I 
have  asked  God]. 

A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17; 
Mat.  i.  12)  and  also  of  Neri  (Luke  iii.  27).  He 
was  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  iii.  2,  etc.), 
and  yet  apparently  his  uncle,  or  possibly^ 
though  not  probably,  his  grandfather  (1 
Chron.  iii.  17-19).  The  explanation  probably 
is  that,   while  neither  the  son   of  .leconiah 


Sheariah 


ro3 


Shebuel 


Bor  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  after  the  flesh, 
he  was  the  legitimate  successor  of  .Teconiah 
to  the  royal  title,  and  on  his  own  death  the 
right  to  the  throne  passed  to  Zerubbabel.  He 
is  the  link  in  the  royal  succession  connecting 
Jeconiah  with  Zerubbabel.  See  AssiR,  Ze- 
rubbabel, and  Genealogy  II. 

She-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  esteemed]. 

A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
38). 

Shear'ing  House. 

The  ]ilace  where  Jehu  slew  the  forty-two 
brethren  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judali,  who 
were  going  to  Ahaziah  at  Samaria  while  he 
was  on  a  visit  to  the  wounded  king  of  Israel 
(2  Kin.  X.  12-14).  It  took  its  name  either 
from  the  fact  that  shepherds  there  bound 
the  sheep  which  they  were  about  to  shear,  or 
because  they  were  in  the  habit  of  meeting 
there  (Targum  ;  R.  V.  margin).  The  Hebrew 
name  is  Beth  'eked  haro'iiii,  in  the  Septuagint 
Baithakath.  The  name  perhaps  lingers  in 
Beit  Kad,  about  3  miles  east  by  north  of 
En-gannim,  and  about  16  northeast  by  north 
of  Samaria. 

She-ar-ja'shub  [a  remnant  shall  return]. 
A  son  of  Isaiah.     His  name  was  designed 
to  embody  a  prophecy  (Is.  vii.  3;  cp.  x.  21). 

She'ba,  I.  [a  man]. 

A  Cushite  people  descended  through  Eaa- 
mah  and  closely  related  to  Dedan  (Gen.  x.  7), 
but  also  classed  as  a  Semitic  peox)le  descended 
through  Joktan  (28)  and,  like  Dedan,  from 
Abraham  through  Jokshan  (xxv.  3).  So  far 
as  connected  with  Abraham,  they  migrated 
eastward  (xxv.  6;  cp.  Job  i.  15 ;  vi.  19).  They 
dwelt  in  the  south  (Mat.  xii.  42),  and  traded 
in  gold,  incense,  and  precious  stones  (1  Kin. 
X.  1  seq.  ;  Ps.  Ixxii.  10;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  vi.20; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22 ;  xxxviii.  13).  Sheba  was  a 
country  and  people  of  southwestern  Arabia, 
well  known  from  its  own  records  and  classi- 
cal geographers.  Its  capital  was  Saba,  where 
is  now  the  ruin  of  Meriaba.  The  Sabeans 
were  a  great  commercial  people.  They  traded 
not  only  in  the  products  of  their  own  land, 
but  also  in  those  of  India  and  Ethiopia. 
Their  language  was  Semitic.  They  spread 
widely,  and  have  left  traces  of  their  name 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Arabia,  and  in  the 
northern  desert  along  with  the  Nabathseans. 
It  is  readily  conceivable  that  in  their  disper- 
sion they  became  mingled  with  other  tribes 
by  intermarriage  or  attached  to  them  by 
political  relations,  and  hence  they  might 
trace  their  descent  by  diflerent  lines  and  be 
classed  variously  in  a  genealogy. 

She'ba,  II.  [seven,  an  oath]. 

1.  A  Simeonitfi  town,  mentioned  after  Beer- 
sheba  (Josh.  xix.  2).  Three  views  are  enter- 
tained regarding  it.  1.  Its  site  may  be  Tell 
es-Seb'a,  3  miles  east  of  Beer-sheba.  2.  It  is 
a  corruption  of  Shema  (cp.  Septuagint  and 
XV.  26).  3.  Since  it  is  lacking  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
28,  and  this  agrees  with  the  summation  in 


Josh.  xix.  6,  it  is  an  abbreviated  form  of 
Beer-sheba  (see  R.  V.)  or  accidentally  intro- 
duced into  the  text  by  dittography. 

2.  A  Benjamitc,  a  son  of  Richri.  After 
the  collapse  of  Ab.salom's  rebellion  and  the 
concurrence  of  the  ten  tribes  with  Judah  in 
restoring  David  to  his  throne,  Sheba  blew  a 
trumpet,  and  summoned  the  ten  tribes  to 
renounce  their  allegiance.  He  was  besieged 
in  Abel  of  Beth-maacah  and  lost  his  life 
there,  for  the  inhabitants  cut  off  his  head  and 
threw  it  over  the  wall  to  Joab  (2  Sam.  xx. 
1-22). 

3.  A  Gadite  dwelling  in  Gilead  in  Bashan 
(1  Chron.  v.  13,  16). 

She'bah.     See  Shibah. 
She'bam.     See  Sibmah. 
Sheb-a-ni'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  dealt 
tenderly] . 

1.  A  Levite  who  was  a  trumpeter  in 
David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  generation  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xii.  14) ; 
see  Shecanl^h  3.  Its  representative  set  his 
seal  to  the  covenant  (x.  4). 

3.  A  Levite  who  assisted  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  ix.  4,  5),  and 
in  behalf  of  his  house  sealed  the  covenant 
(X.  10). 

4.  Another  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  12). 

Sheb'a-rim  [fractures,  breaches,  ruins ; 
perhaps,  quarries]. 

A  locality  near  Ai  (Josh.  vii.  5).  Site  un- 
known. 

She'bat,  in  A.  V.  Sebat,  and  1  Mac.  xvi. 
14,  A.  V.  Sabat,  R.  V.  Sebat. 

The  eleventh  month  of  the  year  (Zech.  i. 
7) ;  see  Year. 

She'ber  [breaking,  fracture]. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  by  his  concubine  Maacah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

Sheb'na,  in  R.  V.  twice  Shebnali  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18,  2())   [tenderness]. 

The  steward  of  the  king's  house  under 
Hezekiah  (Is.  xxii.  15),  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence, apparently  a  foreigner,  and  fond  of 
display  (16,  18).  As  was  customary  among 
the  wealthy,  he  built  himself  a  sepulcher  in 
his  lifetime  (16).  Isaiah  rebuked  him,  call- 
ing him  the  shame  of  his  lord's  house  ;  and 
predicted  his  fall  and  his  retirement  from 
Judah,  and  the  elevation  of  Eliakim  to  his 
place  (17-25).  Probably  later,  in  701  B.C., 
Eliakim  held  the  position  of  house  steward, 
while  Shebna  was  only  Hezekiah's  scribe  or 
secretary  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26,  37 ;  xix.  2). 

Sheb'u-el  [captive  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Gershom,  and  a  grandson  of 
Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  16;  xxvi.  24).  Called 
in  xxiv.  20  Shubael,  a  name  which  has  the 
same  meaning. 

2.  A  son  of  Heman,  in  David's  time  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4).     Called  in  verse  20  Shubael. 


Shecaniah 


704 


Shechem 


Shec-a-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  snechaniah  ex- 
cept 1  Chron.  xxiv.  11  ;  2  Chron.  xxxi.  15 
[Jehovah  hath  dwelt]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid, and  became  the  tenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  11). 

2.  A  Levite  in  king  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxxi.  15). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
probably  bore  his  name,  although  it  is  written 
Shebaniah  (ver.  14)  ;  see  remarks  under  Beth 
for  the  misreading  of  caph  as  beth.  See  Sheb- 
aniah 2. 

4.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  a  de- 
scendant of  David,  but  not  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  22),  for 
he  is  loosely  registered,  bis  kinship  with 
Zerubbabel  not  being  given.  Perhaps  his 
was  the  family  of  which  the  representative 
returned  from" Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
3).  The  name  of  this  representative  has 
probably  fallen  out  of  the  Hebrew  text  be- 
tween Shecaniah  and  the  words  "  of  the  sons 
of  Parosh."  The  parallel  passage,  1  Esdr. 
viii.  29,  E.  V.,  has:  "Of  the  sous  of  David, 
Attus  the  son  of  Sechenias."  This  agrees 
indeed  with  the  fact  that  Hattush  was  a 
grandson  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22),  but 
it  is  not  supported  by  either  the  Septuagint 
or  Hebrew  of  Ezra  viii.  3. 

5.  A  son  of  Jahaziel  and  descendant  of 
Zattu,  who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  5,  Septuagint ;  1  Esdr.  viii.  32). 

6.  A  son  of  Jehiel,  one  of  the  sons  of  Elam. 
He  confessed  the  guilt  of  himself  and  his 
brethren  who  had  married  foreign  wives,  and 
proposed  to  Ezra  that  they  should  put  them 
away  (Ezra  x.  2,  3). 

7.  Father  of  Shemaiah,  the  keeper  of  the 
east  gate  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  probably 
a  Levite  (Neh.  iii.  29).  and  not  the  man  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

8.  Father-in-law  of  Tobiah,  the  Ammonite. 
He  was  the  son  of  Arab  (Neh.  vi.  18). 

She'chem,  in  A.  V.  once  Sichem  (Gen.  xii. 
6),  twice  Sychem  (Acts  vii.  16),  Greek  forms 
[shoulder]. 

1.  A  town  among  the  hills  of  Ephraira 
'■^osh.  XX.  7).  Abraham  camped  nenr  bv 
(Gen.  xii.  6).  He  found  the  Canaanite  in 
the  land,  but  was  taught  that  this  land  was 
intended  by  the  promise  and  that  the  country 
should  belong  to  his  descendants ;  and  he 
forthwith  erected  an  altar  and  worshii)ed  God 
I  7).  Jacob  found  the  tribe  of  Hamor,  a  Hivite 
people,  occupying  the  place.  He  l)ought  of 
them  a  parcel  of  ground,  where  Joseph's  body 
was  eventually  buried  (.xxxiii.  18,  19:  Josh. 
xxiv.  32  ;  in  Acts  vii.  Irt  oddly  confounded  by 
Stephen  with  Abraham's  purchase  of  Machpe- 
lah).  Simeon  and  Levi  massacred  its  male 
inhabitants,  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  plundered 


the  town,  on  account  of  the  injury  done  to 
their  sister  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25,  27; 
xlviii.  22).  Joseph's  brothers  for  a  time  fed 
their  flocks  at  Shechem  (xxxvii.  12,  13).  The 
boundary  between  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  passed  near  it  (Josh.  xvii.  7).  It 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  and  a  Le- 
vitical  city  (xx.7;  xxi.21).  Joshua  summoned 
the  tribes  thither  to  hear  his  farewell  address 
(xxiv.  1).  In  the  time  of  the  judges,  a  tem- 
ple of  Baal-berith  was  maintained  in  the 
town  (Judg.  viii.  33).  Gideon's  concubine 
resided  there ;  and  her  son,  Abimelech,  was 
a  native  of  Shechem,  and  for  a  time  was  as- 
sisted in  his  political  designs  by  the  men  of 
Shechem  (ix.  1,  3,  6),  but  they  finally  turned 
against  him  and  he  destroyed  the  city  (23, 
45).  The  Israelites  met  Rehoboam  there,  to 
sue  for  reforms;  and  when  their  request  was 
refused,  the  ten  tribes  made  Jeroboam  king 
(1  Kin.  xii.  1-19;  2  Chron.  x.  1-19).  Jero- 
boam strengthened  the  place  (cp.  1  Chron. 
vii.  28),  making  it  for  the  time  his  capital  (1 
Kin.  xii.  25).  Shechem  is  mentioned  in  Ps. 
Ix.  6  and  cviii.  7.  It  continued  in  existence 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xii. 
5)  ;  and  became  the  chief  city  of  the  Samar- 
itans (Ecclus.  1.  28;  Antiq.  si.  8,  6).  It  was 
captured  by  John  Hyrcauus  (xiii.  9,  1). 
It  has  been  frequently  identified  with  the  N. 
T.  Sychar,  but  the  two,  although  adjacent  to 
each  other,  are  believed  to  be  difl'erent  places. 
The  Greeks  termed  it  Neapolis  or  the  New 
City  (War  iv.  8.  1),  a  name  that,  unlike 
most  of  those  which  they  bestowed  on  old 
Hebrew  cities,  took  root  and  still  exists  in 
the  form  Nablus  or  Nabulus.  Shechem,  or 
Nablus,  is  about  31^  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem and  5^  southeast  of  Samaria.  It 
lies  in  tlie  upland  valley,  bounded  by  mount 
Ebal  on  the  north,  and  mount  Gerizim  on 
the  south,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  rises 
along  the  northern  slope  of  the  latter  hill,  so 
that  its  perpendicular  cliffs  are  in  close  prox- 
imity to  part  of  the  city.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  vaulted  over,  besides  which  in 
rainy  weather  some  of  them  become  the  beds 
of  streams.  Eighty  springs  of  water  are  said 
to  exist  in  or  around  the  city ;  the  fertility 
of  the  district  is,  therefore,  exceptionally 
great.  These  are  used  to  make  channels 
through  the  gardens,  then,  uniting,  to  turn  a 
mill.  The  gardens  and  orchards  are  one  mass 
of  trees,  flowers,  and.  fruits,  including  mul- 
berries, oranges,  ])omegranate.s,  etc.  The 
mass  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohammedans, 
then  follow  a  few  hundred  Greek  Christians, 
a  small  Jewish  pojtulation,  and  about  150 
Samaritans,  the  last  named  religionists  living 
nuist  of  them  together  in  the  Tiorthwestcrn 
part  of  the  city.  Jacob's  well  is  about  2 
miles  east-southeast,  and  the  reputed  tomb 
of  Joseph  about  2  east,  of  Shechem. 

2.  The  son  of  Hamor.  the  Hivite,  who  was 
prince  of  Shechem  {(Um.  xxxiv.  1-31). 

3.  A  son   of  Gilead,  and  the  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  31  ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 


Shedeur 


705 


Sheep 


&,. 


Shechein  ami  Mount  derizim  from  the  Northeast. 


4.  A   Maiiassite,    a    son    of    Sheiuidali    (1 
Chron.  vii.  19). 

Shed'e-ur  [emission,  light]. 
Father  of  Eliziir,  the  Reubenite  chief  in 
the  wihleruess  (Num.  i.  5  ;  ii.  10). 

Sheep. 

Sheep  were  early  domesticated  (Gen.  iv. 
2),  and  constituted  valuable  property.  They 
were  herded  by  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  (Gen. 
xii.  16),  and  by  their  de.scendants  when  so- 
journing in  Egypt,  and  later  when  settled  in 
Palestine  (Ex.  X.  9;  xii.  32,  38;  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
31) ;  and  they  continued  to  be  kept  down  to 
the  latest  times  (Luke  ii.  8).  The  wilderness 
of  Judsea  and  thesouth  country,  and  especially 
the  plateau  of  Moab.were  pasture  lands  (Num. 
xxxii.  1  ;  Judg.  v.  16;  1  Sam.  xvi.  11 ;  xxv. 
2) ;  and  so  were  neighboring  countries,  as 
Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxix.  2),  the  land  of  Uz 
and  of  the  Hagarenes  (Job  i.  3;  1  Chron.  v. 
20,  21),  Midian  (Ex.  ii.  16),  Kedar  and  the 
Nabathsean  country  (Is.  Ix.  7;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
21 ;  op.  1  Sam.  xv.  7,  9).  In  these  regions 
45 


the  sheep,  owing  to  the  heat  and  dryness  of 
the  climate,  require  water  daily  (Gen.  xxix. 
8,  9;  Ex.  ii.  16-19).  The  sheep  was  a  clean 
animal  and  used  for  food  ;  its  flesh  was  eaten 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  32;  xxv.  18;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29;  I 
Kin.  iv.  23),  and  the  rich  milk  of  the  ewes  was 
drunk  (Dent,  xxxii.  14;  Is.  vii.  21,  22;  1  Cor. 
ix.  7).  The  skin  served  as  rude  clothing  (Heb. 
xi.  37;  cp.  Zech.  xiii.  4;  Mat.  vii.  1.5),  and  it 
was  sometimes  converted  into  leather  (Ex. 
xxvi.l4).  From  the  wool,  cloth  was  woven 
(Lev.  xiii.  47,  48;  Job  xxxi.  20;  Prov.  xxvii. 
26 ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  3) ;  hence  wool  was  a  valu- 
able commodity,  and  was  rendered  as  tribute 
(2  Kin.  iii.  4;  Is.  xvi.  1).  Sheep  shearing 
was  made  a  time  of  feasting  and  frolic  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  12  ;  1  Sam.  xxv.  4, 11,  36  ;  2  Sam.  xiii. 
23).  The  horns  of  rams  served  as  flasks  and 
trumpets  (Josh.  vi.  4;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1).  As 
the  slieep  was  a  clean  animal,  it  was  used  in 
sacrifice  by  the  Hebrews  and  other  peoples 
(Ex.  XX.  24;  John  ii.  14  ;  Num.  xxii.  40).  An 
animal  of  the  flock  might  be  taken  for  a 
burnt  oflering  (Lev.  i.  10),  a  sin  offering  of 


Sheepfold 


ro6 


Shekel 


the  common  people  (iv.  32),  a  guilt  and  a 
trespass  oiferiug  (v.  15  ;  vi.  6),  and  a  peace 
oflering  (xxii.  21)  ;  see  Lamb,  Eam.  The 
sheep  was  known  for  its  affection  (2  Sam. 
xii.  3),  docility  (John  x.  3,  4),  meekness  and 
submissiveness  (Is.  liii.  7  ;  Jer.  xi.  19),  help- 
lessness when  left  to  itself  (Mic.  v.  8;  Mat. 
X.  16),  and  its  need  of  guidance  (Num.  xxvii. 
17;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  5;  Mat.  ix.  36;  xxvi.  31). 


liroad-tailed  Sheep  of  Syria. 

Tlie  sheep  of  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions  are  usually  white  (Ps.  cxlvii.  16;  Is. 
i.  18  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  18),  but  occasionally  they 
are  black  or  brown,  or  piebald,  either  whito 
and  tawny  or  white  and  black  (Gen. 
XXX.  32).  Two  breeds  of  sheep  are 
found  in  Palestine.  In  the  north- 
ern districts  a  short-wooled  variety 
is  raised,  of  which  both  the  rams 
and  ewes  are  horned.  But  the 
broad-tailed  sheep  {Ovis  laticaudata) 
is  more  general.  It  has  heen  bred 
since  early  ages  in  Arabia  and  Pal- 
estine (Herod,  iii.  113  ;  cp.  Ex.  xxix. 
22;  Lev.  iii.  9;  vii.  3;  viii.  25). 
The  tails  which  are  offered  for  sale 
in  the  markets  ordinarily  weigh  ten 
or  fifteen  pounds;  but  when  the 
sheep  is  well  fattened,  the  tail 
grows  to  an  enormous  size.  The 
Arabs  regard  it  as  a  delicacj',  fry- 
ing it  in  slices. 

Sheep'fold  and  Sheep'cote. 

An  inclosure  for  slu'Cji  (Jer.  xxiii. 
3;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  14),  whither  the  flock 
was  ordinarily  driven  for  the  niglit. 
Many  were  permanent  pens,  sur- 
rounded by  a  stone  wall  (cp.  Num. 
xxxii.  16)  and  entered  by  a  gate 
(John  X.  1 1.  The  wall  was  often  sur- 
mounted with  branches  of  thorny 
shrubs.  The  sheep  lay  in  the  yard 
under  the  open  sky  ;  but  doubt- 
less there  were  in  former  days,  as  there  are 
now,  low,  flat  buildings  on  the  sheltered  side 


of  the  area,  in  which  the  flocks  were  shut  up 
on  cold  nights.  It  was  common  for  several 
flocks  to  pass  the  night  in  one  fold  under  the 
care  of  an  under-shepherd,  who  guarded  the 
door.  The  shei)herds  came  in  the  morning, 
and  were  admitted  by  the  undet-shepherd. 
Each  shepherd  knew  the  sheep  of  his  own 
flock,  and  was  known  by  them  (John  x.  3, 
4).  Less  substantial  inclosures  were  hastily 
formed  of  tangled  thorn  branches  for  tem- 
porary use  on  pastures  remote  from  home, 
and  caves  and  other  natural  shelters  were 
also  taken  advantage  of  for  protecting  the 
sheep  at  night,  the  shef)herds  camping  with 
their  flocks.  On  ranges  exposed  to  the  raids 
of  robbers  or  hostile  tribes,  towers  were 
erected,  about  which  the  flocks  and  herds 
were  pastured  and  at  night  folded  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  9;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10;  Mic.  iv.  8). 

Sheep  Gate.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Sheep  Mar'ket,  in  R.  V.  Sheep  Gate.  See 
Jerusalem  II.  3. 

She'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  She'rah  [consan- 
guinity, a  female  relative]. 

A  daughter  of  E]>hraim,  or  perhaps  of 
Beriah.  She  or  rather  her  descendants  built 
upper  and  nether  Beth-horon  and  Uzzen- 
sheerah  (1  Chron.  vii.  24).  She  may  have 
married  Becher  and  given  rise  to  the  tribal 
family  of  the  Becherites. 

She-ha-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  broken  forth 
as  the  dawn]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron.  viii. 
26). 


Syrian  Sheepfold. 

Shek'el  [weight]. 

A  weight  used  for  metals  (Gen.  xxiv.  22-, 


Shekinah 


707 


Shemaiah 


1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  7) ;  see  Weights.  At  an  early 
period  this  quantity  of  silver,  uncoined,  was 
a  recognized  standard  in  financial  transac- 
tions (Gen.  xxiii.  15,  16).  Half  a  shekel  was 
to  be  given  by  each  man  as  a  ransom  for  liis 
life  when  a  census  was  taken  (Exod.  xxx.  14, 
15).  The  value  of  the  shekel  was  about  65 
cents;  see  WKiCiHTS.  In  141-140  B.  c.  the 
fourth  year  of  Simon  Maccabieus'  priestly 
rule,  Antiochus  VII..  not  yet  king  of  Syria, 
but  having  authority,  allowed  him  to  coin 
money  in  his  own  name,  and  silver  shekels 
and  half  shekels  commencing  from  about  that 
period  exist.     See  Money. 

She-ki'nah.    See  Theophany. 

She'lah,  I.,  in  A.  V.  of  Genesis  Salah,  of 
N.  T  Sala,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  form 
[a  missile,  a  shoot,  a  sprout]. 

1.  The  son  of  Ai'phaxad  (Gen.  x.  24  ;  xi. 
12-15;  1  Chron.  i.  18). 

2.  A  pool  at  Jerusalem,  near  the  king's 
garden,  erroneously  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
Siloah  (Neh.  iii.  15).  Probably  the  same  as 
Siloam  (q.  v.). 

She'lah,  II.  [prayer]. 

The  third  son  of  Judah  by  a  Canaanite 
woman.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xxxviii.  2,  5,  11,  14,  26;  Num. 
xxvi.'20). 

Shel- e-mi'ah  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

1.  A  doorkeeper  of  the  sanctuary  in  David's 
time   (1   Chron.   xxvi.   14).     See    Meshele- 

MIAH. 

2.  Son  of  Cushi  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

3.  Son  of  Abdeel  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 

4.  Son  of  Hananiah  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13). 

5.  Father  of  Jucal  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

6.  7.  Two  men,  descendants  of  Bani,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39,  41). 

8.  Father  of  that  Hananiah  who  assisted 
to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

9.  A  priest  whom  Nehemiah  appointed  one 
of  three  treasurers  of  the  tithes,  which  they 
were  commissioned  to  distribute  among  the 
Levites  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

She'leph  [extraction]. 

A  Semitic  people  descended  through  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  26;  1  Chron.  i.  20),  and  doubtless 
dwelling  in  southern  Arabia.  The  name  is  a 
common  one  in  Yemen. 

She'lesh  [triad]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii.  35). 

Shel'o-mi  [peaceful]. 

Father  of  Ahihud,  who  was  prince  of 
Asher  in  the  latter  part  of  the  wilderness 
wanderings  (Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

Shel'o-mitli  [peaceful]. 

1.  A  Danite,  a  daughter  of  Dibri,  and 
mother  of  the  Israelite  who  was  put  to  death 
in  the  wilderness  for  blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv. 
11). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  18).  Called  Shelomoth 
in  xxiv.  22. 


3.  A  descendant  of  Moses  through  Eliezer. 
He  and  his  brethren  were  appointed  by  David 
over  the  dedicated  treasures  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
25,  26,  in  R.  V.,  following  the  Hebrew  text, 
Shelomoth  ;  cp.  xxiii.  1.5-17). 

4.  A  OJershonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei 
(1  Chron.   xxiii.  9,  in  R.  V.  Shelomoth). 

5.  A  son  or  daughter  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  20). 

6.  Son  of  Josiphiah  (Ezra  viii.  10).  The 
Hebrew  text  is  faulty.  The  Septuagint  shows 
that  he  was  a  member  of  the  family  of  Bani : 
"  Of  the  sons  of  Bani,  Shelomoth,  the  son  of 
Josiphiah." 

7.  A  daughter  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii. 
19). 

Shel'o-moth.     See  Shelomith. 

She-lu'ini-el  [pacified,  or  a  friend  is  God]. 

The  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  early  in 
the  wilderness  wanderings  (Num.  i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ;. 
vii.  36,  41 ;  x.  19). 

Shem,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Sem  [name]. 

One  of  the  two  elder  sons  of  Noah  (Gen. 
X.  1,  21  ;  cp.  ix.  24),  and  probably  the  first- 
born (v.  32).  For  explanation  of  xi  10,  see 
Chronology,  section  relating  to  the  period 
from  the  creation  to  Abraham.  With  his 
descendants,  he  is  mentioned  last  in  the  cat- 
alogue of  Gen.  X.  in  accordance  with  the 
author's  custom  of  disposing  of  subordinate 
genealogies  before  presenting  the  main  line 
of  the  people  of  God.  He  was  born  about  the 
five  hundredth  year  of  Noah's  life  (see  Noah). 
At  the  time  of  the  deluge  he  was  married, 
but  had  no  children  (Gen.  vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii. 
20).  After  that  catastrophe,  he  acted  with 
filial  respect  to  his  father  when  the  latter 
committed  his  great  sin.  Shem,  in  conse- 
quence, received  a  blessing,  the  wording  of 
which  implied  that  God  would  bless  Shem 
and  that  the  worship  of  the  true  tJod  should 
continue  in  his  family  (Gen.  ix.  23.  27).  He 
was  progenitor  of  the  people  who  inhabited 
or  perhaps  in  some  cases  held  in  subjection 
Elam,  Asshur,  Arphaxad,  Lud,  and  Aram  (x. 
21   22). 

She'ma  [rumor,  fame]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  26) :  cp.  Sheba  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of   Judah   (1   Chron.    ii.   43,   44)  ;    see  Ma- 

EESHAH   2. 

3.  A  Reubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  Chron. 
V.  8;  cp.  4). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house  in 
Aijalon  (1  Chron.  viii.  13).  Called  in  verse  21 
Shimei,  in  A.  V.  Sbimhi. 

5.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
assisted  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the  law 
(Neh.  viii.  4). 

She-ma'ah  [rumor,  fame]. 
A  Benjamite  of  Gibeah,  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

She-ma'iah  [Jehovah  hath  heard]. 
1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  37) 


Shemaiah 


708 


Shemer 


2.  A  Eeubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  C'hron. 
V.  4). 

3.  A  Levite,  chief  of  the  sons  of  Elizaphan, 
who  to  the  number  of  two  hundred  took  part 
in  the  ceremonies  attendant  on  the  removal 
of  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
mount  Zion  (1  Chron.  xv.  8-11). 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Nethanel.  He  was  a 
scribe  in  the  time  of  David,  and  noted  down 
the  twenty-four  divisions  then  made  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  6). 

5.  Eldest  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
4).  He  was  the  father  of  various  valiant 
sons  who,  with  him,  were  doorkeepers  of  the 
tabernacle  (6-8). 

6.  A  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  who 
forbade  the  king  to  attempt  the  conquest  of 
the  revolted  ten  tribes  (1  Kin.  xii.  22-24  ;  2 
Chron.  xi.  2-4).  Five  years  later,  when 
Shishak  invaded  the  land,  he  declared  that 
the  invasion  was  permitted  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.  Thereupon  the  princes  humbled 
themselves,  and  the  affliction  was  made 
lighter  (xii.  5-8).  Shemaiah  wrote  a  history 
of  Rehoboam's  reign  (15). 

7.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

8.  A  Levite,  descendant  of  Jeduthun.  He 
helped  to  cleanse  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  15).  He  is,  per- 
haps, the  Levite  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ix. 
16,  and  be  may  be  the  person  called  Sham- 
mua  in  Neh.  xi.  17. 

9.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  reign  who,  vsath 
others,  had  to  distribute  the  firstlings,  tithes 
and  gifts  to  the  Levites  in  the  cities  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  15). 

10.  A  chief  Levite  in  Josiah's  reign  who, 
with  others,  was  liberal  in  his  donations  of 
animals  for  the  the  passover  services  (2  Chron. 
XXXV.  9). 

11.  Father  of  Urijah,  of  Kirjath-jearim, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  king  Jehoiakim  for 
the  true  prophecies  he  had  uttered  (Jer.  xxvi. 
20-23). 

12.  Father  of  Delaiah,  the  latter  being  a 
prince  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
12). 

13.  A  Nehelamite,  a  false  prophet  among 
the  exiles  in  Babylonia,  who  prophesied  a 
speedy  return  from  captivity.  He  wrote  to 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  and  the  priest  who 
had  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  complained 
that  Jeremiah  remained  inii)unished,  who 
declared  that  the  exile  would  be  long.  When 
Jeremiah  heard  tlie  complaint,  he  foretold 
that  Shemaiah  should  leave  no  posterity  and 
not  live  to  see  the  return  (Jer.  xxix.  24-32). 

14.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
bore  this  name  (ver.  18). 

15.  A  son  of  Adonikam,  and  one  of  the 
chief  men  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  the 
land  of  the  captivity  to  Canaan  (Ezra  viii. 
13). 

16.  A   chief  man    wliom    Ezra   sent   with 


others  to  Iddo  to  obtain  Levites  wlio  were 
lacking  in  the  party  leaving  the  land  of  the 
captivity  for  C-anaan  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

17  and  18.  Two  men,  one  descended  from 
the  priest  Harim,  and  the  other  from  the 
layman  Harim,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
bv  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
x!  21,  31). 

19.  A  son  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22)  ; 
see  Shecaniah  4. 

20.  Keeper  of  the  east  gate,  and  probably 
a  Levite.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  iii.  29) ; 
.see  Shecaniah  7. 

21.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Bunni.  He 
was  tlie  head  man  among  those  who  had 
oversiglit  of  the  business  of  the  house  of  God 
in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  xi.  15). 

22.  A  false  prophet,  son  of  Delaiah,  son  oi" 
Mehetabel.  He  was  hired  by  Tobiah  and 
Sanballat  to  frighten  Nehemiah  into  going 
with  him  into  the  temple  and  shutting  the 
doors  to  avoid  assassination  (Neh.  vi.  10-13). 
In  carrying  out  his  x)hin,  he  shut  himself  in 
his  house  and  pretended  to  fear  for  his  life. 

23.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8). 

24.  A  prince  of  Judah  who  took  part  in 
the  ceremonies  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  34). 

25.  A  Levite  of  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (Neh. 
xii.  35). 

26.  One  of  the  company  of  Levite  mu.si- 
ciaus  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xii.  36). 

27.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  on  the 
same  occasion  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Shem-a-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Shamariah  (2 
Chron.  xi.  19)  [Jehovah  hath  kept  J. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

2.  A  son  of  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  19). 

3  and  4.  A  son  of  Harim  and  a  son  of  Bani, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (E^^ra  x.  32,  41). 

Shem-e'ber  [meaning  unknown].  In  Sep- 
tuagint  the  form  is  Sumobor. 

The  king  of  Zeboiim,  defeated,  with  the 
other  kings  ruling  over  the  cities  of  the  jilain, 
by  Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederates  (Gen. 
x'iv.  2,  8,  10). 

She'med,  in  A.  V.  Shamed,  the  pausal 
form  [destruction].  These  forms  of  the  name 
are  derived  from  the  Vulgate ;  but  the  pres- 
ent Hebrew  text  and  the  Septuagint,  codex 
Vatican  us,  have  Shamer. 

A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaharaim 
through  Elpaal.  He  was  a  rehuilder  of  Ono 
and  Lod.  with  their  dependent  villages  (1 
Chron.  viii.  12). 

She'mer,  in  A.  V.  of  Chronicles  Shamer, 
the  pausal  form  [the  lees,  or  crust  of  wine]. 

1.  The  man  from  whom  Omri  ])urchased 
the  hill  on  which  to  build  Samaria  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  24). 


Shemida 


709 


Shepherd 


I 


2.  A  Merarite  Levite.  the  son  of  Mahli  (1 
Chron.  vi.  46). 

3.  Au  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  34).  The 
same  as  the  Shomer  of  verse  32. 

She-mi'da,  in  A.  V.  once  Shemidah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  19)  [fame  of  wisdom]. 

A  son  of  Gilead,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  3'J  ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Shem'i-nith  [eighth]. 

A  musical  term  (1  Chron.  xv.  21  ;  and  Ps. 
vi.  and  xii.,  titles).  Stainer  reviews  three 
opinions  which  have  been  given  regarding 
it:  (1)  The  pitch  of  an  octave:  (2)  the  name 
of  a  scale  or  tune  ;  and  (3)  the  number  of 
strings  on  the  instrument  used.  Perhaps,  in 
contrast  with  alamoth,  it  means  an  octave 
below  (Gesenins,  Delitzsch). 

She-mir'a-moth  [lofty  name]. 

1.  A  Levite  and  singer  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  employed  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  to  teach  the  people  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  b). 

She-mit'ic.    See  Semitic. 

Shem'u-el  [name  of  God].  The  same 
Hebrew  name  as  that  commonly  rendered 
Samuel. 

1.  A  son  of  Ammihud.  He  was  a]ipointed 
as  the  representative  for  the  tribe  of  Simeon 
on  the  commission  to  divide  Canaan  (Num. 
xxxiv.  20). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  2). 

3.  The  prophet  Samuel  (1  Chron.  vi.  33, 
A.  v.). 

Shen  [a  tooth,  a  jagged  rock]. 

A  spot  a  little  on  one  side  of  the  place 
where  Samuel  set  up  the  stone  which  he 
called  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  The  text 
is  suspicious.  The  Greek  and  Syriac  ver- 
rdons  indicate  Jeshanah.     See  Jesh.\.nah. 

Slie  naz'zar,  in  A.  V.  Shenazar  [appar- 
ently <)  nioougod,  protect]. 

A  son  or  descendant  of  Jeeoniah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  18). 

She'nir.     See  Senie. 

She'ol.    See  Hell. 

She'pham. 

A  i)lace  on  the  northeastern  border  of  Ca- 
naan, near  Eiblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  10, 11).  Site 
unknown. 

Sheph-a-ti'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  erroneouslj' 
ShephatMah  (1  Chron.  ix.  8)  [Jehovah  hath 
judged]. 

1.  A  Haruphite,  one  of  the  Bcnjamites 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

2.  A  son  born  to  David  at  Hebron  by  one 
of  his  wives,  Abital  (2  Sam.  iii.  4  ;  1  Ciirou. 
iii.  3). 

3.  Sfin  of  Maacah  and  head  of  the  Simeon- 
ite  tribe  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
16). 


4.  The  father  of  a  Benjamite  who  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  A  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 

6.  A  prince,  son  of  Mattan.  He  was  one 
of  those  who  advised  Zedekiab  to  put  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  to  death,  as  his  unfavor- 
able prophecies  were  discouraging  the  defend- 
ers of  Jerusalem  during  its  siege  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's army  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

7.  Founder  of  a  family,  372  members  of 
which  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  4 ;  Neh.  vii.  H),  and  eighty- 
one  more  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

8.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Perez.  He 
evidently  lived  before  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  4). 

9.  A  man  whose  descendants,  classified 
with  Solomon's  servants,  came  from  Babylon 
Mith  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57  ;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Sheph'e-lab  [low  land]. 

A  w^ell  known  name  in  the  geography  of 
Palestine,  used,  h.owever,  in  the  English  ver- 
sions only  in  1  Mac.  xii.  38,  A.  V.,  and  then 
in  the  form  Sephela.     See  Lowl.\nd. 

She'pher,  in  A.  V.  Shapher  [beauty,  ele- 
gance] . 

A  mountain  constituting  an  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  (Num. 
xxxiii.  23,  24).     Situation  unknown. 

Shep'herd. 

One  whose  occupation  it  is  to  take  charge 
of  a  Hock  of  sheep.  Abel  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep  (Gen.  iv.  2).  The  occupation  of  the 
patriarchs  from  Abraham  to  Jacob  and  his 
sons  was  pastoral  (xiii.  1-6).  There  were  no- 
mad shepherds  who  owned  flocks  and  herds, 
dwelt  in  tents,  and  moved  from  place  to  place 
to  find  pasture  for  their  cattle  and  atford 
them  protection,  like  Jabal,  Abraham,  and  the 
Eechabites  (iv.  20 ;  xiii.  2,  3,  18  with  xx.  1  ; 
Jer.  XXXV.  6-10).  There  were  also  wealthy 
sheep  owners  who  dwelt  in  towns  while  their 
flocks  were  driven  from  pasture  to  pasture 
by  their  servants  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  3,  7,  15,  16; 
cp.  Gen.  xx.xvii.  12-17).  Then  there  was  the 
settled  shepherd,  who  led  the  flock  from  the 
permanent  fold  to  the  pasture  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  in  the  evening  brought  it  home 
again  (John  x.  1-4) ;  see  Sheepfold.  The 
care  of  the  flock  was  often  committed  to  a 
son  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  11,  19),  or 
a  daughter  (Gen.  xxix.  9 ;  Ex.  ii.  16,  17),  or 
a  hired  servant  (Gen.  xxx.  32;  Zech.  xi.  12; 
John  X.  12).  The  shejiherd  was  ordinarily 
responsible  to  the  owner  for  any  loss  of  shee]) 
(Gen.  xxxi.  3;»)-  The  Mosaic  law  relieved 
him  of  responsibility  if  he  could  prove  that 
the  loss  was  not  due  to  his  neglect  (Ex.  xxii. 
10-13). 

The  shepherd  went  to  the  fold  in  the 
morning,  where  .several  flocks  were  lying, 
and  called.  His  own  slieep  knew  his  voice 
and  followed  him.  The  sheep  which  be- 
longed to  other  owners  or  were  under  the 
care  of  other  keepers  paid  no  attention  to 
the  strange  voice  (John  x.  2-5).     The  shep- 


Sliephi 


710 


Sheshach 


htTfl  led  his  own  flock  to  pasture,  spent  the 
day  with  them  there,  and  sometimes  the 
night  also  (Gen.  xxxi.  40;  Song  i.  7;  Luke 
ii.  8) ;  defended  them  from  wild  beasts  and 
robbers  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34,  35  ;  Is.  xxxi. ^4)  ; 
kept  the  restless  sheep  from  trespassing 
on  cultivated  ground,  searched  for  the 
strayed  sheep,  and  brought  them  back 
(Ezek.  xxxiv.  12 ;  Luke  xv.  4) ;  and  tenderly 
cared  for  the  delicate  and  the  weak  (Is.  xl. 
11;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  4,  16;  Zech.  xi.  9).  The 
sheep  which  kept  near  the  shepherd  had 
each  a  name  and  answered  to  it,  and  were 
the  recipients  of  many  little  kindnesses. 
Such  is  still  the  case  in  the  Orient.  Whei'e 
the  pastures  are  dried  up  or  covered  with 
snow,  as  in  the  late  autumn  and  winter,  the 
shepherd  must  provide  food  for  the  flock. 
He  cuts  down  branches  from  the  trees  of  the 
forest,  and  the  sheep  and  goats  feed  upon  the 
green  leaves  and  tender  twigs. 

The  shepherd  carried  a'garment  in  which 
to  wrap  himself  in  inclement  weather,  a 
pouch  for  food,  and  some  defensive  weapon 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  40  ;  Jer.  xliii.  12).  A  long  rod, 
doubtless  generally  in  ancient  times  as  now 
with  a  crook  at  the  upper  end,  was  used  to 
manage  the  flock,  keep  it  together,  guide  it, 
defebd  it,  and  chastise  the  disobedient  (Ps. 
xxiii.  4  ;  Mic.  vii.  14  ;  Zech.  xi.  7).  The  shep- 
herd was  aided  by  dogs  (Job  xxx.  1) ;  not  in- 
telligent, faithful  dogs,  but  lazy,  mean  brutes, 
which  loitered  behind  the  flock,  but  were  of 
service ;  they  gave  warning  of  danger  by  their 
bark. 

Jehovah  was  the  Shepherd  of  Israel,  and 
especially  of  the  faithful  section  of  the  peo- 
ple (Gen.  xlix.  24). 

Christ  is  the  good  Shepherd,  entering  into 
the  sheepfold  by  the  door,  calling  out  his 
own  sheep  by  name,  and  so  possessing  their 
confidence  and  aflection  that  they  follow 
him,  while  they  refuse  to  follow  any  other. 
He  satisfactorily  met  the  test  of  supreme  de- 
votion to  his  flock  and  to  his  duty  by  laying 
down  his  life  for  the  sheep  (John  x.  1-18). 

All  who  had  responsible  positions  in  the 
theocracy,  prophets,  priests,  and  kings,  were 
looked  on  as  pastors  of  the  Israelitish  people. 
They  were  uuder-shepherds,  aiding  Jehovah, 
and  their  unfaithfulness  was  frequently 
pointed  out  (Is.  Ivi.  11).  And  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  the  elders  or  bishops  are  pastors 
or  shepherds,  under  Christ,  the  chief  Shep- 
herd, appointed  to  tend  the  flock  of  God  (1 
Pet.  v.  1-4). 

She'phi  and  She'pho  [smoothness]. 

A  son  or  tribe  of  Shobal,  descended  from 
Seir,  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23)  ;  for  the 
two  forms,  cp.  Vau. 

She-phu'pliam  and  Shephuphan  [perhaps, 
horned  sand  snake]  ;  see  Adoek  1. 

A  sou  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39;  in  A.  V.  Shupham).  In  the  same  verse 
his  name  appears  as  Shupham  (in  Shupham- 


ites).  He  is  also  called  Muppim  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21)  and  Shuppim  (1  Chron.  vii.  12,  15).  The 
letters  m  and  s  or  sh  were  very  much  alike 
in  ancient  Hebrew.  He  was  perhaps  known 
also  as  Shephuphan  (1  Chron.  viii.  5).  In 
this  passage  Shepbuphan  is  probably  listed 
as  a  descendant  of  Bela,  although  it  is  not 
impossible  that  the  enumeration  of  Bela's 
sons  closes  with  Gera  and  that  Shepbuphan 
is  registered  as  a  son  of  Benjamin.  In  vii. 
12  Shuppim  is  catalogued  among  the  sons  of 
Benjamin,  but  it  is  not  clear  whether  he  is 
enrolled  as  a  son  in  the  strict  sense  or  as  de- 
scended from  Benjamin's  son  Bela  through 
Ir  or  Iri  (7).  In  the  latter  case  he  was  born 
after  the  descent  of  Jacob's  family  into 
Egypt,  but  is  enumerated  with  those  who 
went  down  into  Egypt,  because  he  founded 
a  tribal  family.     See  Egypt  III.  1. 

She'rah.     See  Sheeeah. 

Sher-e-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  made  to 
tremble]. 

1.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  family,  who  came 
from  Babylon  with  Zembbabel  (Neh.  xii.  8). 
The  representative  of  the  family  sealed  the 
covenant  (x.  12).  It  was  a  family  of  singers 
(xii.  24). 

2.  Head  of  a  family  of  Levites  who  re- 
turned with  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii. 
18).  He  was  perhaps  the  representative  of  a 
part  of  the  aforementioned  family  which  had 
remained  behind  when  the  exiles  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  and  as  representative  he 
officially  bore  the  family  name.  He  is  prob- 
ably intended  in  ver.  24,  although  the  present 
text  describes  him  as  a  priest,  and  was  one 
of  the  men  to  whose  custody  during  the 
journey  Ezra  committed  the  gifts  for  the 
temjile. 

3.  One  of  the  Levites  who  assisted  Ezra, 
reading  the  law  to  the  people,  and  giving 
the  sense,  so  that  the  listeners  might  under- 
stand what  they  heard  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He 
took  part  in  the  public  confession  of  sin 
after  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (ix.  4). 

She'resli  [perhaps,  root  or  sprout]. 
A  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Machir  (1 
Chron.  vii.  16). 

She-re'zer.     See  Sharezer. 

She'shacli. 

According  to  ancient  tradition,  a  cypher 
for  Babel  (Jer.  xxv.  26,  E.  V.,  margin ;  li.  41), 
constructed  on  the  system  known  as  Ath- 
bash.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  were 
numbered  both  in  their  regular  order  of 
sequence  and  in  the  reverse  order ;  and  when 
the  cypher  of  a  name  was  desired,  its  con- 
sonants were  replaced  by  those  which  have 
the  same  numbers  in  the  reverse  enumera- 
tion. B  is  the  second  letter  of  tlie  Hebrew 
alphabet  and  s  or  sh  is  the  second  from  the 
end,  1  is  the  twelfth  letter  from  the  begin- 
ning and  k  is  the  twelfth  from  the  end ; 
hence  the  cypher  for  Babel  was  Sheshak. 
Possibly,  however,  there  is  no  cypher,  and 


Sheshai 


fll 


Shiloh 


Shfsliach  is  the  iiaiiie  of  a  (imirter  of  the  city, 
perliai)s  Shish-ku  (Lauth,  Delitzsch). 

She'shai  [whitish]. 

A  son  or  family  of  Anak,  resident  at 
Hebron,  and  driven  thence  by  Caleb  (Num. 
xiii.  32,  c'p.  33;  Josh.  xv.  14). 

She'shan. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron.  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  31).  He  had  no 
sons,  but  only  daughters,  one  of  whom  he 
gave  in  marriage  to  an  Egyptian  slave  (34, 
35).     Sec  Ahlai. 

Shesh-baz'zar. 

A  prince  of  Judah,  whom  Cyrus  made 
governor,  to  whom  he  restored  the  sacred 
vessels  which  had  been  carried  to  Babylon 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  who  returned  to 
Jerusalem  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  i.  8,  11  ;  v.  14.  KJ).  Sheshbazzar 
is  evidently  the  Babylonian  name  of  Zerub- 
Ijabel,  as  Belteshazzar  was  that  of  Daniel. 

Sheth,  I.  [compensation]. 
A  son  of  Adam  (1  Cliron.  i.  1).     See  Seth. 
Sheth,  II.  [tumult]. 

A  designation  of  the  Moabites  as  makers 
■of  war  and  tumult  (Num.  xxiv.  17,  A.  V.). 

She'thar-boz'e-nai,  in  A.  V.  Shethar- 
hoznai. 

A  Persian  official  who  with  others  at- 
tempted to  prevent  the  returned  Jewish 
■exiles  from  rebuilding  the  temple  (Ezra  v. 
3,  6;  vi.  6). 

She'va  [vanity]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Machbena  and  Gibea  (1  Chron. 
ii.  49). 

2.  A  scribe  in  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  xx. 
25).     See  Shavsha. 

Shew'bread.     See  Showbread. 

Shi'bah,  in  A.  Y.  Shehah  [seven,  an  oath]. 
Feminine  form  of  Sheba. 

A  well  at  Beer-sheba  which  Isaac's  ser- 
vants redigged,  and  which  Isaac  named  Shi- 
bah  on  account  of  the  covenant  he  had  just 
made  with  Abimelech  (Gen.  xxvi.  33). 

Shib'bo-leth  [an  ear  of  grain,  or  a  river  or 
stream]. 

The  local  dialect  of  the  Ephraimites  was 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  the  palatal 
sibilant  sh  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  and 
the  use  of  the  lingual  sibilant  s  in  its  stead. 
When  Jephthah,  at  the  head  of  the  Gilead- 
ites,  had  vanquished  the  E;])hraimites  and 
seized  the  fords  of  the  Jordan,  many  of  the 
defeated  tribe  came  to  the  river,  desiring  to 
pass.  On  being  asked  if  they  were  Ephraim- 
ites, and  denying  the  fact,  they  were  re- 
quired to  pronounce  the  word  Shibboleth, 
and  if  they  called  it  Sibboleth,  were  slain 
without  further  ceremony  (Judg.  xii.  5,  6). 
The  word  has  entered  the  English  language, 
and  is  used  to  mean  a  test  word  or  the 
watch  word  or  pet  phrase  of  a  party  or  sect. 


Shib'mah.     See  Sebmah. 

Shic'ron.     See  Shikkeeon. 

Shield.     See  Armor. 

Shig-ga'ion,  and  i)lural  Shigionoth  [wan- 
dering, irregular]. 

A  musical  term  (Ps.  vii.  title;  Hab.  iii.  1). 
Probably  a  dithyrambic  ode,  erratic,  wild, 
enthusiastic. 

Shi'hon.     See  Shion. 

Shi'hor,  in  A.  V.  Sihor,  except  1  Chron. 
xiii.  5  [to  the  Hebrew  ear.  black,  turbid]. 

The  river  Nile  (Is.  xxiii.  3;  Jer.  ii.  18,  see 
R.  V.  margin).  Its  eastern  or  Pelusiac  branch 
was  on  the  boundary  of  Egypt  toward 
Canaan  (Josh.  xiii.  3;  1  Chron.  xiii.  5);  see 
River  of  Egypt  1.  The  R.  V.,  however, 
and  many  commentators  regard  the  Shihor 
in  the  last  two  pa.s.sages  as  a  title  of  the  brook 
of  Egypt,  the  wady  el-'Arish  (Josh.  xiii.  3,  R. 
V.  margin).  According  to  Brugsch,  the  name 
belonged  in  the  first  instance  to  a  canal,  Sbi- 
hur,  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  Egypt,  par- 
allel to  the  course  of  the  Pelusiac  branch. 

Shi-hor-lib'nath  [turbid  stream  of  Lib- 
nath]. 

A  small  river  at  the  southwestern  corner 
of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26)  and  apparently  near 
Carmel.  It  is  now  commonly  believed  to  be 
the  Zerka,  6  miles  south  of  Dor,  a  town  of 
Asher. 

Shik'ke-ron,  in  A.  V.  Shicron  [drunken- 
ness]. 

A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  11).  Site  un- 
known. 

Shil'hi  [one  armed  with  a  dart]. 

Father  of  Azubah,  Jehoshaphat's  mother 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  42). 

Shil'him  [missile  weapons,  sprouts]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  32) ;  see  Sharuhen. 

Shil'lem  [retribution] . 

A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  49).  Called 
Shallum,  a  synonymous  and  more  common 
name,  in  1  Chron.  vii.  13. 

Shilling.     See  Penny. 

Shi-lo'ah  [a  sending  of  waters,  an  aque- 
duct] ;  see  Siloam. 

Shi'loh  [tranquillity,  rest]. 

A  t<jwn  north  of  Bethel,  south  of  Lebonah, 
and  on  the  east  side  of  the  highway  connect- 
ing Bethel  with  Shechem  (Judg.  xxi.  19), 
and  hence  within  the  territory  of  Ephraim. 
There  the  Israelites  under  Joshua  set  up  the 
tabernacle  (.Tosh,  xviii.  1),  and  divided  by 
lot  the,  as  yet,  unappropriated  parts  of  Canaan 
(8-10 ;  xix.  51 ;  xxii.  9).  When  the  western 
tribes  were  convened  to  call  the  tribes  east  of 
the  Jordan  to  account  for  their  building  of 
an  altar,  it  was  at  Shiloh  that  the  gathering 
took  place  (12).  In  the  times  of  the  judges 
there  was  there  an  annual  feast  of  Jehovah 


Shiloh 


712 


Shiloh 


( Jiulg.  xxi.  19  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3),  at  which  the  Beii- 
jamites  on  one  occasion  obtained  wives  by 
capture  (Judg.  xxi.  lfi-23).  The  tabernacle, 
with  the  ark,  was  still  there  in  the  time  of  Eli 
and  during  tlie  early  vears  of  Samuel  (Judg. 
xviii.  31 ;  1  Sam.  i.  9,  24 ;  ii.  14.  22 ;  iii.  3, 
21;  iv.  3,  4;  xiv.  3).  The  capture  of  the 
ark  was  understood  to  mean  that  God  had 
forsaken  Shiloh  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  60 ;  .Jer.  vii.  12, 
14 ;  xxvi.  6,  9).  The  covenant  made  at  Sinai, 
of  which  the  ark  and  the  ritual  were  the 
outward  sign  and  privilege,  was  suspended. 
When  the  ark  was  returned  by  the  Philis- 
tines it  was  not  taken  again  to  Shiloh  (1  Sam. 
vi.  21 ;  vii.  1,  2:  2  Sam.  vi.  2,  11,  17).  but  the 
work  of  reviving  true  religion,  preparatory 
to  the  restoration  of  covenant  privileges,  was 
begun  by  Samuel.  Ahijah  the  prophet,  who 
told  Jeroboam  of  his  approaching  greatness, 
lived  at  Shiloh,  and  it  was  thither  that  the 
king's  consort  repaired  to  iuquire  about  the 
issue  of  their  sick  child's  malady  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  2,  4).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited  at 
least  as  late  as  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xli.  .5).  Shiloh  has  been  successfully  identi- 
fied by  Robinson  as  Seilun,  about  10  miles 
north-northeast  of  Bethel.  The  ruins  are  in 
a  valley  surrounded  by  hills.  In  the  sides 
of  the  narrow  valley  are  many  tombs.  A 
fine  spring  of  water  is  in  the  vicinity. 

There  are  three  main  interpretations  of 
Shiloh  in  the  ditficult  passage  Gen.  xlix.  10, 
each  of  which  receives  recognition  in  R.  V. : 
1.  Shiloh  is  a  proper  name,  which  designates 
the  Messiah  and  refers  to  the  peacefulness  of 
his  disposition  and  his  reign.  2.  Shiloh, 
place  of  tranquillity,  is  the  town  in  central 
Palestine  where  the  tabernacle  was  placed 
immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  3.  Shiloh  is  not  a 
proper  name,  nor  is  it  a  simple  word.  It  is  a 
compound,  composed  of  the  relative  pronoun 
she,  the  ])niHisitiou  I,  and  the  pronominal 
suffix  of  the  third  person  masculine  oh.  The 
same  form  of  the  suffix  occurs  twice  in  the 
following  verse.  This  phrase  has  been  inter- 
preted as  meaning  "that  which  is  his," 
"whose  it  is,"  or  "his  own  one."  The  sec- 
ond of  these  three  meanings  would  happily 
correspond  to  Ezek.  xxi.  27,  but  is  not  gram- 
matically allowable;  and  the  first  regarded 
as  objective,  "  he  shall  come  to  that  which  is 
his,"  is  grammatically  difficult,  for  au  object- 
ive relative  clause  with  indefinite  antecedent 
is  preceded  by  a  preposition  or  the  sign  of 
the  accusative.  This  conception  of  the  word 
as  a  phrase  is  old,  having  been  entertained 
by  the  translators  of  the  ancient  versions, 
namely,  Septuagint,  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan,  Syriac,  and  Jerome. 

On  the  first  interpretation  and  commonly 
on  the  third  the  Messiah  is  expressly  referred 
to.  In  the  second  the  reference  is  to  the  cov- 
enant blessing,  which  the  prophets  of  a  later 
age  discerned  to  belong  in  its  fullness  to  Mes- 
sianic times.  Reuben  had  forfeited  his  birth- 
right  by   misconduct    (Gen.   xlix.  4 ;    sxxv. 


22),  Simeon  and  Levi  had  incurred  their 
father's  just  censure  (xlix.  5-7 ;  xxxiv.  30), 
and  Judah  was  consequently  assigned  the 
place  of  the  firstborn,  and  became  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  tribe  and  the  peculiar  pos- 
.sessor  of  the  blessing  covenanted  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  seed  (xlix.  8).  The  promise  of 
victory  to  the  woman's  seed  (iii.  15),  the 
blessing  of  God's  favor  centered  in  Shem 
(ix.  26,  27),  the  further  centralization  of  the 
covenant  blessing  in  the  family  of  Abraham 
(xvii.),  belonged  henceforth  preeminently  to 
Judah,  the  possessor  of  the  birthright.  By 
him,  according  to  the  first  and  third  inter- 
pretations, the  prerogative  shall  be  held  until 
one  who  is  his,  one  of  his  tribe,  the  man  of 
peace  comes,  to  whom  shall  be  the  obedience 
of  the  peoples,  and  in  whom  the  covenant 
blessing  shall  be  still  further  centered.  This 
interpretation,  with  many  modifications  of 
(Ittail.  ac<()rding  as  the  scepter  is  thought  of 
restrictedly  as  the  emblem  of  royalty  or  is 
regarded  a^  the  symbol  of  leadership  in  gen- 
eral, is  represented  in  the  text  of  the  English 
versions.  And  it  is  argued  that  this  essen- 
tially mu.st  be  the  true  interpretation,  be- 
cause the  town  of  Shiloh  does  not  fulfill  the 
historical  conditions,  for  neither  is  there  any 
reason  why  Jacob,  apart  from  special  revela- 
tion, should  think  of  Shiloh  as  the  future 
place  of  worship,  nor  did  Judah  occupy  i)re- 
eminence  among  the  tribes  before  the  taber- 
nacle was  pitched  in  Shiloh,  save  somewhat 
in  numbers  and  in  being  permitted  to  lead 
the  van,  while  the  people  were  marching  to 
Canaan,  and  to  pitch  their  tents  in  front  of 
the  tabernacle.  The  leadership  was  at  first 
in  the  hands  of  Moses,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
which  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  princes  of 
Reuben,  and  after  Moses'  death,  and  until 
the  tabernacle  was  pitched  at  Shiloh,  the 
authority  was  exercised  by  Joshua,  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim. 

But  it  is  more  natural  to  regard  Shiloh  in 
this  passage  as  the  name  of  the  town,  for  it 
is  such  everywhere  else,  and  on  this  inter- 
pretation the  words  of  Jacob  are  at  once  in- 
telligible. This  view  is  commonly  enter- 
tained by  those  who  deny  that  Jacob  uttered 
the  words,  and  who  affirm  that  the  address 
is  a  prophecy  after  the  event.  But  the 
address  is  not  the  utterance  of  a  late  iirdjihet, 
eiiuimcntiugon  the  jiast  history  of  the  twelve 
tribes  and  ])utting  his  reflections  in  the 
mouth  of  their  common  ancestor  Jacob,  for 
the  descriptions  do  not  fit  the  actual  state 
of  things  at  any  period  of  the  national  his- 
tory ;  see,  for  examide,  ver.  13  and  Zkiutan. 
Believers  in  the  genuineness  of  the  ;uldrei-s 
hold  that  the  town  of  Shiloh  is  meant,  and 
they  are  able  fairly  to  explain  how  Jacob 
came  to  use  the  name,  and  how  ]\I(ises  the 
Levite  and  Joshua  the  Ephraimite  could  had 
the  people  while  yet  the  scepter  was  acknowl- 
edged as  belonging  to  Judah.  The  argument 
of  Delitzsch  maybe  amplified.  Shiloh  dou))t- 
less  existed  in  the  days  of  the  ])atriarchs; 


Shiloh 


713 


Shimeam 


and  Jacob,  who  looked  for  the  ultimate  re- 
turn of  his  people  to  Canaan  (Gen.  xv.  13-1(5 ; 
xlvi.  3,  4  ;  xlviii.  21),  em]iloys  this  name, 
place  of  tranquillity,  as  an  omen  of  the  future, 
{•laying  upon  it  as  Esau  x^layed  upon  the 
name  Jacob  and  Micah  upon  the  names  of 
the  towns  of  Judah.  It  made  no  difference 
that  God  raised  up  men  fntm  other  tribes  to 
meet  special  emergencies,  the  birthright  and 
its  accompanying  privileges  belonged  to 
Judah.  It  was  accorded  to  him  by  the  posi- 
tion assigned  him  at  the  head  of  the  march- 
ing host  and  in  camp  in  front  of  the  taber- 
nacle. It  was  accredited  to  him  by  God's 
mulfiplication  of  his  descendants,  so  that  his 
tribe  was  much  larger  than  any  single  tribe 
during  the  forty  years  in  the  wilderness.  It 
was  confirmed  by  the  lot  falling  first  to  his 
tribe  when  the  conquered  land  was  distribu- 
ted at  Gilgal.  The  actual  coming  to  the 
town  of  Shiloh  was  not  contemplated  as 
necessary  by  Jacob.  The  fulfillment  of  his 
words  was  more  literal  than  his  expectation. 
He  had  merely  the  peaceable  possession  of 
the  promised  land  in  view.  The  erection  of 
the  tabernacle  ai  Shiloh,  a  town  which  Joshua 
may  have  been  led  to  choose  by  having 
knowledge  of  Jacob's  words,  marked  the 
first  stage  in  the  realization  of  the  promise. 
A  new  period  had  been  reached  in  Israel's 
history.  The  conquest  was  comj)leted,  the 
inheritance  was  theirs,  possession  had  begun, 
rest  had  been  won.  Judah,  the  possessor  of 
the  birthright,  had  come  to  a  place  of  tran- 
quillity in  Canaan,  having  obtained  the  obedi- 
ence of  the  jjeoples,  and  being  now  ready  to 
occupy  and  enjoy  his  conquered  possession 
(xlix.  10-12).  The  words  do  not  mean  that 
when  he  should  come  to  Shiloh  the  scepter 
should  dejiart.  They  are  to  be  understood  as 
the  similar  language  in  Is.  xlii.  4:  "  He  shall 
not  fail  nor  be  discouraged,  till  he  have  set 
judgment  in  the  earth."  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  servant  will  then  fail  and 
lose  courage.  So  Jacob  meant  that  the  priv- 
ilege conferred  by  the  birthright,  which  cen- 
tered in  the  Abrahamic  covenant,  should 
not  be  transferred  until  Judah  had  obtained 
the  promised  blessing,  the  possession  of 
Canaan,  when  he  would  enter  upon  its  en- 
joyment. A  new  period  opens  to  him.  He 
was  still  accorded  by  God  the  first  position 
among  the  tribes,  being  called  to  go  up  first 
against  the  Canaanites  still  in  the  allotted 
land.  He  was  called  to  go  up  first  against 
the  Benjamites  in  the  war  against  that  tribe 
to  ])unish  national  sin.  And  the  first  and 
only  deliverer  of  all  Israel  during  the  period 
of  the  judges  proper  sprang  from  Judah 
(Judg..  iii.  7-11).  Saul,  a  Benjamite,  was 
raised  up  like  the  judges  to  deliver  Israel 
(1  Sam.  ix.  16  ;  x.  6),  and  might  have  retained 
the  throne  in  his  family  (xiii.  13,  14  ;  xv.  23, 
2(),  28),  but  he  lost  the  opportunity  through 
sin,  as  Eeuben  had  lost  the  birthright,  and 
the  permanent  royal  line  was  taken  from 
Judah.     The  obedience   of   the   Canaanites 


was  but  the  foi-etaste,  and  the  possession  of 
the  land  and  enjoyment  of  its  fertility  were 
but  a  type,  of  the  Messianic  triumphs  and 
peace  involved  in  the  covenanted  mercies. 
As  time  went  on,  the  fullness  of  meaning  was 
revealed.  The  prophets  dwelt  with  delight 
on  the  truth  that  in  the  latter  days  all 
nations  shall  flow  unto  the  mountain  of  the 
Lord's  house,  the  law  shall  go  forth  from 
Zion  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusa- 
lem, and  he  shall  judge  between  the  nations 
and  reprove  many  peoples;  and  tliey  shall 
beat  their  swords  into  plowshares  and  their 
.spears  into  pruning  hooks,  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall 
they  learn  war  any  more.  But  they  shall 
sit  every  man  under  his  vine  and  under  his 
fig  tree,  and  none  shall  make  them  afraid  ; 
for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath 
spoken  it  (Is.  ii.  2-4 ;  Mic.  iv.  1-5 ;  Joel  iii. 
9-21). 

SM-lo'ni  [a  Shilonite]. 

According  to  the  A.  V.,  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  .5).  But  the  word  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  definite  article  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  and  hence  is  not  a  proper  name.  The 
E.  V.  correctly  translates  it  the  Shilonite, 
and  Shiloni,  as  a  man,  disappears.  See 
Shilonite  2. 

SM'lo-nite. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Shiloh  (1  Kin. 
xi.  29). 

2.  A  member  of  the  tribal  family  of  Shelah 
(Neh.  xi.  5,  in  A.  V.  Shiloni). 

Shil'shah  [triad]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Shim'e-a,  once  SMmeah  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3) ; 
the  two  modes  of  si)elling  correctly  repre- 
senting the  Hebrew  text,  where,  except  in 
the  case  noted,  the  Aramaic  form  is  employed 
[something  heard,  fame]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli  (1  Chron.  vi.  30). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  (1  Chron. 
vi.  39,  44). 

3.  A  brother  of  king  David  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3; 
1  Chron.  xx.  7).  In  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  ii.  13 
he  is  incorrectly  called  Shimma,  the  Hebrew 
having  Shimea.  In  1  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  xvii.  13 
his  name  appears  as  Shammah.  Has  one 
letter  dropped  out  of  the  Hebrew  text,  or  is 
Shimea,  the  later  and  nobler  name,  changed 
from  "desolation"  to  "fame"  after  the 
nation's  deliverance  from  the  Philistines? 
Especially  is  this  latter  conjecture  probable, 
if  Shammah  was  a  memorial  name,  like 
Ichabod. 

4.  A  son  of  David  ;  see  Shammua  2. 

5.  Another  Shimeah,  whose  name  in  He- 
brew is  spelled  differently  from  the  foregoing 
(1  Chron.  viii.  32) ;  see  Shimkam. 

SMm'e-am. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Mikloth,  resident  in 
Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  38).     In  viii.  32  he  is 


Shimeath 


■14 


Shinab 


called  Shimeah,  a  synonymous  name.  This 
name  differs  in  its  third  radicle  from  the 
familiar  name  Shimea  or  Shimeah. 

Shim'e-ath  [rumor]. 

An  Ammonitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
Joash's  assassins  {2  Kin.  xii.  21). 

SMm'e-ath-ites. 

A  Kenite  family  of  scribes,  descended 
through  a  certain  Sliimeah  from  the  founder 
of  the  house  of  Rechab  and  resident  at  Jabez 
(1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Shim'e-i,  in  A.  V.  once  Shimi  (Ex.  vi.  17), 
once  Shlmhi  (1  Chron.  viii.  21)  [famous]. 

1.  A  son  of  Gershon,  and  a  grandson  of 
Levi.  He  founded  a  subdivision  of  the 
tribal  family  of  Clershon  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num. 
iii.  18,  21;  1  Cbron.  xxiii.  7,  10;  Zech.  xii. 
13). 

2.  A  Levite,  familv  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli   (1  Chron.   vi.'29). 

.3.  A  Simeonite.  probably  of  the  family  of 
Shaul.  He  had  sixteen  sons  and  six  daugh- 
ters (1  Chron.  iv.  24-27). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jahath,  of  the  family 
of  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  42). 

5.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house 
in  Aijalon  (1  Chron.  viii.  21,  in  A.  V.  Shimhi). 
Called  Shenia  in  vor.  13. 

6.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon,  and  head 
of  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  Ladan,  which 
latter  was  apparently  a  division  of  the  house 
of  Libni  (1  Chr(jn.  xxiii.  9). 

7.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  tenth  course  of 
singers  in  David's  reign,  and  evidently  a  sou 
of  Jeduthun,  for  his  name  is  needed  to  make 
out  the  six  spoken  of  in  ver.  3  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
17). 

8.  A  Eamathite,  who  was  over  David's 
vineyards  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

9.  A  Benjamite,  the  son  of  Gera.  He  was 
of  Saul's  family,  which  had  lost  the  throne. 
When  he  saw  David,  with  his  attendants, 
descending  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mount  of 
Olives,  while  Absalom  was  in  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  he  thought  it  safe  to  insult  the 
fallen  potentate,  which  he  did  in  gross  lan- 
guage. He  was  forgiven  by  David,  but  was 
afterwards  put  to  death  by  Solomon  for  dis- 
obeying a  command  of  the  king  (1  Kin.  ii. 
44-46). 

10.  An  adherent  of  David  and  Solomon 
during  Adonijah's  usurpation  (1  Kin.  i.  8). 
He  was  probably  the  son  of  Elah,  who  be- 
came Solomon's  purveyor  in  the  territory  of 
Benjamin  (iv.  IS). 

11.  A  Eeubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

12.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Heman,  who  helped 
to  purify  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  14-16).  He  may  be  identical 
with  the  following. 

13.  A  Levite,  brother  of  Conaniah,  in 
Hezekiah's  reign.  He  was  one  of  thosse  who 
looked  after  the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  12). 

14.  A  Benjamit<^,  son  of  Kish  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii.  5). 

15.  A  man  belonging  to  the  royal  family 


of  Judah,  and  a  brother  of  Zerubbabel  (1 
Chron.  iii.  19). 

16,  17,  18.  Three  men,  one  a  Levite,  one  a 
son  of  Hashum,  and  one  a  son  of  Bani,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23,  33,  38). 

Shim'e-ites.     See  Shimei  1. 

SMm'e-on  [a  hearkening,  an  answering 
(of  prayer)]. 

A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

SMm'M.     See  Shimei  5. 

SMm'i.     See  Shimei  1. 

SMm'ma.     See  Shimea  3. 

SM'mon. 

A  man  who  had  his  registry  with  the  tribe 
of  .Tudah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Shim 'rath  [watching,  guarding]. 

A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shimei  of  Aijalon  (1 
Chron.  viii.  21). 

Shim'ri,  in  A.  V.  once  Simri  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  10)   [watchful]. 

1.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  37). 

2.  Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  45). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite,  a  son  of  Hosah  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  10). 

4.  A  Levite,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah.  He  was  a  son  of  Elizaphan  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Uzziel  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  13j. 

Shiin'ritli  [vigilant]. 

A  Moabitess,  mother  of  one  of  king  Joash's 
assassins  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  26).  Called  in  2 
Kin.  xii.  21  Shomer. 

Shim'ron,  in  A.  V.  once  SMmrom  (1  Chron. 
vii.  1),  an  error  not  in  the  original  edition  of 
1611  [watching,  a  guard]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  24). 

2.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xi.  1  ; 
xix.  15).  Not  identified.  Senuiuieh,  5  miles 
west  of  Nazareth,  has  been  conjectured  among 
other  places. 

SMm-ron-me'ron. 

A  Canaanite  town,  whose  king  was  van- 
quished and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  20). 
Probably  the  full  name  of  Shimron. 

SMm'shai  [sunny]. 

A  .scribe,  one  of  those  who  complained  to 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus  that  the  Jews  were 
rebuilding  the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8). 

Shin. 

The  twenty-first  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  S  comes  from  the  same 
source,  and  with  sh  represents  it  in  angli- 
cized Hebrew  names;  as  in  Simeon,  Shimea, 
Ishmael.  It  heads  the  twenty-first  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Shi'nab. 

Tlic  king  of  Admah,  who  was  defeated  by 
Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  8,  10). 


Shinar  715 


Ship 


SM'nar. 

A  fountry  in  which  the  cities  of  Baliel, 
P>ech,  Accad,  and  Calneh  were  situated 
(Gen.  X.  10;  xi.  2;  Dan.  i.  2).  Hence,  in 
Hebi'ew  usage,  Shinai"  comprehended  the  al- 
luvial plain  of  Babylonia.  The  same  region, 
perhaps,  was  known  to  Semites  of  Meso- 
potamia as  Shanhar,  as  appears  from  an  in- 
scription of  Tell  el-Amarna.  In  the  days  of 
Abraham,  Amraphel  was  king  of  the  whole 
or  a  large  part  of  it  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9).  Some 
of  the  Jews  were  to  be  carried  thither  as 
captives  (Is.  xi.  11;  Zech.  v.  11). 

Shi'on,  in  A.  V.  SMhon  [destruction, 
ruin]. 

A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  19).  The 
site  is  perhaps  at  'Ayun  e.sh-Slia'in,  '.i  miles 
west-northwest  of  mount  Tabor. 

SMp. 

Little  boats  were  used  by  dwellers  on  the 
upper  Euphrates  for  descending  the  river  to 
Babylon  (Herod,  i.  194).  They  were  circular 
in  form.  The  ribs  were  made  of  willow, 
over  which  hides  were  stretched  as  a  cover- 
ing. They  were  steered  by  two  men  who 
stood  upright,  each  with  a  spar  which  they 
thrust  alternately.  The  largest  vessels  car- 
ried 5000  talents.  On  the  Nile  boats  built  of 
acacia  wood  were  used  (ii.  96). 

Boats  were  doubtless  used  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee  in  O.  T.  times,  but  they  are  not  men- 
tioned. In  the  Eoman  period  the  sea  was 
alive  with  small  fishing  vessels  (Luke  v.  2; 
John  vi.  22,  23;  War  ii.  21,  8;  iii.  10,  9; 
Life  33).  They  were  propelled  by  oars  ;  but 
some,  at  least,  had  both  oars  and  sails  (Mark 
iv.  .38  with  Luke  viii.  23) ;  they  carried  an 
anchor  and  a  pilot  (Life  33). 

The  Israelites  were  not  a  .seafaring  people  ; 
although  shipbuilding  was  far  advanced 
among  the  Egyptians  and  doubtless  among 
the  Phoenicians  before  the  exodus,  and  the 
Hebrews  had  the  spectacle  of  ships  on  the 
Mediterranean  before  their  eyes  during  the 
whok'  jx'riod  of  their  national  history.  Solo- 
mon conducted  commercial  enterprises,  and 
Jehoshaphat  attempted  to  imitate  him  ;  but 
these  were  transient  efibrts  and  were  more 
or  less  dependent  uj)on  Pha^nician  sailors. 
The  rafts  of  cedar  and  fir  destined  for  Solo- 
mon's temple  were  floated  to  Jojtpa  by  Tyr- 
ians  (1  Kin.  v.  9 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  l(j),  and  the 
timber  for  the  second  temple  was  likewi.se 
brought  by  sea  to  Joppa  by  PhcEnicians 
(Ezra  iii.  7).  The  crew  of  the  vessel  in 
which  Jonah  sailed  from  Jopi)a  was  also  com- 
posed of  foreigners  (Jonah  i.  ,5).  In  the  Eoman 
period,  piratical  expeditions  by  Jews  are  re- 
ported (Autiq.  xiv.  3,  2  ;  War  iii.  9,  2  and  3). 

Both  merchant  vessels  and  war  ships  were 
used  on  the  Mediterranean  (Num.  xxiv.  24; 
Dan.  xi.  30;  Jonah  1.  3 ;  1  Mac.  xi.  1).  In 
war,  vessels  were  employed  for  transporting 
troops  (xv.  3,  4 ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  1)  and  for  fight- 
ing at  sea  (1  Mac.  viii.  23,  32  ;  Antiq.  ix.  14, 
2;  cp.   War  iii.   10,   1).     Some  of  these  .sea- 


going vessels  were  propelled  by  sails  alone; 
others  by  both  sails  and  oars.  A  gallant 
merchantman  of  Tyre  was  built  of  planks 
and  calked  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5,  9) ;  had  masts, 
linen  sails,  and  tackling  (7;  Is.  xxxiii.  23), 
benches  of  boxwood,  and  oaken  oars  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  6,  E.  v.).  It  was  manned  by  sailors  and 
guided  by  a  pilot  (8,  27).  When  luxuriously 
furnished,  the  sails  were  embroidered  and  a 
rich  awning  was  spread  (7).  Such  vessels 
made  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  (Jonah  i.  3,  .5, 
6,  13),  and  even  navigated  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
from  Spain  to  England ;  .see  Tin.  The  ship 
of  Alexandria,  in  which  Paul  was  conveyed 
from  Myra  to  Malta,  was  large  enough  to 
accommodate  a  crew  and  passengers  number- 
ing 276  persons,  besides  a  cargo  of  wheat 
(Acts  xxvii.  37,  38).  The  vessel  in  which 
Josephus  was  wrecked  had  600  persons  on 
board  (Life  3).  The  Alexandrian  wheat  ship, 
described  by  Lucian  as  driven  into  the  port 
of  Athens  by  rough  weather,  was  120  cubits, 
or  180  feet,  in  length,  doubtless  including  the 
projection  at  each  end,  and  45  feet  in  breadth. 
Its  size  attracted  attention.  Its  measure- 
ment is  supposed  to  have  been  about  1200  or 
1300  tons.  The  exceptionally  large  war  gal- 
ley of  Ptolemy  Philopator  measured,  accord- 
ing to^Athenseus,  420  feet  in  length  and  57 
feet  in  breadth.  Paul's  ship  was  in  charge 
of  a  master  and  the  owner  (Acts  xxvii.  11), 
and  was  managed  by  a  crew  (30).  It  was 
built  of  planks  (44),  carried  a  foresail,  which 
could  be  raised  and  lowered  (40,  E.  V.),  and 
by  implication  a  forema.st  and  a  mainmast, 
and  was  steered  by  rudders,  doubtless  two 
(40).  Four  anchors  were  stowed  at  the  stern 
and  several  forward  (29,  30),  and  a  small 
boat  was  towed  behind,  which  could  be  raised 
by  ropes  to  the  deck  or  davits  (16,  17,  30,  32). 
Soundings  were  taken  (28).  It  was  custom- 
ary for  ships  to  have  an  eye  painted  or 
carved  on  each  side  of  the  stem.  Paul's 
vessel  was  unable  to  face  the  gale,  literally  to 
keep  the  eye  to  the  wind  (15). 


A  Ship  of  Paul's  Time. 
Delineated  at  Pompeii. 

A  ship  of  Paul's  time,  depicted  at  Pompeii, 
shows  a  foremast  inclined  like  a  bowsprit, 
but  intended  to  carry  a  square  sail,  and  one 


Shiphi 


716 


Shittim 


large  mast  with  one  square  sail  fitted  to  a 
yard  of  great  length.  The  yard  was  com- 
posed of  two  spars  spliced  together,  and  was 
placed  with  its  center  against  the  mast.  The 
sail  was  strengthened  by  ropes  sewed  across 
it  vertically  and  horizontally ;  and  if  torn, 
the  rent  was  confined  to  the  square  in  which 
it  occurred.  The  sail  was  furled  hy  being 
drawn  up  to  the  yard.  The  deck  was  pro- 
tected by  a  rail.  The  stern  post,  and  in  many 
vessels  the  stem  post  aLso,  rose  in  a  curve.  It 
was  customary,  as  in  this  ship,  for  the  stern 
post  at  least  to  terminate  in  the  head  of  a 
water  fowl.  The  sign  of  the  ship  (Acts  xxviii. 
11)  was  painted  or  carved  on  each  side  of  the 
prow.  The  vessel  was  .steered  by  two  broad 
oars  or  paddles,  one  on  each  quarter  and  act- 
ing through  a  port  hole.  The  anchors  were 
similar  to  those  in  modern  use,  except  that 
they  had  no  flukes.  To  prevent  the  starting 
of  the  planks  in  a  storm,  cables  or  chains, 
called  helps  or  undergirders  (xxvii.  17),  were 
passed  around  the  vessel  at  right  angles  to 
its  length  and  made  tight. 

Shi'pM  [abounding,  abundant]. 

A  Siiueouite,  sou  of  Allon  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 

Shiph'mite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  probably  Siph- 
moth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

SMph'rah  [splendor,  beauty]. 

One  of  the  Hebrew  midwives  in  Egypt 
who  declined  to  kill  the  male  babes  (Ex.  i. 
15). 

Shiph'tan  [judicial]. 

An  Ephraimite,  father  of  Kemuel  (Num. 
xxxiv.  24). 

SM'sha.     See  Shavsha. 

Shi'shak.     See  Phakaoh  3. 

SMt'rai. 

A  Sharonite,  who  looked  after  David's 
herds  on  the  plain  of  Sharon  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
29). 

Shit'tah  Tree  and  Shittim  Wood. 

A  tree  (Is.  xli.  19).  The  E.  V.  renders  the 
word  by  acacia  tree  or  wood.  It  grew  in  the 
Jordan  valley,  from  the  sea  of  Galilee  to  the 
Dead  Sea  (see  Beth-shittah  and  Shittim). 
It  was  plentiful  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai, 
and  its  timber  was  largely  used  in  the  taber- 
nacle, for  the  woodwork  of  the  ark,  the 
altars  and  their  staves,  the  table,  the  boards, 
bars,  and  pillars  (Ex.  xxv.  5,  10, 13,  23;  xxvi. 
15,  26,  32;  xxvii.  1,  6;  xxx.  1,  5).  The  wood 
was  used  in  Egypt  in  boatbuilding  (Herod. 
ii.  96),  and  Josephus  S])eaks  of  its  strength 
and  durability  (Autiq.  iii.  6,5).  The  Arabic 
name  sant  is  the  same  word  as  the  Hel)rew 
shiUah,  and  denotes  the  acacia.  There  are 
several  species.  Acacia  .iei/al  and  tortilis  are 
found  in  the  valleys  about  the  Dead  Sea  and 
southward,  and  Acacia  nilofica  grows  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and 
in  Egypt.  Other  species  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  Palestine.     The  genuine  acacias  are 


generally  small  trees,  growing  from  15  to  25 
feet  high,  thorny,  with  bipinnate  leaves,  and 
pods  with  several  seeds.     The  wood  is  hard 


Shittah  {Acacia  seyal). 

and  close-grained.    Certain  species  yield  the 
gum  Arabic  of  commerce. 

Shit'tim  [acacias]. 

1.  An  important  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  plains  of  Moab,  east  of  Jordan, 
opposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxii.  1  with  xxv.  1). 
The  camp  had  been  removed  from  Pisgah  on 
the  mountains  of  Abarim  and  pitched  at 
Shittim  after  the  conquest  of  Sihon  and  Og 
(xxi.  20;  xxii.  1;  xxxiii.  47,  4«).  It  was 
located  on  a  table-land,  the  topmost  of  the 
three  terraces  which  at  this  point  form  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  among  the  long 
groves  of  acacia  trees.  It  extended  from 
Beth-jeshiuioth  even  unto  Abel-shittim 
(xxxiii.  49  ;  cp.  xxiii.  28),  a  distance  of  3 
miles  and  more.  It  was  arranged  in  an  or- 
derly manner,  the  Israelites  dwelling  accord- 
ing to  their  tribes  (xxiv.  2,  5,  6) ;  see  Camp. 
The  sojourn  at  Shittim  was  eventful.  While 
the  Israelites  were  encamped  there,  Balaam 
attempted  to  curse  them  (xxii. -xxi v.),  the 
people  committed  sin  with  the  daughters  of 
Moab  and  Midian  at  Baal-peor,  and  were 
plagued  in  consequence  (xxv.),  the  second 
census  was  taken  (xxvi.),  occasion  arose  for 
enacting  laws  regarding  the  inheritance  of 
daughters  (xxvii.  1-11),  Joshua  was  publicly 
proclaimed  the  successor  to  Moses  (12-23), 
daily  offerings  and  vows  were  further  regu- 
lated   (xxviii.-xxx.),   war   was   waged   with 


Shiza 


ri7 


Shoe 


the  five  Midianite  tribes  of  the  neighborhood 
on  account  of  the  deliberate  attempt  which 
they  had  recently  made  to  seduce  the  Israel- 
ites into  licentious  idolatry  at  Baal-peor 
(xxxi.),  Eeuben  and  Gad,  at  their  own  re- 
quest, received  inheritance  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan (xxxii. ),  an  itinerary  of  the  journey 
from  Egypt  to  the  Jordan  was  drawn  up  by 
Moses  (xxxiii.).  Measures  were  also  taken 
for  the  occupation  of  Canaan  :  in  view  of  re- 
cent events,  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites 
and  the  destruction  of  their  altars  and  idols 
were  urgently. commanded  anew;  the  bound- 
aries of  the  land  were  defined,  and  a  com- 
mission was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
allotment  of  territory  to  the  tribes ;  and  it 
was  ordered  that  cities  be  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  that  six  cities  of  refuge  be  des- 
ignated for  the  unintentional  murderer 
(xxxiii.  50-xxxv.).  The  matter  of  the  in- 
heritance of  daughters  was  further  regulated 
(xxxvi.).  Then  Moses  delivered  his  farewell 
address  (see  Deuteronomy),  Joshua  received 
a  solemn  charge,  and  Moses  ascended  Nebo 
and  died.  After  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua 
sent  forth  two  spies  from  Shittim  to  examine 
and  report  on  the  defenses  of  Jericho  (Josh, 
ii.).  Then  camp  was  broken  at  Shittim,  and 
the  people  crossed  the  Jordan  (iii.). 

2.  A  valley,  dry  and  comparatively  un- 
fruitful, where  only  the  acacia  or  shittah 
tree  grows  (Joel  iii.  18).  If  a  particular 
valley  is  in  the  prophet's  mind,  it  is  the 
Arabah  about  the  Dead  Sea  (cp.  Ezek.  xlvii. 
1-12).  The  prophet  names  it  from  the  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim,  and 
he  selects  it  as  a  type  because  the  waters  of 
its  sea  were  practically  lifeless,  and  its  south- 
ern portion  consisted  of  barren  rocks  and 
clifls  of  salt.  After  Jehovah  has  judged  all 
nations,  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  tlourish 
and  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  become  waste 
(Joel  iii.  9-21).  The  mountains  of  Judah 
shall  drop  down  new  wine,  its  hills  flow  with 
milk,  its  wadies  be  brooks  of  water,  and  from 
the  house  of  the  Lord  shall  go  forth  waters 
that  shall  make  glad  the  valley  of  acacias. 
In  other  words,  the  desert  shall  blossom  as 
the  rose;  spiritual  life  shall  proceed  from  the 
Lord  God  and  shall  supply  the  needs  of  his 
kingdom  (cp.  Eev.  xxii.  1,  2). 

SM'za  [vehement  love]. 

A  Eeubenite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Chron.  xi.  42). 

Sbo'a. 

A  country  and  its  inhabitants,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  Babylonians,  Chal- 
deans, and  Assyrians  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23) ;  and 
doubtless  the  Shutu  who  are  mentioned  by 
the  Bal>ylonians  and  Assyrians  as  occupying 
a  hilly  country  with  steppes,  adjacent  to 
Babylonia  on  the  northeast,  and  between  the 
Tigris  river  and  the  mountains  of  Elam  and 
]Media  (Delitzsch,  Paradies,  334). 

Sho'hab  [restored,  rescued]. 

1.  A  man    of   Judah,    familv   of   Hezron, 


house  of  Caleb.     His  mother  was  Azubah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  18). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  to  him  at  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  V.  14). 

Sho'bach  [one  who  pours  out]. 

Commander-in-chief  under  Hadarezer, 
king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  x.  16).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  xix.  16, 18,  Shophach.  The  difference 
is  doubtless  due  to  a  scribe's  confusion  of 
beth  and  pe,  but  even  so  the  names  are 
strictly  synonymous. 

Sho'liai  [one  who  leads  captive]. 

A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family  of  doorkeep- 
ers, members  of  which  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  42). 

Sho'bal  [flowing,  a  stream,  a  twig,  a  trav- 
eler]. 

1.  A  tribe  of  Horites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20), 
consisting  of  several  families  (23),  and  ruled 
by  a  chieftain  (29). 

2.  A  sou  of  Hur,  a  man  of  Judah,  family 
of  Hezron,  house  of  Caleb.  He  was  ancestor 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  50;  iv.  1,  2,  4). 

Sho'bek  [one  who  forsakes]. 

One  of  the  Jewish  chiefs  who  with  Nehe- 
miah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  24). 

Sho'bi  [one  who  leads  captive]. 

Son  of  a  resident  in  Eabbah  of  the  Am- 
monites named  Nahash  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27). 
Shobi  brought  food  and  other  necessaries  to 
David  at  Mabanaini. 

Sho'cho,  Shochoh,  Shoco.     See  Soco. 

Shoe. 

Hebrew  shoes  were,  as  a  rule,  simply  san- 
dals affixed  to  the  foot  by  straps  known  as 


rfandals. 

latchets;  see  Clothing.  Shoes  were  not 
worn  in  the  sitting  room  or  at  the  table  (cp. 
Luke  vii.  38) ;  and  in  well-appointed  houses 
a  servant  stood  ready  to  unloose  the  latchet 
and  remove  the  shoe  of  the  guest  (cp.  Mark 
i.  7).  Shoes  were  also  removed  when  one 
was  about  to  tread  holy  ground  (Ex.  iii.  5; 
.Tosh.  V.  15) ;  and  the  absence  of  shoes  in  the 
description  of  the  priest's  garments  is  sup- 
posed to  indicate  that  the  priests  performed 
tlieir  duties  in   the  temple  barefoot.     To  be 


Shoham 


Shuhite 


without  shoes  and  stript  of  superfluous  rai- 
ment might  betoken  tlie  captive's  plight  (Is. 
XX.  2),  and  was  a  customary  sign  of  mourn- 
ing (2  Sam.  sv.  30) ;  while  to  wear  shoes  in 
time  of  sorrow,  and  attire  the  head,  was  a 
concealment  of  grief  (Ezek.  xxiv.  17,  23). 
In  the  olden  time  in  Israel,  in  matters  of 
redemption  and  exchange,  a  num  drew  oif 
his  shoe  and  gave  it  to  him  with  whom  he 
had  concluded  the  agreement,  as  confirma- 
tion of  the  transaction  (Ruth  iv.  7,  8) ;  and 
the  shoe  of  the  man  who  refused  to  take  his 
deceased  brother's  wife  was  loosed,  with 
other  insult  (Deut.  xxv.  9,  10).  To  cast  the 
shoe  upon  a  place  symbolized  the  act  of 
taking  possession  or,  possibly,  of  treating  it 
as  a  slave  upon  whom  as  a  task  the  master 
flings  his  shoes  in  order  that  they  may  be 
carried  or  cleaned  (Ps.  Is.  8). 

Sho'ham  [a  beryl  or  onyx]. 
A  Levite,  sou  of  Jaaziah  (1   Chron.  xxiv. 
27). 

Sho'mer  [keeper,  watchman]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Heber  (1  Chron.  vii. 
32).     See  Shemer. 

2.  A  Moabitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
Joash's  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21).     See  Shim- 

RITH. 

Sho'phach.     See  Shobach. 

Sho'phan.     See  Atroth-shophan. 

Sho-shan'nim  [lilies]. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
xlv.  and  Ixix.  Three  opinions  exist  as  to  its 
meaning :  symbolical  of  the  contents  of  the 
psalm,  a  musical  instrument  resembling  a 
lily,  a  familiar  melody.  It  doubtless  indi- 
cates a  popular  air.  This  appears  from  the 
eombinations  Shoshannim  Eduth,  "  Lilies  a 
testimony "  (Ps.  Ixxx.  title),  and  Shushan 
Eduth,   "Lily  a  testimony"  (Ps.  Ix.  title). 

Show'bread. 

Literally  "  bread  of  the  presence."  It 
consisted  of  twelve  loaves  of  bread,  laid  in 
two  rows  and  displayed  on  a  table  in  the 
holy  place  before  the  Lord  continually.  The 
bread  was  changed  every  Sabbath,  and  the 
old  loaves  were  eaten  by  the  priests  in  the 
holy  place  (Ex.  xxv.  30;  Lev.  xxiv.  5-9;  1 
Sam.  xxi.  fi;  Mat.  xii.  4).  The  bread  was 
also  known  as  the  continual  bread  (Num.  iv. 
7,  where  the  name  showbread  is  also  used); 
and  continual  pile  or  arrangement  (2  Chron. 
ii.  4,  translated  showbread)  or  the  bread  of 
the  pile  or  arrangement  (1  Chron.  ix.  32, 
translated  showbread),  because  arranged  in 
rows  or  columns  (Lev.  xxiv.  6).  Josephus 
says  the  bread  was  unleavened  (Antiq.  iii.  6, 
6).  Each  loaf  contained  two-tenths  of  an 
ephah  of  flue  flour,  such  as  was  used  for  hon- 
ored guests  and  for  the  king's  table  (Gen. 
xviii.  6;  1  Kin.  iv.  22),  and  was  employed 
in  various  oflerings  (I^ev.  ii.  1;  v.  11;  etc.). 
The  twelve  loaves  represented  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel  (Lev.  xxiv.  7  with  Ex.  xxviii. 
10-12;  also  Ex.  xxiv.  4;  xxviii.  21).     These 


twelve  loaves  set  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah 
probably  signified  the  constant  communion 
of  his  people  with  him  in  those  things  which 
his  bounty  provided  and  they  enjoyed  in  his 
presence  and  used  in  his  service.  The  Ko- 
hathites  had  charge  of  the  showbread  ( 1 
Chron.  ix.  32). 

The  table  of  showbread  was  made  of  acacia 
wood  overlaid  with  gold.  It  was  bordered 
by  a  golden  crown,  and  had  a  ring  at  each 
corner  for  the  rods  by  which  it  was  carried. 
It  measured  2  cubits  long,  1  broad,  and  IV 
high  (Ex.  xxv.  23-29;  for  its  transportation, 
see  Num.  iv.  7,  8 1.  It  stood  in  the  holy 
place,  by  the  northern  wall,  that  is,  to  the 
right  of  one  entering  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
xl.  22).  In  Solomon's  temple  there  were 
ten  tables  for  showbread,  corresponding  to 
the  ten  candlesticks,  although  like  the 
candlesticks  apparently  only  one  was  in 
use  at  a  time  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  16;  2 
Chron.  iv.  8,  19  ;  xiii.  11 ;  Antiq.  viii.  3,  7)  ; 
hence  only  one  is  mentioned  in  1  Kin.  vii. 
48;  2  Chron.  xxix.  18.  The  table  which 
belonged  to  the  second  temple  was  carried 
ofi"  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  but  a  new  one 
was  provided  by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  i. 
22;  iv.  49).  Titus  carried  it  to  Eome  (War 
vii.  5,  5). 

Shu'a,  in  A.  V.  twice  Shuali  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
2,  12)  [wealth]. 

1.  A  Canaanite,  whose  daughter  became 
Judah's  wife  or  concubine,  and  the  mother 
of  his  sons,  Er,  Onan,  and  Shelah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  2,  12  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3). 

2.  An  Asherite,  a  daughter  of  Heber  (1 
Chron.  vii.  32). 

Shu'ah  [depression]. 

A  son  of  Abraham,  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv. 
2),  that  is.  an  Arab  tribe  descended  from 
them,  doubtless  the  Shuhiteswho  dwelt  near 
the  land  of  Uz  (Job  ii.  11).  Their  land  is 
plausibly  identified  with  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  Assyrian  Suhu,  on  the  west 
of  the  Euphrates,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Belich  and  Khabour. 

For  others  whose  name  is  rendered  Shuah 
in  A.  v.,  see  Shua  and  Shuhah. 

Shu'al  [a  fox  or  jackal]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  36). 

2.  A  district  near  Ophrah,  to  the  north  of 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  17).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Shu'ba-el.     See  Shebukl. 

Shu'hali,  in  A.  V.  Shuah  [depression,  a 
small  pit]. 

A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 

Shu'ham  [depression  or,  perhaps,  a  pit- 
man]. 

The  son  of  Dan,  and  founder  of  the  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  42).  Called  in  Gen.  xlvi. 
23  Hushim. 

Shu'hite.    See  Shuah. 


Shulammite 


719 


Shushan 


Showbread  Table  of  Herod's  Temple. 
From  the  Arch  of  Titus. 


Shu'lam-mite,  in  A.  V.  Shulamite. 

A  young  woman  mentioned  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (vi.  13).  In  all  probability  the 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  tlie  town  of 
Shunem.  The  Septuagint  translates  it  by 
Sounamitis.  i.  e.  Shunammite  :  and  the  town 
of  Shunem  was  known  in  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius  as  Shiilem,  and  to-day  bears  the  name 
Solam.  The  form  Shulammite  may  have 
been  preferred  to  Shunammite  because  of  its 
assonance  with  Solomon,  in  Hebrew  l^hHomoh. 

Shu'math-ites  [from  shumnh,  garlic]. 

One  of  the  leading  families  in  Kirjath- 
jearim  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Shu'nam-mite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Shunem.  Abishag 
was  one  (1  Kin.  i.  3,  15).  So  was  the  woman 
whose  son  Elisha  raised  from  the  dead  (cp.  2 
Kin.  iv.  8). 

Shu'nem  [possibly,  two  resting  places]. 

A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  18),  opposite 
mount  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4).  The  Philis- 
tines encamped  there  before  the  battle  with 
Saul.  The  site  is  at  Solam,  on  the  western 
slope  of  a  hill  3i  miles  north  by  east  of 
Jezreel,  5  north  of  the  western  end  of 
mount  (xilboa,  and  about  16  miles  from  Car- 
mel,  whither  the  Shunammite  woman  went 
to  find  Elisha  (2  Kin.  iv.  25). 

Shu'ni  [possibly,  calm,  quiet]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  16;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 


Shu'pham.     See  Shephupham. 

Shup'pim. 

1.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12,  15) ;  see 
Shephupham. 

2.  A  Levite,  who  served  as  a  doorkeeper 
at  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  16).  The 
Hebrew  text  is  doubtless  corrupt.  Perhaps 
the  name  crept  in  from  the  preceding  verse, 
which  ends  with  a  word  very  like  Shuppim. 

Shut  [wall,  fortification]. 

1.  A  locality  in  the  wilderness,  south  of 
Palestine,  or  more  exactly  south  of  Beer- 
lahai-roi,  and  east  of  Egypt  (Gen.  xvi.  7; 
Txv.  18).  It  has  not  been  identified,  but  was 
doubtless  connected  with  the  frontier  for- 
tresses of  Egypt.  It  gave  name  to  the  wil- 
derness through  which  the  Israelites  marched 
for  three  days  immediately  after  crossing  the 
Eed  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  22).  This  waste  was  also 
sometimes  called  the  wilderness  of  Etham 
(Num.  xxxiii.  8). 

Shu'shan  [to  the  Hebrews  the  name  would 
suggest  lily]. 

A  city  and  royal  residence  in  the  Persian 
empire  (Neh.  i.  1  ;  Esth.  i.  2),  in  the  province 
of  Elam,  on  the  river  Ulai  (Dan.  viii.  2).  It 
was  also  a  royal  treasure  city  (Herod,  v.  49). 
The  place  referred  to  in  these  passages  is 
Susa.  Ashurbanipal  captured  the  city  about 
660  B.  c,  and  later  it  became  subject  to  the 
Babylonian  kings.  The  royal  family  to 
which  Cyrus,  who  conquered   Babylou,   be- 


Shushanchites 


720 


Sidon 


longed  ruled  over  Ansan,  which  appears  to 
liave  been  a  district  of  eastern  Elani.  When 
Cyrus,  by  his  military  achievements,  estab- 
lished the  Persian  empire,  Susa  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  a  capital  of  the  empire,  shar- 
ing this  distinction  with  Ecbatanaand  Baby- 
lon. When  Alexander  the  Great  entered 
Susa,  in  331  b.  c,  it  had  in  it  immense  treas- 
ures, of  which  he  took  possession.  In  315  B. 
c.  it  was  captured  and  plundered  anew  by 
Antigonus.  After  this  it  began  to  decline, 
but  was  still  defensible  when  the  Saracens 
conquered  Persia.  The  site  of  the  city  is  at 
Sus,  in  latitude  32°  10'.'  north,  longitude  48° 
26"  east,  between  the  river  Eulieus  (the  Ro- 
man name  for  Daniel's  Ulai)  and  the  Shah- 
pur,  and  about  100  miles  from  the  Persian 
ttulf.  The  chief  ruins  are  found  within  an 
area  of  about  GOOO  feet  long  by  4500  broad, 
the  circumference  being  about  3  miles;  but 
if  scattered  remains  be  taken  in,  the  3  miles 
may  become  6  or  7.  They  consist  of  a  series 
of  mounds,  in  one  of  which  the  explorers 
laid  bare  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  doubtless  that 
begun  by  Darius,  and  in  which  Xerxes  held 
his  court.  It  seems  to  have  been  there  that 
Esther's  Ahasuerus  held  his  feasts  and  his 
banquets  (Esth.  i.  2,  3,  9 ;  ii.  18,  etc.). 

Shu'shan-chites,   in   A.   V.    Susanchites 

[from  Elamite  Su.iinnk,  Susian]. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  the  Persian  Susa, 
the  Shushan  of  the  O.  T.  Shushanchites 
were  brought,  with  others,  to  central  Pales- 
tine to  suiiply  the  place  of  the  ten  tribes  car- 
ried into  cai)tivity  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

Shu'shan  E'duth.     See  Shoshannim. 
Shu'the-lah. 

1.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Num.  xxvi.  35,  36;  1  Chron. 
vii.  20). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Ephraim  in  the 
same  line  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

Si'a-ha  and  Sia  [assembly]. 

A  family  of  Xethinim,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  44  ;  Neh.  vii.  47). 

Sib'toe-cai,  in  A.  V.  twice  Sibtoechai  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  18 ;  1  Chron.  xx.  4)  [perhaps,  en- 
tangling]. 

A  Hushathite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  29).  He  won  renown  by  slay- 
ing the  Philistine  Saph,  one  of  the  sons  of 
the  giant  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  He  commanded 
the  division  of  the  army  for  the  eighth  month 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  11).  He  is  called  in  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  27  Mebunnai  (q.  v.). 

Sib'bo-letli.     See  Shibboleth. 

Sib'mali,  in  A.  V.  once  SMbmah  (Num. 
xxxii.  38)  [coolness]. 

A  town  a.ssigned  to  Reuben  (Num.  xxxii. 
38  ;  Josh.  xiii.  19),  but  which  afterwards  re- 
verted to  Moab.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
vines  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9;  Jer.  xlviii.  32).  The 
masculine  form  of  the  name  is  Sel)ani  (Num. 


xxxii.  3;  in  A.  V.  Shebam).  According  to 
Jerome,  it  was  situated  scarcely  half  a  mile 
from  Heshbon.  Not  identified.  Conder  sug- 
gests Sdmia,  3  miles  west  by  north  of  Heshbon. 

Sib'ra-im  [perhaps,  hope]. 
An  unidentified  place  on  Ezekiel's  northerTi 
boundary  of  Canaan  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16). 

Sic'cuth. 

A  word  occurring  in  Amos  v.  26,  E.  R.  V. ; 
but  in  A.  R.  V.  and  A.  V.  translated  taber- 
nacle (cp.  the  word  Succoth).  Regarded  as  a 
proper  name,  it  corresponds  to  Sakkut,  a 
designation  given  by  the  Babylonians  to  the 
jilauet  Saturn.  Another  designation  which 
tluy  bad  for  the  planet  was  Kaiman.  or  in 
modified  pronunciation  Kaiwanu  (cp.  Chiun, 
Amos  V.  26,  A.  V.  and  E.  R.  V.). 

Si'chein.     Sec  Shechem. 

Si'cy-on. 

A  Dorian  town  in  the  Peloponnesus 
(Herod,  viii.  43),  on  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  10 
miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Corinth.  'The 
old  town  at  the  harbor  was  abandoned  in  303 
B.  c,  and  the  populace  removed  to  the  new 
town,  about  2  miles  inland,  which  occupied 
a  strong  natural  position.  The  city  became 
a  member  of  the  Achaean  league  in  251  B. 
c.  Half  a  century  later  it  began  to  show 
friendliness  to  the  Romans,  and  continued  to 
do  so  during  the  fifty  years  that  followed  ; 
and  in  146  B.  c,  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth 
by  the  Roman  general,  Mummius,  it  was  re- 
warded with  a  large  portion  of  the  conquered 
territory  and  with  the  management  of  the 
Isthmian  games.  It  held  this  distinction  for 
a  century,  until  Corinth  was  founded  again 
and  made  a  Roman  colony.  The  Roman 
senate  addressed  the  letter  to  Sicyon  men- 
tioned in  1  Mac.  xv.  23,  about  139  B.  c. 

Sid 'dim  [plains]. 

A  valley,  full  of  bitumen  pits,  in  the  region 
of  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea.  There  Chedorlaonier 
defeated  the  king  of  Sodom  and  his  allies 
(Gen.  xiv.  3,  8,  10). 

Si'de. 

A  maritime  town  of  eastern  Pamphylia  in 
Asia-  Minor.  It  maintained  close  commercial 
relations  with  Aradus  in  Phoenicia,  gave  the 
title  Sidetes  to  Antiochus  VII.,  who  was 
brought  up  in  the  town,  and  was  one  of  the 
places  to  which  the  Roman  senate  sent  letters 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Si'don  and  Zidon ;  in  A.  V.  usually,  in  R. 
V.  always,  Zidon  in  O.  T. ;  in  A.  V.  and  R. 
V.  always  Sidon  in  N.  T.  [a  fishery]. 

An  ancient  city  of  the  C^anaanites  (Gen.  x. 
15),  on  the  seacoast,  22  miles  north  of  Tyre. 
It  was  subject  to  Egypt  in  the  15th  century 
B.  c.  Its  importance  is  attested  by  Homer, 
who  often  mentions  Sidon,  but  never  Tyre, 
and  who  uses  Sidon  and  Sidonian  as  syn- 
onymous with  Phrenicia  and  Phoenician.  It 
was  the  northern  limit  of  the  Canaanites,  in 
the  narrow  sense  (Gen.  x.  19).     Its  territory 


Sidon 


721 


Siege 


was  near  Zebulun  (xlix.  13)  and  the  boundary 
of  Aslier  reached  it,  (Josh.  six.  28,  where  and 
ill  xi.  8  it  is  called  Great  Zidou  i.  The  tribe 
of  Asher,  however,  failed  to  expel  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  fJudg.  i.  31).  In  the 
I)eriod  of  the  judges  the  Zidouiaus  oppressed 
the  Israelites  (x.  12),  and  the  latter  ])eople 
are  accused  of  worshiping  the  gods  of  Zidon 
(6).  Of  these  gods.  Baa),  symbolizing  the 
sun,  was  doubtless  the  chief  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31)  ; 
the  pi'incipal  object  of  worship,  however, 
was  Ashtoreth,  a  goddess  of  fertility  (xi.  5,  33 ; 
2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  Ethbaal,  a  king  of  Zidon, 
was  the  father  of  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31). 
Isaiah  predicted  that  it  would  be  visited  with 
judgment  which  would  make  its  inhabitants 
l>ass  to  Kittini,  that  is,  Cyprus  (Is.  xxiii.  12). 
It  was  for  a  time  subject  to  the  neighboring 


B.  c.  it  opened  its  gates  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  From  his  successors  it  passed,  in  64 
B.  c,  to  the  Komans.  People  from  Sidon 
came  to  Galilee  to  attend  on  the  preaching 
of  Jesus  and  witness  his  miracles  (Mark  iii. 
8;  Luke  vi.  17,  etc.).  He  once  visited  the 
region,  and  probably  the  city  (Mat.  xv.  21  ; 
I\Iark  vii.  24,  31).  Herod  Agrippa  II.  was 
highly  displeased  with  the  people  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  but  they  made  peace  with  him 
"  because  their  country  was  fed  from  the 
king's  country  "  (Acts  xii.  20).  Paul  touched 
at  the  port  (xxvii.  3).  Since  N.  T.  times 
Sidon  has  seen  many  vicissitudes.  The  mod- 
ern city,  called  Saida,  lies  on  the  northwest- 
ern slope  of  a  small  promontory  jutting  out 
into  the  sea.  The  ancient  harbor  was  formed 
by  a  ridge  of  rocks  parallel  to  the  shore.     It 


Northern  Harbor  of  Sidon. 

The  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  on  a  substructure  of  large  drafted  blocks  of  stone  which  proclaim 

their  antiquity,  stand  on  an  island  which  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  an  arched  bridge. 


city  of  Tyre  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2).  In  701  B.  c, 
it  submitted  to  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria. 
In  678  B.  c.  it  was  destroyed  by  Esarhaddon. 
Jeremiah  predicted  its  subjugation  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Babylon  (Jer.  xxvii.  3, 
6).  Ezekiel  denounced  judgment  against  it 
because  it  had  been  "a  pricking  brier  to  the 
house  of  Israel"  (Ezek.  xxviii.  21,  22).  Joel 
charges  the  Zidonians  and  others  with  hav- 
ing helped  to  plunder  Jerusalem,  carrying 
otf  silver  and  gold,  and  selling  its  inhabit- 
ants for  slaves  (Joel  iii.  4-6).  About  526  b.  c. 
Zidon  submitted  to  Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus, 
king  of  I'ersia.  The  Zidonians  sold  cedar 
timber  to  the  Jews  for  the  temple  which 
Zerubbabel  was  building  (Ezra  iii.  7).  It  re- 
volted against  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  king  of 
Persia,  in  3.^1  b.  c,  but  was  retaken  and  de- 
stroyed. To  get  rid  of  the  Persians,  in  333 
46 


was  partly  filled  up  with  stones  and  earth 
by  Fakhr  ed-Din,  the  ruler  of  the  Druses,  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  There  is  a  wall 
protecting  the  land  side  of  the  city.  The 
highest  ground,  which  is  crowned  by  the 
citadel,  is  on  the  southern  side.  The  city  is 
enveloped  in  gardens  and  orchards,  but  has 
not  much  commerce ;  that  having  been 
largely  diverted  from  it  to  Beirut.  Its 
population  has  been  estimated  at  5000  to 
10,000.  It  has  in  and  around  it  a  few  broken 
granite  columns ;  and  various  sarcophagi, 
including  the  celebrated  one  of  Esmunazar, 
were  brought  from  tombs  in  its  vicinity. 

Si-do'ni-ans,  in  A.  V.  frequently  Zidoni- 
ans, in  R.  V.  always  so  except  once  (Dent, 
iii.  9). 

Siege.     See  War. 


Signet 


722 


Siloam 


Sig'net.     See  Seal  2. 

Si'Iion  [sweeping  out,  a  brush]. 

A  king  of  the  Amorites,  whose  capital  was 
Heshbon.  He  drove  the  Moabites  from  the 
country  between  Heshbon  and  tlie  Arnon  and 
took  possession  of  it  (Num.  xxi.  26-30).  Five 
Midianite  triltes  were  his  vassals  (Josh.  xiii. 
21).  When  the  Israelites  arrived  in  the  wil- 
derness on  the  southeast  of  the  Arnon,  Moses 
sent  messengers  to  him  to  ask  permission  to 
cross  his  territory  (Num.  xxi.  21,  22 ;  Deut. 
ii.  26).  He  refused.  Thereupon  the  Israelites 
entered  his  domains  under  the  necessity  of 
fighting  their  way  to  the  Jordan.  Sihon 
gathered  his  army  together  at  Jahaz  and  op- 
posed the  invaders,  but  he  was  defeated  and 
his  kingdom  was  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  21-32;  Ps.  exxxv.  11). 
The  country  thus  seized  was  included  be- 
tween the  Jordan,  the  Jabbok,  and  the 
Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  24,  32;  Deut.  ii.  36;  Judg. 
xi.  22).  The  camp  of  Israel  was  pitched  at 
Pisgah,  a  .secure  position  on  the  mountains 
of  Abarira,  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  con- 
quered district,  preparatory  to  the  campaign 
against  Bashan  (Num.  xxi.  20;  cp.  xxii.  1; 
xxxiii.  47).  Sihon's  kingdom  was  afterwards 
assigned  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad, 
who  desired  it  because  it  atforded  good  pas- 
turage (Num.  xxxii.  1-4,  33-38). 

Si'hor.     See  Shihor. 

Si'las,  or  uncoutracted  Silvanus  [sylvan]. 

A  distinguished  member  of  the  apostolic 
church  at  Jerusalem.  He  was  sent  with 
Paul  to  communicate  the  decision  of  the 
council  held  at  that  city  to  the  Christians  at 
Antioch  (Acts  xv.  22,  27,  32).  When  Paul 
declined  to  take  John  Mark  with  him  on  the 
second  missionary  journey,  and  parted  with 
Barnabas,  he  chose  Silas  as  his  companion 
(40),  and  the  two  were  imprisoned  together 
at  Philippi  (.xvi.  19,  25.  29).  Silas  was  with 
Paul  during  the  riot  at  Thessalonica  (xvii. 
4),  and  was  sent  away  with  him  to  Bercea, 
remaining  there  with  Timothy  after  the 
apostle  had  been  obliged  to  depart  (14).  The 
two  were,  however,  soon  directed  to  follow 
Paul  to  Athens  (15).  They  started  to  join 
him,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  come  up  with 
him  till  after  his  arrival  at  Corinth  (xviii.  5). 
In  this  city  Silas  was  an  esteemed  coworker 
of  Paul's  (2  Cor.  i.  19).  The  same  individual 
who  in  The  Acts  is  familiarly  named  Silas  is 
unvaryingly  called  by  his  full  name  Silvanus 
in  the  epistles.  He  was  associated  with  Paul 
and  Timothy  in  sending  the  two  letters  to  the 
Thessalonians  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  He 
is  probably  the  Silvanus  who  carried  to  its 
destination  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  (1  Pet. 
V.  12). 

Silk. 

A  fine,  soft  thread  produced  by  various 
species  of  caterpillars,  and  a  fabric  woven 
from  the  thread.  Silk  reached  the  markets 
of  the  west  shortly  after  the  conquest  of 
Alexander  the  Great.     It  was  known  to  the 


Greeks  as  serikon,  pertaining  to  the  Sers,  a 
people  of  India  from  whom  it  was  obtained. 
It  was  a  choice  article  of  merchandise  (Eev. 
xviii.  12),  fit  for  the  clothing  of  Roman  em- 
jierors  (War  vii.  5,  4).  As  late  as  the  reign  of 
the  eniperor  Aurelian,  A.  D.  270-275,  unmixed 
silk  goods  were  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold. 
The  fine  raiment  referred  to  in  Ezek,  xvi. 
10,  13  by  the  term  meshi  was  probably  silk, 
as  the  rabbinical  interpreters  understood 
and  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  E.  V.  Ezekiel 
doubtless  saw  the  stuft'  in  Babylonia.  A  rich 
cloth  is  meant  by  d'meshek  (Amos  iii.  12), 
which  is  commonly  regarded  as  damask 
(in  R.  V.  rendered  silken  cushions). 

Sil'la  [twig,  basket].  The  meaning  "  way, 
street,"  assigned  by  Thenius,  is  obtained  by 
altering  the  Hebrew  text. 

An  unknown  place  near  Millo  (2  Kin.  xii. 

20). 

Si-lo'ah,  an  erroneous  transliteration  of 
Shelah  in  A.  V.  of  Neh.  iii.  15.    See  Siloam. 

Si-lo'am  [sent ;  specially,  a  sending  of 
water  through  an  aqueduct]. 

A  pool  at  Jerusalem  (John  ix.  7) ;  probably 
identical  with  Shiloah,  the  waters  of  which 
go  softly  (Is.  viii.  6),  and  the  pool  of  Shelah, 
which  was  by  the  king's  garden  (Neh.  iii.  15). 
Josephus  says  that  it  was  situated  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley  of  cheesemongers,  near 
a  bend  of  the  old  wall  beneath  Ophlas,  i.  e. 
Ophel  (War  v.  4,  1  and  2).  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  Birket  Silwan,  which  occupies 
the  general  site  of  the  ancient  pool.  It  is  a 
rectangular  reservoir,  58  feet  long,  18  broad, 
and  19  deep,  built  of  masonry,  the  western 
side  of  which  has  considerably  broken  down. 
The  fountain  is  a  small  upper  basin  ex- 
cavated in  the  rock.  It  is  really  the  ter- 
mination of  the  tunnel  which  was  cut  to 
conduct  the  water  from  the  fountain  of  the 
Virgin.  From  the  lower  reservoir,  the  water 
flows  in  a  small  rill  across  the  road  and 
irrigates  gardens  in  the  Kidron  valley. 

In  1880  an  inscription  of  six  lines  was  dis- 
covered on  the  walls  of  this  tunnel  by  a 
youth  who  had  entered  from  the  Siloam  end. 
It  proved  to  be  written  in  pure  Hebrew,  and 
is  supposed  to  date  from  the  time  of  Ahaz  or 
Hezekiah.  A  jjortion  of  the  first  three  lines 
has  been  de.stroyed  by  the  wearing  away 
of  the  rock,  and  occasionally  a  letter  cannot 
be  made  out  with  certainty.  Still  the  sense 
is  plain.  It  describes  how  the  workmen, 
who  had  excavated  toward  each  other  from 
the  two  ends  of  the  tunnel,  met.  It  is  as 
follows,  as  nearly  as  possible.  "  [Behold]  the 
piercing  through  !  And  this  was  the  manner 
of  the  piercing  through.  While  yet  [the 
miners  were  lifting  up]  the  pick  one  toward 
another,  and  while  there  were  yet  three 
cubits  to  be  [cut  through,  there  was  heard] 
the  voice  of  each  calling  to  the  other;  for 
there  was  a  fissure  (?)  in  the  rock  on  the 
right  hand  ....  And  on  the  day  of  the 
piercing  through,  the  miners  smote  the  one 


Silvanus 


r23 


Simeon 


so  as  to  meet  the  other,  jiick  against  pick. 
And  the  water  flowed  from  the  source  to  the 
pool,  1200  cubits  ;  and  100  cubits  was  the 
height  of  the  rock  over  tlie  head  of  the 
miners." 

The  tower  in  Siloam  which  fell  (Lukexiii. 
4)  was  probably  one  on  the  Ophel  ridge,  near 
Siloam.  It  was  not  in  the  neighboring  vil- 
lage of  Si)  wan,  for  this  place  dates  from  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Sil-va'nus.     See  Silas. 

Sil'ver. 

A  precious  metal.  Its  ore  was  mined  from 
the  earth  (Job  xxviii.  1)  and  melted  in  a  fur- 
nace, by  which  process  the  dross  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  richer  metal  (Ps.  xii.  6  ;  Prov. 
xvii.  3  ;  xxv.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxii.  22).  It  was  ob- 
tained in  Arabia  (2  Chron.  ix.  14  ;  cp.  1  Kin. 
X.  22,  27)  and  Tarshish  (Jer.  x.  9 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  12),  Spain  being  a  large  producer  (1 
Mac.  viii.  3).  It  was  used  as  a  medium  of 
exchange  from  remotest  antiquity  (Gen.  xxiii. 
16;  xxxvii.  28).  The  amount  required  was 
weighed  out  (Job  xxviii.  15;  Is.  xlvi.  6),  for 
silver  was  not  coined  until  late,  among  the 
Jews  not  until  long  after  the  exile  (1  Mac. 
XV.  6) ;  see  Money.  Personal  ornaments 
(Gen.  xxiv.  53;  Ex.  iii.  22;  Song  i.  11), 
crowns  (Zech.  vi.  11),  musical  instruments, 
as  trumpets  (Num.  x.  2),  and  household 
utensils  of  the  wealthy,  like  Joseph's  drink- 
ing cup  (Gen.  xliv.  2)  were  made  of  silver. 
Large  quantities  of  the  metal  were  used  in 
the  tabernacle  and  temple  for  sockets  (Ex. 
xxvi.  19),  hooks,  chapiters  and  fillets  of  the 
pillars  (xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  19),  platters  and 
bowls  (Num.  vii.  13;  1  Chron.  xxviii.  17; 
Ezra  i.  9,  10),  cups  (2  Kin.  xii.  13),  candle- 
sticks, and  tables  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  15,  16). 
Idols  and  models  of  idol  shrines  were  con- 
.structed  of  silver  (Ps.  cxv.  4;  Acts  xix.  24). 

Sil'ver-ling. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Keseph, 
silver,  in  Is.  vii.  23,  which  is  elsewhere 
translated  by  shekel  or  piece  of  silver. 

Si-mal-cu'e,  in  E.  V.  Imalcue. 

An  Arabian  who  brought  up  the  young 
Antiochus,  son  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac. 
xi.  39) ;  in  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  1  called  Malchus. 
The  name  doubtless  contains  the  Arabic  word 
vialik,  king. 

Sim'e-on,  in  R.  V.  of  N.  T.  Symeon,  in 

imitation  of  a  Greek  form,  when  the  persons 
are  not  mentioned  in  O.  T.  (Luke  iii.  30 ; 
Acts  xiii.  1  ;  xv.  14)  [hearing]. 

1.  The  second-born  son  of  Jacob  by  Leah 
(Gen.  xxix.  33).  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Levi,  he  massacred  the  Hivite  in- 
habitants of  Shechem  on  account  of  the  in- 
jury done  by  one  of  their  number  to  Dinah 
(Gen.  xxxiv.  24-31) ;  see  Dinah.  When  one 
of  Jacob's  sons  was  to  be  kej)t  a  prisoner  in 
Egypt  as  security  for  return  of  the  rest, 
Joseph  took  Simeon  and  bound  him  (xiii.  24). 
The  prediction   of   Simeon's   future   by  the 


dying  Jacob  returns  to  the  subject  of  the 
massacre,  and  threatens  Simeon  as  well  as 
Levi  that  they  will  be  scattered  in  Israel 
(xlix.  5-7). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Simeon,  the  son  of 
Jacob,  was  the  progenitor.  He  had  six  sons: 
Jemuel  or  Nemuel,  Jamin,  Ohad,  Jachin  or 
Jarib,  Zohar  or  Zerah,  and  Shaul.  With  the 
exception  of  Ohad,  all  these  founded  tribal 
families  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Num.  xxvi.  12-14; 
1  Chron.  iv.  24).  The  prince  of  the  tribe  in 
the  early  times  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
was  Slielumiel,  son  of  Zurishaddai  (Num. 
i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41  ;  x.  19),  and  at  a  later 
period  Shemuel,  son  of  Ammihud  (xxxiv. 
20).  At  the  first  census  in  the  wilderness  the 
tribe  numbered  59,300  fighting  men  (i.  23 ;  ii. 
13),  at  the  second  22,200  (xxvi.  12-14).  Sha- 
phat,  son  of  Hori,  was  the  spy  from  the  tribe 
(xiii.  5).  Moses,  before  his  departure,  blessed 
the  tribes,  but  omitted  to  mention  Simeon 
explicitly  (Deut.  xxxiii.).  This  omission  is 
probably  due  to  the  artificial  construction  of 
the  poem.  Moses  wanted  twelve  for  the 
number  of  the  tribes.  He  formed  two  groups, 
departing  from  the  order  of  birth,  and  plac- 
ing the  children  of  Jacob's  two  wives  in  the 
first  group  and  those  of  the  two  maids  in  the 
.second. 


Leah  3 
Rachel  3 
Leah  2 


Leah's  maid  1 
Rachel's  maid  2 
Leah's  maid  1 


The  first  group  contains  eight,  Simeon  being 
omitted,  and  the  second  group  contains  just 
half  as  many.  The  first  group  is  subdivided 
into  three  minor  groups,  beginning  with 
three  of  the  elder  children  of  Leah  and 
closing  with  Leah's  youngest  two,  and  having 
Rachel's  three  in  the  center.  The  second 
group  is  made  to  correspond  to  this  arrange- 
ment. It  begins  with  Leah's  firstborn  by 
her  maid  and  closes  with  her  second  son  by 
the  same  maid,  and  the  two  sous  of  Rachel 
by  her  maid  are  placed  between.  The  bless- 
ings pronounced  u])on  these  tribes  are  framed 
within  a  beiicdictidn  upon  all  Israel  (2-5,25- 
29).  The  tribe  of  Simeon  could  best  be  omitted 
from  the  particular  enumeration,  because  it 
was  to  be  scattered  in  Israel  (Gen.  xlix.  5-7). 
The  same  punishment  also  awaited  Levi,  but 
recent  deeds  had  partly  atoned  for  the  past 
and  given  the  tribe  of  Levi  a  position  of 
honor  among  the  people  of  God.  After 
Moses'  death  the  tribe  of  Simeon  was  not 
assigned  a  self-contained  territory,  but  was 
granted  possession  in  the  midst  of  Judah. 
The  Simeonites,  however,  although  not  ex- 
plicitly mentioned,  were  not  excluded  from 
the  blessing  invoked  on  the  tribes.  They 
were  included  in  the  general  benediction 
upon  Israel  as  a  whole,  with  which  the  poem 
opens  and  closes.  The  tribe  of  Simeon  was 
one  of  those  who  stood  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Gerizim  to  pronounce  blessings  (Deut.  xxvii. 
12). 

When  the  land  of  Canaan  was  distributed 


Simon 


724 


Simon 


by  lot,  the  second  lot  taken  at  Shiloh  came 
forth  for  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  land  was 
assigned  them  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Canaan,  in  the  midst  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  children  of  Judah  (Josh.  xix.  1,  2,  9), 
and  the  two  tribes  made  common  cause 
asrainst  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i.  1,  3,  17). 
Among  the  Simeouite  cities  were^Beer-sheba, 
Ziklag,  and  Hormah  (Josh.  xix.  2-9),  in  the 
southern  part  of  Judah.  In  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  the  Simeonites  smote  the  people  of 
Ham  and  the  Meuuim  who  dwelt  in  the 
valley  of  Gedor,  500  of  them  also  slaughtered 
tlie  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir  ;  in  both  cases 
occupying  the  territory  of  the  vanquished 
tribes  (1  Chron.  iv.  24-43).  It  is  believed 
that  ultimately  a  great  part  of  the  tribe  dis- 
appeared, but  it  was  recognized  by  Ezekiel 
in  his  prophecies  of  the  future  Canaan  (Ezek. 
xlviii.  24,  25,  33),  and  in  the  apocalyptic 
vision  there  were  sealed  12,000  Simeonites 
(Kev.  vii.  7). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after 
David  but  before  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  30). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Joarib,  and  an 
ancestor  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

5.  A  righteous  and  devout  man,  to  whom 
it  had  been  revealed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  that 
he  should  not  see  death  till  he  had  seen  the 
Lord's  Christ.  Coming  into  the  temple  when 
Joseph  and  Mary  had  just  brought  in  the 
infant  Jesus,  Simeon  recognized  hira  as  the 
promised  Messiah,  expressed  his  willingness 
now  to  depart  in  peace,  and  made  a  prophetic 
address  to  Mary  with  respect  both  to  her  and 
her  child  (Luke  ii.  25-35). 

6.  Simon  Peter  (Acts  xv.  14)  ;  see  Peter. 

7.  A  Christian  prophet  or  teacher  at  Anti- 
och.  He  was  surnamed  Niger,  black,  and 
may  perhaps  have  been  of  African  race  (Acts 
xiii.  1). 

Si'mon  [hearing].  Simon  and  Symeon  imi- 
tate Greek  modes  of  representing  the  He- 
brew name  Shim'on,  Simeon. 

1.  Second  son  of  the  priest  Mattathias.  He 
was  called  Thassi,  which  may  perhaps  mean 
director  or  guide  (1  Mac.  ii.  3,  in  Syriac 
Tharsi).  With  his  brothers  he  sympathized 
with  his  fixtber  in  the  revolt  against  the  re- 
ligious intolerance  of  the  Syrians  (14).  Re- 
garding him  as  the  wisest  of  the  sons,  his 
father,  when  about  to  die,  appointed  him  the 
adviser  of  the  family,  but  gave  the  military 
authority  to  Judas,  a  younger  brother  ((i5, 
Of)).  He  held  a  military  command  under 
Judas,  and  led  a  detachment  of  troops  to  the 
aid  of  the  Jews  in  Galilee  (v.  17,  20-23). 
After  the  death  of  Judas  Jonathan  was  chosen 
leader.  He  made  Simon  commandant  of  the 
entire  coast  (xi.  59  ;  xii.  ,33,  34).  When  Jona- 
than was  seized  and  held  pris(mer  by  Try- 
phon,  the  conduct  of  the  war  devolved  on 
Simon,  as  the  last  remaining  brother  of  the 
Maccahee  family  (xiii.  1-9).  He  at  once 
completed  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem, 
and  secured   possession   of   Jojipa    (10,    11). 


When  Tryphon  invaded  Judfea,  Simon  dogged 
his  army  (20),  and  when  Tryphon  withdrew 
from  the  country,  Simon  rebuilt  and  pro- 
visioned the  strongholds  of  Judiea  (33).  He 
also  allied  himself  with  Tryphon's  rival, 
Demetrius  II.,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  Judaja, 
142  B.  C.  (34-42).  Thereupon  he  besieged 
and  captured  Gezer  (43-48,  in  A.  V.  Gaza). 
In  the  spring  of  141  he  reduced  the  Syrian 
citadel  at  Jerusalem  (49-52).  A  season  of 
peace  followed,  during  which  Simon  devoted 
his  energies  to  internal  administration  and 
the  encouragement  of  commerce  and  agri- 
culture (xiv.  4-15).  He  embellished  the 
family  tomb  at  Modin,  in  which  he  had 
placed  the  remains  of  his  brother  Jonathan 
(xiii.  25-30).  The  Spartans  and  Romans  re- 
newed the  league  with  him  (xiv.  16-24  ;  xv. 
15-24).  He  was  acknowledged  by  the  Jews 
as  high  priest  and  captain  and  leader  (xiii. 
42  ;  xiv.  41,  42,  47  ;  xv.  1,  2),  and  in  140  b.  c. 
authorized  to  wear  the  purple  (xiv.  43,  44). 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  when  on  the  eve  of  coming 
to  Syria  to  help  defend  the  cause  of  the  absent 
Demetrius  against  Tryphon,  made  concessions 
to  Simon,  and  gave  him  authority  to  coin 
money  (xv.  6),  but  afterwards  became  es- 
tranged from  him,  and  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  Joppa,  Gezer,  and  the  citadel  at  Jeru- 
salem (26-31).  Simon  refused,  and  war  en- 
sued, 138-7  B.  c,  but  the  Syrians  were  worsted. 
In  the  early  spring  of  135  B.  c,  while  on  a 
tour  of  visitation  to  the  cities  of  his  domin- 
ion, he  was  treacherously  murdered  in  the 
castle  of  Dok,  near  Jericho,  by  his  son-in- 
law  (xvi.  14-16). 

2.  Father  of  Judas  Lscariot  (John  vi.  71). 
He  too  bore  the  designation  lscariot  (ibid, 
and  xiii.  26,  R.  V.). 

3.  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  x.  2)  ;  see  Peter. 

4.  Simon  the  Zealot,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  (Luke  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13);  see 
Can.\n.ean. 

5.  One  of  the  Lord's  brethren  (Mat.  xiii. 
55 ;  Mark  vi.  3)  ;  see  Brethren  of  the  Lord. 

6.  A  Pharisee,  at  whose  house  our  Lord 
once  ate,  on  which  occasion  a  woman,  who 
was  a  sinner,  anointed  his  feet  (Luke  vii. 
36-50). 

7.  A  householder  in  Bethany.  He  had 
been  a  leper,  and  not  improbably  had  been 
cured  by  Christ.  When  our  Lord  was  at 
meat  in  his  house  Mary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus, 
anointed  his  feet  with  precious  ointment 
(Mat.  xxvi.  6-13;  Mark  xiv.  3-9;  John  xii. 
1-8).  Martha  served,  and  Lazarus  was  one 
of  those  who  ate.  The  presence  of  the 
brother  and  two  sisters,  and  the  active  part 
taken  by  the  sisters,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
Siinon's  house  was  in  the  town  of  Lazarus 
and  his  sisters,  makes  it  evident  that  Simon 
was  a  relative  or  intimate  friend  of  tlieirs. 
But  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was 
their  father  or  the  husband  of  Mary.  He 
may  have  been  the  husband  of  Martha ;  see 

I   Martha. 


Siiuri 


r25 


Sinai 


8.  The  Cyrenian  who  was  compelled  to 
bear  the  cross  of  Christ.  He  was  the  father 
of  Alexauder  and  Rufus  (Mat.  xxvii.  32). 

9.  A  sorcerer  (uow  popularly  called  Simon 
Magus,  i.  e.,  Simon  the  magician)  who  so 
amazed  the  people  of  Samaria  with  his  arts 
that  they  said  :  "  This  man  is  that  power  of 
God  which  is  called  Great."  He  was  appar- 
ently converted  through  the  instrumentality 
of  Philip  the  evangelist,  by  whom  he  was 
baptized.  Having  su))sequently  oflered  to 
buy  with  money  the  privilege  of  conferring 
tlie  Holy  Ghost  on  anyone  he  wished  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,  he  was  sternly  rebuked 
by  Peter,  who  declared  that  his  heart  was 
not  right  with  God,  and  that  he  was  still  in 
the  gall  of  bitterness  and  in  the  bond  of 
iniquity.  He  took  the  reproof  meekly,  and 
begged  the  apostle  to  i)ray  for  him  that  none 
of  the  evils  threatened  might  be  allow-ed  to 
befall  him  (Acts  viii.  9-24).  He  was  afraid, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  peni- 
tent. Ecclesiastical  tradition  makes  Simon 
i-ecommcnce  his  sorceries,  and  become  the 
persistent  antagonist  of  the  apostle  Peter, 
following  him  about  from  ]ilace  to  place  and 
seeking  encnuiiters  willi  him,  but  only  to  be 
signally  defeated.  He  is  said  to  have  helped 
to  originate  gnosticism.  Contradictory  ac- 
counts are  given  as  to  the  manner  of  his 
death. 

10.  A  tanner  at  Joppa,  in  whose  house 
Peter  lodged  (Acts  ix.  43 ;  x.  6,  17,  32). 

Sim'ri.     See  Shimri. 

Sin,  I. 

"Any  want  of  conformity  unto,  or  trans- 
gression of  any  law  of  God,  given  as  a  rule 
to  the  reasouaiile  creature  "  (Eom.  iii.  23;  1 
John  iii.  4  ;  Gal.  iii.  10-12).  A  sin  of  omis- 
sion is  the  neglect  to  do  what  the  law  of 
God  commands ;  a  sin  of  commission  is  the 
doing  of  anything  which  it  forbids.  See 
Evil. 

Sin,  II, 

1.  A  wilderness  through  which  the  Israel- 
ites passed  on  their  way  from  Elim  and  the 
Red  Sea  to  Rephidim  and  mount  Sinai  (Ex. 
xvi.  1  :  xvii.  1  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  11,  12).  The 
identification  is  disputed.  The  choice  lies 
between  Debbet  er-Ramleh  or  plain  of  sand, 
in  the  interior  of  the  ]ieninsula  at  the  foot 
of  Jebel  et-Tih,  and  the  desert  plain  el- 
Markhah  on  the  coast.  If  the  latter,  the  Is- 
raelites on  leaving  it  probably  continued  to 
journey  along  the  coast  and  turned  inland 
through  the  wady  Feiran. 

2.  A  city  and  stronghold  of  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxx. 
1.5, 16).  The  Septuagint  read  Sais,  which,  how- 
ever, was  never  an  important  fortress.  The 
Vulgate  renders  it  Pelusium,  which  was  "the 
key  of  Egypt,"  strongly  fortified,  and  neces- 
sary to  be  captured  before  an  army  cf)uld  en- 
ter Egypt  from  tlie  northeast.  The  name 
Sin  suggests  Sun,  the  Greek  Syene  and  mod- 
ern Assuan,  at  the  first  cataract ;  and  the  or- 


der of  enumeration  of  Egyptian  cities,  from 
south  to  north  (10-18)  lends  confirmation  to 
this  identification. 

Si'nai,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Sina  (Acts 
vii.  30,  '3b)  [perhaps,  pertaining  to  Sin,  the 
moon-god]. 

A  mountain,  called  also  Horel),  at  which 
the  Israelites,  traveling  by  way  of  Marah, 
Elim,  and  the  Red  Sea,  arrived  in  the  thinl 
month  after  their  departure  from  Egypt  (Ex. 
xix.  1).  It  was  distant  from  Kadesh-barnea 
eleven  days'  journey  by  way  of  mount  Seir 
(Dent.  i.  2).  A  wilderness,  sufficiently  large 
for  the  camp  of  Israel,  lay  at  its  foot  (Ex. 
xix.  2)  :  so  close  that  the  mountain  could  be 
touched  (12),  and  yet  its  upper  part  was  visi- 
ble from  the  camp  (IH,  18,  20).  From  this 
mountain  the  law  of  the  ten  commandments 
was  given,  and  at  its  base  the  covenant  was 
ratified  which  made  the  Israelites  a  nation 
with  Jehovah  as  king  (xx.  1-xxiv.  8).  All 
the  legislation  contained  in  Ex.  xx.  to  Num. 
X.  was  enacted  on  or  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Sinai,  according  to  repeated  statement  (Ex. 
xxiv.  12  ;  xxxi.  18 ;  xxxiv.  2 ;  Lev.  i.  1  ;  xvi. 
1  ;  XXV.  1  ;  xxvi.  46  ;  xxvii.  34;  Num.  i.  1  ; 
ix.  1).  The  only  later  visit  to  the  mount  re- 
corded in  Scripture  is  that  of  Elijah  when 
he  was  threatened  by  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xix.  8). 

Prof.  Sayce  would  locate  mount  Sinai  on  the 
frontiers  of  mount  Seir,  but  it  is  almost  uni- 
versally agreed  that  Sinai  is  to  be  looked  for 
in  the  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula.  Tradition  in  favor  of 
mount  Serbal,  on  the  wady  Feiran,  is  trace^ 
able  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  for 
Jebel  Musa  only  to  that  of  Justinian.  But 
neither  tradition  is  regarded  as  weighty. 
Serbal  is  the  more  imposing  of  the  two.  It 
is  a  solitary,  majestic  mountain,  6712  feet 
high,  visible  from  a  great  distance.  But  at 
its  foot  is  no  wilderness  which  could  be  called 
the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  Jebel  Musa  is  part 
of  a  short  ridge  of  granite  formation,  ex- 
tending about  2  miles  from  northwest  to 
southeast.  The  ridge  has  two  peaks  :  Ras  es- 
Sufsafeh,  or  peak  of  willows,  at  the  northern 
end  with  an  altitude  of  6540  feet ;  and  Jebel 
Musa,  the  traditional  Sinai,  at  the  southern 
end  rising  to  a  height  of  about  7363  feet.  A 
plateau  at  the  head  of  the  wady  es-Sadad 
and  almost  due  east  of  Jel)el  Miisa  has 
been  regarded  by  some  scholars,  including 
Tischendorf,  as  the  site  of  the  encampment 
of  the  Israelites,  but  its  area  is  too  limited 
to  accommodate  any  considerable  host.  The 
base  of  Ras  es-Sufsafeh  toward  the  northwest 
consists  of  a  ]n-ecipitous  clifl'.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  clift'  lies  the  plain  of  er-Rahah,  about 
one  square  mile  in  extent,  and,  with  the  adja- 
cent wadies  esh-Slieikh  and  ed-Deir,  entirely 
suitable  for  a  camping  ground.  The  biblical 
description  makes  it  scarcely  necessary,  if 
not  idle,  to  inquire  whether  the  law  was 
given  from  Jebel  Musa  or  Ras  es-Sufsafeh, 
and    whether   one   peak   or   the    other    was 


Sinai 


726 


Sinai 


known  as  the  mount  of  God  in  distinction 
from  the  rest  of  the  clump. 

The  monastery  of  St.  Catharine,  a  convent 
of  Greek  monks,  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  mountain,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel 
Musa,  in  the  wady  ed-Deir,  5014  feet  above 
sea  level.  Surrounded  by  massive  granite 
walls,  it  is  as  it  were  a  fortress.     Its  founda- 


of  Jebel  Katherin,  2J  miles  southwest  of 
Jebel  Musa.  Her  head  and  one  hand  are 
said  to  be  contained  in  a  marble  sarcophagus 
in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery.  The  mon- 
astery has  often  been  destroyed  and  rebuilt. 
The  church  of  the  Transfiguration  is  an  early 
Christian  basilica  with  mosaics  of  the  sev- 
enth or  eighth  century.     The  oldest  part  of 


EL^*f" 

~fc 

'^.'^ 

'"w'^^'ti  '  "i."'^'*^'  *w^"'g*'^-;'^^'-^'i^p<\^ 

T^ 

^  f   r   <^  ^       ^  "  >-  e  i  ^ 

^^' 

J'/"         /       . 

-^ 

^ 

•^ 

k, 

/ 

1 

"  /  '   M  p/iiyt, 

^          ,       e\-Suf^uj'en 

rt'hapei  or  'h- 

^k 

9 

Ji-A; 

Sfs: 

-^%'i!^ 

.y^^.iUt-Hamr   _                                       "  v   ,  , 

;      ■    ■_-  •      -■;    /"    ■.: 

*/i  ■ 

,    ,_„,,,,.^,.L:,:._. -,:;..._ -   '^'       :    ■    "■.;■':  •  '' 

.'■'  \    \       '/- ■      '-'      :_  -^--j^ 

J  of  Miles 


]Map  of  Mount  Sinai. 


tion  is  ascribed  to  the  emperor  Justinian  in 
A.  D.  527,  who  is  said  to  have  built  it  around 
a  tower  erected  long  before  by  Helena, 
mother  of  Constantine  ;  but  this  ascription 
is  probably  due  to  confusion  with  the  fact, 
attested  by  his  private  secretary,  that  Jus- 
tinian built  a  castle  in  530  for  the  protection 
of  the  monks  who  dwelt  in  the  region.  The 
monastery  is  named  after  St.  Catharine,  who 
was  tortured  on  the  wheel  and  beheaded  in 
Alexandria  in  a.  d.  307,  and  whose  body  is 
said  by  the  monks  to  have  been  carried  by 
angels  from  Alexandria  to  the  lofty  summit 


it  is  probably  the  chapel  of  the  Burning 
Bush,  at  the  back  of  the  apse  and  on  the 
reputed  site  of  tlie  event  it  commemorates. 
Formerly  between  300  and  400  monks  lived 
within  the  convent  walls ;  but  the  number 
at  present  does  not  exceed  40.  In  the  gar- 
den are  fig,  orange,  olive,  almond,  apple,  and 
apricot  trees,  grape  vines,  and  a  few  lofty 
cypresses.  The  library  is  exceedingly  valu- 
able. It  contains  many  manuscripts,  pre- 
dominantly Greek  and  Arabic,  but  also  many 
others,  including  some  written  in  Syriac  and 
Ethiopic.     Here,  in  1844  and  18.59,  Tischeu- 


Sinim,  Land  of 


Sinim,  Land  of 


Plain  of  er-KAhah. 


dorf  found  the  codex  Sinaiticus,  which  dates 
from  about  A.  D.  400 ;  see  New  Testament. 
Here  also,  in  1892,  Mrs.  Lewis  discovered  a 
manuscript  which  contains  the  test  of  tlie 
Old  Syriac  Gospels,  and  was  probably  written 
in  the  fifth  century ;  see  Versions. 


that  gentile  converts  or  the  scattered  Israel- 
ites shall  be  gathered  from  the  remotest  re- 
gions of  the  earth.  "  Lo,  these  shall  come  from 
far  :  and,  lo,  these  from  the  north  and  from 
the  west ;  and  these  from  the  land  of  Sinim  " 
(Is.  xlix.   12).      Sitico   the   west  and  north 


Monastery  of  St.  Catherine. 


Si'nim,  Land  of. 

A  countrj^  cited  to  illustrate  the  promise 


have  been  mentioned ;  the  land  of  Sinim  is 
not  to  be  sought  there,  but  in  the  south  or 


Sinim,  Land  of 


(28 


Sithri 


east.  Wherever  the  prophet  was  when  he 
uttered  these  woi'ds,  his  words  exclude  the 
Sinim  of  Phoenicia  (Gen.  x.  17),  for  they  were 
not  a  remote  people.  Besides  this,  they  were 
an  unimportant  tribe.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  people  of  Syene  or  Pelusium,  or  other 
Egyptian  town  (however  the  name  Sin  in 
S^zek.  XXX.  15, 16  is  understood)  are  excluded. 
They  were  almost  in  the  heart  of  the  inhab- 
ited world,  separated  from  the  remote  bounds 
of  the  earth  by  Ethiopia  and  Libya  at  least. 
Moreover,  the  inhabitants  of  none  of  these 
towns  constituted  a  distinct  nation  ;  nor 
could  the  land  of  Sinim  on  the  Nile  be 
spoken  of,  as  it  is  by  Isaiah,  unless  it  meant 
Egypt,  and  none  of  these  towns  was  impor- 
tant enough  to  be  employed  in  a  designation 
for  all  Egypt.  The  chief  theories  are :  1. 
The  expression  was  chosen  as  a  designation 
of  the  lauds  south  of  Palestine,  because  in 
that  direction  lay  the  town  of  Sin  (Pelusium), 
the  wilderness  of  Sin  (Ex.  xvi.  1),  and  mount 
Sinai.  But  this  region  was  too  near  at  hand 
to  denote  the  remotest  countries.  Sheba  and 
Cush,  which  are  used  to  denote  the  utmost 
parts  of  the  earth  toward  the  south,  lay  far 
beyond.  2.  The  Sinim  were  the  Shinas,  who 
have  dwelt  from  ancient  times  at  the  foot  of 
the  Hindu  Kush  mountains.  3.  The  most 
prevalent  view  is  that  the  Chinese  are  meant. 
The  prophet  does  not  assert  that  Israelites 
were  already  living  in  China  (if  his  words  be 
restricted  to  a  return  of  the  exiles).  They 
may  have  been ;  for  the  presence  of  Israelites 
in  China  is  attested  as  early  as  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  C,  and  it  is  not  known  how  much 
earlier  they  emigrated.  But  the  people  were 
scattered  far  and  wide,  and  yet  wider  disper- 
sion was  in  prospect  (Is.  xi.  11).  They  should 
be  recovered  from  the  farthest  bounds  of 
earth  where  they  are  found.  Does  it  seem 
strange  that  the  name  of  the  Chinese  should 
be  known  in  western  Asia  ?  It  is  historically 
certain  from  the  Chinese  records  that  Chinese 
merchants  visited  foreign  lands  as  early  as 
the  twelfth  century  B.  c,  and  that  foreign 
merchants  entered  China  as  early  as  the  tenth 
century.  It  is  probable  that  direct  commer- 
cial relations  existed  between  Cliina  and  In- 
dia, and  hence  indirectly  at  least  with  the 
countries  farther  west.  Porcelain  ware  with 
Chinese  characters  written  upon  it  has  been 
discovered  at  Thebes  in  Egypt.  M.  Pauthier 
reports  the  Chinese  tradition  to  the  effect  that 
in  2.3."53  B.  c.  an  envoy  arrived  from  a  far 
country  bringing  as  a  present  a  divine  tor- 
toise one  thousand  years  old,  bearing  on  its 
back  an  inscription,  written  in  strange  char- 
acters like  tadpoles,  briefly  recounting  the 
world's  history  since  creation.  A  second  em- 
bassy of  the  people  of  the  long-trailing  robes 
arrived  in  1110  b.  c,  and  it  took  them  a 
whole  year  to  return  to  their  own  country 
from  Siam  by  the  scacoast.  The  characters 
resembling  tadpoles  suggest  the  Assyrian  and 
liahylonian  cuneiform  script ;  and  long-trail- 
ing robes,  which  were  not  worn  in  the  hot 


countries  south  of  China,  would  agree  with 
the  theory  that  the  embassadors  were  Baby- 
lonians or  Assyrians. 

Si'nite. 

A  Canaanite  tribe,  mentioned  between  the 
Arkite  and  the  Arvadite  (Gen.  x.  17).  A 
place  named  Sin  not  far  from  Arka  was 
known  to  Jerome,  and  Strabo  mentions  a 
fortress  called  Sinua  on  mount  Lebanon. 

Sin  Of'fer-ing.    See  Offekings. 

Si'on  [elevated]. 

A  name  for  mount  Hermon  (Deut.  iv.  48). 

For  mount  Sion  at  Jerusalem,  a  different 
word  in  Hebrew,  see  Zion. 

Siph'moth. 

A  place  visited  by  David  during  his  wan- 
derings, to  which  he  sent  part  of  the  spoils 
of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28  ;  cp.  1  Chrou. 
xxvii.  27).  Site  unknown.  A  variant  He- 
brew pronunciation,  preferred  by  Baer,  is 
Shiphmoth. 

Sip'pai.     See  Saph. 

Si'rah  [recession  or  efTervescence] . 

A  well  or  cistern  from  which  Abner  was 
recalled  to  Hebron  by  Joab  that  he  might  be 
murdered  (2  Sam.  iii.  26).  According  to  Jo- 
sei^hus,  it  was  distant  20  stades  from  Hebron 
(Antiq.  vii.  1,  5).  It  is  probably  'Ain  Siirah, 
IJ  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

Sir'i-on  [cuirass,  coat  of  mail]. 

Tlie  name  given  by  the  Sidonians  to  mount 
Hermon  (Deut.  iii.  9  ;  Ps.  xxix.  6). 

Sis'a-mai.     See  Sismai. 

Sis'e-ra  [battle  array]. 

Commander  of  the  army  of  Jabin.  Jabin, 
king  of  the  Caiuianites  and  oppressor  of 
Israel,  reigned  at  Hazor.  Sisera  dwelt  at 
Harosheth  of  the  gentiles.  He  became  a 
chief  figure  in  a  brief  war.  Barak  urged  by 
Deborah,  began  a  struggle  for  freedom, 
and  defeated  the  Canaanite  army,  led  by 
Sisera,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kishon.  Sisera 
fled,  and  sought  the  hospitality  of  Heber 
the  Kenite,  between  whom  and  Jalun  there 
was  jieace.  Heber's  wife  met  him  and  invited 
liim  in.  but  afterwards  mui-dered  him  with  a 
tent  pin  while  he  .slept  (Judg.  iv.,  v. ;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  9)  ;  see  Jael.  It  is  ])robable  that 
those  Nethinim  who  were  known  as  the  chil- 
dren of  Sisera  were  descended  from  captives 
taken  at  this  time  (Ezra  ii.  53 ;  Neh.  vii.  55) ; 
see  Nethinim. 

Sis'mai,  in  A.  V.  Sisamai. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  40). 

Sis'trum. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5,  E.  V. 
margin),  consisting  of  several  metallic  rods 
in  an  oval  metallic  frame.  The  rods  were 
either  loosely  inserted  f)r  loose  rings  were 
hung  on  them,  so  that  the  instrument  would 
jingle  when  shaken. 

Sith'ri,  in  A.  V.  Zitbri  [a  hiding  place  is 
(Jehovah)]. 


Sitnah 


729 


Sling 


A  Lcvite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (Ex.  vi.  22). '  Zithri  in  A.  V.  of  ver.  21 
is  a  moderu  misprint  of  Zichri  (q.  v.).  The 
error  has  been  corrected  in  some  recent  edi- 
tions. 

Sit'nali  [accusation,  enmity  (cp.  Satan)]. 

A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  Philistine 
country,  not  far  from  Gcrar ;  but  the  in- 
habitants of  the  district  disputed  his  right  to 
it  (Gen.  xxvi.  21).  Palmer  and  Drake  in 
1870  found  a  small  valley  called  wady  Shut- 
net  er-Euheibeh.  The  tirst  portion  of  the 
name  corresponds  to  Sitnah,  and  Euheibeh 
to  Rehoboth,  which  was  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Sitnah  (22). 

Si'van. 

The  third  month  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Jewish  year  (Esth.  viii.  9),  extending  from 
the  new  moon. of  May  to  that  of  June.  See 
Year. 

Slave. 

Slavery  existed  in  remote  antiquity.  Slaves 
were  acquired  :  1.  By  capture,  especiallj'  in 
war  (Num.  xxxi.  9  :  2  Kin.  v.  2  ;  War  iii.  4, 
1 ;  vi.  9,  2).  2.  By  purchase  from  slave 
owners  (Gen.  xvii.  27  ;  xxxvii.  28,  3ti ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  13;  Joel  iii.  6,  8).  3.  By  birth  from 
slaves  owned  (Gen.  xvii.  12).  4.  In  payment 
of  debt ;  thieves  unable  to  make  restitution 
and,  though  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  a  debtor  or  his  children  beiug 
sold  as  slaves  (Ex.  xxii.  3;  2  Kin.  iv.  1; 
Neh.  V.  5,  8;  Amos  ii.  G;  Mat.  xviii.  25). 
5.  Among  the  Hebrews  there  was  also  the 
voluntary  sale  of  one's  self  or  one's  daughter 
on  account  of  ]ioverty  (Ex.  xxi.  2,  7;  Lev. 
XXV.  39,  47),  and  reduction  to  slavery  on  ac- 
count of  theft,  as  already  mentioned. 

Tlie  price  of  a  slave  varied  of  course  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  It  was  reckoned 
in  Hebrew  judicial  cases  as  averaging  30 
shekels  (Ex.  xxi.  32).  The  Jewish  slaves  in 
Alexandria  in  the  third  century  B.C.  brought 
about  the  same,  120  drachmas  (Antiq.  xii.  2, 
3).  Joseph  at  seventeen  years  of  age  was 
purchased  for  20  shekels  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28). 

Among  the  Hebrews  the  legal  status  of  a 
Hebrew  slave  was  verj'  different  from  that 
of  the  slave  who  was  not  an  Israelite.  The 
Hebrew  slave  had  manumission  after  six 
years  of  service,  if  he  chose ;  might  not  be 
harshly  treated,  nor  sent  away  empty  on  his 
release  ;  and,  if  owned  by  a  foreign  sojourner 
in  Israel,  had  the  privilege  of  redemption  at 
a  price  legally  regulated,  the  moment  he 
could  secure  the  necessary  money  (Ex.  xxi. 
2-6  ;  Lev.  xxv.  43,  47-55 ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  8-16). 
The  rights  of  the  Hebrew  maid  were  the 
subject  of  further  special  legislation  (Ex. 
xxi.  7-11).  All  Hebrew  slaves,  both  those 
who  had  elected  to  remain  with  their  mas- 
ters when  the  seventh  year  had  come  and 
those  who  had  not  served  six  years,  were  re- 
leased at  the  year  of  jubile  (Lev.  xxv.  40). 
This  x>rovision  was  necessitated  when  the 
law  regarding  the  restoration  of  every  man's 


inheritance  at  the  jubile  was  enacted.  The 
return  of  the  slave  to  his  inheritance  was 
involved,  whether  he  chose  to  go  back  to  his 
master's  family  afterwards  or  not.  The  slave 
also  who  was  not  an  Israelite  fared  well 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  Mosaic  law  recog- 
nized that  he  possessed  rights.  He  might  be 
whipped  or  beaten,  but  not  maimed  or  killed 
(Ex.  xxi.  20,  21,  26,  27 :  Lev.  xxiv.  17.  22). 
In  case  a  captive  slave  girl  was  taken  to 
Avife,  she  acquired  new  rights  (Deut.  xxi. 
10-14).  All  these  non-Hebrew  slaves  were 
regarded  as  members  of  the  commonwealth 
of  Israel  (Gen.  xvii.  10-14) ;  and  they  were 
equal  before  God,  participating  in  the  re- 
ligious festivals  and  sacrifices  (Ex.  xii.  44; 
Lev.  xxii.  11;  Deut.  xii.  12,  18;  xvi.  11,  14), 
and  enjoying  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  day 
(Ex.  XX.  10;  xxiii.  12).  Another  humane 
feature  of  the  Mosaic  law  made  Canaan  an 
asylum  for  slaves  who  escaped  to  it  from  a 
foreign  country.  They  were  not  to  be  sur- 
rendered, but  were  allowed  to  dwell  in  the 
land  wherever  they  chose  (Deut.  xxiii.  15,  16). 
It  also  forbade,  on  pain  of  death,  the  steal- 
ing of  men  and  the  selling  or  holding  of 
them  (Ex.  xxi.  16 ;  Deut.  xxiv.  7)  ;  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  slave  markets  ever  ex- 
isted in  Israel.  The  Mosaic  law  contrasts 
most  favorably  with  the  laws  of  contem- 
porary heathen  nations  in  its  humanity  to- 
ward slaves.  The  intercourse  between  master 
and  slave  was  often  cordial  (Gen.  xxiv. ; 
Euth  ii.  4).  The  slave  was  regarded  as  enti- 
tled to  justice  (Job  xxxi.  13-15)  ;  he  some- 
times inherited  the  property  of  his  master 
(Gen.  XV.  2,  3),  and  was  sometimes  admitted 
into  the  family  as  son-in-law  (1  Chron.  ii.  34, 
35). 

Christianity  avoided  a  sudden  reversal  of 
established  usages  (1  Cor.  vii.  21),  urged  the 
slave  to  obey  his  master  (Eph.  vi.  5-8;  Col. 
iii.  22-25;  I'Tim.  vi.  1,  2;  1  Pet.  ii.  18-21), 
and  sent  the  runaway  slave  voluntarily  back 
to  his  Christian  master  (Philem.  10-16).  But 
it  also  promulgated  jirinciples  which  im- 
proved the  condition  of  slaves  in  the  Eoman 
empire.  It  recognized  the  equality  of  slave 
and  master  in  God's  sight  (1  Cor.  vii.  21.  22; 
Gal.  iii.  28;  Col.  iii.  11).  It  exhorted  the 
master  to  treat  his  slaves  considerately,  re- 
minding him  that  they  had  rights  which 
God  will  maintain  (Eph.  vi.  9;  Col.  iv.  1). 

Slime.    See  Bitumen. 

Sling. 

A  simple  weapon  usually  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  leather,  with  two  strings  attached  to 
its  opposite  sides  and  a  stone  inserted.  It 
was  whirled  once  or  twice  round  the  head 
and  one  string  let  go,  whereby  the  stone  was 
projected  with  great  force.  On  tlie  field  of 
l)attle  the  stones  were  either  carried  in  a  bag 
by  the  slinger,  or  piled  at  his  feet  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  40). 

It  seems  to  have  been  used  in  warfare  by 
practically  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity;  by 


Smith 


rso 


Smyrna 


the  Egyptians,  Syrians  (1  Mac.  vi.  51;  ix. 
11),  Assyrians,  Persians  (Anab.  iii.  '.i,  18),  and 
ill  the  far  west  by  Sicilians  (Herod,  vii.  158) 
and  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  Benjamites  in  the  times  of 


Assyrian  Slinger. 

the  judges  and  in  the  reign  of  Saul  were 
noted  for  their  skill  in  its  use,  being  able  to 
sling  stones  with  the  left  hand  (Judg.  xx. 
16;    1    Chron.  xii.  2).     David   slew   Goliath 


tools  and  weapons,  a  blacksmith  (1  Sam.  xiii. 
19;  Is.  xliv.  12;  liv.  16),  like  Tubal-cain 
(Gen.  iv.  22)  ;  or  one  who  refines  and  shapes 
the  precious  metals,  a  goldsmith  (Is.  xl.  10). 


Egyptian  Smith  at  his  Furnace. 

Tlie  blacksmith  used  a  charcoal  furnace,  bel- 
lows, tongs,  anvil,  and  hammer  (Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  28).     See  Bellows. 

Smyr'na  [myrrh]. 

A  city  of  great  antiquity  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  ijossessed  by 
the  ^olian  Greeks,  and  finally  the  Ionian 
Greeks  admitted  it  into  their  confederacy. 
The  Lydian  king,  Alyattes,  destroyed  it,  and 
it  lay  waste  for  some  200  years,  till  the  plan 
of  rebuilding  it  was  formed  by  Alexander 


L..AM'M\, 


femj  rna 


with  a  stone  from  a  sling  (1  Sam.  xvii.  48-50). 
Slingers  served  in  the  armies  of  Jehoram, 
Jehoshaphat,  and  Uzziah  (2  Kin.  iii.  25;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  14),  and  were  effective  as  late 
as  the  war  with  the  Romans  (War  ii.  17,  5; 
iv.  1,  3). 

Smitli. 

An  artificer  who  forges  iron  and  brass  into 


the  Great,  and  executed  by  his  immediate 
successors,  on  a  new  site  near  by.  It  then 
became  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
center,  retaining  its  importance  under  the 
Romans.  It  became  a  part  of  tlie  province 
of  Asia,  organized  after  i;>3  B.  c.  Its  church 
was  the  second  of  the  seven  addressed  by 
John  in  tiie  bok  of  Revelation.  It  escapes 
all  censure,  but  it  is  exhorted  to  remain  con- 


Snail 


731 


Sodom 


stant  in  the  midst  of  persecution  (Rev.  i.  11; 
ii.  8-11).  Its  bishop  Polycarp  siifl'orcd  mar- 
tyrdom by  fire,  near  tliestadion,  pri)l)al)ly  in 
A.  D.  169.  In  A.  D.  178  Smyrna  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  but  was  speedily 
rebuilt.  Lying  as  it  does  at  the  extremity 
of  a  fine  bay,  in  the  track  of  trade,  it  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  commerce,  and  even 
under  Turkish  rule  remains  a  highly  flour- 
isiiing  city,  the  largest  and  most  important 
in  Asia  Minor. 
Snail. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hornet, 
one  prostrate  on  the  ground  (Lev.  xi.  30  ;  in 
K.  V.  sand  lizard). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ShabbHul, 
moist,  slimj'  one  (Ps.  Iviii.  8),  a  genuine 
snail,  especially  of  the  shell-less  family  (Lini- 
iicitUe). 

Snow. 

Snow  occurs  in  the  hilly  country  of  Pales- 
tine, as  at  Sepphoris  in  Galilee,  Nazareth, 
Jerusalem,  Hebron  (1  Mac.  xiii.  22  ;  War  i. 
Ifi,  2;  iv.  8,  3).  It  may  be  expected  in 
January  or  February,  although  the  winter 
often  passes  without  it.  It  sometimes  falls 
to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  but  seldom  lies  longer 
than  a  day.  On  mount  Lebanon  it  is  found 
lingering  on  the  heights  and  in  the  ravines 
late  in  the  summer,  and  it  crowns  the  sum- 
mit of  Hermon  the  year  round.  It  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  in  Scripture  as  the 
standard  of  whiteness  and  the  emblem  of 
purity  (Ps.  li.  7;  Is.  i.  18;  Lam.  iv.  7;  Mat. 
xxviii.  3).  It  is  poetically  described  as  stored 
by  God  in  his  treasury  (Job  xxxviii.  22), 
commanded  by  him  to  fall  (xxxvii.  6  ;  Ps. 
cxlvii.  16),  and  descending  like  wool  or  birds 
or  a  swarm  of  locusts  (ibid. ;  Ecclus.  xliii.  17). 
Its  value  as  a  source  of  moisture  to  the 
ground  was  recognized  (Is.  Iv.  10).  Men  took 
advantage  of  it  in  summer  to  cool  their  bev- 
erages (cp.  Prov.  XXV.  13).  Clean  snow  would 
yield  pure  water  for  washing  purposes  (Job 
ix.  30). 

So. 

King  of  Egypt,  whose  aid  against  Assyria 
Hoshea  king  of  Israel  endeavored  to  secure 
about  724  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4).  As  the  He- 
brew consonants  may  be  pronounced  Seve', 
he  is  commonly  identified,  and  doubtless 
correctly,  with  Sib'e,  tartan  of  Egypt,  who 
in  720  B.  c.  in  alliance  with  Haiiun  king  of 
Gaza,  met  Sargon  king  of  Assyria  in  battle 
at  Raphia  on  the  IMediterranean,  about  20 
miles  south  of  Gaza.  The  allies  were  routed, 
Sib'e  fled,  Hanun  was  captured,  and  pres- 
ently Pharaoh  paid  tribute  to  Assyria.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  Sib'e  was  Shabako,  king 
of  Egypt.  Etymology  is  against  the  identi- 
fication. At  this  time  at  least  he  was  tartan 
rather  than  Pharaoh. 

Soap. 

Xot  the  composition  familiar  in  modern 
■domestic  use.  The  Hebrew  words  bor  and 
boriih,  that  which  cleanses,  denote  an  alkali. 


It  was  used  for  washing  the  person  (Job  ix. 
30,  E.  V.  margin,  lye),  for  washing  clothes 
( Jer.  ii.  22  ;  Mai.  iii.  2),  and  as  a  flux  in  smelt- 
ing ores  (Is.  i.  25,  E.  V.  margin,  lye).  The 
Greek  translators  regarded  it  as  a  plant  or  ob- 
tained from  a  plant,  for  they  represented  it  by 
the  Greek  word  poa,  grass,  grass-like  i)lant. 
The  root  of  the  soapwort  (Sapoiiaria  offiei)iaIis) 
is  largely  used  in  Palestine  for  washing  lin- 
ens, because  it  does  not  cause  them  to  shrink. 
The  employment  of  the  alkali  for  smelting 
purposes  indicates  that  it  was  in  the  form  of 
ashes.  It  was  doubtless  obtained  from  such 
plants  as  the  glasswort  (^alicornin  frtiticosa) 
and  the  saltwort  {Salsola  kali),  which  are  to 
this  day  reduced  to  ashes  for  the  soda  which 
they  yield. 

So'co  and  Socoh,  according  to  the  alternate 
Hebrew  orthograjihy ;  in  A.  A',  varidusly 
spelled  Socoli,  Socho,  Sochoh,  Shocho,  Sho- 
choh,  Shoco  [thorn,  hedge  of  thorns]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  Shephelah  or  lowland  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  35).  It  stood  on  the  hilly 
border  of  the  valley  of  Elah,  in  a  strong 
])osition  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  ridge. 
The  Philistines  pitched  between  it  and 
Azekah  just  before  Goliath  stood  forth  as 
their  champion  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1).  It  was  re- 
built or  refortified  by  Eehoboam  (2  C'hron. 
xi.  7).  It  was  ca]>tured,  with  the  dependent 
villages,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 
Robinson  successfully  identified  it  with  the 
r>iins  of  Shuweikeh,  13  miles  west  by  south 
of  Bethlehem.  The  modern  name  perpetuates 
the  ancient  one. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48).  Its  site  is  found  at  another 
Shuweikeli,  10  miles  south-southwest  of 
Hebron. 

It  is  doubtful  which  of  the  two  towns  is 
referred  to  in  1  Kin.  iv.  10  and  1  Chron.  iv.  18. 

So'di  [a  familiar  acquaintance]. 

Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Sod'om,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  once  Sodoma 
(Rom.  ix.  29)- 

One  of  the  five  cities  in  the  plain  of  the 
Jordan  (Gen.  xiii.  10).  When  Lot  se])arated 
from  Abraham,  he  chose  it  for  his  residence, 
though  even  then  the  place  was  notorious  for 
its  wickedness  (11,  12).  It  was  plundered 
byChedorlaomer  (xiv.  11),  but  the  goods  and 
captives  were  recovered  by  Abraham  and 
restored  (21-24).  Subsequently  it  and  at 
least  three  other  cities  of  the  i)lain  were  de- 
stroyed by  God  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness. God  probably  effected  his  purpose  by 
causing  an  eruption  of  burning  asphalt  and 
sulphur.  Lot  and  his  two  daughters  were 
spared  (xix.  1-29;  Deut.  xxix.  23;  Is.  i.  9, 
10  ;  iii.  9  ;  xiii.  19  ;  Jer.  xlix.  18  ;  1.  40  ;  Lam. 
iv.  6  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  46-56  ;  Amos  iv.  11  ;  Zeph. 
ii.  9  ;  Mat.  x.  15  ;  xi.  24  ;  Luke  x.  12  ;  xvii. 
29  ;  Rom.  ix.  29  ;  2  Pet.  ii.  6 ;  Jude  7).  In 
the  Apocalypse  the  great  city  of  sin  is  spir- 
itually called  Sodom  and  Egypt  (Eev.  xi.  8). 


Sodomite 


732 


Solomon 


The  exact  site  of  Sodom  is  unknown.  Two 
substantial  arguments  are  advanced  for  the 
northern  end.  1.  From  a  point  near  Bethel, 
Abraham  and  Lot  could  see  all  the  plain  of 
Jordan  (Gen.  xiii.  3  with  10).  Care  must  be 
exercised,  however,  in  interjjreting  the  word 
all.  2.  Chedorlaomer,  coming  from  the  south, 
had  smitten  the  Amorites  of  Hazezon-tamar, 
i.  e.,  En-gedi,  before  he  was  opposed  by  tlie 
king  of  Sodom  and  his  allies  (xiv.  7,  8),  a  fact 
which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  meeting 
took  place  between  En-gedi  and  the  northern 
end  of  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
three  weighty  arguments  for  the  southern 
end.  1.  Asphalt  is  found  in  large  quantities 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  only  (cp.  Gen. 
xiv.  10).  2.  Assuming  that  the  sea  covers 
the  site  (cp.  xiv.  3),  the  cities  might  have 
been  situated  at  the  southern  end,  where  the 
water  of  the  bay  has  a  depth  of  from  2  to 
20  feet,  but  could  not  have  been  in  the  north- 
ern part,  where  the  sea  is  from  600  to  1000 
feet  deep.  And  geologically  considered,  only 
the  southern  end  of  the  sea  can  be  of  origin 
at  all  recent.  3.  Zoar,  one  of  the  cities  (xiii. 
10),  lay  at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  (War 
iv.  8,  4). 

For  the  vine  of  Sodom,  see  Vine  of  Sodom. 

Sod'om-ite. 

A  persMu  guilty  of  sodomy,  the  unnatural 
vice  of  Sodom  (Gen.  xix.  5).  The  word  is 
employed  in  the  E.  V.  to  render  the  Hebrew 
Kadesh,  one  consecrated,  a  man  dedicated  to 
impure  heathen  worship  (Deut.  xxiii.  17;  in 
Job  xxxvi.  14,  unclean).  A  woman  thus 
dedicated  practiced  nncleanness  as  a  priestess 
in  the  service  of  Ashtoreth  or  Asherah  in 
Canaan,  of  Islitar  in  Babylonia  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
21,  22;  Deut.  xxiii.  17;  Hos.  iv.  14  ;  in  every 
case  rendei-ed  harlot).  Sodomy  was  forbid- 
den by  the  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxiii.  17)  ;  but 
sodomites  were  found  in  Judah  during  the 
reign  of  Rehoboam  (1  Kin.  xiv.  24)  ;  Asa  and 
Jehoshaphat  cut  them  off  (xv.  12;  xxii.  46) ; 
but  others  arose  in  tlieir  room,  and  Josiah, 
to  rid  the  land  of  them,  broke  down  their 
houses  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  7). 

So'journ-er,  in  A.  V.  and  sometimes  in 
E.  V.  Stranger.     See  Stranger. 

Sol'o-mon  [peaceable]. 

David's  youngest  son,  at  least  by  Bath- 
sheba  (2  Sam.  xii.  24  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5 ;  and  cp. 
Antiq.  vii.  14,  2).  He  was  born  at  Jerusalem. 
David  named  him  Solomon,  peaceable,  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  peace  and  quietness  of  his 
reign  in  contrast  with  his  own  stormy  life 
(1  Chron.  xxii.  9)  ;  but  through  the  prophet 
Nathan  he  was  divinely  honored  with  the 
name  Jedidiah,  beloved  of  Jehovah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  2")).  When  David  was  old  and  feel)le, 
Adonijah,  one  of  liis  sons  born  at  Hebron, 
and  next  to  tlie  eldest  now  that  Amnou  and 
Absalom  were  dead,  planned  to  rule  inde- 
])endently  of  his  father's  sanction  ;  but  the 
design  was  thwarted  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
with  the  aid  of  Zadok  the  priest  and  Bena- 


iah  the  military  commander,  supported  by 
David's  bodyguard.  Sohmion  was  jiroclaimed 
king  ( 1  Kin.  i.  5-40),  and  the  party  of  Adoni- 
jah at  once  collapsed.  David  soon  afterwards 
died,  and  Solomon  began  his  sole  reign  about 
the  year  970  B.  c,  being  at  the  time  i)robably 
about  twenty  years  old.  (Obedient  to  the 
dying  charge  of  his  father,  he  dealt  out  jus- 
tice to  Abiathar  and  Shimei ;  and  when  Adon- 
ijah began  anew  to  })lot  against  the  king,  he 
put  him  to  death  and  ordered  the  execution 
of  Joab  likewise,  who  was  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  (ii.  1-46).  The  young  king  soon 
brought  as  his  queen  to  Jerusalem  Pharaoh's 
daughter  liii.  1).  At  that  time  the  wor- 
ship at  the  sanctuary,  which  had  been 
broken  up  when  the  Lord  forsook  Shiloh, 
was  still  interrupted.  The  tabernacle  was 
at  Gibeon  and  the  ark  at  Jerusalem.  The 
people  worshiped  at  high  ])laccs.  Solo- 
mon went  to  Gibeon  to  sacrifice.  There 
God  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  by  night 
and  bade  him  ask  for  anything  he  chose.  He 
asked  for  an  understanding  heart,  that  he 
might  be  able  justly  to  judge  the  people  of 
God,  for  it  was  part  of  a  king's  duty  in  those 
days  to  administer  justice.  His  request  was 
granted,  as  he  soon  afterwards  showed  by  the 
skillful  manner  in  which  he  disentangled 
truth  from  falsehood  wlien  he  decided  be- 
tween the  two  women,  each  of  whom  claimed 
the  living  babe  as  her  own  (1  Kin.  iii.  2-28;  2 
Chron.  i.  3-12).  Twenty  or  more  years  later 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  again,  condition- 
ally promised  to  continue  the  throne  in 
Solomon's  own  line,  and  gave  him  solemn 
warning  (1  Kin.  ix.  1-10;  2Cliron.  vii.  12-22). 

His  father  had  subdued  the  neighboring 
nations.  Against  Hamath  only  is  it  recorded 
that  Solomon  went  to  war.  He  was  obliged 
to  control  that  city  in  order  to  secure  the 
northeastern  portion  of  his  dominions.  Hadad 
the  Edomite  and  Eezon  of  Damascus  were 
hostile  to  Solomon,  but  the  Hebrew  monarch 
probably  gave  himself  but  little  concern 
about  them.  He  fortified  Hazor  at  the  cross- 
ing of  the  upper  Jordan,  and  built  a  tower 
in  Lebanon,  in  order  to  hold  Damascus  in 
check  ;  and  saw  to  it  that  the  road  by  Edom 
to  Ezion-geber  was  open  and  safe.  Other- 
wise Solomon's  relations  with  neighboring 
kings  were  friendly,  and  he  was  able  to 
devote  himself  to  the  organization  of  his 
kingdom  and  to  the  arts  of  peace. 

David  had  amassed  a  great  store  of  precious 
metals  for  the  construction  of  a  magnificent 
temple  to  Jeliovah.  Solomon  took  up  the 
work,  aiul  with  Tyrian  help  finislied  it  in 
seven  yeai's  (1  Kin.  v.,  vi.;  2  Chron.  ii.). 
Then,  after  furniture  had  been  made  for  it, 
it  was  dedicated  (1  Kin.  vii.  1.3-viii.  64;  2 
Chron.  ii.-vii.).  Next,  the  monarch  erected 
a  palace  for  liimself  which  took  thirteen 
years  in  building  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12)  ;  see 
Palace.  He  also  laid  out  gardens  and  vine-  . 
yards  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  as  at 
Etam,  perhaps,  and  at  Baal-hamon  (ix.  19, 


Solomon 


733 


Son 


E.  v.;  2Chron.  viii.  6,  E.  V.;  Ecc.  ii.  5,  6; 
Song  viii.  11). 

Solomon  allowed  sagacity  in  government. 
He  siirroiiuded  liimself  with  eminent  offi- 
cials, among  whom  the  son  of  the  high  priest 
held  the  first  place  (1  Kin.  iv.  2-6).  He  main- 
tained the  army  at  full  strength.  For  ad- 
ministrative pnrposes,  he  divided  the  king- 
dom into  twelve  districts,  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  old  tribal  lines  (7-19).  Nor  did 
he  fail  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  the  reli- 
gion of  the  state.  He  led  the  nation  in  prayer 
at  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  and  in- 
voked the  divine  blessing  upon  the  assem- 
bled multitude. 

Commerce  flourished  in  his  kingdom,  and 
brought  wealth  {1  Kin.  x.  14-21 ;  2  Chron. 
is.  13,  14,  21,  27) ;  and  voyages  were  success- 
fully made  to  Ophir,  and  traffic  was  con- 
ducted with  India  (1  Kin.  x.  22,  23  ;  2  Chron. 
ix.  10-22).  For  the  protection  and  fostering 
of  trade,  he  built  store  cities,  among  others 
Palmyra,  in  the  desert  midway  between 
Damascus  and  the  Euphrates  (1  Kin.  ix.  18, 
19). 

Solomon  was  interested  in  literary  pursuits : 
he  was  a  naturalist,  and  wrote  treatises  on 
plants,  from  the  cedar  that  groweth  on  Leb- 
anon to  the  hyssop  that  vspringeth  out  of  the 
wall.  He  spoke  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowls, 
and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes  (1  Kin. 
iv.  33).  He  collected  and  composed  many 
proverbs,  some  of  which  constitute  part  of 
the  O.  T. ;  see  Proverbs.  Two  psalms  (Ixxii. 
and  cxxvii.)  are  attributed  to  him  by  their 
titles.  See  also  Ecclesiastes  and  Song  op 
Songs. 

The  splendor  of  his  court,  the  magnificence 
of  his  table,  and  his  pomp  when  on  excur- 
sions corresponded  to  his  wealth  and  political 
power  (1  Kin.  x.  4,  5,  21  ;  Song  iii.  7-11). 
People  came  from  all  parts  to  hear  his  wisdom 
(1  Kin.  iv.  34  ;  x.  23-25).  The  report  of  his 
wisdom  was  carried  even  to  southern  Arabia, 
and  the  queen  of  Sheba  journeyed  to  Jeru- 
salem to  test  it  and  to  see  his  magnificence 
(1-13). 

Solomon  erred  in  two  respects.  He  estab- 
lished a  harem,  which  included  from  first  to 
last  about  one  thousand  members.  Doubt- 
less not  a  few  of  these  were  hostages,  prin- 
cesses given  him  as  pledges  of  political  amity. 
Now  many  of  these  women  were  foreigners 
by  birth  and  idolatrous  in  their  religion,  and 
he  allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  by  them 
to  erect  idol  shrines  (1  Kin.  xi.  1-S).  For 
this  apostasy  Solomon  was  punished.  The 
kingdom  in  its  great  extent  and  power  was 
taken  from  the  dynastv,  and  only  a  frag- 
ment of  it  left  to  the  "family  (9-i3).  The 
example  of  Solomon's  disloyalty  to  Jehovah 
had  direct  influence  in  producing  this  penal 
result.  Also  influential  to  this  end  was  the 
announcement  by  the  prophet  Ahijah  to 
.Jeroboam  that  God  would  rend  ten  tribes 
from  Solomon  and  give  them  to  him  (28-.39). 
Jeroboam  became  a  recognized  opponent  of 


the  king;  but  not  until  Solomon's  son  Eeho- 
boam  ascended  the  throne  did  Jeroboam  se- 
cure a  kingdom.  A  second,  a  less  obvious, 
yet  an  important  error  was  Solomon's  lux- 
ury, which  imposed  a  burden  on  his  over- 
taxed subjects,  shook  their  loyalty  to  the 
throne,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  future  rebel- 
lion.    See  Eeiiohoam. 

Solomon  reigned  forty  years  (1  Kin.xi.  42; 
2  Chron.  ix.  30,  31),  dying  about  931  B.  c. 
The  events  of  his  life  and  reign  were  re- 
corded in  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon 
(1  Kin.  xi.  41),  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Prophet,  the  Prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilo- 
nite,  the  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron. 
ix.  29). 

Sol'o-mon's  Porch. 

A  splendid  colonnade,  reputed  to  have  been 
built  by  Solomon,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
temple  area,  on  an  artificial  embankment 
built  up  from  the  valley  of  the  Kidron 
(Antiq.  xx.  9,  7 ;  War  v.  5,  1).  It  is  once 
mentioned  that  Christ  walked  in  it  (John  x. 
23) ;  and  the  apostles  were  not  infrequently 
there  (Acts  iii.  11;  v.  12). 

Sol'o-mon's  Serv'ants. 

Certain  persons  whose  descendants  were 
associated  with  the  Nethinim,  390  or  392  of 
the  two  classes  combined  returning  with 
Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  55- 
58;  Nell.  vii.  57-60).  Some  of  their  names 
have  a  foreign  asi)ect.  They  seem  to  have 
been  the  descendants  of  those  Canaanites  of 
various  tribes  from  whom  Solomon  exacted 
bond  service  for  the  sake  of  the  temple  and 
other  magnificent  buildings  (1  Kin.  v.  13-18 ; 
ix.  21).     See  Nethinim. 

Sol'o-mon's  Song.    See  Song  of  Songs. 

Sol'o-mon,  Wis'dom  of.     See  Apocrypha. 

Son. 

1.  A  male  child ;  an  immediate  male  de- 
scendant (Gen.  xxvii.  1).  Other  prominent 
significations  are : 

2.  A  remoter  male  descendant.  For  iu- 
.stance,  Jehu,  son  of  Nimshi,  was  really 
Nimshi's  grandson,  for  he  was  the  son  of 
Jehoshaphat,  the  son  of  Nimshi  (cp.  2  Kin. 
ix.  20  with  2).  The  Israelites  were  known 
as  sons  or  children  of  Israel  or  Jacob  cen- 
turies after  the  death  of  the  patriarch  (Mai. 
iii.  6;  Luke  i.  16). 

3.  A  person  received  into  filial  relation  by 
adoption  or  marriage  (Ex.  ii.  10;  cp.  Esth.  ii. 
7),  or  as  member  of  a  tribe  by  adoption  or  mar- 
riage into  the  tribe  (Gen.  xvii.  9-14) ;  and 
probably  a  people  as  incorporated  with 
another  people  by  conquest. 

4.  A  kindly  form  of  address  used  by  an 
elderly  man  to  a  younger  friend  (1  Sam.  iii. 
6,  16;  iv.  16;  2  Sam.  xviii.  22;  cp.  Josh.  vii. 
19). 

5.  Member  of  a  guild  or  profession,  as  son 
of  the  apothecaries  (Neh.  iii.  8,  in  E.  V.  one), 
sons  of  the  singers  (xii.  28).  Worshiper  of  a 
god,  as  the  sons  of  Chemosh  (Num.  xxi.  29). 


Son  of  God 


734 


Son  of  Man 


6.  Inhabitant  of  a  city  or  country,  as  sons 
of  Zion  (Lam.  iv.  2),  sons  of  Bethleliem 
(Ezra  ii.  21,  in  E.  V.  children),  sons  of  the 
province  (1.  in  E.  V.  children),  sons  of  Javau 
(Gen.  X.  4). 

7.  Possessor  of  a  quality,  as  son  of  Belial 
or  worthlessness  (1  Sam.  xxv.  17),  son  of 
strength,  i.  e.,  a  valiant  man  (xiv.  52),  son  of 
peace  (Luke  x.  6). 

Son  of  God. 

A  title  of  the  Messiah  (Ps.  ii.  7 ;  John  i.  49  ; 
cp.  2  Sam.  vii.  14)  ;  in  its  deepest  sense  ex- 
pressive of  the  mysterious  relation  existing 
between  the  eternal  Father  and  the  eternal 
Son.  In  the  Revised  Version  of  the  New 
Testament  the  designation  Son  of  God  is 
used  about  forty-five  times,  in  about  forty- 
four  unequivocably  denoting  our  Lord  (Mat. 
iv.  3,  fi  ;  xvi.  1() ;  xxvi.  63;  xxvii.  43;  Mark 
i.  1),  and  in  the  remaining  one  character- 
izing Adam  (Luke  iii.  38).  In  John  iii.  18 
Christ  is  called  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God. 
Two  reasons  are  suggested  for  the  appella- 
tion :  his  eternal  generation  (Heb.  vii.3),  and 
his  miraculous  birth  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (Luke  i.  35).  As  son  of  God, 
Christ  is  God  with  all  the  infinite  perfections 
of  the  divine  essence  (John  i.  1-14 ;  x.  30- 
38;  Phil.  ii.  6),  and  is  equal  with  God  (John 
V.  17-25).  He  is  subordinate  in  mode  of 
subsistence  and  operation  ;  that  is,  he  is  of 
the  Father,  is  sent  by  the  Father,  and  the 
Father  operates  through  him  (John  iii.  It!, 
17;  viii.  42;  Gal.  iv.  4;  Heb.  i.  2).  Ac- 
cordingly, the  word  .son  is  not  a  term  of 
office,  but  of  nature.  He  has  the  same 
nature,  a  fact  which  includes  equality  with 
God. 

The  claim  was  put  forth  by  our  Lord 
(Luke  xxii.  70;  John  x.  36;  xi.  4;  xix.  7), 
and  urged  by  the  apostles  (Acts  ix.  20 ;  Gal. 
ii.  20,  etc. ;  1  John  iii.  8 ;  v.  5,  10,  13,  20), 
and  it  was  for  maintaining  it  that  he  was 
condemned  by  the  sanhedrin  on  a  charge  of 
blasphemy  (Mat.  xxvi.  63-66 ;  Mark  xiv. 
61-64) ;  but  the  justice  of  his  claim  had  been 
acknowledged  on  the  occasion  of  his  baptism 
by  the  descent  upon  him  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
accompanied  by  an  audible  utterance  from 
his  heavenly  Father  (Mat.  iii.  16,  17;  Mark 
i.  10,  11;  Luke  iii.  22;  John  i.  32-34).  It 
was  similarly  acknowledged  at  the  transfig- 
uration (Mat.  xvii.  5;  Mark  ix.  7;  Luke  ix. 
35 ;  2  Pet.  i.  17).  It  was  sustained  by  his 
character  and  by  his  works  (John  i.  14;  x. 
36-38;  Heb.  i.  3).  And  he  was  declared  to 
be  the  Son  of  God  with  power,  accortling  to 
the  spirit  of  holiness  by  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  (Rom.  i.  4),  and  by  his  ascension 
(Heb.  i.  3). 

In  one  passage  of  the  O.  T.  the  expression 
Son  of  God  appears  (Dan.  iii.  25,  A.  Y.),  but 
the  R.  V.  alters  this  to  a  son  of  the  gods. 
The  speaker  was  a  Babylonian  hcatlien. 

For  the  title  sons  of  God  applied  to  men, 
see  Sons  of  God. 


Son  of  Man. 

A  person  possessed  of  humanity  in  distinc- 
tion from  divinity  and  the  brute  nature;  a 
human  being,  with  the  emphasis  on  human 
(Num.  xxiii.  19;  Job  xxv.  6:  Ps.  viii.  4;  Is. 
Ii.  12)  ;  see  Son  7.  When  Daniel  fell  af- 
frighted on  his  face  before  the  heavenly 
messenger,  Gabriel  addressed  him  as  son  of 
man  (Dan.  viii.  17).  When  Ezekiel  had  seen 
the  vision  of  Jehovah  and  fallen  upon  his 
face,  a  voice  said:  "Son  of  man,  stand  upon 
thy  feet"  (Ezek.  ii.  1),  and  thenceforth  the 
jirophet  is  constantly  addressed  as  son,  of 
man.  It  was  foretold  (Dan.  vii.  13,  14,  R.  V.) 
that  the  hostile  worldly  power,  represented  by 
beasts,  shall  succumb  before  the  Ancient  of 
days,  and  one  like  to  a  sou  of  man,  coming 
with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  shall  receive  do- 
minion and  a  kingdom,  that  all  the  peoples, 
nations,  and  languages  shall  serve  him;  his 
dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion  which 
shall  not  pass  away,  and  his  kingdom  that 
which  shall  not  be  destroyed.  This  figure 
seen  in  vision,  a  human  l)eing  in  contrast 
with  the  beasts  that  typified  the  kingdoms 
of  the  world,  symbolized  the  saints  of  God 
in  their  corporate  aspect,  to  whom  universal 
and  everlasting  dominion  shall  be  given  (14 
with  27). 

The  title  was  adopted  by  our  Lord,  evi- 
dently with  reference  to  Dan.  vii.  13,  14,  27 
(cp.  Mat.  xxiv.  30;  Mark  xiv.  62).  He  is 
recorded  in  the  gospels  as  having  applied  it 
to  himself  seventy-eight  times.  It  is  also 
used  of  him  by  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  56)  ;  see 
also  Heb.  ii.  6  ;  and  Rev.  i.  13;  xiv.  14,  R.  V. 
margin.  Christ  did  not  choose  the  title  to 
assert  that  he  had  a  fellow-feeling  for  man 
and  was  a  brother  to  all  men ;  nor  did  he 
employ  it  to  denote  that  he  was  a  mere  man 
and  not  divine,  for  he  constantly  claimed 
divine  attributes  (Luke  v.  24).  He  chose  a 
title  which,  by  reason  of  its  several  possil)le 
interpretations,  until  fully  defined  by  Jesus 
himself,  could  not  be  used  against  him  by  his 
foes.  By  it — 1.  He  identified  himself  w'ith 
that  human  being  in  Daniel's  vision  who  re- 
ceives a  universal  and  everlassting  dominion 
(Dan.  vii.  14;  cp.  Mat.  xvi.  28;  xxviii.  1^). 
2.  He  identified  himself  with  the  saints  of 
the  Most  High,  regarded  collectively  as  a 
people,  which  the  human  figure  in  the  vision 
symbolized;  making  himself  their  embodi- 
ment and  their  representative  before  (iod 
(Dan.  vii.  13,  27;  cp.  Mat.  xxv.  31,  40;  Mark 
X.  45  "a  ransom  for  many";  Luke  xii.  8, 
9).  3.  He  assumed  for  himself  the  sufferings 
and  the  glory  that  should  i'ollow  which  were 
predicted  for  that  human  kingdom  in  its 
efforts  to  establish  itself  and  overcome  the 
world  (Dan.  vii.  21,  22,  25  ;  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  22, 
23;  Mark  x.  45  ;  Luke  ix.  26;  xviii.  31-33). 
4.  He  implies  that  he  comes  with  the  clouds 
of  heaven  to  receive  the  kingdom  (Dan.  vii. 
13;  cp.  Mat.  xxiv.  30;  xxvi.  64).  5.  He  em- 
phasized the  human  and  humane  in  contrast 
with  the   brutal  and  bestial  (Dan.  vii.  4-9, 


Song 


735 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


13 ;  cp.  Mat.  xxv.  31  with  35  and  36 ;  Mark 
X.  45  "minister,  and  to  give  his  life"  ;  Luke 
xix.  10). 

Sou  of  man  and  Son  of  God  are  united  in 
the  same  person.  "  Who  do  men  say  that  the 
Son  of  man  is  ?  .  .  .  .  Simon  Peter  answered 
and  said,  Thou  art  the  C'hrist,  the  Son  of  the 
living  God.  And  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto 
him,  Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jonah  : 
for  flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto 
thee,  but  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven  " 
(Mat.  xvi.  13,  16,  17).  "  The  high  priest 
said  unto  him,  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the 
C'hrist,  the  Son  of  God.  Jesus  saith  unto  him, 
Thou  hast  said  :  nevertheless  I  say  unto  you. 
Henceforth  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting 
at  the  right  hand  of  power,  and  coming  on 
the  clouds  of  heaven"  (xxvi.  (J3,  64). 

Song. 

A  poetical  composition,  generally  brief, 
capable  of  being  set  to  music  and  sung, 
whether  or  not  it  was  intended  for  singing  or 
was  ever  actually  sung  (Ex.  xv.  1-18  ;  Deut. 
xxxi.  30-xxxii.  44).  It  was  often  sung  to 
the  accompaniment  of  music  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21 ; 
Is.  xxxviii.  20).  It  might  be  secular  or  re- 
ligious (Gen.  xxxi.  27  ;  Num.  xxi.  17, 18  ;  and 
Ps.  xcii.,  title ;  cxxxvii.  3,  4)  ;  in  praise  of 
men  or  of  God  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6,  7  ;  Ps.  xxviii. 
7) ;  the  expression  of  light-heartedness  or 
deep  emotion ;  the  utterance  of  innocent 
mirth  or  the  outcomeof  a  bacchanalian  revel 
(Ps.  Ixix.  12). 

Song  of  Songs,  The. 

The  last  of  the  five  poetical  books  of  the 
O.  T.  in  our  present  English  Bible.  This  ar- 
rangement is  derived  from  the  Septuagint. 
In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the  Song  stands 
between  Job  and  Ruth,  in  the  third  section 
of  the  canon,  and  is  one  of  the  five  smaller 
rolls  which  formed  a  group  by  themselves 
because  they  had  come  to  be  read  on  the  five 
great  anniversaries.  The  Song  was  read  on 
the  eighth  day  of  the  passover  festival,  the 
book  being  allegorically  interpreted  with  ref- 
erence to  the  history  of  the  exodus.  The 
Song  of  Solomon  is  more  fully  called  The 
Song  of  Songs,  which  is  Solomon's  (i.  1). 
The  reduplication  of  the  word  song  was  not 
intended  to  denote  that  it  is  a  collection  of 
many  songs,  nor  that  it  is  the  chief  one  of  the 
many  songs  of  Solomon  ;  but  it  has  super- 
lative force,  like  servant  of  servants,  holy  of 
holies,  Lord  of  lords,  heaven  of  heavens, 
vanity  of  vanities  (Gen.  ix.  25 ;  Ex.  xxvi. 
33  ;  Deut.  x.  17 ;  1  Kin.  viii.  27;  Ecc.  i.  2), 
and  intimates  that  the  production  is  a  song 
of  the  higlicst  character.  In  the  Vulgate  the 
title  is  literally  translated  Canticum  Cunticor- 
um,  from  which  the  name  Canticles  is  de- 
rived. 

Several  speakers  take  part  in  the  dialogue. 
The  distinction  between  them  is  quite  clear 
in  the  Hebrew  original,  because  the  gram- 
matical  forms  indicate  gender.     The  R.  V. 


marks  change  of  speaker  by  space  between 
the  verses  or  sections.  How  many  prominent 
personages  are  there  in  the  poem  ?  Are  there 
two,  besides  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  who 
resemble  the  chorus  in  a  Greek  play  ;  or  are 
there  three,  either  actually  speaking  or  in- 
troduced in  the  remarks  of  the  Shulammite 
maid  ?  According  to  the  latter  view  in  its 
general  form,  the  three  chief  speakers  are  a 
country  maid,  her  rustic  lover,  and  Solomon. 
The  maid  is  betrothed  to  her  country  swain  ; 
but  she  is  noticed  by  Solomon  and  his  compan- 
ions during  some  journey  to  the  north  (vi. 
10-13),  brought  to  Jerusaiem,  and  there,  sur- 
rounded by  the  women  of  the  palace,  wooed 
by  the  king  in  the  hope  of  gaining  her  aflec- 
tions.  But  the  maid  resists  all  enticements. 
When  Solomon  praises  her,  she  resi)onds  by 
praising  her  rustic  lover.  She  longs  for  him 
by  day,  and  dreams  of  him  by  night.  She 
sustains  her  devotion  to  him  by  recalling  his 
speeches.  She  is  true  to  him  and  to  her 
vows.  At  length  the  parted  lovers  are  re- 
united (viii.  5-7),  and  she  is  praised  by  her 
brothers  for  resisting  all  allurements. 
Throughout  Solomon  appears  in  an  unfavor- 
able light.  He  attempts  to  persuade  the  maid 
to  forsake  her  proper  allegiance  ( vii.  1-9),  and 
he  commits  greater  sin.  The  poem,  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  celebrates  a  pure  affection, 
which  holds  out  against  the  temptations  of  a 
court,  and  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  se- 
ductive arts  of  a  king. 

This  interpretation,  which  is  known  as  the 
shepherd  hypothesis,  seeks  support  in  ex- 
pressions of  the  Shulammite,  which  are  cited 
as  passionate  exclamations  to  her  distant 
lover  (i.  4,  7  ;  ii.  16).  But  everything  is 
much  simpler  in  these  passages  themselves 
and  throughout  the  poem,  if  the  Shulam- 
mite's  avowals  of  love  are  in  all  cases  re- 
ferred to  king  Solomon  himself.  The  simple 
country  maid  has  no  adequate  conception  of 
royal  life  and  occupations.  She  thinks  of  the 
king,  the  shepherd  of  the  people  (cp.  Jer. 
xxiii.  4),  under  the  figure  of  a  rustic  shep- 
herd of  her  native  hills,  and  she  addresses 
him  in  language  borrowed  from  the  shepherd 
life  familiar  to  her.  And  everywhere , she 
naturally  draws  imagery  from  the  pastoral 
and  horticultural  mountain  life  to  which  she 
was  accustomed. 

Instead  of  regarding  the  Shulammite  as  a 
country  girl,  some  interpreters,  especially  in 
England,  see  in  her  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
whom  Solomon  married.  She  is  a  stranger, 
dark  of  complexion,  and  a  i)rince's  daughter 
(i.  5;  vii.  1).  The  blackness  of  skin,  how- 
ever, was  due  to  sunburn  (i.  G),  and  the  title 
of  prince's  daughter  probably  does  not  indi- 
cate her  birth,  which  was  ajjparently  lowly 
(ibid.  ;  ii.  9),  but  her  present  high  rank  to 
which  she  has  been  raised  (cp.  vi.  12;  1  Sam. 
ii.  8),  daughter  meaning  female  or  woman  in 
general  (cp.  Song  vi.  9 ;  1  Sam.  i.  16),  and  the 
phrase  signifying  "  O  noble  woman." 

The  Song  has  been  regarded  as  a  drama. 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


736 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


Few,  however,  have  imagined  that  it  was  de- 
sigued  for  presentation  on  the  stage.  It  has 
been  thought  to  consist  of  four  acts  (Ewald 
at  first,  Friedrich),  or  of  five  acts  containing 
from  tliirteen  to  fifteen  scenes  (Ewald,  Bott- 
cher,  and  others),  or  of  six  acts  with  two 
scenes  eacli  (Pelitzsch,  Hahn).  Bossuet  dis- 
covered seven  acts,  each  filling  a  day,  con- 
cluding with  the  Sabbath,  inasmuch  as  the 
bridegroom  on  this  day  does  not,  as  usual,  go 
forth  to  his  rural  employments.  His  several 
days  are:  i.  1-ii.  6;  ii.  7-17;  iii.  1-v.  1  ;  v. 
2-vi.  9  ;  vi.  10-vii.  11  ;  vii.  r2-viii.  3  ;  viii. 
4-14.  Delitzsch's  scheme  is  as  follows  :  Act  1. 
Mutual  passion  of  the  lovers  (i.  2-ii.  7),  con- 
cluding with,  "I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of 
Jerusalem."  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  palace 
of  Solomon.  Scene  1.  Dialogue  between  the 
Shulammite  maid  and  the  court  ladies, 
daughters  of  Jerusalem,  at  a  meal  (i.  2-8). 
Scene  2.  Enter  Solomon  :  dialogue  between 
him  and  the  maiden,  who  is  not  yet  his  bride 
(9-ii.  7).  Act  2.  Mutual  seeking  and  finding 
(ii.  8-iii.  5),  concluding  with  "I  adjure  you." 
The  scene  is  the  Shulammite's  country  home. 
Scene  1.  She  relates  a  rapturous  meeting  with 
Solomon  (ii.  8-17).  Scene  2.  She  relates  a 
dream,  in  which  she  thought  she  had  lost  her 
beloved,  but  found  him  again  (iii.  1-.^).  Act  3. 
Bringing  the  betrothed  to  the  capital  and  the 
marriage  (iii.  fi-v.  1),  with  the  introduction, 
"  Who  is  this?"  and  the  conclusion,  "  Eat,  O 
friends;  drink,  yea,  drink  abundantly,  O  be- 
loved." Scene  1.  Procession  to  the  palace 
(iii.  6-11).  Scene  2.  Dialogue  between  Solo- 
mon and  his  betrothed  in  the  wedding  cham- 
ber (iv.  1-16).  The  wedding  must  be  sup- 
posed to  follow ;  and  then  v.  1,  Solomon's 
morning  greeting  to  his  bride,  and  afterwards 
his  exhortation  to  the  guests.  Act  4.  Love  dis- 
dained, but  regained  (v.  2-vi.  9).  Scene  1. 
Shadows  fall  on  the  married  life.  The  Shu- 
lammite dreams  of  seeking  her  beloved,  but 
finding  him  not  (v.  2-vi.  3).  Scene  2.  She  has 
found  her  beloved  again  (vi.  4-9).  Act  5.  The 
Shulammite  the  beautiful,  but  humble  prin- 
cess (vi.  10-viii.  4),  with  the  introduction, 
"Who  is  she?"  and  the  conclusion,  "  I  adjure 
you."  Scene  1.  In  the  royal  gardens;  dia- 
logue between  the  Shulammite  and  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (vi.  10-vii.  6).  Scene 
2.  In  the  palace  ;  Solomon  and  the  Shulam- 
mite alone  (vii.  7-viii.4).  Act  6.  The  confirma- 
tion of  love's  bond  in  the  Shulammite's  old 
home  (viii.  5-14),  beginning  "  Who  is  this?" 
Scene  1.  Solomon  and  his  bride  appear  in 
the  presence  of  her  kinsfolk  (5-7).  Scene  2. 
The  Sliuhiunuite  in  her  paternal  liome  ;  dia- 
logue between  her  and  her  brothers  and  the 
king  (8-14). 

But  the  opinion  that  the  Song  is  a  drama, 
although  widely  entertained  in  modern  times 
and  unol)j(cti(iiiahle  in  itself,  has  not  failed 
to  meet  with  decided  and  well-t\>unded  op- 
position. The  Song  does  not  naturally  con- 
form to  the  rules  of  dramatic  unity.  A  reg- 
ular plot  is  not  yielded  by  the  poem  itself.  A 


consecutive  narrative  can  only  be  made  out 
by  supplj'ing  connecting  links  of  which  the 
poem  knows  nothing.  Indeed,  the  se%'eral 
parts  have  been  made  to  tell  very  diflerent 
continuous  tales,  according  as  interpreters 
have  supplied  this  or  that  connecting  link. 
The  Song  as  it  stands  is  a  continuous  compo- 
sition, with  the  love  of  Solomon  and  his  bride 
for  its  one  theme  ;  but  the  several  scenes  are 
grouped  rather  than  linked,  and  the  tran- 
sitions are  abrupt.  The  arrangement  is  not 
pleasing  to  the  occidental  mind,  which  loves 
order  and  logical  sequence,  but  the  structure 
of  the  poem  is  in  entire  harmony  with  orien- 
tal methods  of  literary  composition. 

Three  leading  methods  of  interpretation 
have  been  adopted,  and  all  still  find  advo- 
cates :  the  allegorical,  the  literal,  and  the 
typical  methods.  The  Jews,  who  have  al- 
ways greatly  prized  the  Song  of  Songs,  have 
generally  regarded  it  as  a  spiritual  allegory. 
Its  sole  intention  was  to  teach  God's  love  for 
ancient  Israel.  He  is  the  Lover,  and  it  the 
being  beloved.  The  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion was  introduced  into  the  Christian 
church  by  Origen,  a  great  allegf)rizer,  early 
in  the  third  century,  but  it  underwent  a 
modification.  Christ  became  the  Lover,  and 
his  church  or  the  individual  soul  the  be- 
loved one.  The  details  of  this  scheme  may  be 
learned  from  the  headings  of  the  several 
chapters  in  the  A.  V.  On  the  literal  inter- 
pretation the  poem  is  an  historical  tale,  a 
true  story  of  Solomon's  love  for  the  Shulam- 
mite. The  typical  interpretation,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  harmonizes  the  other  two.  The 
Ijure,  spontaneous,  mutual  love  of  a  great 
king  and  an  huml)le  maid  was  seen  to  exem- 
plify the  nnitual  afl'ection  between  Jehovah 
and  his  people,  and  the  story  was  told,  not 
merely  because  it  was  beautiful,  but  chiefiy 
because  it  was  typical  of  this  great  religious 
truth.  The  Song  of  Songs  is  thus  analogous 
to  Messianic  psalms,  which  are  based  on  the 
personal  experiences  or  official  position  of 
David  or  Solomon,  and  exhibit  truths  re- 
garding the  great  king.  The  comparison  of 
the  mutual  love  between  the  church  and  its 
divine  head  to  that  of  a  bride  and  a  bride- 
groom frequently  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  (Eph. 
V.  25-33;  Eev.  xix.  7-9;  xxi.  9,  etc.). 

Regarding  the  date  and  authorship  of  the 
Song,  it  will  be  perceived  at  once  that  the 
shej)herd  theory  disposes  of  the  possibility 
that  the  poem  proceeded  from  the  pen  of 
Solomon.  The  king  had  his  faults,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  monster 
of  iniquity  such  as  the  poem,  when  inter- 
preted on  the  shepherd  hypothesis,  depicts 
him.  The  shepherd  hypothesis  requires 
the  assumption  of  another  and  a  later  author 
than  Solomon.  Turning  to  the  marks  of 
authorship  and  date  found  in  the  poem,  the 
title  first  engages  attention:  "The  Song  of 
songs,  which  is  Solomon's"  (i.  1).  The  words 
are  ambiguous,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
idiom  ;  they  may  mean  either  that  Solomon 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


737 


Sons  of  God 


I 


was  the  author  of  the  Souk  (fp-  Hab.  iii.  1, 
Hebrew),  or  that  the  Song  is  about  Solomon 
(cp.  Is.  V.  1,  Hebrew).  The  ambiguity  is  ad- 
mitted, but  the  probabilities  unquestionably 
favor  the  belief  that  the  title  attril)utes  the 
poem  to  Solomon.  The  mind  of  the  author 
as  revealed  in  the  Song  admirably  comports 
with  all  that  is  known  of  Solomon.  The 
figurative  language  in  the  speeches  of  the 
king  not  merely  reflects  nature,  but  mirrors 
the  gardens  of  exotics  of  which  Solomon  was 
fond.  Extensive  knowledge  of  all  realms  of 
nature,  such  as  he  possessed  who  spake  of 
trees,  from  the  cedar  even  unto  the  hyssop, 
and  of  beasts,  fowl,  creeping  things,  and 
fishes,  is  exhibited  throughout  the  poem. 
And  a  minute  and  accurate  picture  of  the 
time  of  Solomon  is  presented.  Aramaisms 
are  urged  as  indicating  a  later  date  than 
Solomon.  But  the  orthography,  apart  from 
three  words,  is  not  Aramaic ;  and  the  syn- 
tactic peculiarity  of  the  poem  is  confined  to 
the  use  of  a  relative  pronoun  which  occurs 
among  other  places  in  the  song  of  Deborah 
and  the  history  of  Elislia,  both  of  which  are 
confessedly  ancient  Hebrew  compositions,  the 
former  antedating  the  reign  of  Solomon  by 
several  centuries.  Ewald  and  Eitzig  believed 
that  the  poem  was  produced  in  the  best  period 
of  the  Hebrew  language,  and  at  a  time  of 
great  national  prosperity.  They  attributed  it 
to  a  poet  who  lived  in  the  generation  after 
Solomon.  The  three  Aramaic  forms,  Wtar, 
keep  (i.  6 ;  viii.  11,  12),  b'ruth,  fir  (i.  17), 
s'thav,  winter  (ii.  11),  are  regarded  by  these 
critics  as  an  idiom  in  the  dialect  of  northern 
Palestine,  and  tliey  accordingly  attribute  the 
song  to  a  poet  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
But,  assuming  that  these  words  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  north,  Solomon  himself  in  ad- 
dressing the  Shulammite  maid,  who  was 
probably  from  Shuuem,  and  in  quoting  her 
speeches,  may  have  adopted  these  words  in 
order  to  give  to  his  poem  the  northern  flavor. 
It  is  affirmed  that  pardes,  orchard,  ])ark  (iv. 
13),  and  'appinjun,  palanquin  (iii.  9,  E.  V  ;  in 
Sanscrit  jj<( (•(/(( »«  ,•  others,  Greek  phoieion)  are 
of  Aryan  origin,  and  accordingly  betray  the 
post-exilic  date  of  the  poem.  But  even  if 
they  are  of  Aryan  origin,  why  should  it  be 
thought  strange  that  a  king 'who  sent  his 
ships  to  distant  Ophir,  traded  with  India,  and 
brought  to  Palestine  Indian  goods  and  ob- 
jects with  Aryan  names,  such  as  apes,  pea- 
cocks, algum  wood,  should  also  import  the 
palanquin  and  retain  its  native  name,  and 
give  the  oriental  designation  to  the  gardens 
which  he  tilled  with  oriental  plants  ? 

Sons  of  God. 

Worshipers  and  beneficiaries  of  God;  see 
Son  3.  Such  was  its  common  Semitic  meaning 
in  early  times.  There  is  abundant  reason  to 
believe  that  this  is  its  signification  in  the 
celebrated  passage  where  it  fir.st  appears  in 
the  Bible.  "  It  came  to  pass,  when  men 
began  to  multiply  on  the  face  of  the  ground, 
47 


and  daughters  were  born  unto  them,  that 
the  sons  of  God  saw  the  daughters  of  men 
that  they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them 
wives  of  all  that  they  chose"  (Gen.  vi.  1,  2). 
Three  interpretations  have  been  proposed. 
The  sons  of  God  are  :  1.  The  great  and  noble 
of  the  earth,  and  the  daughters  of  men  are 
women  of  inferior  rank  (Samaritan  version ; 
Greek  translation  of  Symmachus;  Targums 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan).  2.  Angels,  who 
left  their  first  estate  and  took  wives  from 
among  the  children  of  men  (Book  of  Enoch, 
Philo,  Josephus,  Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian).  3.  Pious  men,  wor- 
shipers of  God,  who  were  especially  repre- 
sented by  the  descendants  of  Seth.  They 
were  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  women  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  godly  line,  married  with 
them,  and  became  secularized  (Julius  Afri- 
canus,  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
Augustine,  Jerome).  The  first  interpretation 
has  no  longer  any  advocates.  In  favor  of 
the  second,  it  is  asserted  that  the  term  de- 
notes angels  everywhere  else  in  the  O.  T. 
(Job  i.  6;  ii.  1;  xxxviii.  7;  cp.  a  similar 
expression  Ps.  xxix.  1;  Ixxxix.  6;  E.  V. 
margin ;  but  not  Dan.  iii.  25)  ;  that  the 
designation  describes  angels  according  to 
their  nature,  whereas  the  ordinary  word  for 
angels,  mal'akim,  messengers,  refers  to  their 
official  employment ;  and  that  this  interpre- 
tation is  confirmed  by  Jude  6  and  2  Pet.  ii. 
4.  But  that  the  term  relates  to  the  nature 
of  angels  lacks  proof ;  it  is  quite  as  natural 
that  it  should  describe  angels  as  worshipers 
of  God.  As  to  the  passages  in  Jude  and 
Peter,  to  cite  them  is  begging  the  question, 
siTice  exegetes  point  out  other  references,  as 
Is.  xxiv.  21-23 ;  moreover  in  Jude  the  word 
"these"  in  verse  7  and  elsewhere  does  not 
refer  to  angels  that  kept  not  their  own  prin- 
cipality (verse  (i,  E.  V.),  but  to  certain  un- 
godly men  (verse  4).  And  unless  the  title 
be  restricted  to  the  special  form  which  it  has 
in  the  passage  under  discussion,  it  is  not 
true  that  the  term  denotes  angels  in  all  other 
places  where  it  occurs  in  the  O.  T.  The 
worshipers  of  the  heathen  deity  Chemosh 
are  called  the  people  of  Chemosh,  and  his 
sons  and  daughters  (Num.  xxi.  29;  Jer. 
xlviii.  46).  When  the  men  of  Judah,  pro- 
fessed worshipers  of  Jehovah,  took  heathen 
women  to  wife,  Judah  was  said  to  have  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  a  strange  god  (Mai.  ii. 
11).  Moses  was  directed  to  say  to  Pharaoh  : 
"Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Israel  is  my  son. 
.  .  .  .  Let  my  son  go"  (Ex.  iv.  22,  23). 
Other  passages  are:  "Ye  are  the  children 
[or  sons]  of  the  Lord  your  God"  (Deut. 
xiv.  1).  "They  have  dealt  corruptly  with 
him  [.Tehovah],  they  are  not  his  chil- 
dren [or  sons]."  "Is  not  he  [Jehovah]  thy 
father  ?  "  "  The  Lord  saw  it,  and  abhorred 
them,  because  of  the  provocation  of  his  sons 
and  his  daughters"  (xxxii.  5,  6,  19).  "Ye 
are  the  sons  of  the  living  God  "  (Hos.  i.  10). 
"When   Israel  was  a  child   ....  I  ...  . 


Sons  of  God 


Soothsayer 


called  my  son  out  of  Egypt"  (xi.  1).  "Bring 
my  sous  from  fur,  and  my  daughters  from 
the  end  of  the  earth  ;  every  one  that  is 
called  hy  my  name,  and  whom  I  have  created 
for  my  glory  "  (Is.  xliii.  (J,  7).  The  pious  are 
the  generation  of  God's  children  (Ps.  Ixsiii. 
15),  and  Ephraim  is  his  dear  son  (Jer.  xxxi. 
20).  Taking  a  broader  survey,  and  examin- 
ing Semitic  literature  other  than  Hebrew, 
one  observes  the  same  fact.  Many  a  Baby- 
lonian styled  himself  the  son  of  the  god 
whom  he  worshiped  and  upon  whom  he  re- 
lied for  protection  and  care. 

Furthermore,  the  opinion  that  the  title  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  means  angels  is  not  the  earliest 
view,  so  far  as  the  records  go.  The  earliest 
attested  interpretation,  that  of  the  Samaritan 
version,  regarded  the  sons  of  God  as  men  ; 
and  later  when  the  angelic  theory  arose,  it 
was  the  opinion  of  a  particular  school  among 
the  Jews,  while  the  more  influential  party 
in  religious  matters  still  taught  that  the  sous 
of  God  were  men. 

The  theory  that  angels  are  meant  contra- 
dicts the  doctrine  of  Scripture  concerning 
angels.  Its  writers  nowhere  countenance  the 
idea  that  an  angel  could  or  would  enter  into 
marriage  with  a  human  being.  They  in- 
variably represent  the  passions  of  angels, 
fallen  and  unfallen,  as  spiritual,  not  carnal. 
The  notion  is  quite  foreign  to  Scripture  that 
woman's  beauty  could  arouse  animal  love  in 
an  angel. 

The  interpretation  that  the  sons  of  God  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  were  pious  people,  the  worshipers 
of  the  true  God,  more  especially  that  they 
were  the  godly  descendants  of  Adam  through 
Seth,  whose  genealogy  is  given  in  Gen.  v.,  is 
not  only  in  accordance  with  Semitic,  and 
particularly  l)iblical,  usage  of  the  designa- 
tion, as  already  shown,  but  it  is  consistent 
with  the  context.  The  sons  of  God  are  con- 
trasted with  the  daughters  of  men,  that  is, 
of  other  men.  So  Jeremiah  says,  "God  did 
set  signs  in  Israel  and  among  men  ;  "  and 
the  English  version  supplies  the  word  other 
before  men,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  sense 
(Jer.  xxxii.  20).  Likewise  the  psalmist  says 
that  the  wicked  "  are  not  in  trouble  as  men  ; 
neither  are  they  plagued  like  men  ;  "  and 
again  the  English  version  supplies  the  word 
other  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  5).  After  the  same  manner 
Gen.  vi.  1,  2  may  be  read  :  "  When  mankind 
began  to  multiply  on  the  face  of  the  ground, 
and  daughters  were  born  unto  them,  the  sous 
of  God  saw  the  daughters  of  other  men  that 
they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them  wives 
of  all  that  they  chose."  The  meaning  of  the 
writer  is  that  when  men  began  to  increase  in 
number,  the  worshipers  of  God  so  far  degen- 
erated that  in  choosing  wives  for  themselves 
they  neglected  character,  and  esteemed  Ijeauty 
of  face  and  form  above  piety »  The  offspring 
of  these  marriages  were  perhaps  stalwart 
and  violent  (4).  Mixture  of  race  in  marriage 
often  produces  physical  strength  in  the  de- 
scendants,, and  lack  of  religion  in  the  parents 


is  apt  to  be  reproduced  in  the  children.  The 
intermarriage  of  the  sons  of  God  and  the 
daughters  of  men  was  offensive  in  the  sight 
of  God.  Sentence  was  pronounced  against 
the  wrongdoers  (3).  The  penalty  is  not  de- 
nounced on  angels,  who  were  not  only  im- 
plicated, but  were  the  chief  sinners,  if  the 
sons  of  God  were  angels.  The  punishment 
is  pronounced  against  man  only.  Man,  not 
angels,  had  offended. 

Sons  of  God  everywhere  in  Scripture,  from 
the  earliest  to  the  latest  times,  means  the 
worshipers  and  beneficiaries  of  God,  both 
among  mortal  and  immortal  beings.  But  the 
content  of  this  idea  did  not  remain  the  same 
through  the  ages.  It  became  larger  with  in- 
creasing knowledge  of  the  riches  of  God. 
It  enlarged,  for  example,  at  the  time  when 
the  Israelites  were  delivered  from  Egypt. 
God  .said  :  "  I  have  seen  the  affliction  of  my 
people"  (Ex.  iii.  7);  and  again:  "Say  unto 
Pharaoh,  Israel  is  my  son,  my  firstborn; 
who  is  as  dear  to  me,"  so  the  following  words 
imi)ly.  "  as  Pharaoh's  firstborn  is  to  him  "  (iv. 
22  with  2.3) ;  and  again  :  "  I  will  take  you  to 
me  for  a  people,  and  I  will  be  to  you  a  God  " 
(vi.  7).  Heretofore  the  title  had  emphasized 
a  filial  relation  of  men  to  God,  their  de- 
pendence upon  him  for  protection  and  care, 
and  their  duty  of  reverence  and  obedience. 
Now  God  formally  accepts  the  obligations 
which  implicitly  devolve  on  him.  The  con- 
tent of  the  title  was  further  enlarged  through 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  took  truths 
already  known,  shed  light  on  them,  and 
connected  them  with  this  designation.  He 
exhibited  the  fiict  that  God  is  an  actual 
father  and  that  his  people  are  actual  chil- 
dren of  God.  Thev  are  such  bv  the  new 
birth  (John  iii.  3.  5,  6,  8  ;  cp.  Rev.  xi.  11), 
begotten  of  God  (John  i.  12,  13;  v.  21;  and 
so  Eph.  ii.  ri;  Jas.  i.  18  ;  1  Pet.  i.  23),  made 
partakers  of  the  divine  nature  through  the 
mediation  of  the  indwelling  Spirit  (John  vi. 
48-51 :  XV.  4,  5  ;  and  so  1  John  iii.  9).  and 
possessing  a  like  character  with  God,  re- 
sembling him  in  holiness,  love,  and  eleva- 
tion above  the  illusions  of  earth  (1  John  iii, 
9  ;  iv.  7;  v.  4),  although  falling  far  short  of 
the  divine  character  in  this  life  (i.  8,  10) 
They  have  been  adopted  as  sons  (Gal.  iv.  5), 
are  taught  by  the  Spirit  to  say  Abba,  Father 
(6;  Rom.  viii.  15),  and  are  led  by  the  Spirit 
(14). 

Sons  of  the  Pro'plxets.  See  Pkophetic 
Associations. 

Sooth'say-er  [sayer  of  truth]. 

A  diviner  (Josh.  xiii.  22,  with  Num.  xxii. 
7),  one  who  prognosticates  future  events  (Jer. 
xxvii.  9,  R.  v.,  in  Hebrew  'on'nim).  As  ren- 
dering of  the  Aramaic  Gastrin,  it  denotes  one 
who  professed  to  be  able  to  interpret  dreams 
(Dan.  iv.  7)  and  explain  dark  sentences  (9; 
V.  11,  12),  and  to  whom  men  in  desperation 
resorted  to  obtain,  if  possible,  the  revelation 
of  secrets  (ii.  27). 


Sopater 


J  39 


Soul 


Sop'a-ter  [of  good  parentage]. 

A  C'hrislian  of  Bercea,  and  one  of  Paul's 
companions  from  (}reece  as  far  as  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  when  the  apostle  was  returning 
from  ills  tliird  missionary  journey  (Acts  xx. 
4).     lie  was  son  of  Pyrrhns  (R.  V.). 

Soph'e-retli,  in  R.  V.  of  Ezra  Hassoph- 
ereth,  with  the  Hebrew  article  [si-cretariate] . 

The  name,  probably  denoting  an  office,  be- 
longing to  a  certain  class  of  Solomon's  ser- 
vants. Members  of  it  returned  from  cap- 
tivity with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  55;  Neli. 
vii.  57). 

Sor'cer-er. 

One  who  practices  sorcery,  uses  potions 
that  derive  a  supposed  efficacy  from  mag- 
ical spells,  and  professes  to  possess  super- 
natural power  or  knowledge,  gained  in  any 
manner,  especially  through  the  connivance 
of  evil  spirits  (Ex.  vii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  4,  1 ; 
JAi'e  31).  Sorcerers  were  found  in  Egypt 
(Ex.  vii.  11),  Assyria  (Nah.  iii.  4),  Babylonia 
(Is.  xlvii.  9  ;  Dan.  ii.  2),  and  other  heathen 
lands  (Dent,  xviii.  10)  ;  but  were  strictly  for- 
bidden in  Israel  (Ex.  xxii.  18;  Deut.  xviii. 
10),  and  warning  was  uttered  against  their 
deception  (Jer.  xxvii.  9),  and  their  punish- 
ment was  foretold  (Mic.  v.  12;  Mai.  iii.  5; 
Rev.  xxi.  8).  The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
for  sorcerer  and  sorcery  are  sometimes  ren- 
dered witch  and  witchcraft  in  the  English 
versions.  Simon,  called  Magus  or  magician, 
and  Bar-jesus  were  prominent  sorcerers  in 
apostolic  history  (Acts  viii.  9,  11  ;  xiii.  (>.  8). 
A  sorceress,  and  likewise  the  sorcerer  and  the 
practicer  of  other  forms  of  the  black  art, 
were  not  to  be  permitted  to  live  (Ex.  xxii.  18 : 
Lev.  XX.  27;  Deut.  xviii.  10-12).  God's  own 
attitude  toward  such  persons  and  those  who 
consulted  them  was  also  one  of  destruction 
(Lev.  XX.  6,  23  ;  Deut.  xviii.  12  ;  Wisd.  xii.  4-6). 

So'rek  [a  choice  vine]. 

A  valley  in  which  Delilah  lived  (Judg. 
xvi.  4).  It  is  doubtless  the  wady  es-Surar, 
which  commences  about  13  miles  west, 
slightly  south,  of  Jerusalem,  and  pursues  a 
tortuous  course  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
toward  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  stream  which  falls  into  the  sea  about  8^ 
miles  south  of  Joppa.  The  name  Siirik  is 
atill  borne  by  a  ruin  north  of  the  valley,  2 
miles  from   Zorah,   Samson's  birthplace. 

So-sip'a-ter  [saviour  of  a  father]. 

A  Christian  who  joined  with  Paul  in  send- 
ing salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  21). 

Sos'the-nes  [of  sound  strength]. 

A  ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Corinth 
when  I'aul  was  there.  In  the  outbreak  which 
Paul's  preaching  excited,  the  crowd  seized 
Sosthenes  and  beat  him  l)efore  the  judgment 
seat  of  Gallio  (Acts  xviii.  17,  R.  V.).  Per- 
haps he  became  a  Christian,  for  one  Sosthenes 
is  associated  with  Paul  as  a  brother  Chris- 
tian in  the  address  to  the  Corinthians  1 1  Cor. 
i.  1). 


So'tai  [deviator]. 

One  of  the  class  known  as  Solomon's  serv- 
ants. He  founded  a  fiimily.  members  of 
which  returned  with  Zerul)babel  from  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  ii.  55;  Neli.  vii.  57). 

Sou.. 

In  ordinary  English  usage,  a  spirit  is  an 
immaterial,  incorporeal  being,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  a.ssociated  with  a  body,  as  "  God  is 
a  Spirit,"  "My  spirit  hath  rejoiced  in  God  my 
Saviour"  (John  iv.  24  ;  Luke  i.  47)  ;  a  soul  is 
a  .si>irit  that  is  or  at  least  has  been  embodied, 
as  the  souls  of  them  that  had  been  slain 
( Rev.  vi.  9) ;  and  a  ghost  is  a  disembodied 
spirit. 

Theologians  entertain  two  main  views  as 
to  the  soul,  and  consequently  as  to  the  nature 
of  man  and  irrational  animals.  One  is  em- 
braced under  the  doctrine  of  trichotomy. 
Trichotomists  differ  considerably  among 
themselves;  but  according  to  the  doctrine, 
in  its  general  outlines,  man  consists  of  three 
parts  or  essential  elements,  bodv,  soul,  and 
spirit  (1  Thes.  v.  2.3).  The  body'is  the  ma- 
terial part  of  man's  constitution.  The  soul, 
in  Hebrew  nephesh.  in  Greek  psnche,  is  the 
jirinciple  of  animal  life  :  man  possesses  it  in 
common  with  the  brutes  ;  to  it  belong  under- 
standing, emotion,  and  sensibility,  and  it 
ceases  to  exist  at  death.  The  spirit,  in  He- 
brew ruah,  in  Greek  pneuma,  is  the  mind,  the 
principle  of  man's  rational  and  immortal  life, 
the  possessor  of  reason,  will,  and  conscience. 
God  created  man  by  enlivening  inorganic 
matter  formed  into  a  body,  and  then  creating 
a  rational  .spirit  and  infusing  it  (Gen.  ii.  7), 
and  at  death  the  dust  or  body  returns  to  the 
earth  as  it  was,  and  the  spirit  returns  unto- 
God  who  gave  it  (Ecc.  xii.  7).  The  soul  of 
life,  in  Hebrew  nephesh  hayyah,  in  the  in- 
stance of  the  animal  (Gen.  i.  21,  24)  is  only 
the  animal  soul,  which  is  physical  and  ma- 
terial in  its  nature,  and  perishes  with  the 
body  of  which  it  is  the  vital  principle;  but 
the  soul  of  life  in  the  instance  of  man  (ii.  7) 
is  a  higher  principle,  the  rational  soul,  which 
was  inbreathed  by  the  Creator  and  made  in 
his  image.  Usually  the  biblical  writers  do 
nf)t  distinguish  the  pfnichr  or  animal  soul, 
which  is  the  lower  side  of  the  human  soul, 
from  the  pneuma  or  rational  soul,  the  higher 
side,  since  they  constitute  one  soul,  p.viche,  in 
distinction  from  the  body,  and  they  are  some- 
times designated  in  their  unity  by  pneuma, 
and  sometimes  by  psuche.  Commonly  the 
sacred  writers  speak  of  man  as  constituted 
of  body  and  soul,  or  body  and  spirit,  and 
not  of  body,  soul,  and  spirit;  but  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  44,  as  in  1  Thes.  v.  23  and  Heb.  iv.  12, 
Paul  requires  the  distinction  between  the 
animal  and  the  rational  soul  for  the  purposes 
of  his  discussion,  and  he  accordingly  makes 
it. 

According  to  dichotomy,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  only  two  essential  elements  in  the 
constitution  of  man  :  the  body  formed  from 


Soul 


740 


Sower 


the  dust  of  the  earth,  and  the  soul  or  prin- 
ciple of  life  (Gen.  ii.  7).  The  soul  is  the 
principle  of  the  whole  life  of  whatever  sub- 
ject is  spoken  of,  whether  man  or  beast.  It 
is  the  principle  of  all  life,  physical,  intel- 
lectual, moral,  religious.  There  is  not  one 
substance,  the  soul,  which  feels  and  remem- 
bers, and  another  substance,  the  spirit,  that 
has  conscience  and  the  knowledge  of  Clod. 
The  soul  of  the  brute  is  the  living  principle 
in  the  brute :  it  is  conscious  of  the  impres- 
sions which  are  made  by  external  objects  on 
the  organs  of  sense  belonging  to  the  body  ;  it 
is  endowed  with  that  measure  of  intelligence 
which  experience  shows  the  lower  animals 
to  possess,  but  it  is  irrational  and  mortal. 
Brutes  perish  because  God  does  not  will  that 
the  living  principle  in  them  should  continue. 
The  soul  of  man  is  the  same  in  kind  with 
that  of  the  brute,  but  it  differs  in  being  of  a 
higher  order :  in  addition  to  the  attributes 
of  sensibility,  memory,  and  instinct,  it  has 
the  higher  powers  which  pertain  to  the  in- 
tellectual, moral,  and  religious  life,  and  it 
has  continued  existence  after  the  death  of 
the  body,  not  because  of  its  inherent  nature, 
but  because  God  wills  to  preserve  it.  It  is 
argued  from  the  usage  of  words  in  Scripture 
in  defense  of  this  dualism  that  1.  Soul  of 
life,  nephesh  hayyah,  means  simply  animate 
existence,  a  being  in  which  there  is  a  living 
soul,  and  there  is  no  authority  to  make  it 
mean  one  thing  in  the  case  of  a  brute  and 
<iuite  another  thing  in  the  case  of  a  man.  2. 
The  Bible  does  not  ascribe  to  bea.sts  a  psnche 
only,  and  both  a  psuchr  and  pnenmn  to  man. 
The  living  principle  in  brutes  is  called  spirit, 
rnah,  as  well  as  soul,  nephef<h,  psnche.  ''Who 
knoweth  the  spirit  of  man  whether  it  goeth 
upward,  and  the  spirit  of  the  beast  whether 
it  goeth  downward  to  the  earth?"  (Ecc.  iii. 
21 ;  cp.  19,  R.  V.  margin  ;  Gen.  vii.  1.5).  3. 
No  distinction  is  observed  in  the  use  of  the 
words  soul  and  spirit.  The  souls  of  them 
that  were  slain  for  the  word  of  God  are  in 
heaven  (Eev.  vi.  9  ;  xx.  4),  and  likewise  the 
spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  (Heb.  xii 
23). 

Trichotomists  quote  1  Thes.  v.  23 :  "  The  God 
of  peace  himself  sanctify  you  wholly ;  and  may 
your  spirit  and  soul  and  body  be  preserved 
entire,  without  blame  at  the  coming  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (cp.  Heb.  iv.  12),  as  evi- 
dence that  Paul  distinguishes  the  animal 
soul  from  the  rational  spiiit.  But  dichoto- 
mists  reply  that  Paul's  language  is  quite 
analogous  to  tliat  employed  in  the  command, 
"Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  witli  all 
thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with 
all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength " 
(Mark  xii.  30  ;  cp.  Luke  i.  40,  47).  The  in- 
tention in  the  demand  for  love,  and  in  the 
prayer  for  preservation,  is  sim]>ly  to  lay 
stress  on  the  whole  man,  and  the  description 
is  accordingly  plethoric.  As  heart,  soul, 
strength,  and  mind  are  not  so  many  essential 
elements  in  man's  constitutiop,  so  there  is 


no  proof  that  body,  soul,  and  spirit  are.  The 
main  passage  relied  upon  to  support  the  tri- 
chotomist  position  is  1  Cor.  xv.  44 :  "  It  is 
sown  a  natural  body ;  it  is  raised  a  spiritual 
body.  If  there  is  a  natural  body,  there  is 
also  a  spiritual  body."  Trichotomists  inter- 
pret the  soma  psuchikon  or  natural  body  as 
one  marked  by  the  qualities  of  the  psuche  or 
animal  soul ;  namely,  by  physical  appetites 
and  passions,  such  as  hunger,  thirst,  and 
sexual  appetite.  These  are  founded  in  "  flesh 
and  blood,"  or  that  material  substance  of 
which  the  present  human  body  is  composed. 
The  resurrection,  or  spiritual  body,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  the  pneuma  or  rational  soul.  It  will  not 
be  composed  of  flesh  and  blood,  but  of  a  sub- 
stance which  is  more  like  the  rational  than 
the  animal  soul.  There  is,  however,  another 
interpretation,  not  only  in  harmony  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  dual  constitution  of  man, 
but  in  accord  with  the  general  usage  of  the 
words  psuchilios  and  pneiimatikos,  natural  and 
spiritual.  The  resurrection  ])ody  of  the  re- 
deemed will  not  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  ordinary  animal  life,  right  and  proper 
though  that  life  is,  but  the  resurrection  body 
will  be  opposed  to  everything  carnal,  and 
will  be  characterized  by  the  qualities  which 
belong  to  the  Spirit-led  man.  This  appears 
from  a  study  of  the  words.  In  established 
usage  among  the  Greeks  psuche  was  the  com- 
mon word  for  the  vital  principle ;  which, 
however,  might  be  thought  of  as  a  disem- 
bodied soul,  the  immortal  part  of  man,  and 
the  organ  of  thought  and  judgment  (Herod, 
ii.  123 ;  v.  124 ;  Plato,  Tim.  x.,  i.  e.,  p.  30"), 
hence  psuchihos  referred  primarily  to  the 
ordinary  animal  life,  and  is  so  used  l)y 
Paul,  James,  and  Jude  (1  Cor.  ii.  14  ;  Jas. 
iii.  15  ;  Jude  19).  Pneiimatikos,^  on  the 
other  hand,  almost  exclusively  has  refer- 
ence in  Scripture  to  the  Pneuma  'afiion,  the 
Holy  Spirit.  It  is  opposed  to  carnal  and 
fleshly,  to  human  nature  deprived  of  the 
Spirit  of  God;  it  refers  to  possession  and 
control  by  the  Holy  Spirit  as  contrasted  with 
the  domination  of  the  flesh  (1  Cor.  iii.  1)  ;  it 
denotes  what  is  effected  by  the  Spirit  and 
pertains  to  the  Spirit  (Rom.  i.  11  ;  1  Cor.  ii. 
13;  xii.  1).  Hence  a  spiritual  bod  v\  con- 
trasted with  a  natural  body,  is  a  body  not 
only  free  from  fleshly  lusts,  but  elevated 
above  the  physical  passions  and  appetites 
which  are  natural  to  man  iMat.  xxii.  30),  in 
vital  union  with  the  S|)irit  of  God,  and 
marked  by  the  qualities  which  characterize 
the  Spirit-led  man. 

South,  The.     See  Negeb. 

South  Ra'moth.     See  Ramah  6. 

Sow.     See  Swine. 

Sow'er  and  Sow'ing. 

Sowing  began  with  the  rain  of  October; 
see  Year.  The  seed  was  required  to  be 
ceremonially  clean   (Lev.  xi.  37,  3S).     Tlie 


Spain 


741 


Spelt 


sower  held  the  vessel  containing  the  seed  in 
the  left  hand,  and  scattered  the  seed  with 
his  right ;  see  illnstration,  article  Plow. 
When  the  soil  was  favorable,  he  seems  some- 
times to  have  cast  in  front  of  the  plow,  which 
then  served  the  purpo.se  of  a  harrow  tu  cover 
the  seed.  Wheat  was  best  sown,  it  was 
thought,  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  R.  V.).  The 
sowing  of  mixed  seed  was  forbidden  (Lev. 
xix.  19  ;  Deut.  xxii.  9),  as  being  contrary  to 
nature  as  established  by  the  Creator  ;  but  the 
planting  of  several  kinds  of  seeds  in  different 
sections  of  the  same  field  was  permitted. 

Spain. 

The  well-known  country  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  Europe.  Its  mines  yielded 
gold  and  silver  (1  Mac.  viii.  3).  Paul  desired 
to  visit  it  (Rom.  xv.  24,  28),  and  probably 
carried  out  his  intention,  for  Clement  of 
Rome,  writing  from  Italy  about  A.D.  96,  says 
that  Paul  "  reached  the  bounds  of  the  west," 
and  the  Muratorian  fragment,  written  about 
A.  D.  170,  states  explicitly  that  he  went  to 
Spain.  This  visit  must  have  taken  place 
after  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome  which  is 
recorded  in  The  Acts.     See  Tarshish. 

Spar'row. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Sippor, 
chirper,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3;  cii.  7;  and  R.  V. 
of  Prov.  xxvi.  2.  The  word  is  more  fre- 
quently translated  bird  ;  in  fact,  it  is  often 
employed  as  a  general  term  for  bird  or  fowl 
(Ps.  viii.  8;  cxlviii.  10;  Ezek.  xvii.  23).  It 
may  be  a  bird  of  prey  (Jer.  xii.  9 ;  Ezek. 
xxxix.  17),  such  as  the  raven  and  crow, 
which  are  passerine  birds,  although  they 
feed  on  carrion ;  or  it  may  be  a  bird  cere- 
monially clean,  and  large  enough  to  be  eaten 
as  food  (Lev.  xiv.  4;  Neh.  v.  18).  It  may 
live  in  the  mountains  or  in  the  town  (Ps.  xi. 
1 ;  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  may  build  its  nest  in  trees 
or  on  the  ground  or  about  human  habita- 
tions (Deut.  xxii.  6;  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3).  The 
term  includes  doves  and  pigeons  (Gen.  xv.  9, 
10),  and  the  etymology  indicates  that  in  the 
first  instance  it  designates  chirping  birds, 
like  the  sparrow  and  the  finch. 

In  the  N.  T.  sparrow  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Greek  Strotithion,  which  denotes  any 
small  bird,  especially  one  of  the  sparrow 
kind.  It  was  sold  aud' eaten  (Mat.  x.  29; 
Luke  xii.  6,  7). 

The  house  sparrow  (Passer  domesficus), 
familiarly  knowu  as  the  English  sparrow,  is 
found  through  Europe,  northern  Africa,  and 
western  Asia,  and  is  common  in  the  coast 
towns  of  Palestine.  Two  species  of  southern 
Europe,  closely  allied  to  it,  the  Italian  spar- 
row (Passer  italix)  and  the  marsh  sparrow 
(Passer  hispaniolensis),  also  occur,  the  latter 
chiefly  in  the  Jordan  valley,  where  it  breeds 
in  vast  numbers  in  the  thorn  trees.  The 
tree  sparrow  (Passer  montanns)  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  the  house  sparrow,  and  perhaps  in 
Palestine  should  not  be  separated  from  it ; 
but  the  sparrows  which  frequent  the  sacred 


precincts  on  the  temple  hill  and  are  common 
on  the  mount  of  Olives  have  sometimes  been 
spoken  of  by  writers  of  authority  as  tree 
sparrows.  Another  sparrow  (Passer  moahii- 
icus)  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  but  is  rare.  The  rock  or  foolish  sparrow 
•  (Petronia  stulta)  is  common  on  the  central 
ridge  of  Palestine.  It  never  resorts  to  in- 
habited dwellings.  Thomson  says  that  a 
sparrow  which  has  lost  its  mate  is  often  seen 
sitting  alone  on  the  housetop,  lamenting  its 
fate  (cp.  Ps.  cii.  7).  Tristram  is  inclined  to 
see  in  this  passage  a  reference  to  the  blue 
thrush  (Monticola  cyanus),  a  solitary  bird 
which  perches  on  the  housetop,  uttering 
meanwhile  a  monotonous  and  plaintive  note. 

Spar'tans. 

Inhabitants  of  the  celebrated  city  of 
Sparta  in  Greece.  It  was  known  also  as 
Lacedsemon.  Jonathan  Maccabjeus  refers  to 
an  ancient  friendship  which  existed  between 
the  Spartans  and  the  Jews  in  the  days  of 
king  Arius  and  the  high  priest  Onias,  about 
300  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii.  7,  19-23 ;  in  A.  V.  Lace- 
demonians) ;  and  he  sent  letters  to  them, 
when  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  to  renew 
the  friendship  with  them  (2,  5).  Jonathan 
did  not  live  to  hear  their  answer,  but  Simon 
received  cordial  letters  from  them  (xiv.  16, 
20-23). 

Spear. 

The  spear,  called  in  Hebrew  h'nith,  con- 
sisted of  a  metallic  head  on  a  shaft  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  19;  xvii.  7;  Is.  ii.  4).  It  could  be  car- 
ried in  the  hand  ;  stuck  in  the  ground  when 
not  wanted  ;  and  though  used  for  thrusting, 
could  he  hurled  (1  Sam.  xviii.  10,  in  A.  V. 
javelin  ;  xxvi.  7,  8;  2  Sam.  ii.  23;  John  xix. 
34). 

A  long  spear,  the  Arab  rumh,  was  used 
(Judg.  V.  8;  1  Chron.  xii.  8,  24  ;  Neh.  iv.  13; 
,Ier.  xlvi.  4).  It  was  called  romrt;{i  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  was  used  for  thrusting  (Num. 
XXV.  7,  8,  R.  v.),  not  for  throwing.  In  R.  V., 
it  is  once  rendered  lance  (1  Kin.  xviii.  28), 
in  A.  V.  of  1611  lancer,  later  corrupted  into 
lancet. 

Spear'men. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Dexiolahos  or, 
as  in  the  Alexandrian  manuscript,  Dexiofio'os 
in  Acts  xxiii.  23,  a  body  of  troops  distin- 
guished from  the  legionary  soldiers  and  tlic 
cavalry.  In  the  only  other  passage  where 
the  word  occurs,  which  is  late,  they  are 
distinguished  from  archers  and  targeteers. 
Evidently  they  were  light-armed  soldiers 
who  carried  a  weapon  in  the  right  hand. 

Spelt. 

The  revised  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ku.i- 
semeth  (Ex.  ix.  32  and  Is.  xxviii.  25,  in  A.  V. 
rye  ;  Ezek.  iv.  9,  in  A.  V.  fitches).  Spelt  is 
an  inferior  kind  of  wheat,  the  cLaft'  of 
which  slightly  adheres  to  the  grain.  It  was 
sown  in  Egypt,  springing  up  after  the  barley 
(Ex.  ix.  3-i).  The  Egyptians  made  their 
bread   of  it  (Herod,  ii.  36,  77).     Rye  is  a 


Spice 


742 


Stacte 


northern  plant,  and  is  not  grown  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine. 
Spice. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebre'V  Bosem  and 
its  plural  B'samim,  which  are  used  generically 
for  fragrant  stuff,  spice,  spicery  (Ex.  xxv.  6 
■with  XXX.  23,  24;  1  Kin.  x.  10;  Song  iv.  10, 
14).  Spice  is  a  vegetable  substance  possess- 
ing aromatic  and  pungent  qualities  (Song  iv. 
16).  The  chief  spices  were  myrrh,  cinna- 
mon, calamus,  and  cassia  or  costus  (Ex.  xxx. 
23,  24).  Southern  Arabia  was  the  great,  but 
not  exclusive,  producer  of  them  (1  Kin.  x.  2; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Bosem  in  Song  v.  13 ;  vi. 
2,  and  basam  in  v.  1,  are  probably  appMed 
specifically  to  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead  (E. 
V.  margin). 

2.  K'ko'th  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11)  is 
probably  a  specific  term  for  tragacanth  or 
storax  (E.  V.  margin).  A  form  of  this  word 
is  perhaps  used  in  2  Kin.  xx.  13 ;  Is.  xxxiz. 
2  for  spices  in  general. 

3.  Sammim,  fragrant  odors,  were  aromatic 
substances  used  in  the  preparation  of  incense 
(Ex.  xxx.  7).  Three  are  specified  :  stacte  or 
opobalsamum,  onycha,  and  galbanum  (34). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Ardma,  a 
generic  term  (Mark  xvi.  1),  including  myrrh 
and  aloes  (John  xix.  40). 

Spice  Mer'chant. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Eokel  in  1 
Kin.  X.  15.  It  means  simply,  as  the  E.  V. 
makes  it,  a  merchant ;  and  A.  V.  renders  it 
so  elsewhere,  e.  g.  Ezek.  xxvii.  13. 

Spi'der. 

An  animal  of  the  class  Arachnida,  called 
in  Hebrew  'ahhihish.  It  weaves  a  web  (Job 
viii.  14  ;  Is.  lix.  5).  The  number  of  species 
in  Palestine  amounts  to  600  or  700.  In 
A.  V.  spider  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
S'mamifh,  poisonous  thing  (Prov.  xxx.  28,  in 
E.  V.  lizard). 

Spike'nard. 

A  fragrant  plant,  in  Hebrew  nerd  (Song  iv. 
13,  14),  from  which  an  aromatic  ointment 
was  made,  called  nardos  in  Greek  (Mark  xiv. 
3).  It  is  believed  to  be  Nardosfachys  jata- 
mansi,  a  plant  of  the  Valerian  family,  with  fra- 
grant roots,  growing  in  tlie  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains at  an  elevation  of  11,000  to  17,000  feet. 
It  was  used  by  the  Hindus  as  a  medicine  and 
perfume  from  remote  antiquity, and  was  early 
an  article  of  commerce.  The  long  distance 
which  it  had  to  be  brought  to  I'alestine  ren- 
dered it  on  its  arrival  very  precious.  The 
alabaster  cruse  of  it,  which  was  poured  over 
the  head  of  Jesus,  was  worth  300  denarii 
(Mark  xiv.  3,  5).  According  to  Pliny,  the 
ointment  varied  in  })rice  fioni  25  to  300  and 
even  400  deiuirii  a  pdund,  according  to 
the  quality  (Hist.  Nat.  xii.  26;  xiii.  2,  4). 
In  Mark  xiv.  3;  John  xii.  3  (see  E.  V.  mar- 
gin), the  si)ikenard  is  described  by  the 
Greek  adjective  ]nstikos,  a  variant  ut  pixtos, 
genuine,  or  of  pistos,  liquid.  Some  inter- 
preters, however,   think  that   the   adjective 


Spikenard  (yardih-ituchys  jatamansi). 

denotes  the  place  where  this  variety  was  ob- 
tained. 

Spln'ning. 

Spinning  was  the  work  of  the  women  (Ex. 
XXXV.  25).  The  wheel  was  unknown,  and 
spinning  was  done  by  hand.  Distaff  and 
spindle  were  used  (Prov.  xxxi.  19).  The 
flax  or  wool  was  wound  on  the  distaff,  which 
was  held  under  the  arm  or  stuck  upright  in 
the  ground,  and  the  thread  was  drawn  out 
by  hand.  To  the  end  of  this  thread  the 
spindle,  with  a  circular  rim  to  steady  it 
when  revolving,  was  attached  and  by  rotating 
it  the  spinner  twisted  the  thread.  See  illus- 
tration, article  Weaving. 

Spir'it.    See  Soul  and  Holy  Ghost. 

Spring.     See  Fountain. 

Sta'chys  [an  ear  of  grain]. 

A  Christian  at  Eome  to  whom  the  apostle 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Eom.  xvi.  9). 

Stac'te. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nataph,  a 
drop.  It  denotes  a  sweet  spice,  which  was 
used  for  incense  (Ex.  xxx.  34;  cp.  Ecclus. 
xxiv.  15).  The  Septuagint  interprets  nataph 
by  stakte,  which  likewise  .signifies  a  droi>  or 
exudation,  and  was  employed  for  the  oil 
which  trickles  from  fresh  myrrh  or  cinna- 
mon. It  is  believed,  however,  that  nataph  is 
the  gum  of  the  storax  tree,  or  else  opobal- 
samum (E.  V.  margin). 

The  storax  (Styrax  officinalis)  is  a  resinous 
.shrub  or  small  tree,  from  10  to  20  feet  high, 
with  flowers  resembling  those  of  the  orange 
ill  color,  size,  and  fragrance,  and  mostly 
growing  in  spikes  of  four  or  five.     The  tree 


star 


743 


Star 


is  very  sliowy  when  in  bloom.     It  is  native 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,    and    abounds   in 


Stacte  {Siyrax  officinalis). 

Oalilee.  The  officinal  storax  is  the  inspis- 
sated .juice  of  the  bark;  it  is  used  medici- 
nally as  an  expectorant,  and  also  in  per- 
fumery. The  liquid  storax  of  commerce  is 
the  product  of  an  entirely  different  plant. 

Opobalsamum  (E.  V.  margin)  is  a  resinous 
juice,  also  called  balm  and  balm  of  Gilead 
Iq.  v.). 

Star. 

The  number  of  the  stars  and  their  grouping 
in  constellations  early  attracted  man's  atten- 
tion (Gen.  xxii.  17;  Is.  xiii.  10).  Orion, 
Pleiades,  the  Bear,  the  zodiac  were  pointed 
out  (Job  ix.  9;  xxxviii.  .31.  .32),  planets  were 
known  and  named  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5:  see 
Babylonia,  Chiun,  Lucifer),  perhaps 
meteors  or  comets  are  referred  to  (Jude  13), 
the  position  of  certain  stars  served  as  dates 
(Antiq.  xiii.  8,  2),  and  in  Egypt  the  succes- 
sive ri.sing  of  thirty -six  constellations  marked 
off  an  equal  number  of  ten-day  periods  in 
the  year ;  see  Week.  The  stars  were  recog- 
nized in  Israel  as  the  handiwork  of  God 
(Gen.  i.  16;  Ps.  viii.  3),  and  as  under  his 
control  (Is.  xiii.  10;  Jer.  xxxi.  35). 

But  among  the  heathen  and  the  degenerate 
Israelites  the  stars  became  objects  of  wor- 
ship (Deut.  iv.  19  ;  2  Kin.  xvii.  16) ;  altars 
were  reared,  and  incense  was  burnt  to  them 
(xxi.  5;  xxiii.  5).  Th«y  were  believed  to 
exercise  influence,  not  only  in  the  ordinary 
economy  of  nature  (cp.  Job  xxxviii.  31,  A. 


v.),  but  also  over  the  affairs  of  men.  This 
belief  was  widespread  among  the  heathen. 
Deborah  may  perhaps  be  subsidizing  a  phrase 
of  current  speech,  in  which  a  reminiscence 
of  heathen  notions  lingers,  when  she  poeti- 
cally describes  the  stars  from  their  cour-ses 
fighting  against  Sisera  (Judg.  v.  20)  ;  but 
Bertheau  is  probably  correct  in  understand- 
ing her  to  speak  poeticallj^  of  divine  assist- 
ance (iv.  15),  as  if  heaven  or,  to  use  her  own 
words,  as  if  the  stars,  forsaking  their  usual 
orbits,  had  fought  against  Sisera  (cp.  Ps. 
xviii.  9).  A  reference  has  also  been  seen  in 
her  words  to  a  providential  storm  which  dis- 
comfited the  Canaanites ;  and  ver.  21  and 
Josephus  (Antiq.  v.  5,  4)  are  cited  in  con- 
firmation :  but  Josephus  probably  deduces 
this  storm  from  the  analogy  of  Josh.  x.  10, 
11  and  1  Sam.  vii.  10.  The  stars  were  also 
supposed  by  the  heathen  to  portend  coming 
events,  and  they  were  observed  with  a  view 
to  prognostication  (Is.  xlvii.  13).  See  As- 
trologers. J.  D.  D. 

Several  stars  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  re- 
quire particular  notice  : 

1.  The  day-star  (2  Pet.  i.  19)  is  probably  a 
figurative  description  of  the  signs  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  second  advent.  Others 
understand  it  as  the  Spirit's  illumination  of 
the  believer's  heart. 

2.  The  morning  star  (Rev.  ii.  28)  :  the 
bright,  the  morning  star  (xxii.  16,  R.  V.). 
Both  these  phrases  are  probably  designations 
of  Christ  as  the  herald  to  his  people  of  the 
eternal  day.     See  Lucifer. 

3.  The  star  of  the  wise  men  ;  see  Magi. 
The  usual  view  has  been  that  this  was  a 
purely  supernatural  phenomenon,  a  starlike 
object  which  appeared  to  the  Magi  in  their 
eastern  sky,  and  suggested  to  them,  perhaps 
through  their  acquaintance  with  the  proph- 
ecy of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  17)  or  other  pre- 
dictions, that  the  king  of  the  Jews  was  born, 
and  which  afterwards  reappeared,  as  they 
journeyed  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem,  and 
guided  them  on  their  way  until  it  rested  over 
the  house  in  which  Jesus  was.  Others,  how- 
ever, consider  it  a  natural  phenomenon  provi- 
dentially used  to  direct  the  Magi.  In  Dec, 
1603,  the  astronomer  Kepler  noted  a  con- 
junction of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  joined  in 
March,  1604,  by  Mars,  and  in  Oct.,  1604,  by 
a  brilliant  new  .star,  which  gradually  faded 
and  vanished  in  Feb.,  1606.  Kepler  calcu- 
lated that  the  planets  were  in  conjunction  in 
7  and  6  b.  c,  and.  supposing  that  the  new 
or  variable  star  had  followed  the  conjunction 
then  as  it  did  in  1604,  believed  it  to  be  the 
star  of  the  Magi.  Others  have  identified  the 
Magi's  star  with  the  planetary  conjunction 
itself,  and  the  calculations  of  Kepler  have 
been  corrected  by  Ideler,  Pritchard,  and 
Encke,  with  the  result  that  we  know  that  in 
7  B.  c.  there  were  three  conjunctions  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  in  May,  September,  and 
December.  Hence,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  Magi  saw  the  heavenly  spectacle  in  May  ; 


stater 


744 


Stephen 


connected  it,  through  their  astrology  and 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  prophecy  and  expecta- 
tion, with  the  birth  of  a  Jewish  king;  and, 
when  going  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem  in 
December,  saw  again  the  conjunction  over- 
head. But  the  word  star  can  hardly  mean  a  con- 
junction,  and  this  view  would  place  Christ's 
birth  earlier  than  other  cfmsiiUra  I  ions  war- 
rant. If  we  can  believe  that  Kepler's  variable 
star  followed  the  conjunction,  as  he  supposed, 
it  would  answer  the  conditions  better  than 
the  conjunction  itself  It  is  on  some  accounts 
more  probable  that  the  event  was  a  natural 
rather  than  a  supernatural  phenomenon.  The 
Magi  were  doubtless  astrologers,  and  would 
attach  special  ideas  to  the  positions  and  vari- 
ations of  the  stars.  The  star  did  not  go  be- 
fore them  to  Judsea,  but  only,  after  its  reap- 
pearance, did  it  seem  to  lead  them  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Bethlehem.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  think  that  Mat.  ii.  9  cannot  fairly  be 
understood  of  anything  but  a  supernatural 
phenomenon  ;  nor  can  the  astronomical  cal- 
culations above  described  safely  be  lield  to 
have  identified  the  star,  even  if  it  be  regarded 
as  a  natural  object.  g.  t.  p. 

Sta'ter.     See  Money. 

Steel. 

A  modified  form  of  iron,  resulting  in  elas- 
ticity and  hardness.  The  earliest  known  and 
simplest  method  of  reducing  iron  from  its 
ore  was  capable  of  yielding  steel.  The  Cha- 
lybes  in  Pontus  were  celebrated  for  hardening 
iron,  and  their  name  was  used  by  the  Greeks 
for  steel.  Steel  seems  to  have  been  used  in 
ancient  Egypt.  Comparison  with  Syriac 
pal'da',  as  well  as  the  context,  suggests  that 
the  Hebrew  word  paldah  in  Nah.  ii.  3  means 
steel  (R.  v.,  in  A.  V.  torches). 

Where  steel  occurs  in  A.  V.,  brass  is  cor- 
rectly substituted  in  R.  V. 

Stepb'a-nas  [crowned]. 

A  Christian  convert  at  Corinth.  His  house- 
hold was  the  first  fruit  of  Paul's  labors  in  the 
province  of  Achaia.  The  apostle  himself 
baptized  its  members,  and  they  set  themselves 
to  minister  unto  the  saints.  Stephanas  also 
visited  the  apostle,  bringing  him  aid,  and 
was  with  him  when  tlie  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  was  penned  (1  Cor.  i.  16;  xvi. 
15,  17). 

Ste'phen  [a  wreath  or  crown]. 

The  first  Christian  martyr.  He  is  first 
mentioned  as  first  in  the  list  of  the  seven 
men  chosen  by  the  Jerusalem  Christians,  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  apostles,  to  superintend 
the  distribution  of  the  church's  alms  (Acts  vi. 
fj).  Since  the  appointm'ent  of  these  seven 
men,  usually  regarded  as  the  first  deacons, 
arose  from  the  complaints  made  by  the' 
Greek-speaking  or  Hellenistic  Jewish  Chris- 
tians that  their  widows  were  neglected  in 
the  daily  ministration,  and  since  Stephen  is 
itself  a  Greek  name,  and  since  the  subscfpieut 
persecution  of  Stephen  arose  among  the 
Greek-speaking   Jews    of    Jerusalem,     it    is 


probable  that  Stephen  himself  was  a  Hellen- 
ist, and  perhaps  had  come  from  abroad.  He 
was  a  notable  man  ;  full  of  faith  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (.5),  who,  after  his  ai)pointment, 
became  more  than  ever  conspicuous  as  a 
preacher  and  worker  of  miracles  (8).  His 
activity  occasioned  for  the  first  time  opjxi- 
sition  to  the  church  among  the  foreign 
Jews,  who  had  synagogues  in  Jerusalem. 
The  trouble  originated  particularly  in  the 
synagogue  of  the  I.,ibertines  (or  freedmen) 
and  Cyrenians  and  Alexandrians,  with 
whom  united  certain  Jews  from  Cilicia 
and  Asia  (9).  These  charged  Stephen  with 
blaspheming  Moses  and  God,  and,  more  es- 
pecially, with  declaring  that  Jesus  would 
destroy  the  temple  and  change  the  customs 
derived  from  Moses  (11-14).  Luke  states 
that  the  witnesses  produced  against  Stephen 
were  suborned  and  false,  as  those  against 
Christ  had  been ;  but  Stephen  must  have 
said  something  which  could  be  thus  perverted. 
He  was  brctught  before  the  sanhedrin,  and 
from  his  defense,  reported  in  Acts  vii.  2-53, 
we  can  understand  his  position.  He  first  re- 
cited God's  early  choice  and  guidance  of  the 
patriarchs  (•2-22),  apparently  to  bring  out  the 
fact  that  God  from  the  beginning  had  been 
leading  Israel  to  a  definite  goal ;  theu,  con- 
tinuing the  history,  he  showed  that  the  He- 
brews had  repeatedly  resisted  God's  purpose 
with  them,  both  in  the  days  of  Moses  and 
subsequently  (23-43),  and  had  failed  to  see 
the  temporary  and  typical  character  of  both 
tabernacle  and  temple  (44-50).  Then,  sud- 
denly stopping  his  argument,  he  bitterly 
charged  them  with  resisting,  as  their  fathers 
had  done,  the  Holy  Ghost,  with  having 
slain  the  Christ  as  their  fathers  had  slain 
the  prophets,  and  with  failing  to  keep  in 
reality  their  o\\ti  law  (51-53).  At  this 
point  the  listeners  gnashed  upon  him  with 
their  teeth  and  prepared  to  rush  upon- him. 
A  vision  was  given  him  of  the  Son  of  man 
standing  (as  though  to  receive  him)  at  the 
right  hand  of  God;  and,  when  he  declared 
it,  they  seized  him,  cast  him  otit  of  the  city, 
and  stoned  hira.  It  was  not  lawful  for  them 
to  put  anyone  to  death  without  permission 
from  the  Romans,  but  the  martyrdom  was 
evidently  the  result  of  an  uncontrollable  out- 
break. The  speech  and  death  of  Stephen 
mark  the  transition  of  Christianity  from  its  , 
earliest  Jewish  form  to  its  extension  anunig 
the  gentiles.  Peter  preached  Christianity  as 
the  fulfillment  of  prophecy  ;  Stej)hen  preached 
it  as  the  goal  of  Hebrew  history.  Yet  while 
Stephen  declared  that  Christianity  could  not 
be  limited  by  Judaism,  he  did  not  set  forth, 
like  Paul  afterwards,  its  gentile  mission  or 
its  deliverance,  by  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  faith  alone,  from  its  Jewish  environment. 
He  marks,  therefore,  the  transition  from 
Jewish  to  gentile  Christianity.  Moreover, 
the  i)ersecution  which  followed  his  martyr- 
dom led  to  the  dispersion  of  the  disciples, 
and  so  in  fact  to  the  carrying  of  the  gospel 


stocks 


745 


Stone 


to  the  Samaritans  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
Stephen's  personal  character  also  was  very 
beautiful.  As  a  man  he  was  "full  of  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  ( vi.  5) ;  as  a  preacher, 
"full  of  faith  and  power"  (8);  before  the 
council,  hi.s  enemies  "  saw  his  face  as  it  had 
been  the  face  of  an  angel"  (15)  ;  and  his  last 
words  were :  "  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their 
charge  "  (vii.  60). 

The  inspiration  of  Stephen,  so  far  as  his 
recorded  speech  is  concerned,  is  a  disputed 
question.  He  is  said  (vii.  55)  to  have  been 
"full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  but  some  of  his 
historical  statements  are  thought  by  many 
not  to  harmonize  with  the  O.  T.  Others  hold 
that  they  can  be  harmonized,  or  at  least 
might  be,  if  we  knew  all  the  facts.  Either 
view  can  be  adjusted  to  the  doctrine  of  in- 
spiration, since  the  phrase  "full  of  the  Holy 
Ghost "  need  not  mean  "  inspired "  in  the 
technical  sense  (see  Acts  vi.  3;  Eph.  v.  18), 
and  since  the  inspiration  of  Luke  merely 
guarantees  the  correctness  of  his  report  of 
what  Stephen  said,  not  the  correctness  of 
Stephen's  utterances  themselves.      G.  t.  p. 

Stocks. 

An  instrument  of  punishment,  called  in 
Hebrew  sad,  consisting  of  a  wooden  frame, 
hence  called  xnlon  in  Greek,  in  which  the 
feet  were  put  and  firmly  held  (Job  xiii.  27 ; 
xxsiii.  11;  Acts  xvi.  24).  The  prisoner  sat 
meanwhile.  A  special  form  of  the  apparatus, 
apparently,  was  called  in  Hebrew  mahpeketh, 
turning,  torsion,  because  the  body  was  forced 
into  an  unnatural  position  (2  Chron.  xvi.  10, 
R.  V.  margin ;  Jer.  xx.  2).  It  included 
shackles  or  rather  a  collar ;  at  least  these  could 
be  used  on  the  prisoner  at  the  same  time 
(xxix.  26,  E.  v.),  so  that  his  neck,  arms,  and 
legs  could  all  be  held  fast  together. 

Sto'ics  [Greek  stoikos,  pertaining  to  the 
porch] . 

A  sect  of  philosophers,  one  of  two  which 
Paul  encountered  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  18). 
Their  founder  was  Zeno  of  Citium  in  Cyprus, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  an  earlier 
philosopher,  Zeno  of  Elea,  in  Italy.  The 
Cyprian  Zeno  was  born,  it  is  believed,  be- 
tween 357  and  352  B.  c,  and  died  between 
263  and  2.59,  having  lived  little  short  of  a 
century.  Eemoving  from  his  native  place  to 
Athens,  he  taught  for  about  fifty-eight  years 
in  a  sfoa.  or  porch,  on  the  public  market 
place.  His  doctrine  was  essentially  panthe- 
istic. The  Stoics  distinguished  matter  and 
force  as  the  ultimate  principles  in  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  the  force  working  everywhere 
they  called  reason,  providence,  God,  and  re- 
garded it  as  conscious  and  thinking,  yet  de- 
pendent and  impersonal,  a  breath  or  a  fire 
whicli  forms,  permeates,  and  vivifies  all 
things,  and  which  in  accordance  with  inex- 
orable necessity  calls  beings  and  worlds  into 
existence  and  destroys  them  again,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  a  cosmical  period  the  universe 
is  resolved  into  fire  in  a  general  conflagration, 


and  the  evolution  of  the  world  begins  again, 
and  so  on  without  end.  The  human  soul  is 
a  spark  or  emanation  of  this  conscious  but 
impersonal  deity.  It  survives  the  body,  but 
lives  only  for  a  cosmical  period,  and  is  reab- 
sorbed at  last  into  the  source  from  which  it 
came.  The  Stoics  classed  themselves  among 
the  followers  of  Socrates,  and  resembled  him 
in  their  theory  of  life.  They  rigidly  severed 
the  morally  good  from  the  agreeable.  They 
declared  that  an  act  is  good  or  evil  in  itself, 
and  that  pleasure  should  never  be  made  the 
end  of  an  action.  The  highest  good  is  virtue. 
Virtue  is  a  life  conformed  to  nature,  or  the 
agreement  of  human  conduct  with  the  law  of 
the  universe,  and  of  the  human  with  the  di- 
vine will ;  it  is  especially  resignation  in  respect 
to  fate.  The  cardinal  virtues  are  practical 
wisdom  as  to  what  is  good  and  evil,  courage, 
prudence  or  self-restraint,  and  ju.stice.  Zeno 
encouraged  his  followers  to  hold  their  feel- 
ings in  rigid  control,  so  as  to  be  as  much  as 
possible  independent  of  all  disturbing  influ- 
ences, whatever  occurrences  might  take  place. 
Stoicism  made  noble  characters.  It  contin- 
ued as  a  power  for  about  400  years,  its  most 
eminent  professors  being  the  slave  Ei>ictetus, 
the  philosopher  Seneca,  and  the  emperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius. 

Stom'a-cher. 

A  part  of  dress,  once  worn  by  women, 
covering  the  pit  of  the  stomach  and  the 
breast,  and  often  highly  ornamented.  It  is 
the  rendering  adopted  in  Is.  iii.  24  of  the 
Hebrew  P'th'igil,  applied  to  an  article  of 
female  attire. "  The  nicauing  of  the  Hebrew 
word  is  not  definitely  known.  A.  R.  V.  ren- 
ders it  robe;  Luther   wide  mantle. 

Stone. 

Palestine  is  a  stony  country,  and  it  was 
often  necessary  to  clear  a  field  of  stones 
prejmratory  to  its  cultivation  (Is.  v.  2).  An 
enemy's  fields  were  marred  by  throwing 
stones  on  them,  and  his  wells  were  choked 
with  stones  (2  Kin.  iii.  19,  25). 

Stones  were  put  to  various  uses :  1.  For 
moles,  quays  (War  i,  21,  6),  city  walls  (1  Kin. 
XV.  22;  Neh.  iv.  3) ;  for  dwellings  (Lev.  xiv. 
45;  Amos  v.  11),  palaces  (1  Kin.  vii.  1,  9), 
fortresses,  temples  (vi.  7i  ;  for  the  pavement 
of  courtyards  and  for  columns  (Esth.  i.  6), 
and  in  Herodian  times  at  least  for  paving 
streets  (see  Street);  and  for  aqueducts,  reser- 
voirs, bridges;  dykes  about  vineyards  (  Prov. 
xxiv.  30,  31)  ;  altars  (Ex.  xx.  25).  In  build- 
ing altars  the  Israelites  used  unhewn  stones, 
likewise  for  an  ordinary  dyke,  and  when 
heaps  of  stones  were  made  to  commemorate 
an  event  (Gen.  xxxi.  46)  or  to  mark  the 
g-rave  of  a  notorious  offender  (Josh.  vii.  26; 
viii.  29;  2  Sam.  xviii.  17),  a  custom  still  in 
vogue  in  Syria  and  Arabia,  but  not  restricted 
to  the  graves  of  evildoers.  But  for  some 
purposes  the  stones  were  sawn  and  hewn 
(1  Kin.  vii.  9, 11) ;  and,  where  suitable,  stones 
of  enormous  size  were  used,  as  in  the  walls 


stone 


r46 


Stoning 


of  the  temple  (10)  and  the  mole  at  Ciesarea 
(War  i.  21,  6). 

2.  Single  stones  were  used  to  close  the 
month  of  cisterns  and  wells,  and  the  en- 
trance of  tombs  I  Gen.  xxix.  2  ;  Mat.  xxvii.  60  ; 
■John  xi.38),  to  mark  bonndaries  (Dent.  xix. 
14),  and  probablj'  as  way  marks  (Jer.  xxxi. 
21).  In  Eoman  times  mile  stones  were 
ei-ected  along  the  chief  public  highways  ;  as, 
for  example,  on  the  road  between  Tyre  and 
Sidon  and  between  Pella  and  Gerasa,  where 
they  are  still  to  be  seen.  Stones  were  .set  up 
to  commemorate  persons  and  events  (Gen. 
xxxi.  45 ;  xxxv.  14,  20  ;  2  Sam.  xviii.  18),  and 
were  sometimes  inscribed  with  a  record  of 
deeds  (Herod,  ii.  106;  see  Moabite  Stone). 
Stones,  both  in  their  natural  state  and  graven, 
served  as  idols  (Lev.  x.xvi.  1  ;  Deut.  xxix. 
17;  2  Kin.  xix.  18;  cp.  Is.  Ivii.  6).  Certain 
small  stones,  called  in  Greek  haituloi  and 
haitulia,  which  were  often,  if  not  always, 
meteorites  and  held  sacred  because  they  fell 
from  heaven,  played  a  i)art  in  gentile  super- 
stition. They  were  .said  to  move,  talk,  and 
guard  from  evil.  The  Greek  name,  if  it  had 
a  Semitic  origin,  as  there  is  scarcely  reason 
to  doubt,  is  akin  to  beth'el  and  may  indicate 
that  the  stone  was  regarded  as  the  abode  of 
a  supernatural  power,  spirit,  or  god.  The 
name  was  not  used  by  the  Semites  to  desig- 
nate the  rude  stone  pillars  which  they  set 
up  at  places  of  worship  (Deut.  xii.  3;  see 
High  Places).  The  Israelites  sometimes 
consecrated  a  single  stone  as  a  memorial  to 
God  (Gen.  xxviii.  18-22;  xxxv.  14;  1  Sam. 
vii.  12;  Is.  xix.  19),  and  they  might  give  a 
religious  name  to  the  place  (Gen.  xxviii.  19; 
xxxv.  7)  or  even  to  the  stone  (1  Sam.  vii.  12), 
just  as  they  sometimes  called  an  altar  by 
God's  name  (Gen.  xxxiii.  20;  Ex.  xvii.  15; 
cp.  Gen.  xxxv.  7);  but  in  the  recorded  cases 
they  did  not  regard  deity  or  power  as  resi- 
dent in  the  stone  or  altar  and  did  not  pay 
it  divine  honor.  If  they  worshiped,  they 
worshiped  God  apart  from  the  memorial 
stone  (Gen.  xxxi.  54;  xxxv.  1,  7;  1  Sam. 
vii.  9). 

3.  Stones  were  hurled  by  slings  and  cata- 
pults (Judg.  XX.  16;  1  Sam.  xvii.  40;  2Chron. 
xxvi.  15;  Wisd.  v.  22;  1  Mac.  vi.  51),  and 
were  a  means  of  putting  criminals  to  death 
(see  .Stoning).  Flints  were  used  for  strik- 
ing fire  (2  Mac.  x.  3),  and  were  shaped  into 
rude  form  to  serve  as  knives  (.Josh.  v.  2). 
Weights  for  scales  were  often  cut  out  of  stone 
(Deut.  XXV.  13;  see  Weights),  and  tablets 
of  stone  were  emploj^ed  for  written  docu- 
ments (Ex.  xxiv.  12).  Vessels  for  holding 
water  were  hewn  from  stone  (Ex.  vii.  19; 
John  ii.  6),  tables  also  (Ezek.  xl.  42).  A 
rounded  stone,  of  thirty  pounds'  weight  or 
so,  was  rolled  back  and  forth  over  grain  to 
crush  it  to  flour,  or  two  stones  were  formed 
into  a  mill  for  grinding  (Deut.  xxiv.  6). 

The  white  stone  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  17 
has  been  variously  interpreted.  1.  One  of 
the  stone  tablets,  written  with  the  name  of  a 


person,  which  were  used  in  some  methods  of 
casting  the  lot.  2.  The  stone  or  bean,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  a  candidate,  which  was  cast 
at  elections  in  Greece.  3.  The  pebble  of 
acquittal  used  in  Greek  courts.  4.  The 
ticket  presented  to  the  victor  at  the  Olympic 
games.  5.  The  instructions  which  the  Roman 
emperors  caused  to  be  thrown  to  victorious 
contestants  in  the  arena.  And  best — 6.  A 
small  stone,  a  common  writing  material, 
white  to  symbolize  the  heavenly  character 
of  the  victorious  believer,  and  marked  with 
the  name  bestowed  as  sign  and  seal  of  his 
future  glory. 

Figuratively  stone  denotes  hardness  or  in- 
.sensibility  (1  Sam.  xxv.  37  ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26), 
firmness  or  strength  (Job  vi.  12;  xli.  24).  A 
living  stone  is  a  stone  in  its  natural  condi- 
tion, sound  and  not  disintegrating.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  are  living  stones  built  into 
the  spiritual  temple,  of  which  Christ  himself 
is  the  chief  corner  stone  (Eph.  ii.  20-22 ;  1 
Pet.  ii.  4-8), 

Stones,  Pre'cious. 

All  the  precious  stones  referred  to  in  the 
canonical  Scriptures,  except  three,  are  enu- 
merated in  R.  V.  of  Ex.  xxviii.  17-20  and 
Rev.  xxi.  11,  19-21,  text  and  margin.  The 
three  remaining  ones  are  adamant  (Ezek.  iii. 
9),  and  ligure  and  sardine  (Ex.  xxviii.  19; 
Rev.  iv.  3,  both  A.  V.),  and  of  these  at  least 
two  are  merely  other  names  for  two  of  those 
already  mentioned.  The  precious  stones  are 
adamant,  agate,  amber,  amethyst,  beryl,  car- 
buncle, chalcedony,  chrysolite,  chrysoprase 
or  chrysoprasus,  crystal,  diamond,  emerald, 
jacinth  or  hyacinth,  jasper,  lapis  lazuli, 
ligure,  onyx,  pearl,  ruby,  sapphire,  sardius 
or  sardine,  sardonyx,  and  topaz. 

Ston'ing. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  capital  punishment 
prescribed  by  Hebrew  law  (Lev.  xX.  2) ;  see 
Punishment.  It  was  an  ancient  method; 
and  it  was  not  confined  to  the  Hebrews,  but 
was  practiced  by  the  Macedonians  and  Per- 
sians as  well.  The  execution  took  place  out- 
side the  city  (Lev.  xxiv.  14 ;  1  Kin.  xxi.  10, 
13;  Acts  vii.  58).  The  witnesses  placed  their 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  criminal  in  token 
that  the  guilt  rested  on  him  (Lev.  xxiv.  14). 
They  laid  aside  any  clothing  that  might  im- 
pede them  in  their  solemn  duty  (Acts  vii. 
58).  In  cases  of  idolatry,  and  apparently  in 
other  cases  also,  the  witnesses  hurled  the 
first  stones  (Deut.  xiii.  9;  xvii.  7;  cp.  John 
viii.  7  ;  Acts  vii.  58).  The  rabbins  state  that 
the  culprit  was  stripped  of  all  clothing  ex- 
cept a  cloth  about  the  loins,  and  was  thrown 
to  the  ground  from  a  scaffold  about  10  feet 
high  by  the  first  witness,  the  first  stone  was 
cast  by  the  second  witness,  on  the  chest  over 
the  heart  of  the  criminal,  and  if  it  failed  to 
cause  death,  the  bystanders  completed  the 
execution.  Sometimes  the  body  was  after- 
wards suspended  until  sundown  or  burnt 
(Deut.  xxi.  23;  Josh.  vii.  25;  Antiq.  iv.  8, 


stool 


r47 


street 


24),  and  according  to  late  Jewish  law  was 
not  buried  in  the  family  grave. 

Stool,  in  R.  V.  Birth'stool. 

A  chair  of  jieculiar  form,  upon  which  the 
patient  sat  duriuf;;  parturition.  It  was  de- 
nominated 'obnai/im,  double  stones,  by  the 
Hebrews  (Ex.  i.  16),  on  account  of  its  like- 
ness to  the  potter's  wheel.  It  is  called  kursee 
cJ-wilndch  by  the  modern  Egyptians. 

Stork. 

A  bird  called  in  Hebrew  Ifsidah,  affection- 
ate, on  account  of  its  love  for  its  young.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut. 
xiv.  18),  dwelt  in  fir  trees  (Ps.  civ.  17),  and 
■was  migratory  ( Jer.  viii.  7).  It  is  the  Ciconia 
alba,  a  white  heron-like  bird,  which  spends 
its  winter  in  central  and  southern  Africa,  but 
in  spring  visits  continental  Europe,  Pales- 
tine, and  northern  Syria  in  large  numbers. 
It  is  about  4  feet  high,  with  long  red  bill  and 
legs,  white  plumage,  and  glossy  black  wings. 
It  feeds  on  frogs  and  small  reptiles  or,  lack- 
ing these,  on  offal,  and  hence  was  ceremoni- 
ally unclean.  It  is  regarded  as  a  sacred  bird, 
and  in  most  places  is  unmolested,  so  that  it 
fearlessly  visits  the  haunts  of  man.  The 
black  stork,  Ciconia  nigra,  named  from  the 
color  of  its  back  and  neck,  is  also  found  in 
Palestine,  being  common  in  the  valley  of  the 
Dead  Sea.     It  breeds  in  trees. 

Stran'ger,  in  E.  V.  generally  Sojourner. 

A  stranger  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  the 
O.  T.  generally,  means  one  not  of  Israelitish 
descent  dwelling  with  the  Hebrews,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  foreigner  temporarily  visit- 
ing the  land  (Ex.  xx.  10;  Lev.  xvi.  29;  xvii. 
8;  2  Sam.  i.  13  ;  Ezek.  xiv.  7).  The  stranger 
was  not  a  full  citizen,  yet  he  had  recognized 
rights  and  duties.  He  was  under  the  ])ro- 
tection  of  God,  and  the  Israelites  were 
charged  to  treat  him  kindly  (Lev.  xix.  .33, 
34  ;  Deut.  x.  18,  19).  His  rights  were  guarded 
by  injunctions  in  the  law  (Ex.  xxii.  21 ; 
xxiii.  9).  When  poor,  he  enjoyed  the  same 
privileges  as  the  Hebrew  poor  (Deut.  xxiv. 
19,  20).  The  prohibitions  that  rested  on  an 
Israelite  rested  on  him  (Ex.  xii.  19;  xx.  10; 
Lev.  xvi.  29;  xvii.  10;  xviii.  26;  xx.  2; 
xxiv.  16 ;  and  xvii.  1.5,  which  was  modified 
later  by  Deut.  xiv.  21)  ;  but  he  was  not 
obligated  to  all  positive  religious  duties 
which  devolved  on  the  Israelite.  He  was  ex- 
empt, if  he  chose  to  be  and  if  he  was  a  free 
man,  from  circumcision  and  participation  in 
the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  43-46).  The  Israelites 
were  encouraged  to  invite  him  to  the  sacri- 
ficial meals  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  14).  He  was  al- 
lowed to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  he  shared  in  the 
atonement  made  for  the  sin  of  the  congrega- 
tion on  account  of  sin  unwittingly  committed, 
he  had  the  privilege  of  a  sin  offering  for  aught 
done  unwittingly  by  himself,  and  the  city 
of  refuge  offered  him  asylum  in  case  of  need 
(Lev.  xvii.  8;  Num.  xv.  14,  26.  29;  xxxv. 
15).  In  case  he  contracted  uncleanness  he 
was  required  to  employ  the  rights  of  purifi- 


cation (Lev.  xvii.  15:  Num.  xix.  10).  If  he 
accepted  circumcision  for  his  household,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  48,  49). 
The  cliief  disability  under  which  he  labored 
was  that  in  case  he  became  a  bondman,  the 
year  of  jubile  did  not  bring  him  release,  he 
could  be  bought  and  made  an  inheritance 
for  the  x>nrchaser's  children  (Lev.  xxv.  45, 
46). 

Ammonites  and  Moabites  formed  an  ex- 
ceptional class  among  the  strangers.  They 
were  not  allowed  membership  in  Israel  even 
by  circumcision  (Deut.  xxiii.  3),  but  the  son 
of  an  Israelite  and  a  Moabitess  might  be 
admitted  (cp.  Jesse  and  Eehoboam).  With 
the  idolatrous  Canaanites  who  were  in  the 
land  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  intermar- 
riage was  strictly  forltidden  (vii.  3),  but  the 
remnant  which  was  left  after  the  conquest 
eventually  became  to  a  large  exteait  prose- 
lytes. In  Solomon's  reign  the  census  re- 
vealed 153,600  strangers  in  the  realm  (2 
Chron.  ii.   17). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  stranger  does  not 
have  this  technical  signification,  but  denotes 
one  who  is  unknown  (John  x.  5),  an  alien 
(Luke  xvii.  16,  18),  a  sojourner  away  from 
home  (xxiv.  18,  A.  V.;  Acts  ii.  10,  A.  V.),  an 
Israelite  dwelling  in  the  Dispersion  (1  Pet.  i. 
1,  A.  v.). 

Straw. 

Wheat  and  barley  straw,  ground  and  cut 
to  small  pieces  in  the  process  of  threshing, 
and  doubtless  often  mixed  with  beans  or 
barley,  was  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
fodder  for  their  cattle,  camels,  asses,  and 
horses  (Gen.  xxiv.  25,  32 ;  Judg.  xix.  19 ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  28;  Is.  xi.  7).  The  Egyptians,  in 
making  bricks,  mixed  it  with  clay  to  render 
them  more  compact  and  prevent  their  crack- 
ing. When  Pharaoh  withheld  the  chopped 
straw,  the  Hebrew  slaves  were  compelled  to 
go  forth  into  the  field  and  gather  stubble,  or 
rather  stalks,  for  themselves,  and  chop  their 
own  straw  (Ex.  v.  7,  12,  16).  Straw  was 
probably  not  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
a  litter  in  the  stall.  In  Palestine  to-day  dricu 
dung  serves  for  this  ])urpose. 

Stream.     See  Eivek. 
Street. 

The  streets  of  oriental  towns  were  gener- 
ally narrow,  tortuous,  and  dirty  (Antiq.  xx. 
5,  .3  ;  War  ii.  14,  9  ;  15,  5).  They  were  seldom 
wide  enough  to  permit  two  laden  camels  to 
pass  each  other;  but  some  were  sufficiently 
broad  for  chariots  to  be  driven  through  them 
(Jer.  xvii.  25  ;  Nah.  ii.  4).  Great  cities  were 
sometimes  adorned  by  a  grand  avenue  or 
even  by  several,  as  Alexan<lria  and  Babylon. 
In  Damascus  the  street  called  Straight  was 
a  magnificent  thoroughfare,  100  feet  broad 
and  divided  into  three  avenues  by  rows  of 
columns.  Many  streets  were  flanked  by 
blank  walls,  seldom  pierced  except  by  doors, 
the  windows  of  the  houses  opening  on  inte- 
rior courts.     The  streets  devoted  to  stores 


Stripes 


748 


Sun 


were  lined  by  salesrooms  with  open  fronts  ; 
and  bazaar  streets,  each  surrendered  to  one 
kind  of  business,  were  features  of  the  ancient 
city  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21  ;  War  v.  8,  1).  The  in- 
tersections of  the  streets  were  centers  of 
concourse  and  disi)lay  (Prov.  i.  21 ;  Mat.  vi.  5  ; 
Luke  xiii.  26).  At  the  gates  were  broad,  open 
places  where  business  was  transacted.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  the  streets  were  paved  in 
ancient  times.  But  Josephus  affirms  that 
Solomon  paved  the  roads  leading  to  Jeru- 
salem witli  black  stones  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  4) ; 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Herods  pavements 
were  laid  (xvi.  5,  3 ;  xx.  9,  7),  and  efforts  were 
in  some  instances  made  toward  keeping  the 
streets  clean  (xv.  9,  6). 

Stripes.     See  Scouege. 

Strong  Drink. 

Intoxicating  liquor,  in  Hebrew  sheJcar  (1 
Sam.  i.  13-15;  Prov.  xx.  1;  Is.  xxix.  9). 
Wine  and  strong  drink  were  forbidden  to 
the  priest,  when  about  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  x.  9;  cp.  Ezek.  xliv.  21),  and  kings 
f\nd  princes  were  warned  against  its  use,  lest 
it  lead  to  perversion  of  judgment  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5)  ;  yet  Isaiah  was  compelled  to 
point  to  the  sad  spectacle  of  priests  and 
prophets,  even  in  Judah,  scandalously  failing 
in  duty  through  wine  and  strong  drink  (Is. 
xxviii.  7).  Wine,  strong  drink,  vinegar,  any 
liquor  of  grapes,  and  even  fresh  grapes  were 
forbidden  the  Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  3;  cp.  Judg. 
xiii.  4 ;  Luke  i.  15) ;  see  Nazirite.  Both 
wine  and  strong  drink  were  allowed  at  the 
feast  spread  by  the  bringer  of  tithes  (Deut. 
xiv.  26).  On  the  basis  of  the  exhortation, 
"  Give  strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready 
to  perish"  (Pi'ov.  xxxi.  6),  kind-hearted 
women  of  Jerusalem  provided  stupefying 
draughts  for  criminals  condemned  to  death 
(Mishna;  cp.  Mark  xv.  23). 

Stub'ble.     See  Straw. 

Su'ah  [sweepings]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vil.  36). 

Su'cath-ite,  in  A.  "V.  Suchathite. 

A  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  an  unknown 
place  called  Sucah  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Suc'coth  [booths  or  huts]. 

1.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan  (Judg.  viii. 
4,  5;  and  Jerome  on  Gen.  xxxiii.  17),  at 
which  Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Mesopota- 
mia, after  crossing  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
22),  built  himself  a  house,  with  booths  for 
his  cattle,  giving  the  spot  from  the  latter 
circumstance  the  name  of  Succoth  ((len. 
xxxiii.  17).  He  journeyed  thence  to  Shechem 
(18).  It  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
near  Zarethan  (1  Kin.  vii.  46;  Ps.  Ix.  6; 
cviii.  7),  and  was  assigned  to  the  Gadites 
(Josh.  xiii.  27).  In  the  time  of  Gideon  it  was 
an  important  town,  ruled  by  seventy-seven 
elders.  They  refused  him  assistance  when 
he  was  pursuing  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  and 
were  in  consequence  puni.shed  by  him  when 


he  returned  a  victor  (Judg.  viii.  5-16).  The 
site  must  be  sought  near  the  ford  of  Damieh, 
on  the  road  between  es-Salt  and  Nablus. 
Tell  Deir  'Alia  scarcely  marks  the  place, 
although  the  Talmud  states  that  the  latter 
name  of  Succoth  was  Dar'alah ;  for  the  tell 
is  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
the  narrative  almost  certainly  indicates  that 
Succoth  was  on  the  southern  side. 

2.  The  first  camping  ground  of  the  Israel- 
ites after  leaving  Rameses  (Ex.  xii.  37;  xiii. 
20;  Num.  xxxiii.»  5,  6).  Succoth  is  probably 
the  Hebrew  modification  of  Thuku,  the 
Egyptian  name  of  the  civil  city  surx'ouuding 
the  sacred  buildings  of  Pithom  (q.  v.). 

Suc-cotli-be'notli. 

An  idol  which  the  Babylonian  colonists  set 
np  in  Samaria  (2  Kin.  xvii.  30).  The  tute- 
lary deity  of  Babylon  was  Marduk,  and  his 
consort  was  Zarpanitum,  although  numerous 
other  deities  were  worshiped  in  the  city. 
The  historian  Rawlinson,  followed  by  Schi-a- 
der,  proposed  to  identify  Succoth-benoth  with 
Zarpanitum,  the  latter  part  of  the  two  names 
being  essentially  the  same.  Friedrich  De- 
litzsch  has  a  more  plausible  theory.  He  re- 
gards Succoth-benoth  as  a  Hebraizatiou  of 
the  Assyrian  words  sakkut  bindti,  supi-eme 
judge  of  the  universe,  and  he  considers  it 
to  have  been  in  this  instance  a  title  of 
Marduk. 

Su'chatli-ite.     See  Sucathite. 

Suk'ki-im,  in  A.  V.  Sukkiims  [to  the  He- 
brew ear,  people  living  in  huts,  nomads]. 

One  of  the  peoples  furnishing  soldiers  to 
the  army  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  when 
he  invaded  Palestine.  They  were  evidently 
an  African  race  (2  Chron.  xii.  3).  . 

Sun. 

The  luminary  of  the  day,  created  by  God 
(Gen.  i.  16;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  16;  cxxxvi.  8),  pre- 
served by  God  (Jer.  xxxi.  35;  Mat.  v.  45), 
and  subject  to  God  (Ps.  civ.  19) ;  influential 
in  promoting  vegetation  (Deut.  xxxiii.  14  ;  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  4),  and  also  burning  it  with  its 
heat  (Jon.  iv.  8).  It  is  spoken  of  as  rising 
and  setting;  is  poetically  described  as  occu- 
pying a  tent  in  the  heavens;  its  rising  in  the 
morning  with  vigor  and  joy  is  likened  to  a 
bridegroom  coming  fortli  from  his  chamber 
(Ps.  xix.  4-6).  Death  in  the  meridian  of 
one's  days,  and  the  sudden  loss  of  prosperity, 
are  likened  to  the  setting  of  the  sun  at  mid- 
day (Jer.  XV.  9;  Amos  viii.  9;  Mic.  iii.  6). 
The  sun  was  worshijied  by  the  nations  con- 
temporary with  the  Hebrews,  notably  by  the 
PhcBuicians  under  the  name  of  Baal,  by  the 
Assyrians  under  that  of  Shamash,  and  by  the 
Egyptians  under  that  of  Ka;  see  Assyria, 
Baal,  Egypt  II.  6,  On.  The  Hebrews  were 
warned  against  all  such  heathenism,  btit  sun 
worship  nevertheless  found  entrance  among 
them.  Altars  were  erected  to  all  the  host  of 
heaven  (2  Kin.  xxi.  5),  incense  was  burned 
to  the  sun  and  horses  were  dedicated  to  it 


Sun 


749 


Swallow 


(xxiii.  r>,  11 ;  cp.  the  Persian  worship,  Herod, 
i.  189 ;  vii.  54),  and  kisses  were  thrown  to  it 
with  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27). 

Joshua  commanded  the  sun  to  stand  still. 
The  older  commentators  referred  the  words 
of  Hab.  iii.  11  to  this  event,  but  the  Hebrew 
construction  and  the  context  are  against  it. 
Sun  and  moou  withdraw  into  their  habita- 
tion. Dread  before  the  presence  of  the  Lord 
seizes  all  nature,  and  reveals  itself  in  the 
trembling  of  the  mountains,  in  the  raging  of 
the  sea,  and  in  the  withdrawal  of  their  light 
by  sun  and  moon  (10,  11).  The  first  refer- 
ence to  the  astronomical  lengthening  of  the 
day  at  Beth-horou  is  found  in  Ecclesiasticus, 
and  its  author  evidently  believed  that  the 
sun  and  moou  were  checked  in  their  courses. 
"  Did  not  the  sun  go  back  by  his  hand  ?  And 
did  not  one  day  become  as  two"  (Ecclus. 
xlvi.  4).  Josephus  also  understood  that  the 
day  was  lengthened  (Antiq.  v.  1,  17).  Un- 
questionably God  could  work  this  wonder, 
with  all  that  it  involved.  The  cii'cumst;inces, 
however,  scarcely  afforded  an  adequate  occa- 
sion for  so  stupendous  a  miracle.  Another 
interpretation  has  much  in  its  favor.  It  is 
certain  that  Josh.  x.  12''  and  l.'J"  are  poetry. 
Verses  12-15  in  all  probability  form  a  para- 
graph by  themselves  (cp.  the  repetition,  15 
and  43),  and  are  quoted  from  the  Book  of 
Jashar,  a  collection  of  poems  with  introduc- 
tory and  perhaps  concluding  remarks  in 
prose  (see  Jaskae;  cp.  Job  with  its  prose 
introduction  and  conclusion  ;  cp.  the  position 
of  the  quoting  clause  in  Josh.  x.  13  and  2 
Sam.  i.  18).  Joshua's  words  are  the  impas- 
sioned utterance  of  a  general  inspiring  his 
army  ou  the  field  of  battle.  Desirous  that 
Israel  may  have  time  completely  to  over- 
throw the  foe,  he  apostrophizes  sun  and 
moon.  In  fervent,  imperious  words,  he  de- 
mands time.  "  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon 
(libeon  ;  and  thou.  Moon,  in  the  valley  of 
Aijalon."  God  granted  liis  wish.  Before  the 
liglit  of  day  failed,  the  people  had  avenged 
themselves  of  their  enemies.  A  liail-storm 
assisted  the  Israelites,  and  they  drove  the 
enemy  to  Azekah  and  Makkedah,  and  made 
a  great  slaughter.  Tliis  event,  il  seems,  was 
worked  up  poetically  in  the  Book  of  Jashar, 
and  must  be  interpreted  as  poetry,  as  one 
interprets  the  psalmist  when  telling  of  the 
gift  of  manna,  he  says :  "  He  commanded 
the  skies  above,  and  opened  the  doors  of 
heaven  ;  and  he  rained  down  manna  upon 
them  to  eat,  and  gave  them  of  the  corn  of 
heaven"  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  23.  24)  ;  or  as  one  un- 
derstands the  poet  who,  after  relating  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  adds : 
"  The  mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the 
little  hills  like  lambs"  (cxiv.  6);  or  as  one 
understands  the  prophet  Habakkuk  when  he 
pictures  Jehovah  as  a  warrior  and  says: 
"Thou  didst  ride  upon  thine  horses,  upon 
thy  chariots  of  salvation  "   (Hab.  iii.  8). 

For  the  recession  of  the  sun's  shadow  on 
the  dial  of  Ahaz,  see  Dial. 


Suph  [sedge]. 

A  locality  iDeut.  i.  1,  R.  V.),  situation  un- 
known. The  A.  v.,  following  the  Vulgate 
and  the  Septuagint,  assumes  that  the  Hebrew 
word  for  sea  has  fallen  out  of  the  text.  On 
this  assumption  the  text  originally  was  yam 
suph.  Red  Sea,  and  the  reference  was  to  that 
part  of  the  sea  known  as  the  gulf  of  Akaba. 

Su'phah  [a  rotatory  storm,  cultivable  soil 
in  the  midst  of  dry  land]. 

Probably  a  projjcr  name,  denoting  the  re- 
gion in  which  Vaheb  was  situated  (Num.  xxi. 
14,  R.  v.).  Tristram  connects  it  with  the 
Sufieh,  the  name  of  an  oasis  southeast  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  but  the  sibilants  do  not  correspond. 

Sup'per.     See  Meal. 

Sure'ty. 

A  person  who  makes  himself  liable  for  the 
obligations  of  another  (Prov.  xxii.  26,  27). 
A  surety  was  sometimes  offered  for  a  service 
to  be  rendered  (Gen.  xliv.  32) ;  and,  when 
commercial  transactions  were  common,  a 
surety  was  often  required  to  be  found  before 
credit  was  given.  The  formalities  consisted 
in  giving  the  hand,  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses, to  the  person  to  whom  the  debt  was 
due,  and  promising  to  discharge  the  obliga- 
tion in  case  the  debtor  defaulted  (Prov.  vi. 
1,  2  ;  xvii.  18).  The  folly  of  becoming  surety, 
especially  in  behalf  of  a  stranger,  was  pro- 
verbial (xi.  15  ;  xvii.  18 ;  xx.  Hi) ;  but  it  was 
regarded  as  proper  under  circumstances  and 
for  a  moderate  amount,  and  as  a  neighborly 
act  (Ecclus.  viii.  13;  xxix.  14,  20),  yet  its 
grave  dangers  and  its  liability  to  abuse  by 
a  dishonest  client  were  recognized  (xxix. 
16-18). 

Su'san-chite.     See  Shushanchite. 

Su-san'na  [a  lily]. 

One  of  the  women  who  ministered  to  Jesus 
of  their  substance  (Luke  viii.  3). 

Su'si  [horseman]. 

Father  of  Gaddi,  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Xum.  xiii.  11). 

Swaddling  Band. 

A  cloth  iu  which  infants  were  wrapped 
(Job  xxxviii.  9  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  4  ;  Luke  ii.  7,  12  . 
The  babe  was  laid  diagonally  on  a  square 
piece  of  cloth  and  two  corners  were  turned 
over  its  body,  one  over  its  feet,  and  one  under 
its  head.  The  whole  was  then  fastened  by 
bands  wound  around  the  outside. 

Swallow. 

1.  A  bird,  in  biblical  and  talmudic  Hebrew 
d«)-or,  shooting  straight  out  or  freedom.  It 
frequented  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  and 
nested  there  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  it  was  found 
in  company  with  other  small  birds,  like  the 
sparrow  (ibid. ;  Prov.  xxvi.  2.  R.  V.).  The  barn 
swallow  of  Great  Britain  {Hirundo  rustica)  is 
abundant  in  Palestine  from  March  to  the 
approach  of  winter.  Several  other  species 
also  occur,  but  are  less  common. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  R.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew iSus  or  Sis,  a  bird  with  a  chattering  note 


Swan 


(Is.  xxxviii.  14),  and  migratory  (Jer.  viii.  7). 
Swallow  is  the  rendering  adopted  by  the 
Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and  Syriac  versions,  but 
the  A.  v.,  following  the  rabbins,  translates  it 
crane.  Tristram  believes  that  the  swift  is 
intended.  He  says  that  the  common  swift 
(Cypselua  apus)  is  called  sis  in  the  vernacular 
Arabic.  It  visits  Palestine  in  immense  num- 
bers in  its  migrations,  remaining  from  April 
to  November,  and  building  in  the  interval. 
Two  other  species  of  the  genus  occur  in  Pal- 
estine, the  white-bellied  swift  [Cypselus  melba) 
and  the  white-rumped  swift  {Cypselus  affinis). 

3.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Agur  (Is.  xxxviii.  14 ;  Jer.  viii.  7).  The 
R.  V.  in  both  passages  renders  it  crane. 

Swan. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshemeth, 
breathing,  inflation,  a  name  applied  to  an 
unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut.  xiv.  16; 
text  of  A.  v.,  margin  of  E.  V.).  The  E.  V. 
text  makes  it  the  horned  owl.  The  same 
name  belonged  to  a  reptile  classed  with  the 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30,  in  E.  V.  chameleon,  in 
A.  V.  mole).  Tristram  thinks  that  the  bird 
was  probably  either  the  purple  gallinule 
(Porphyrio  cwruleus)  or  the  glossy  ibis  {Ibis 
falcineUus). 

Swear'ing.     See  Oath. 

Sweat. 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  perspiration 
to  break  out  suddenly  over  the  body  when 
the  individual  is  under  the  influence  of 
strong  mental  excitement.  Well-authenti- 
cated cases  have  been  recorded  in  which  this 
perspiration  has  been  colored  with  blood. 
The  phenomenon  is  recognized  in  medical 
science,  and  is  called  (lidiicdi-nift,  or  the  oozing 
of  the  blood  corpuscles  through  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels  without  rupture.  During 
Christ's  agony  in  Gethsemaue  his  sweat  be- 
came as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling 
down  upon  the  ground  (Luke  xxii.  44). 

Swine. 

The  swine  was  a  ceremonially  unclean 
animal  (Lev.  xi.  7  ;  Deut.  xiv.  8).  It  is  dirty, 
does  not  refuse  to  eat  oflFal  and  carrion ,  and  the 
use  of  its  flesh  for  food  in  hot  countries  is  sup- 
posed to  produce  cutaneous  diseases.  It  was  not 
raised  by  the  Arabs  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  viii.  78), 
and  was  regarded  as  unclean  by  Phoenicians, 
Ethiopians,  and  Egyptians.  In  Egypt,  how- 
ever, a  pig  was  sacrificed  and  eaten  on  the  an- 
nual festival  of  the  moon-god  and  Osiris  (Bac- 
chus) ;  nevertheless,  a  man  who  accidentally 
touched  a  pig  at  once  washed,  a  .swineherd  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  a  temple,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  find  a  wife  among  the  people  of  his 
own  occupation,  as  no  other  man  would  give  a 
daughter  to  him  in  marriage  (Herod,  ii.  47; 
con.  Ai>i()n.  ii.  14).  To  the  Jews  swine's  flesh 
was  abominable  (Is.  Ixv.  4),  the  pig  was  the 
emblem  of  filth  and  coarseness  (Prov.  xi.  22; 
Mat.  vii.  6;  2  Pet.  ii.  22),  and  to  feed  swine 
was  the  lowest  and  most  despicable  occupa- 
tion to  which  a  Jew  could  be  reduced  (Luke 


("50  Sychem 

XV.  15).  Yet  pork  found  entrance  to  the 
idolatrous  feasts  of  degenerate  Hebrews  (Is. 
Ixv.  4;  Ixvi.  17).  In  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  the  command  to  a  Jew  to  otter  or 
to  taste  swine's  flesh  was  used  as  a  means  of 
determining  whether  he  was  loyal  to  the  re- 
ligion of  his  fathers  or  was  willing  to  accept 
the  worship  favored  by  his  conquerors  (1  Mac. 
i.47,  50;  2Mac.vi.  18,  21;  vii.  1,  7).  But  many 
Jews  aifected  Grecian  manners,  and  John 
Hyrcanus  some  years  later  found  it  advisable 
to  issue  an  edict  that  no  one  should  keep 
swine.  In  the  time  of  Christ  one  large  herd 
of  swine  at  least  was  pastured  in  the  Decapo- 
lis  (Mark  v.  11-13),  a  region  colonized  by 
Greeks,  among  whom  the  swine  was  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  Jews  owned  either 
these  swine  or  those  in  the  far  country  fed  by 
the  prodigal  son  (Luke  xv.  13).     See  Boar. 

Sword. 

A  weapon  with  which  an  adversary  was 
cut  by  being  struck  or  was  thrust  through  (1 
Sam.xvii.  51 ;  xxxi.  4;  2  Sam.  ii.  16;  Mat. 
xxvi.51).  It  had  hilt  and  blade  (Judg.  iii.  22i, 
was  carried  in  a  sheath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  51 ;  Jer. 
xlvii.  6),  and  girded  on  the  loins  (Ex.  xxxii. 
27;  2  Sam.  xx.  8),  usually  at  the  left  side 
(Judg.  iii.  16  with  15,  21 ).  The  hilt  was  often 
highly  ornamented,  at  least  among  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Assyrians.  The  blade  was  com- 
monly made  of  iron  (Is.  ii.  4),  perhaps  also  of 
bronze,  as  not  seldom  in  Egypt.  It  was 
straight  or  slightly  curved,  long  or  short 
(Judg.  iii.  16,  a  cubit  long),  single  or  double 
edged  (ibid.;  Ps.  cxlix.  6). 

In  the  Eoman  period  a  short,  slightly 
curved  dagger  was  worn  under  the  clothing 
by  the  Jewish  sicarii,  or  assassins  (Antiq.  xx. 
8,  10;  War  ii.  13,  3).  Roman  infantry  wore 
the  sword  on  the  left  side  and  the  dagger  on 
the  right,  but  the  cavalry  wore  the  sword  on 
the  right  (iii.  5,  5).  This,  however,  was  not 
an  invariable  rule. 

Syc'a-mine  Tree. 

The  mulberry  tree,  called  in  Greek  siikn- 
miiios  (Luke  xvii.  6).  The  black  mulberry 
{Morns  nigra),  a  tree  20  or  :!0  feet  high,  is  the 
species  commonly  cultivated  for  its  leaves 
and  fruit.  The  silk  worm  feeds  on  the  le:ives. 
The  fruit  is  dark  red  or  black,  with  an  un- 
even surface.  The  tree  has  been  planted  ex- 
tensively in  Palestine. 

Sy'char. 

A  town  of  Samaria,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
land  given  l)y  .lacoh  to  iiis  son  JosPi)h,  near 
Jacob's  well  (John  iv.  5  ;  cp.  Gen.  xlviii.  22). 
Formerly  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  Greek  cor- 
ruption of  Shechem,  or  a  nickname  for  the 
city  aftc'r  it  becanu^  the  abode  of  the  Samari- 
tans, either  from  Hebrew  skcker,  fal.sehood, 
or  shikkur,  <lruukard  ;  but  it  is  now  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  village  of  'Askar,  on  the 
eastern  declivity  of  mount  Ebal,  a  little  uortk 
of  Jacob's  well. 

Sy'chem.     See  Shechem. 


Sycomore 


751 


Synagogue 


Syc'o-more. 

A  fig  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  shikmnJt,  in 
Greek  sukomorea.  It  was  abundant  in  the 
lowland  of  Judah  (1  Kin.  x.  27;  1  Chrou. 
xxvii.  28;  2  Chron.  i.  15;  ix.  27),  grew  in  the 
Jordan  valley  (Luke  xix.  4),  and  was  culti- 
vated in  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  47).  Its  timber 
was  nnich  u.sed,  although  less  durable  than 
cedar  (Is.  ix.  10).  The  tree  is  the  Ficus  sijco- 
morns,  a  fig  tree,  25  to  50  feet  high  and  60 


Branch  and  Fruit  of  the  Sycomore 

feet  broad,  with  persistent,  heart-shaped 
leaves  downy  beneath.  It  is  often  planted 
by  the  wayside  on  account  of  its  grateful 
shade  (cp.  Luke  xix.  4).  The  fruit  grows  in 
clusters  on  twigs  which  spring  directly  from 
the  trunk  and  larger  branches,  but  cannot 
be  eaten  until  it  has  been  punctured  and  the 
insect  that  infests  it  has  been  allowed  to  es- 
cape (cp.  Amos  vii.  14). 

The  sycomore  must  not  be  confounded  with 
our  sycamore  {Pltitanus  vccideutaiis),  which  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Sy-e'ne.     See  Seveneh. 

Sym'e-on.     See  Simeon. 

Syn'a-gogue  [in  Greek  an  assembly,  a  syn- 
agogue] . 

A  Jewish  place  of  worship.  The  building 
served  also  for  local  law  court  and  school. 
Previous  to  the  captivity,  worship  of  the 
highest  kind  could  be  performed  only  at  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  Of  course,  the  Scrip- 
tures could  be  publicly  read  elsewhere  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  6,  10,  12-15),  and  the  people  could  re- 
sort to  the  prophets  anywhere  for  religious 
instruction  (2  Kin.  iv.  38).  Worship  at  Je- 
rusalem was  impossible  when  the  people  were 
in  capti  f ity  in  Babyhm,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  then  and  there  that  svnagogues  first 


arose.  They  were  designed  to  be  places,  not 
of  sacrifice,  but  of  scriptural  instruction  and 
prayer.  The  English  word  synagogue  occurs 
only  once  in  the  O.  T.  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  8).  The 
margin  of  E.  V.  has  "  places  of  assembly  " 
instead  of  synagogues,  and  the  Septuagint 
renders  by  a  word  which  means  a  feast,  a 
festival,  a  holiday.  It  is  not,  therefore,  cer- 
tain that  there  is  any  reference  to  a  synagogue 
in  the  O.  T.  In  the  first  centurv  they  were 
found  wherever  Jews  dwelt. 
Even  small  communities  of 
Jews  in  the  lesser  cities  out- 
side of  Palestine  had  their 
synagogues;  as  in  Salamis  in 
Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  5),  An- 
tioch  of  Pisidia  (14),  Ico- 
nium  (xiv.  1),  Bercea  (xvii. 
10).  In  large  cities  syna- 
gogues were  often  numer- 
ous; as  in  Jerusalem  (vi.  9) 
and  Alexandria.  These  re- 
ligious communities  main- 
tained an  existence  separate 
from  the  state,  and  man- 
aged their  own  religious  and 
civil  affairs,  subordinate,  of 
course,  to  the  law  of  the  land 
(Antiq.  xix.  5,  3).  A  board 
of  elders  managed  the  affairs 
of  the  synagogue  and  of  the 
religious  community  which 
it  represented  (Luke  vii.  3- 
5).  T'he  special  officers,  who 
directed  the  worship,  main- 
tained order  and  looked  after 
the  temporalities,  were :  1. 
The  ruler  of  the  synagogue 
(Acts  xviii.  8).  In  some  synagogues  several 
rulers  were  in  office  (xiii.  15;  Mark  v. 22).  The 
ruler  presided  at  the  service ;  appointed  or 
permitted  suitable  members  to  pray,  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  exhort  (Acts  xiii.  15) ;  and 
was  responsible  for  the  proprieties  (Luke 
xiii.  14).  The  services  were  not  conducted 
by  permanent  officers  set  apart  for  the  duty, 
but  by  private  members  who  had  shown 
qualifications  for  it.  Thus  Jesus  read  the 
Scriptures  in  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth  (iv. 
16),  and  he  often  taught  in  the  synagogues 
(Mat.  iv.  23).  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  called 
on  by  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  at  Antioch 
of  Pisidia  for  words  of  exhortation  (Acts 
xiii.  15).  2.  One  or  more  attendants  for  the 
humbler  and  menial  duties.  They  brought 
the  Scriptures  to  the  reader  and  replaced  the 
roll  in  its  depository  (Luke  iv.  20),  and  they 
inflicted  the  corporal  punishment  to  which 
the  authorities  sentenced  a  member.  3.  Dis- 
pensers of  alms  (cp.  Mat.  vi.  2).  4.  Wealthy 
men  of  leisure,  if  possible  ten  or  more,  who 
represented  .the  congregation  at  every  serv- 
ice. The  congregation  assembled  every  Sab- 
bath for  worshii>  (Acts  xv.  21),  and  on  the 
second  and  fifth  days  of  the  week  to  hear  a 
portion  of  the  law  read.  The  men  and  the 
women  sat  apart.     At   the   Sabbath   service 


Synagogue 


752 


Syria 


prayer  was  offered  by  a  member  of  the  con- 
gregation. It  consisted  chiefly  in  reading 
Deut.  vi.  4-9;  xi.  13-21;  Num.  xv.  37-41 ; 
and  offering  some  or  all  of  the  eighteen  pray- 
ers and  benedictions.  The  people  were  ac- 
customed to  stand  during  this  prayer  (Mat. 
vi.  5  ;  Mark  xi.  25),  and  united  in  saying 
Amen  at  its  close.  A  lesson  from  the  law 
was  read  (Acts  xv.  21)  by  several  members, 
each  taking  a  short  paragraph  in  turn.  This 
reading  was  prefaced  and  concluded  by 
thanksgiving.  Then  came  a  lesson  from  the 
jirophets,  read  by  the  person  who  had  opened 
the  service  with  prayer.  The  reading  was 
followed  by  an  exposition  and  an  exhortation 
given  by  the  reader  or  some  other  person 
(liUke  iv.  16-22;  Acts  xiii.  15).  The  service 
was  concluded  by  a  benediction,  which  was 
pronounced  by  a  priest,  if  one  were  present, 
and  the  congregation  said.  Amen.  The  syna- 
gogue was  called  by  the  Jews  in  their  own 
language  assembly  house.  Euins  of  these 
buildings  still  exist  in  Galilee  at  Tell  Hum, 
which  is  perhaps  the  site  of  Capernaum, 
at  Irbid,  Kefr  Bir'im,  Nebartein,  and  some 


lioutul  mined  Synagogue  at  Kcfi  Bii  im. 

other  places.  These  were  rectangular  struc- 
tures. All  lay  north  and  south,  and  had 
a  large  middle  portal  and  two  smaller  side 
doors  on  the  southern  side.  The  interior 
was  divided  into  five  aisles  by  four  row^  of 
columns,  and  the  two  northern  corners  were 
formed  by  double-engaged  columns.  At  Tell 
Hum  there  are  Corinthian  capitals ;  at  Irbid 
a  mixture  of  Corinthian  and  Ionic.  The 
faces  of  the  lintels  over  the  gateways  have 
as  a  frecjuent  ornament  the  representation  of 
a  scroll  of  vine  leaves  with  bunches  of  grapes. 
^t  Nebartein  there  is  a  figure  of  the  seven- 
branched  candlestick,  with  an  inscription ; 
at  Kefr  Bir'im  what  is  intended  ai)parently 
for  the  paschal  lamb ;  while  at  Tell   Hum, 


there  are  both  the  lamb  and  the  pot  of  manna. 
The  assembly  room  was  provided  with  a 
reading  desk,  a  chest  or  closet  for  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  seats  for  at  least  the  elders  and 
richer  members  (Mat.  xxiii.  6;  Jas.  ii.  2,  3). 
The  more  honorable  seats  were  near  the  place 
where  the  Scriptures  were  kept.  The  con- 
gregation was  divided  ;  the  men  on  one  side, 
the  women  on  the  other.  Punishment  or- 
dered by  the  authorities  of  the  synagogue 
was  inflicted  in  the  building,  possibly  in  some 
chamber  (Mat.  x.  17;  Acts  xxii.  19). 

The  great  synagogue  denotes  a  council, 
said  to  have  been  organized  by  Nehemiah 
about  410  B.  c.  It  consisted  of  120  members 
(Megilloth,  17,  18),  Ezra  was  its  president. 
To  this  body  the  prophets  transmitted  the 
law  of  Moses  (Pirke  aboth  i.  1).  Simon  the 
Just,  who  died  about  275  B.  c,  was  one  of 
the  last  of  its  members  (ibid.).  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  sanhedrin  (x.  1).  Its  special 
work  was  to  reorganize  religious  worshij) 
among  the  returned  captives  and  gather  to- 
gether the  canonical  books.  Such  is  the 
Jewish  tradition.  The  existence  of  the  great 
synagogue  has  been  doubted,  since  there  is 
no  mention  of  any  such  body  in  the  Apocry- 
pha, in  Josephus,  or  in  Philo.  Nor  does  the 
name  appear  anywhere  in  Scripture.  But 
the  tradition  is  not  to  be  wholly  rejected. 
The  great  synagogue  was  probably  a  council 
of  scribes  for  the  decision  of  theological 
questions ;  contained  from  first  to  last,  dur- 
ing an  existence  of  a  little  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half,  about  120  prominent  mem- 
bers ;  and  numbered  among  them  all  the 
leading  scribes  from  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just. 

Syn'ty-che  [fortunate]. 

A  woman  in  the  Philippian  church  whom 
Paul  exhorted  (Phil.  iv.  2). 

Syr'a-cuse. 

A  celebrated  city  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily,  founded  about  735  b.  c.  by  a  colony  of 
Corinthians  and  Dorians,  led  by  Archias  of 
Corinih.  It  greatly  flourished.  About  413 
B.  c.  its  inhabitants  defeated  and  destroyed 
an  Athenian  fleet  of  200  vessels.  In  212 
B.  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans.  Paul  saw 
it  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  12). 
It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  A.  D.  878. 
It  still  exists,  but  is  now  much  reduced  in 
size. 

Syr'i-a. 

A  country  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  extending  far  inland.  It 
comprehended  most  of  the  regions  known  in 
O.  T.  times  as  Canaan  and  Aram.  The  name 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  translation  of  Aram  ; 
but  inaccurately,  being  much  too  broad  a 
term.  The  word  Syria  is  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Assyria,  and  became  current  after  the  con- 
quests of  Alexander  the  Great.  Syria  formed 
the  most  important  province,  both  commer- 
cially and  from  a  military  point  of  view,  of 
tlic  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse,  whose  capital 
was  at   Babylon.     It  soon  became  apparent 


Syriac  Version 


753 


Tabernacle 


that  western  Asia  required  a  government  of 
its  own,  more  in  tlie  Greek  spirit  than  was 
the  system  suitable  for  the  far  east.  For  this 
purpose  Antioch  was  founded  as  a  royal  city 
about  300  B.  c.  (cp.  1  Mac.  iii.  37  and  31,  32). 
The  kingdom  of  theSeleucidse  was  gradually 
reduced  lay  the  encroachment  of  its  foes,  un- 
til at  the  close  of  the  second  century  B.  c. 
only  Syria  was  left.  With  the  Roman  con- 
quest in  64  B.  c,  the  kingdom  was  erected 
into  the  province  of  Syria,  with  a  Roman 
governor  resident  in  Antioch.  The  name 
Syria  was  limited  to  this  province,  which  in- 
cluded the  country  west  of  the  Euphrates 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt.  From  the  time  of  Augustus  it 
was  governed  by  a  consular  legate  of  the  em- 
peror. In  A.  D.  70  Judfea  was  separated  from 
Syria  and  made  a  distinct  province  under  an 
imperial  legate. 

Syr'i-ac  Ver'sion.    See  Versions. 

Syr'i-an. 

One  of  the  Syrian  race,  or  an  inhabitant  of 
Syria.  In  O.  T.  times  the  word  Syria  was  not 
in  use  ;  and  where  Syrian  occurs  in  the  E.  V. 
of  the  O.  T.  it  denotes  a  native  of  Aram, 
properly  called  an  Aramaean  (Gen.xxviii.  5)  ; 
see  Aram,  Damascus,  and  for  the  period 
after  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
Syria. 

Sy-ro-phce-ni'ci-an,  in  A.  V.  Syropheni- 
cian. 

A  Phcenician  of  Syria  in  distinction  from 
the  Libyphcenicians  of  north  Africa  (Mark 
vii.  20;  cp.  Mat.  xv.  22).  A  new  distinction 
arose  toward  the  end  of  the  second  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  the  province  of 
Syria  was  divided  into  Syria  Magna  and 
Syria-Phoenice. 

Syr'tis.     See  Quicksand. 


T. 


Ta'a-nach,  in  A.  V.  once  Tanach  (Josh, 
xxi.  25). 

A  Canaanite  city,  mentioned  about  1600 
B.  c.  in  connection  with  the  advance  of 
Thothmes  III.  against  Megiddo.  Its  king 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii. 
21).  It  lay  within  the  limits  of  Lssachar,  but 
was  nominally  possessed  by  the  Mana.ssites 
(Josh.  xvii.  11;  1  Chron.  vii".  29).  Residence 
in  it  was  assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites 
(Josh.  xxi.  25).  The  Manassites  failed  to  ex- 
pel the  Canaanite  inlial)itants,  but  ultimately 
rendered  them  tributary  (Judg.  i.  27).  The 
great  battle  between  Barak  and  Sisera  was 
fought  near  Taanach  (v.  19).  The  place 
was  important  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin. 
iv.  12).  The  mound  Ta'annak,  the  .site  of 
the  ancient  city,  is  situated  among  the  low 
liills  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  plain  of 
Jezreel,  5  miles  to  the  southeast  of  ancient 
Megiddo. 

48 


Ta-a-nath-shi'loh  [approach  to  Shiloh]. 

A  town  on  the  border  between  Epliraim 
and  .Manasseh  (Josh.  xvi.  6).  It  is  the  ruin 
Ta'ua,  7  miles  southeast  by  east  of  Shechem. 

Tab'ba-oth  [rings]. 

A  family  of  Netliinim,  represented  in  Ze- 
rubbabel's  colony  (Ezra  ii.  43  ;  Neh.  vii.  46). 

Tab 'bath. 

A  place  near  Abel-meholah  (Judg.  vii.  22). 
Site  unknown. 

Ta-be'al,  in  R.  V.  Tabeel  [probably,  good- 
not  ;  a  scornful  modification  of  Tabeel 
(q.  V.)]. 

A  man  whose  son  the  allied  kings,  Rezin  of 
Damascus  and  Pekah  of  Israel,  attempted  to 
place  on  the  throne  of  David  as  their  puppet 
king  of  Judah  (Is.  vii.  6). 

Ta'be-el  [Aramaic,  God  is  good]. 

1.  Probably  the  original  pronunciation  of 
Tabeal  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Pei^sian  petty  governor,  probably  of 
Syrian  descent,  one  of  those  who  complained 
to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  that  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  was  being  rebuilt  (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Tab'e-rah  [burning]. 

A  place  where  the  Israelites  murmured, 
and  the  fire  of  the  Lord  burnt  among  them 
in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  camp  (Num.  xi. 
1-3;  Deut.  ix.  22).  The  burning  abated  at 
the  intercession  of  Moses.  The  event  per- 
haps occurred  at  no  formal  encampment,  or 
only  in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  camp  at 
Kibroth-hattaavah  (Num.  xi.  1,  35). 

Ta'ber-ing. 

Striking  frequently,  as  on  a  tabor,  tabret, 
tamborine,  or  timbml  (Nah.  ii.  7). 
Tab'er-na-cle  [a  tent]. 

1.  A  provisional  tent  where  the  Lord  met 
his  i)eople  (Ex.  xxxiii.  7-10) ;  see  Tent  of 
Meeting. 

2.  The  movable  sanctuary  in  the  form 
of  a  tent  which  God  directed  Moses  at 
Sinai  to  make,  that  God  might  dwell  as  king 
among  his  people  (Ex.  xxv.  8,  9).  Hence 
it  was  called  "the  dwelling"  (9;  xxvi.  1, 
margin  of  R.  V.),  and,  as  the  place  where 
.fehovah  met  his  people,  "the  tent  of  meet- 
ing" (xl.  34,  35,  in  R.  V.),  and  as  the 
depository  of  the  tables  of  the  law  or  tes- 
timony, "the  tent  of  the  testimony" 
(xxxviii.  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  21,  22 ;  Num.  ix.  15). 
It  was  also  known  by  the  general  designa- 
tion house  of  Jehovah  (Ex.  xxxiv.  26  ;  Josh. 
vi.  24).  The  materials  for  its  construction 
were  largely  obtained  in  the  vicinity  :  the 
acacia  wood  of  the  wilderness,  hair  and 
skins  of  the  flocks,  skin  of  the  tachash,  a 
porpoise  or  similar  brute,  from  the  Red  Sea. 
Gold,  silver,  brass,  and  linen,  or  perhaps 
muslin,  were  liberally  furnished  by  the 
people,  who  gave  their  ornaments  for  the 
work  (Ex.  XXXV.  21-29).  The  lavish  expen- 
diture of  precious  metals  for  this  temporary 
structure  and  its  furniture  was  justified, 
since  none  of  this  wealth  would  be  lost  when 


Tabernacle 


754 


Tabernacle 


the  movable  tent  gave  place  to  a  permanent 
edifice.  The  sacred  vessels  might  serve  in  a 
new^  sanctuary  or  be  wrouglit  into  new  forms, 
and  the  gold  and  silver  that  were  used  in 
construction  and  ornamentation  were  avail- 
able in  any  future  building. 

The  architectural  specifications  for  the 
tabernacle  are  drawn  up  systematically  ;  and 
begin  with  the  ark,  which  was  the  central  and 
essential  feature  of  the  appointed  meeting- 
place  between  Jehovah  and  his  people  (Ex. 
XXV.  22).  I.  The  essential  and  permanent 
features :  the  ark,  table  of  showbread,  and 
candelabrum  (Ex.  xxv.  10-40,),  which  were 
symbols  of  heavenly  thing^(Heb.  ix.  23). 
Their  housing  (Ex.  xxvi.  1-37).  The  altar 
of  burnt  offerings  (xxvii.  1-8).  The  court 
(9-19).  Continual  testimony  to  be  borne  by 
the  maintenance  of  light  from  pure  beaten 
oil  (20,  21).  No  such  specifications  for  the 
showbread  were  required.  The  ordination 
of  xxv.  30  sufl&ced,  since  the  finest  flour  was 
always  used  in  ofierings.  II.  The  means  of 
approach.  A  priesthood  ;  authorized  and 
appointed  (xxviii.  1),  garments  (2-43),  and 
consecration  (xxix.  1-36).  After  mediating 
priests  have  been  provided,  atonement  of  the 
altar  is  specified  (37)  and  the  continual  sac- 
rifice (38-42).  III.  When  the  way  of  approach 
has  been  opened,  the  specifications  advance 
to  the  altar  of  incense  (xxx.  1-10),  symbol- 
ical of  the  adoration  of  God  by  his  people 
cleansed  of  sin.  Only  here  is  the  altar  of 
incense  mentioned  apart  from  the  other  fur- 
niture in  a  description  of  the  tabernacle.  It 
is  ordered  in  its  logical  place  in  the  worship 
of  God  hy  his  ])eople.  Elsewhere  it  is  named 
with  the  other  furniture  in  the  unvarying 
order  of  ark,  table,  candlestick,  altar  of  in- 
cense, altar  of  burnt  olFering ;  as  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  manufacture  of  the  furniture 
(xxxvii.  2r)-28),  in  the  enumeration  of  the 
completed  furniture  (xxxix.  38),  in  the  di- 
rections for  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle 
(xl.  5),  and  in  the  record  of  its  erection  (26). 
IV.  Provision  for  the  needs  of  the  service : 
the  half  shekel  atonement  money  (Ex.  xxx. 
11-16),  the  laver  (17-21),  the  holy  anointing 
oil  (22-33),  and  the  incense  (34-38). 

The  tabernacle  formed  a  parallelogram, 
30  cubits  long  by  10  broad,  with  the  entrance 
at  the  eastern  end.  The  rear  end  and  the 
two  sides  were  made  of  l)oards,  48  in  number, 
20  on  each  side  and  8  in  the  rear,  of  which  2 
formed  the  posts  at  the  angles.  Each  plank 
was  10  cubits  long  by  li  cubits  broad,  and 
was  overlaid  with  gold.  They  were  scarcely 
cut  from  the  log  in  a  single  piece,  but  were 
probably  framed  of  several  pieces.  They 
were  set  on  end,  and  were  held  in  place  at 
the  bottom  by  tenons  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver,  two  to  each  plank,  and  they  were 
IkhukI  together  laterally  by  transverse  bars 
of  acacia  wood,  which  were  arranged  five 
on  a  side  externally  and  thrust  through 
rings  attached  to  each  plank  (xxvi.  15-30). 
The  entire  front  was  left   as   an   entrance. 


Tliis  portal  consisted  of  a  row  of  five  pillars 
overlaid  with  gold,  resting  in  sockets  of 
brass,  and  supporting  a  curtain.  The  in- 
terior was  divided  into  two  apartments 
by  four  similar  pillars  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver  and  hung  with  a  curtain  (32,  37). 
These  rooms  were  respectively  the  western. 


Ot-*V£R 


□ 


Grouiid  ri:in  of  the  Taljernacle: 

called  the  holy  of  holies,  measuring  10  cubits 
in  every  direction,  and  the  sanctuary  or  holy 
place,  which  was  20  cubits  long  by  10  cubits 
in  breadth  and  height  (xxvi.  16  for  height; 
16,  18  for  length ;  16  with  22-24  for  width  ; 
see  Antiq.  iii.  6,  4).  The  hangings  were 
four :  1.  The  ceiling  and  apparently  the 
walls  were  hung  with  a  curtain  of  white 
twined  linen,  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet, 
and  figured  with  cherubim.  This  curtain 
was  made  in  ten  pieces,  each  28  cubits  by  4. 
sewed  together  in  two  sheets.  These  sheets 
were  then  looped  together.  One  formed  the 
ceiling  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies, 
and  the  other  the  ceiling  and  two  sides 
of  the  sanctuary  (1-6).  2.  The  main  ex- 
ternal covering  was  of  goats'  hair,  and 
consisted  of  eleven  narrow  curtains,  each  30 
cubits  by  4 ;  that  is,  2  cubits  longer  than 
the  under  curtain  of  linen  (cp.  13).  These 
strips  were  united  into  two  great  curtains, 
which  were  looped  together.  The  smaller 
one,  which  was  made  of  five  strip.s,  covered 


Tabernacle 


755 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


the  top  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies; 
the  larger  one  covered  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  sanctuary,  and  had  one  breadth  depend- 
ing over  the  portal  in  front  (7-13).  3.  Over 
this  covering  of  goats'  hair  a  double  roof  of 
red-dyed  rams'  skins  and  tachash  (perhaps 
porpoise)  skins  was  thrown  (14).  4.  Two 
veils  were  hung,  one  at  the  entrance  to  the 
sanctuary  and  the  other  in  front  of  the  holy 
of  holies.  Each  was  wrought  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen ;  but  on  the 
inner  veil,  which  separated  the  holy  of  holies, 
were  figures  of  cherubim,  in  token  of  the 
presence  and  unapproachableuess  of  Jehovah, 
while  the  outer  veil,  which  was  passed  by 
the  priests  when  they  entered  the  sanctuary 
to  minister,  lacked  symbols  to  prevent  man's 
ingress  (31-37). 

The  tabernacle  stood  in  a  courtyard,  like 
itself  rectangular  in  form,  its  longer  sides, 
running  east  and  west,  being  100  cubits,  and 
the  shorter  two.  running  north  and  south,  50. 
The  court  was  inclosed  by  a  fence,  5  cubits 
high,  formed  of  pillars  filleted  with  silver! 
resting  in  sockets  of  brass,  placed  5  cubits 
apart,  and  hung  with  fine  twisted  linen! 
The  entrance  was  at  the  east.  It  was  20 
cubits  wide  and  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of 
blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen, 
hung  on  four  pillars  (Ex.  xxvii.  9-18).  The 
tabernacle  was  pitched  in  the  western  half 
of  this  area,  the  laver  and  the  altar  of  burnt 
ofiering  being  erected  in  the  open  eastern  half. 
The  ark  was  the  central  feature.  It  stood 
in  the  holy  of  holies.  In  the  sanctuary, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  veil  that  sepa- 
rated it  from  the  holy  of  holies,  stood  the 
altar  of  incense,  which  however  belonged  to 
the  oracle  (1  Kin.  vi.  22,  E.  V.;  Ileb.  ix.  3, 
4).  In  this  apartment  also  were  the  table  of 
showbread  on  the  right  hand  and  the  golden 
candlestick  on  the  left.  In  the  court  stood 
the  laver  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offering. 
For  the  description  of  these  objects  and  their 
symbolism,  see  the  several  articles. 

The  tabernacle  was  dedicated  on  the  first 
day  of  the  second  year  after  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  A  cloud  rested 
on  it  by  day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night 
during  all  the  period  of  the  wandering. 
When  the  jjeople  broke  camp,  the  Levites 
took  the  structure  to  pieces  and  put  it  to- 
gether again  at  the  new  camping  ground 
(Ex.  xxvi. ;  xxvii.  9  19  ;  xxxv.  4-xxxvi.  38; 
xl.  1-38).  During  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
the  ark  remained  in  the  camp  at  Gilgal. 
After  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites,  Joshua 
set  up  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  where  it  re- 
mained during  the  period  of  the  judges 
(Josh,  xviii.  1).  Apparently  with  the  lapse 
of  time  chambers  for  the  occupancy  of  the 
priests  and  for  the  storing  of  gifts  came  to 
cluster  about  it  (1  Sam.  iii.  3;  cp.  the  en- 
campment of  the  Levites  about  it.  Num.  iii. 
23,  29,  35),  and  not  unlikely  the  court  was 
surrounded  by  a  more  substantial  structure 
than  hangings  of  linen.     It  was  spoken  of 


as  a  tent  (2  Sam.  vii.  6),  the  tent  of  meeting 
(Josh.  xix.  51 ;  1  Sam.  ii.  22),  Jehovah's 
dwelling  (Josh.  xxii.  19,  29,  translated  taber- 
nacle), Jehovah's  house  (Judg.  xix.  18;  1 
Sam.  i.  7,  24  ;  iii.  15),  and  as  the  abode  of 
Israel's  king  Jehovah's  residence  or  i)alace 
(1  Sam.  i.  9;  iii.  3,  translated  temple).  By 
the  capture  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines, 
the  tabernacle  lost  its  glory  and  its  value 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  60).  In  the  reign  of  Saul  it  was 
at  Nob  (cp.  1  Sam.  xxi.  1  with  Mark  ii.  2(J). 
During  the  greater  part  of  David's  reign, 
and  in  that  of  Solomon  until  the  building  of 
the  temple,  the  tabernacle  was  at  the  high 
place  of  <Tibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi.  39;  xxi.  29). 
Afterwards  Solomon  laid  it  up  in  the  temple 
(1  Kin.  viii.  4;  2  Chron.  v.  5),  which  was 
constructed  on  the  same  model,  but  in  every 
part  w  IS  of  dimensions  twice  as  great. 

Tab'er-na-cles,  Feast  of. 

The  last  of  the  three  great  annual  festi- 
vals at  which  every  man  of  Israel  was  re- 
quired to  appear  before  the  Lord  at  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  second  of  the  harvest 
festivals  (Deut.  xvi.  16  ;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13  ; 
cp.  1  Kin.  ix.  25  ;  xii.  32,  33 ;  Zech.  xiv.  16). 
It  took  its  name  from  the  custom  of  dwelling 
in  booths  during  its  celebration  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40-42),  which,  after  the  establishment  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  were  erected  in  the 
open  places  of  the  city,  on  the  roofs  and  in 
the  courts  of  the  houses,  in  the  precincts  of 
the  temple  (Neh.  viii.  16),  and  in  the  open 
country  outside  the  walls.  It  was  the  cul- 
minating festival  of  the  year ;  and  while 
preeminently  and  essentially  agricultural,  it 
combined  an  historical  association,  the  re- 
verse in  this  respect  of  the  passover  (Lev. 
xxiii.  39,  43).  It  was  kept  in  the  seventh 
month,  which  by  reason  of  the  number  was 
.sacred,  at  the  close  of  the  agricultural  season, 
when  all  the  products  of  the  year  from  grain- 
field,  oliveyard,  and  vineyard  were  gar- 
nered. Hence  the  name  feast  of  ingather- 
ing, under  which  it  was  instituted  (Ex.  xxiii. 
16;  xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  39;  Deut.  xvi.  13, 
15).  It  began  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month,  and  was  celebrated  during  seven 
days.  The  special  burnt  offering  amounted  to 
seventy  bullocks,  distributed  on  a  decreasing 
scale  over  the  week,  together  with  two  rams 
and  fourteen  lambs  daily  ;  and  as  a  sin  offer- 
ing a  he  goat  was  daily  sacrificed  (Num.  xxix. 
12-34 ;  cp.  Lev.  xxiii!  36  ;  Ezra  iii.  4).  The 
booths  made  of  the  boughs  of  trees  suggested 
the  vintage  life  ;  but  they  were  also  made  a 
reminder  of  the  march  from  Egypt  through 
the  wilderness  (Lev.  xxiii.  43;  cp.  Hos.  xii. 
9).  Every  seven  years  the  law  of  Moses  was 
publicly  read,  the  year  of  reading  coinciding 
with  the  year  of  release,  w^hen  there  was  no 
occasion  to  celebrate  an  ingatln^red  harvest 
(Deut.  xxxi.  9-13).  The  festival  occurred 
almost  immediately  after  the  day  of  atone- 
ment. The  people,  purged  ceremonially 
from  their  sinfulness,  could  keep  the  feast 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


'56 


Tabor 


with  a  glad  sonse  of  their  fitness  to  com- 
mune with  the  bountiful  God.  The  needy 
were  remembered  (Deut.  xvi.  14).  An  eighth 
day  of  solemn  assembly  was  added  to  the 
festival.  It  was  distinct  from  the  festival ; 
the  requirement  to  dwell  in  booths  did  not 
extend  to  it,  and  its  offerings  stood  in  no  re- 
lation to  those  of  the  festival  proper  (Lev. 
xxiii.  3U,  3t) ;  Num.  xxix.  35-38;  Antiq.  iii. 
10,  4).  It  was  not  intended  to  conclude  the 
feast  of  tabernacles,  but  only  to  bring  the 
annual  cycle  of  festivals  to  a  fitting  close. 
Later,  however,  the  festival  was  spoken  of 
as  continuing  for  eight  days  (2  Mac.  x.  6  ; 
Antiq.  iii.  10,  4).  It  is  disputed  whether  the 
seventh  or  the  eighth  day  was  the  great  day 
referred  to  in  John  vii.  37.  Splendid  cere- 
monies were  subsequently  added  to  those  pre- 
scribed in  the  law  for  the  festival.  At  the 
time  of  the  morning  sacrifice  the  people  took 
branches  of  palm,  myrtle,  and  willow  inter- 
twined and  fruit  in  their  hands,  repaired  to 
the  temple,  and  marched  around  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering  once  daily  and  seven  times  on 
the  seventh  day,  after  the  manner  of  com- 
passing Jericho  (Antiq.  iii.  10,  4  ;  xiii.  1.3,  5  ; 
cp.  2  Mac.  X.  6,  7).  Another  custom,  possibly 
also  in  vogue  in  Christ's  day,  was  that  daily 


blew  trumpets  and  Levites  played  on  instru- 
ments and  sang  psalms,  was  poured  out  be- 
side the  altar,  whence  it  was  conducted  by  a 
sewer  into  the  Kidrou  valley.  It  was  also 
customary  in  the  evening  following  the  first 
day  of  the  festival,  and  perhaps  on  the  sub- 
sequent evenings,  to  illuminate  the  court  of 
the  women  from  two  lofty  stands,  each  sup- 
porting four  immense  lamps,  which  threw 
their  light  not  only  into  the  courts  of  the 
temple,  but  far  and  wide  over  the  city.  The 
wicks  were  made  of  the  cast-off  linen  of  the 
priests.  Levites,  stationed  on  the  steps  of 
the  court,  rendered  instrumental  music  and 
sang  psalms  ;  and  a  dance  was  performed  by 
prominent  laymen  and  priests. 

Jews  who  were  unable  to  attend  the  cele- 
bration at  Jerusalem  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  city  from  their  home,  especially 
Jews  dwelling  in  foreign  countries,  kept  the 
festival  at  the  synagogue  of  the  town  where 
they  lived,  but  of  course  without  the  offering 
of  sacrifices. 

Tab'i-tha.     See  Dorcas. 

Ta'bor. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  boundary  of  the 
territory  of  Issachar  (Antiq.  v.  1,  22  ;  perhaps 


ISIount  Tabor,  as  seen  from  Nain. 


•luring  the  festival,  at  the  time  of  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  oblation,  a  priest  filled  a 
golden  vessel  with  water  at  the  pool  of  Siloam 
and  carried  it  to  the  temple,  where  it  was  re- 
ceivedwith  trumpet  blast  and  the  words  of 
Is.  xii.  3  :  "  With  joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out 
of  the  wells  of  salvation."  It  Was  mixed  with 
the  wine  of  the  sacrifices  and,  \\  hile  j)riests 


Josh.  xix.  22),  situated  inland  among  the 
mountains  (Jer.  xlvi.  18).  It  is  a  notable 
mountain  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  12),  though  vastly  in- 
ferior in  size  to  Hermon.  The  forces  of  Issa- 
char and  Zebulun  assembled  there  ))repara- 
tory  to  fighting  with  Sisera  ( Judg.  iv.  6,  12, 
14).  In  218  B.  c,  Antiochus  the  Great  cap- 
tured a  town  on  its  summit  and  fortified  the 


Tabret 


757 


Tahpenes 


place  (Polybius  v.  70,  6).  Josephus  encircled 
the  top  with  a  wall  for  defence  (Life  37  ;  War 
iv.  1,  8).  Tabor,  now  called  Jebel  et-Tor,  is 
a  detached  hill  of  limestone,  rising  1843  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  plain  of  Jezrcel, 
about  12  miles  north  of  mount  Gilboa,  5A 
east  by  south  of  Nazareth,  and  12  west  by 
south  of  the  southern  curve  of  the  lake  of 
(iennesaret.  From  the  w-est-northwest  it 
looks  like  a  truncated  cone,  and  from  the 
southwest  the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The  sides 
are  steep.  The  northern  side  is  covered  with 
thickets  of  oak  and  terebinth.  The  top  is  flat 
and  elliptical.  In  the  second  century  the 
opinion  was  current  that  Tabor  was  the  scene 
of  the  transfiguration,  and  ecclesiastical  build- 
ings in  commemoration  were  erected  from 
time  to  time  on  the  summit.  The  theory 
is  beset  by  the  difficulty  that  there  was  a 
town  on  the  summit  in  the  days  of  t'hrist. 

2.  A  town  of  Zebulun,  given  to  the  Me- 
rarite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  77),  perhaps  the 
place  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josli.  xix. 
22).  The  latter  is  scarcely  identical  with 
the  border  town  Chislotli-tabor  (12),  which 
rather  corresponds  with  Cbesulloth  (18). 

3.  The  oak  or  terebinth  of  Tabor  (1  Sam. 
X.  3;  not  plain,  as  in  A.  V.),  apparently  in 
the  territory  of  Benjamin. 

Tab'ret. 

A  musical  instrument  (1  Sam.  x.  5),  a  tim- 
brel (q.  v.). 

Tab-rirn'mon,  in  A.  V.  Tab'rim-on  [Ara- 
maic, Eimmon  is  good]. 

A  son  of  Hezion,  and  father  of  Beuhadad 
I.,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18). 

Tache. 

A  catch  for  taking  hold  or  holding  together. 
It  was  used  about  the  tabernacle  for  coupling 
curtains  together  (Ex.  xxvi.  6,  11,  in  R.  V. 

clasji). 

Tach'mo-nite,  in  R.  V.  Tahchemonite. 

A  word  found  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8.  It  is 
doubtless  a  corruption,  in  the  Hebrew  text 
itself,  of  "the  Hachmonite,"  a  copyist  hav- 
ing mistaken  Hebrew  h  for  t.     See  Hach- 

MOXI. 

Tad'mor  [formed  from  frtmar,  a  palm  tree]. 

A  town  in  the  desert  (2  Chron.  viii.  4).  It 
was  fortified  by  Solomon,  doubtless  to  control 
tlie  caravan  route  across  it.  In  the  parallel 
]iassage  (1  Kin.  ix.  18,  R.  V.)  it  is  called 
Tamar  in  the  M'ilderness,  and  described  as 
being  not  only  in  the  desert,  but  also  in  the 
land.  This  latter  phrase  is  probably  broad 
enough  to  denote  the  extensive  kingdom  of 
Solomon  (19;  iv.  21,  24).  The  suggestion 
has  been  made  that  the  town  may  be  identi- 
cal with  Tamar  at  the  southeastern  corner 
of  the  promised  boundaries  of  the  land 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28),  probablv  on  the 
road  from  Hebron  to  Elath  ;  see  Tamar  5. 
This  identification  is  in  itself  suitable,  and 
may  include  or  correct  Tadmor  in  2  Chron. 


viii.  4,  which  lias  been  proposed  in  explana- 
tion vt'  1  Kin.  ix.  18.  But  the  text  of  Kings 
is  suspicious  :  for  the  jihrase  "'in  the  land" 
is  superfluous,  since  all  the  towns  mentioned 
were  in  the  land,  and  the  text  departs  from 
the  parallel  enumeration  in  Chronicles  in 
failing  to  locate  in  Hamath  the  store  cities 
of  Solomon.  Perhaps  the  original  text  was 
"Tamar  in  the  wilderness,  in  the  land  of 
Hamath  all  the  store  cities."  Tadmor  eventu- 
ally became  subject  to  the  Romans,  who 
Latinized  the  name  into  Palmyra  (Autiq. 
Yiii.  6,  1).  Between  A.  D.  251  and  273  it  was 
at  first  partially,  and  then  for  a  time  totally, 
independent.  The  place  still  retains  the 
name  of  Tadmur.  It  is  in  an  oasis  about  i40 
miles  east-northeast  of  Damascus,  and  about 
120  from  the  Euphrates.  It  is  now  a  ruin, 
stretching  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half.  It 
has  long  rows  of  Corinthian  columns  and  a 
few  of  the  Ionic  order,  with  a  number  of 
tower-like  tombs.  The  inscriptions  found 
in  the  place  have  been  chiefly  Greek  and 
Semitic. 

Ta'han  [perhaps,  inclination]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of 
a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  .35).  His  descent 
was  probably  through  Telah,  Rephah,  and 
Beriah  to  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Ta-hap'a-nes.     See  Tahpanhes. 

Ta'hash,  in  A.V.Thahash  [porpoise  or  sim- 
ilar flshlike  animal]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reumah 
(Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Ta'hath  [that  which  is  beneath] . 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  xxxiii.  26,  27).  Situation  un- 
known. 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  and  of  the  line  of  Korah  and  Abiasaph 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24,  37).  From  him  two  families 
branched,  Uriel  and  Zephaniah. 

3.  An  Ephraimite,  son  of  Bered,  family  of 
Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

4.  A  son  of  Eleadah,  and  a  descendant  of 
Tahath,  son  of  Bered  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

Tah-che'mo-nite.     See  Tachmonitb. 

Tah'pan-hes,  and  once  Tehaphnehes 
(Ezek.  XXX.  18) ;  in  A.  V.  once  also  Tahapa- 
nes  (Jer.  ii.  16). 

An  Egyptian  city  (Ezek.  xxx.  18),  to  which 
Jews  fled  to  escape  Babylonian  vengeance 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (Jer.  xliii.  7-9). 
Jews  seem  to  have  become  permanent  resi- 
dents there  (xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  The  Septu- 
agint  translators  render  the  name  Taphne  or 
Taphnai,  obviously  the  same  as  Daphne,  a 
fortified  city  on  the  Pelusiac  channel  of  the 
Nile  (Herod,  ii.  30,  107),  probably  marked 
by  the  ruins  of  Defenneh,  12  miles  north  of 
Pithom. 

Tah'pe-nes. 

A  queen  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Solomon 
(1  Kin.  xi.  19,  20). 


Tahrea 


758 


Tamarisk  Tree 


Tali're-a,  and  Tarea  [perhaps,  adroitness 
or  cunning]. 

A  descendant  of  king  Saul  through  Jona- 
than (1  Chron.  viii.  35;  is.  41j. 

Tah-tim-hod'shi. 

A  region  visited  by  David's  census  takers 
in  connection  with  Gilead,  before  they  came 
to  Dan-jaan  and  roundabout  to  Zidou  '(2  Sam. 
xxiv.  6).  The  name  is  elsewhere  unknown, 
and  perhaps  stands  for  "  the  Hittites  toward 
Kadesh  ;  "  see  Kadesh  2. 

Tal'ent. 

A  weight  used  both  for  ordinary  commod- 
ities and  for  the  precious  metals,  but  of  dif- 
ferent standard  in  the  respective  cases  ;  see 
Weights.  The  value  of  the  talent  of  gold 
was  about  $29,374.50;  and  that  of  silver 
about  $1950.  The  talent  of  the  Greco-Eoman 
period  was  Attic,  varying  from  .$1180  to  $960. 
From  the  parable  of  the  talents,  in  which 
a  master  distributes  talents  among  his  serv- 
ants, according  to  their  several  ability, 
to  be  put  to  profitable  use 
(Mat.  XXV.  14-30),  the  Eng- 
lish figurative  use  of  the 
word  talents  is  probably 
derived  in  such  expressions 
as  that  one  uses  his  talents 
well. 

Tal'i-tha  cu'mi  [Ara- 
maic, maiden  arise]  (Mark 
V.  41). 

Tal'mai  [pertaining  to 
furrows] . 

1.  A  son  of  Anak,  and 
probably  founder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  Anakim  (Num.  xiii. 
22),  driven  from  Hebron 
by  Caleb  (Josh.  xv.  14 ; 
Judg.  i.  10). 

2.  A  king  of  Geshur, 
whose  daughter  Maacali 
was  one  of  David's  wives, 
and  Absalom's  mother  (2 
Sam.  iii.  3 ;  xiii.  37 ;  1 
Chron.  iii.  2). 

Tal'mon  [oppressed]. 

A  porter,  and  the  family 
which  he  founded  (1  Chron. 
ix.  17 ;  Neh.  xi.  19  ;  xii.  25).    Some  of  them  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  42 ;  Neh.  vii.  45),  and  jierformed  the  .same 
service  at  the  new  temple. 

Ta'm^h.  /  See  Temah. 

Ta'maV;  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Thamar  [a  palm 
tree,  specially  a  date  palm]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Er,  son  of  Judah.  When 
left  a  widow,  she  became  the  mother  of  Perez 
and  Zerah  by  Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  6-26), 
and  thus  the  ance.stress  of  several  tribal  fam- 
ilies (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21). 

2.  Absalom's  beautiful  sister,  ill-used  by 
her  half-brother  Ammon  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-39; 
1  Chron.  iii.  9).     Perhaps  she  became  Uriel's 


wife  and  the  mother  of  Maacah,  Eehoboam's 
wife.     See  Maacah  9. 

3.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  named*  doubt- 
less after  his  sister  (2  Sam.  xiv.  27). 

4.  A  town  in  the  desert  (1  Kin.  ix.  18). 
The  Hebrew  K'ri,  or  preferred  reading,  the 
A.  v.,  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  and  2  Chron. 
viii.  4  have  Tadmor;  see  Tadmok. 

5.  A  place  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
promised  southern  frontier  of  Palestine 
(Ezek.  xlyii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28).  It  would  lie 
south  of  tiie  Dead  Sea  ;  and  perhaps  is  identi- 
cal with  the  village  Tamara,  located  by  Eu.se- 
bius  on  tlic  mad  between  Hebron  and  Elath. 

Tam'a-risk  Tree. 

The  tamarisk  {Tamarix  articulata)  is  called 
'atlil  in  Arabic,  'athla'  in  Aramaic ;  and  accord- 
ingly the  cognate  Hebrew  word  'eshel  doubt- 
less likewise  denotes  the  tamarisk.  Abraham 
I)lanted  one  in  Beer-sheba  (Gen.  xxi.  33  ;  in 
A.  V.  grove),  Saul  dwelt  beneath  one  in 
Eamah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  6  ;  in  A.  V.  a  tree),  and 
the  bones  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were  buried 
beneath  one  in  Jabesh-gilead   (xxxi.   13  ;  in 


Tamarisk  Tree. 

A.  V.  a  tree).  The  chronicler  states  that  the 
bones  of  the  king  and  his  .sons  were  interred 
beneath  the '<'?a?i  in  Jabesh  (1  Chron.  x.  12; 
in  E.  V.  oak,  E.  V.  margin  terebinth).  He  may, 
however,  use  the  term  'elah  in  its  broad  signifi- 
cation of  strong  tree;  see  Oak.  The  tamarisk 
is  a  small  tree,  with  durable  wood,  deciduous 
branches,  and  minute,  scale-like,  evergreen 
leaves.  Nine  species  occur  in  Palestine.  The 
most  widely  distributed  is  Tamarix  pallasii, 
which  attains  a  height  of  from  10  to  20  feet. 
The  largest  species  is  Tamarix  articulata,  from 
15  to  30  feet.  It  is  found  along  the  western 
border  of  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
Tamarix  mannifera,  from  10  to  15  feet  in 
height,  growing  in  ancient  Moab,  Edom,  and 


Tammuz 


759 


Tarpelites 


the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  yields  the  substance 
popularly  known  as  manna ;  see  Manna. 

Tam'muz. 

A  deity  of  the  Babylonians,  called  by  them 
Dumn-si  or  Du-zi,  probably  meaning  son  of 
life,  from  which  the  name  Tammuz  is  de- 
rived. He  was  worshiped  throughout  Baby- 
lonia, and  in  Assyria,  Phoenicia,  and  Pales- 
tine ;  and  he  gave  name  to  the  fourth  month 
of  the  Semitic  year;  see  Year.  He  was  the 
husband  of  the  goddess  Ishtar.  and  king  of 
the  nether  world.  He  was  also  god  of  the 
pasture,  the  patron  of  flocks  and  their  keep- 
ers, and  hence  was  himself  entitled  shep- 
herd. He  was  represented  as  dying  annually 
and  returning  to  life  with  each  recurring 
year.  It  was  understood,  by  some  at  least, 
that  he  was  slain  by  the  sun-god  Shamash. 
The  story  is  confessedly  a  nature  myth. 
However  its  details  may  be  explained,  it 
symbolizes  more  or  less  inclusively  the  an- 
nual withdrawal  and  invariable  return  of 
the  sun,  and  the  death  and  revival  of  vegeta- 
tion. Ezekiel  in  vision  saw  the  worship  of 
Tammuz  in  favor  among  the  Jews,  and 
women  sitting  at  the  northern  gate  of  the 
temple  weeping  for  the  god  (Ezek.  viii.  14). 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  Jerome  identified 
him  with  the  Phcenician  Adonis.  Though 
not  proven,  their  conjecture  has  found  much 
favor.  Jerome  says  that  the  Syrians  cele- 
brated an  annual  solemnity  to  Adonis  in 
June,  when  he  was  lamented  by  the  women  as 
dead,  and  afterwards  his  coming  to  life  again 
was  celebrated  with  songs.  From  other  sources 
it  appears  that  Byblos  in  Phoenicia  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  Adonis  worship.  The 
annual  feast  in  his  honor  was  held  at  the 
neighboring  temple  of  Aphrodite  in  mount 
Lebanon,  and  lasted  seven  days.  It  began 
with  a  commemoration  of  the  disappearance 
of  the  god.  Vessels  filled  with  mold  and 
containing  stalks  of  wheat,  barley,  lettuce, 
and  fennel,  and  called  gardens  of  Adonis, 
were  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
withering  of  the  plants  symbolized  the 
slaughter  of  the  youth  by  the  fire-god  Mars. 
Then  followed  a  search  for  Adonis  by  the 
women.  At  length  his  image  was  found  in 
one  of  the  gardens.  The  finding  was  cele- 
brated by  lewdness  and  song.  The  image 
was  then  coiRned,  and  the  woxind  made  by 
the  symbolical  boar  which  slew  the  young 
god  was  shown  on  his  body.  The  people  sat 
on  the  ground  around  the  bier  with  their 
clothes  rent,  and  the  women  raised  loud 
lamentation.  Sacrifice  was  ofi'ered  for  the 
dead  god,  and  the  image  was  buried. 

Ta'nach.     See  Taanao^h. 

Tan'hu-metli  [consolation] . 

A  Netophathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  2.3  ;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

Tan'ner. 

A  dresser  of  hides  (Acts  ix.  4.3).  who  re- 
moves the  hair  by  means  of  lime  or  other 
agent,  steeps  the  skins  in  an  infusion  of  bark, 
especially  of  oak  bark,  in  order  to  impregnate 


them  with  the  acid  juice  of  the  plant  and 
render  them  firm,  pliable,  and  durable,  and 
thus  converts  the  hide  into  leather.  At 
Joppa  Peter  lodged  with  a  tanner  (x.  6).  See 
Leather. 

Ta'phath  [a  drop] . 

A  daughter  of  Solomon,  and  wife  of  Abiu- 
adab's  son  (1  Kin.  iv.  11). 

Ta'phon.     See  Tephon. 
Tap'pu-ah    [apple  or,  perhaps,  quince  or 
apricot] . 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  Shechem 
and  on  the  boundary  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi. 
8  ;  xvii.  7,  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Ta'rah.     See  Terah. 

Tar'a-lah  [staggering,  reeling]. 
A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).     Site 
unknown. 
Ta're-a.    See  Tahrea. 

Tares. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Zizanion  in 
Mat.  xiii.  25-27,  29,  30  ;  on  E.  V.  margin  dar- 
nel. The  tare  {Vicia  sativa),  a  vetch,  with 
pinnate  leaves  and  purple-blue  or  red  papil- 
ionaceous flowers,  would  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  wheat.     The  Greek  word 


Bearded  Darnel. 

sizanion  corresponds  to  the  Arabic  zuwdn, 
which  denotes  Lolium,  and  to  the  talmudic 
zonin.  The  bearded  darnel  (Lolium  temuleyi- 
tum)  is  a  poisonous  grass,  almost  undistin- 
guishable  from  wheat  while  the  two  are  only 
in  blade,  but  which  can  be  separated  without 
difl3.culty  when  they  come  into  ear  (cp.  ver. 
29,  30). 

Tar'get.     See  Armor. 

Tar'gum.     See  Versions. 

Tar'pel-ites. 

The  inhabitants  of  a  place,  presumably 
called  Tarpel  and  situated  near  Babylonia 
or  Elam  (Ezra  iv.  9). 


Tarshish 


reo 


Tattenai 


Tar'shish,  in  A .  V.  four  times  TharsMsh 
(1  Kin.  X.  22  ;  xxii.  48  ;.l  Chron.  vii.  10). 
1.  A  jieople  descended  from  Jsvan  (Gen. 
\  X.  4)  and  their  country.  As  Jonali  entered 
'~^a_sliip  at  Joppa  in  order  to  flee  thither,  the 
route  to  it  was  evidently  across  the  waters 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  a  distant  land 
(Is.  Ixvi.  19).  Tyre  was  the  "daughter"  of 
Tarshish  (xxiii.  10),  perhaps  in  the  sense 
that  the  commerce  with  Tarshish  was  the 
making  of  Tyre.  The  imports  from  Tarshish 
were  silver  heaten  into  plates  (Jer.  x.  9),  also 
iron,  tin,  and  lead  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  It  is 
believed  that  Tarshish  was  T^xftessus,  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  near  Gibraltar  (Herod,  iv. 
152),  and  the  country  of  the  Turti  or  Turdi- 
tani,  to  which  the  town  belonged.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  region  attracted  the 
Phoenicians,  who  established  a  colony  there 
and  Semitized  the  name.  Spain  has  long 
been  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth. 


Tar'sus  [not  from  Greek  tarsos,  a  crate  of 
wickerwork,  any  broad,  flat  surface].  The 
name  was  pronounced  Tarzi  by  the  Assyri- 
ans, and  appears  written  on  coins  in  Aramaic 
character  as  Trz. 

The  chief  city  of  Cilicia,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  about  12  miles 
from  the  sea.  About  833  B.  c.  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria. 
When  the  Romans  formed  the  province  of 
Cilicia  in  64  B.  c,  they  made  Tarsus  the 
residence  of  the  governor.  To  compensate 
it  for  the  suflerings  it  endured  in  its  alle- 
giance to  the  party  of  Osesar,  Marc  Antony 
granted  it  freedom  and  exemption  from  taxa- 
tion. It  was  particularly  celebrated  for  its 
schools,  which  almost  rivaled  those  of  Athens 
and  Alexandria.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  apostle  Paul,  and  he  revisited  it  at  least 
once  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix.  11,  30;  xi. 


Tarsus. 


Ships  of  Tarshish  were  originally  ships 
trading  to  and  from  Tarshish,  but  ultimately 
ships  of  first-rate  magnitude  to  whatever 
place  their  voyages  may  have  been  made 
(Ps.  xlviii.  7;  Is.  ii.  16;  xxiii.  1,  14;  Ix.  9; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  25).  Such  vessels,  built  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  to  go  to  Ophir,  lay  in  the  harbor 
at  Ezion-geber  on  the  Eed  Sea  (1  Kin.  xxii. ' 
48).  The  term  Tarshish  ship  is  paraphrased 
as  "ship  going  to  Tarshisb"  (2  Chron,  ix. 
21,  Hebrew  text;  cp.  1  Kin.  x.  22)  and  "ship 
to  go  to  Tar,shish  "  (2  Chron.  xx.  36). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bilhan  (1   Chron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  One   of    the   seven    highest   princes   of 
Persia  (Esth.  i.  14). 


25 ;  xxi.  39 ;  xxii.  3).  Though  much  de- 
cayed from  its  former  grandeur,  it  still  exists 
as  a  considerable  town.  There  are  few  rem- 
nants of  antiquity  at  the  old  site. 

Tar'tak. 

An  idol  set  up  by  the  Avvites  in  Samaria 
(2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 

Tar'tan. 

The  title  of  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Assyrian  army  (2  Kin.  xviii.  17;  Is.  xx. 
1).  The  name  was  pronounced  by  the  As- 
syrians both  tartatm  and  tuifanu. 

Tat'te-nai,  in  A.  V,  Tatnai. 
A    Persian    governor    west   of    the    river 
Euphrates.     He  opposed  the  building  of  the 


Tau 


rei 


Tebah 


I 


temple  by  the  returned    exiles  (Ezra  v.   3; 
vi.  6j. 

Tau,  ill  A.  E.  V.  Tav. 

The  tweuty-second  and  last  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  pronounced  t  or  th  ac- 
cording to  position.  English  T  comes  from 
the  same  source,  and  with  th  represents  it 
in  anglicized  Hebrew  names ;  as  Tamar, 
Nathan.  It  heads  the  twenty-second  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Scribes  occasionally  confused  tau  and  he 
(q.  v.). 

Tax'es. 

Under  the  judges  the  regular  payments 
obligatory  on  the  Israelites  were  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah.  There  was  as  yet  no 
army  and  no  royal  court  to  support.  But 
there  was  a  tabei-nacle  and  a  priesthood,  and 
tliese  were  maintained  by  the  tithes  and 
other  offerings,  and  by  the  land  which  was 
permanently  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Levites. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom, 
revenue  for  its  support  was  obtained  from 
various  sources :  1.  Taxes  in  kind  were 
levied  by  Solomon  on  the  produce  of  the 
field  and  the  flock  (1  Kin.  iv.  7-28;  cp. 
Amos  vii.  1).  2.  Special  gifts  were  brought 
to  the  king  at  the  commencement  of  his 
reign  (1  Sam.  x.  27)  or  in  time  of  war  (xvi. 
20;  xvii.  IH).  ',i.  Tribute  was  rendered  by 
subject  peoples  (2  Sam.  viii.  6,  14;  1  Kin.  x. 
15 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  4),  and  service  was  exacted 
of  the  Cauaanites  who  dwelt  in  the  midst 
of  Israel  (Judg.  i.  28,  30;  1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21). 
When  the  Hebrews  were  subject  to  a  foreign 
])riiice,  they  had  to  pay  tribute  to  him  in 
addition  to  taxes  for  the  support  of  their 
own  government.  4.  Duties  were  paid  by 
tradesmen  and  merchants  (1  Kin.  x.  15). 
Without  levying  taxes  in  money  or  produce, 
and  with  little  expense  to  himself,  David  at- 
tained the  object  of  a  standing  army  by  divid- 
ing the  men  of  military  age  into  brigades  of 
24,000  men,  and  requiring  each  brigade  in 
turn  to  hold  itself  in  readiness  during  one 
month  for  instant  service  (1  Chron.  x.xvii.  1). 
Under  Solomon  the  people  were  oppressed  by 
taxation,  and  this  grievous  burden  was  an 
immediate  cause  of  the  disruption  of  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xii.  4).  Exemption  from 
taxation  was  a  reward  for  service  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  25  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  2,  1). 

Under  the  Persian  em])ire,  by  decree  of 
Darius  Hystaspis  the  satraps  of  each  ])rov- 
ince  paid  a  fixed  sum  into  the  royal  treasury 
(Herod,  iii.  89).  The  iiihahit;iiits  had  to 
provide  fur  the  maintenance  of  the  govern- 
or's household  also.  This  provision  was 
palled  the  bread  of  the  governor,  and  so  far 
as  .Tudali  was  concerned  included  food  and 
forty  shekels  daily  in  money  (Neh.  v.  14,  15). 
The  revenue  was  derived  from  tribute,  cus- 
toms, and  toll  (Ezra  iv.  13,  20).  Priests, 
Levites,  and  Nethinim  were  exempted  from 


these  taxes  in  Judah  (vii.  24) ;  but  the  bur- 
dens i)ressed  heavily  on  the  great  body  of 
the  people,  who  had  the  sanctuary  likewise 
to  support,  and  many  were  forced  to  mort- 
gage their  fields  and  vineyards  to  raise  money 
for  the  tribute  (Neh.  v.  4 ;  ix.  37). 

Under  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings,  in- 
stead of  a  fixed  amount  being  levied  by  the 
crown  on  the  people,  the  privilege  of  collect- 
ing the  taxes  of  a  district  was  put  up  at 
auction  and  sold  to  the  highest  responsible 
bidder.  The  party  who  promised  the  mo.st 
revenue  from  a  province  was  authorized  to 
collect  it  and  was  furnished  with  military 
power  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  enforce  liis 
demands  (Antiq.  xii.  4,  1-5).  The  Syrian 
kings  imposed  a  poll  tax  and  a  duty  on  salt, 
exacted  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  the  an- 
nual present  of  a  crown  of  gold,  which  it 
had  become  customary  to  demand,  took  one- 
third  of  the  grain  and  one-half  of  the  fruit, 
and  in  addition  levied  on  the  tithes  and  tolls 
paid  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (1  Mac. 
x.  29-31 ;  xi.  34,  35 ;  xiii.  37,  39 ;  Antiq.  xii. 
3,  3). 

When  the  Romans  under  Pompey  took 
Jerusalem  in  63  B.  c,  tribute  was  imposed 
on  the  Jews  which  in  a  short  time  amounted 
to  more  than  10,000  talents  (x\ntiq.  xiv.  4,  4, 
and  5).  Julius  Csesar  decreed  that  the  tribute 
should  not  be  farmed,  that  it  should  not  be 
levied  in  a  Sabbatic  year,  and  that  in  the 
year  following  a  Sabbatic  year  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  usual  amount  .should  be  col- 
lected (10,  5  and  6).  Herod  the  Great  taxed 
the  produce  of  the  field  (xv.  9, 1),  and  levied 
duties  on  commodities  bought  and  .sold  (xvii. 
8,  4).  When  Judtea  was  placed  under  proc- 
urators, the  financial  system  of  the  empire 
was  introduced.  The  revenues  were  farmed  ; 
see  Publican.  There  were  levied  :  1.  Trib- 
ute of  the  soil,  paid  either  in  kind  or  in 
money.  2.  A  poll  tax  (Mat.  xxii.  17)  and, 
under  the  same  name,  a  tax  on  jiersonal 
property.  3.  Export  and  import  duties,  col- 
lected at  seaports  and  at  the  gates  of  cities. 
In  Jerusalem  a  house  duty  was  paid  by  the 
inhabitants  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  3). 

After  the  exile  a  temple  tax  of  half  a 
shekel  was  imposed  on  every  Israelite  who 
had  reached  the  age  of  twenty  years  (Mat. 
xvii.  24).  The  collectors  visited  each  town 
of  Judaea  annually  at  a  fixed  time,  and  in 
foreign  countries  places  were  designated 
where  it  might  be  paid.     See  Tribute  2. 

Tax'ing. 

An  enrollment,  ordered  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Augustus,  which  in  the  providence  of 
God  brought  Joseph  and  Mary  to  Bethlehem, 
and  led  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  ancient 
prophecy  that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  in 
that  town  (Mic.  v.  2;  Mat.  ii.  5,  6;  Luke  ii. 
1-20).  A  later  enrollment  led  to  tumults 
among  the  Jews  (Acts  v.  37).     See  Quirinius. 

Te'bah  [slaughter  (specially  of  cattle)]. 
A  son  of  Nahor  by  Eeumah,  his  concubine 


Tebaliah 


76-2 


Temple 


(Gen.  xxii.  24),  and  the  tribe  descended  from 
him.  The  name  is  found  in  2  Sam.  viii.  8, 
according  to  the  Septuagint  and  the  Syriac 
version,  and  also  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  8  in  the 
form  Tibhath,  and  denotes  a  town  of  Aram- 
zobah. 

Teb-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  immersed,  i.  e., 
ceremonially  purified] . 

A  Merarite  Levite,  the  third  son  of  Hosah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

Te'beth. 

The  tenth  month  of  the  Semitic  calendar 
(Esth.  ii.  16).     See  Yeak. 

Te-haph'ne-hes.     See  Tahpanhes. 

Te-hin'nah  [grace,  supplications]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Chelub, 
and  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ir-nahash 
(1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Tell  Tree. 

The  linden,  a  tree  of  the  genus  TUia.  The 
Hebrew  word  'elah  is  once  translated  thus  in 
A.  V.  (Is.  vi.  13  ;  in  E.  V.  terebinth)  ;  see 
•Oak  1  and  Terebinth.  The  teil  tree  does 
not  grow  in  Palestine. 

Te'kel.    See  Mene. 

Te-ko'a,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Tekoah  (2  Sam. 
xiv.  2,  4,  9),  and  so  in  R.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.  33, 
where  A.  V.  has  Thecoe. 

A  town  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  24;  iv.  5; 
Septuagint  of  Josh.  xv.  60),  in  the  wilderness 
toward  En-gedi  (2  Chron.  xx.  20 ;  cp.  2,  16). 
It  was  fortified  by  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6). 
It  was  the  home  of  the  prophet  Amos  (Amos 
1.  1).  In  Nehemiah's  time  the  common  peo- 
ple of  Tekoa  helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  while  the  nobles  of  the  place 
showed  indifference  to  the  work  (Neh.  iii.  5, 
27).  The  name  still  lingers  as  Teku'a,  a 
ruined  village  5  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
It  is  on  a  hill  broad  at  the  top,  where  are 
found  the  remains  of  the  foundations  of 
houses,  often  with  beveled  stones,  the  whole 
occupying  an  area  of  4  or  5  acres.  There  is 
also  a  castle,  but  of  more  modern  date. 

Te-ko'ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Tekoa  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  26). 

Tel-a'bib  [heap,  or  hill  of  ears  of  grain]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia,  near  the  river  Che- 
bar.  Jewish  exiles  were  located  there  (Ezek. 
iii.  15).     Situation  unknown. 

Te'lab  [fracture]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  probably  through 
Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Tel'a-im  [little  lambs]. 

A  place  where  Saul  assembled  his  army  to 
war  against  the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  xv.  4 ; 
and  xxvii.  8,  Septuagint).  It  may  be  Telem 
of  Josh.  XV.  24  ;  but  the  two  names,  as  tra- 
ditionally pronounced,  have  a  diff'erent  mean- 
ing. 

Te-las'sar,  in  A.  V.  once  Thelasar  (2  Kin. 
six.  12)  [probably,  hill  of  Asshur,  or  the  As- 
syrians]. 


A  place  inhabited  by  the  children  of  Eden 
(2  Kin.  xix.  12;  Is.  xxxvii.  12),  and  hence 
in  western  Mesopotamia,  near  Haran.  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Te'lem  [perhaps,  oppression]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).    Site  unknown.    See  Telaim. 

2.  A  porter,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

Tel-har'sba,  in  A.  V.  Tel-har'sa  and  Tel- 
har'e-sha  [in  Hebrew  and  Assyrian,  mound 
of  the  artificer's  work  or  of  enchantment]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia  whence  certain  people 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exiles  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  ii.  59; 
Neh.  vii.  61).     Situation  unknown. 

Tel-me'lab  [hill  of  salt]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia,  whence  certain  people 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exiles  came  to 
Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezraii.  59  ;  Neh. 
vii.  61).     Situation  unknown. 

Te'ma. 

A  tribe  of  Ishmaelites  and  the  district  they 
inhabited  (Gen.  xxv.  15  ;  Is.  xxi.  14).  Their 
caravans  were  well  known  (Job  vi.  19). 
Tema  is  often  identified  with  Taima  in  the 
Hauran  ;  but  it  rather  denotes  the  important 
peojjle  who  dwelt  in  and  about  Taima,  east 
of  the  jElauitic  gulf  of  the  Eed  Sea  and  mid- 
way between  Damascus  and  Medina. 

Te'mah,   in  A.  V.   Tamah  and   Thamab 

[perhaps,  laughter]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  the  captivitj'  (Ezra  ii.  53  ;  Neh.  vii.  55). 

Te'man  [southern]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Esau,  and  the  dis- 
trict they  inhabited  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15,  34). 
The  territory  was  in  Edom  (Jer.  xlix.  20  ; 
Amos  i.  12),  apparently  in  the  northern  part 
(Ezek.  xxv.  13).  Its  inhabitants  were  noted 
for  their  wisdom  (Jer.  xlix.  7). 

Te'man-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Tem'a-ni  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34). 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Teman  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34),  or  of  Tema.  It  is  not  certain  in 
which  sense  Eliphaz,  Job's  friend,  was  a 
Temanite  (Job  ii.  11). 

Tem'e-ni. 

A  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  6). 

Tem'ple  [in  Hebrew,  large  house,  palace, 
as  1  Kin.  i.  21 ;  2  Kin.  xx.  18 ;  Dan.  i.  4 ; 
iv.  4]. 

A  building  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  a 
deity  (Joel  iii.  5;  Ezra  v.  14  with  i.  7;  Acts 
xix.  27).  In  three  passages  it  is  applied  to 
the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  i.  9;  iii.  3;  2  Sam. 
xxii.  7;  cp.  Eev.  xv.  5);  but  generally  the 
reference  is  to  some  one  of  the  temjiles  suc- 
cessively erected  to  Jehovah  at  Jerusalem. 

1.  Solomon's  Temple.  The  erection  of  a 
permanent  house  of  the  Lord,  instead  of  the 
movable  tabernacle,  was  proposed  by  David, 
and   the   necessary   materials   were    largely 


I 


Temple 


763 


Temple 


amassed  by  him  (2  Sam.  vii.  ;  1  Kin.  v.  3-5 ; 
viii.  17;  1  Cbrou.  xxii.  ;  xxviii.  11-xxix.  9). 
He  gathered  100,000  talents  of  gold  and 
1,000,000  talents  of  silver  for  the  prospective 
structure  and  its  furnishings  (1  Chron.  xxii. 
14),  and  added  from  his  own  private  for- 
tune 3000  talents  of  gold  and  7000  tal- 
•ents  of  silver,  and  the  princes  contributed 
5000  talents  of  gold,  10,000  darics  of  gold, 
and  10,000  talents  of  silver  (xxix.  4,  7), 
making  a  total  of  108,000  talents  of  gold, 
10,000  darics  of  gold,  and  1,017,000  talents 
of  silver.  This  sum  is  equivalent  to  nearly 
4900  million  dollars  or,  if  it  may  be  legiti- 
mately reckoned  by  the  lighter  system  of 
weights,  nearly  2450  million  dollars.  This 
latter  amount  is  perhaps  not  incredible,  in 
view  of  the  booty  which  David  brought 
home  from  his  wars  and  received  as  tribute. 
Still  the  sum  is  very  large,  and  it  is  well  to 
admit  the  probability  of  the  text  being  cor- 
rupt. This  store  of  precious  metals  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  Solomon  for  the  use 
of  the  temple,  but  it  was  not  all  expended 
(1  Kin.  vii.  51;  2  Chron.  v.  1).  Solomon 
began  the  work  in  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign,  and  it  was  completed  in  seven  years 
and  six  months  (1  Kin.  vi.  1,  38).  The  alli- 
ance with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  rendered  it 
easy  to  obtain  timber  from  Lebanon,  and 
skilled  Phoenician  artiiicers.  30,000  Israel- 
ites were  levied,  and  sent  in  detachments  of 
10,000  for  a  month  to  the  Lebanon  mountains 
(1  Kin.  v.  13),  and  the  remnant  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  was  impressed  to  the  number  of 
150,000  to  serve  as  hewers  of  stone  and  car- 
riers (1  Kin.  V.  15  ;  ix.  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  2, 
17,  18).  Overseers  were  appointed,  appa- 
rently 550  chiefs  and  3300  subordinates  (1 
Kin.  V.  16;  ix.  23),  of  whom  3600  were  Ca- 
naanites  and  250  Israelites  (2  Chron.  ii.  17 ; 
viii.  10).  The  building  was  erected  on  mount 
Moriah,  at  the  spot  where  the  threshing  floor 
of  Oman,  or  Araunah,  the  Jebusite,  had 
stood  (2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Its  general  plan  was 
that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  the  dimensions 
were  double  and  the  ornamentation  was 
richer.  The  interior  of  the  edifice  measured 
^0  cubits  in  length,  20  in  breadth,  and  30  in 
height,  in  this  last  particular  deviating  from 
the  proportions  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Kin.  vi. 
2).  The  walls  were  built  of  stone  made 
ready  at  the  quarry  (7).  The  roof  was  con- 
structed of  beams  and  planks  of  cedar  (9), 
the  floor  was  laid  with  cypress,  and  the  walls 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  were  lined  with 
<?edar  (15  ;  and  2  Chron.  iii.  5,  where  the 
Greek  translators  read  cedar,  not  fir).  The 
whole  interior  was  overlaid  with  gold  (1 
Kin.  vi.  20,  22,  30  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  7  et  passim), 
and  its  walls  were  carved  not  only  with  cher- 
ubim, but  also  with  palm  trees  and  flowers. 

The  holy  of  holies  was  a  cube.  Each  side 
measured  20  cubits  (1  Kin.  vi.  16,  20).  The 
space,  nearly  10  cubits  high,  between  its  ceil- 
ing and  the  roof  was  probably  occupied  by  up- 
per chambers,  gold  lined  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  11 ; 


2  Chron.  iii.  9).  In  the  holy  of  holies  itselt 
was  placed  the  ark  (1  Kin.  viii.  6),  under  the 
wings  of  two  colossal  cherubim  of  olive  wood 
overlaid  with  gold.  Each  cherub  was  10 
cubits  in  height,  and  had  wings  5  cubits  long. 
With  the  tip  of  one  wing  it  touched  a  side 
wall,  and  with  the  other  wing  it  reached 
forward  to  the  center  of  the  room  and 
touched  the  corresponding  wing  of  its  com- 
panion. The  four  wings  thus  extended  across 
the  width  of  the  house,  while  the  cherubim 
turned  their  faces  toward  the  sanctuary 
(1  Kin.  vi.  23-28;  2  Chron.  iii.  13).  Under 
their  wings  the  ark  was  placed  (1  Kin.  viii. 
6).  The  partition  between  the  holy  and  the 
most  holy  place  was  of  cedar  boards,  overlaid 
on  both  sides  with  gold,  and  it  had  two  doors 
of  olive  wood,  decorated  with  palm  trees, 
flowers,  and  cherubim,  and  overlaid  with 
gold  ;  see  Leaf.  This  was  hung,  toward  the 
sanctuary,  with  chains  of  gold  and  a  cur- 
tain patterned  after  that  of  the  tabernacle 
(1  Kin.  vi.  16,  21,  31,  32;  2  Chron.  iii.  14;  cp. 
Antiq.  viii.  3,  3  and  7). 

The  holy  place  or  sanctuary  was  40  cubits 
long,  20  wide,  and  30  high.  Its  walls  were 
l)ierced  by  latticed  windows ;  probably  near 
the  roof,  above  the  top  of  the  exterior  build- 
ing, and  intended  for  ventilation  and  the 
escape  of  smoke  (1  Kin.  vi.  4).  The  altar  of 
incense  was  made  of  cedar,  instead  of  acacia, 
and  overlaid  with  gold  (20,  22 ;  vii.  48). 
It  belonged  to  the  holy  of  holies  (22,  E.  V.  ; 
Heb.  ix.  3,  4),  but  stood  in  the  holy  place, 
doubtless  because  the  priest,  who  might  en- 
ter the  holy  of  holies  but  once  in  the  year, 
had  occasion  to  ofler  incense  daily.  There 
were  ten  golden  candlesticks  instead  of 
one,  and  likewise  ten  tables,  although 
doubtless  the  showbread  was  displayed  on 
but  one ;  see  Candlestick  and  Showbread. 
The  entrance  to  the  sanctuary  from  the  court 
had  doors  of  cypress  (vi.  33,  34). 

Against  the  two  exterior  sides  and  the  rear 
of  the  temple  a  three-story  building  was 
erected,  containing  chambers  for  ofiicials  and 
for  storage  (vi.  5-10).  Before  the  front  en- 
trance a  portico  was  built,  10  cubits  wide,  20 
long,  and  120  or  more  probably  20  high  (3  ; 
2  C'iiron.  iii.  4;  cp.  Septuagint;  Syriac).  By 
it  stood  the  two  brazen  pillars,  Boaz  and 
Jachin,  each  18  cubits  high,  and  richly  orna- 
mented (1  Kin.  vii.  15-22  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  15-17). 

The  courts  of  the  temple  were  two  ;  the 
inner,  upper  court  of  the  priests,  and  the 
great  court  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  9  ; 
Jer.  xxxvi.  10).  They  were  separated  from 
one  another,  both  bj-  the  diflerence  of  level 
and  by  a  low  wall,  consisting  of  three  courses 
of  hewn  stone  and  one  course  of  cedar  beams 
(1  Kin.  vi.  36  ;  vii.  12).  In  the  court  of  the 
priests  were  a  brazen  altar  for  sacrifice  (viii, 
64  ;  2  Kin.  xvi.  14  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  8),  in  size 
nearly  four  times  that  used  at  the  tabernacle 
(iv.  1)  ;  and  a  brazen  sea  and  ten  brazen 
lavers  (1  Kin.  vii.  23-39).  The  sea  was  for 
the  priests  to  wash  in ;  the  lavers  were  for 


Temple 


r64 


Temple 


washing  such  things  as  belonged  to  the  burnt 
offering  (2  Chron.  iv.  6) ;  see  Altar,  Sea, 
Layer.  The  great  outer  court  was  for  Israel 
(cp.  1  Kin.  viii.  14).  It  was  paved  (2  Chron. 
vii.  3) ;  and  it  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  for 
gates  arc  mentioned  (iv.  9;  cp.  Ezek.  xl.  5). 

This  temple  was  plundered  and  burned  by 
the  Babylonians  when  they  captured  Jerusa- 
lem in  587  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xxv.  b-17). 

2.  Zerubbahel's  Temple. — Cyrus  authorized 
the  erection  of  a  temple  60  cubits  in  breadth 
and  height  (Ezra  vi.  3  ;  Antiq.  xi.  4,  6).  The 
limits  which  Cyrus  set  may  have  been  at- 
tained by  the  exterior  of  the  new  building  ; 
for  Herod  the  Great,  with  2  Chron.  iii.  4  in 
mind,  assigns  60  cubits  to  the  height  (xv.  11, 
1).  It  was  begun  in  the  year  537  b.  c, 
the  second  year  after  the  return  from  cap- 
tivity ;  and,  after  much  oppo.sition  from 
the  inhal)itants  of  Samaria,  was  completed 
in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius,  515  B.  c. 
(Ezra  iii.  8  ;  vi.  15  ;  con.  Apion.  i.  21).  The 
dimensions  of  the  several  parts  are  not 
known.  The  plan  of  Solomon's  temple  was, 
however,  followed  ;  though  the  new  building 
was  projected  on  a  scale  of  far  less  magnifi- 
cence. In  the  construction  of  the  house, 
cedar  from  Lebanon  was  used  (Ezra  iii.  7)  ; 
and  precious  metals,  which  were  provided,  as 
in  the  wilderness,  by  the  freewill  offerings  of 
the  people  (i.  6  ;  ii.  68,  69).  Many  of  the 
vessels  used  in  the  former  temple  were  re- 
stored (i.  7-11).  The  interior  walls  were 
overlaid  with  gold  ;  and  the  house  was  di- 
vided, as  usual,  into  the  holy  of  holies  and 
the  sanctuary,  apparently  separated  from 
each  other  by  at  least  a  veil  (1  Mac.  i.  21,22  ; 
iv.  48,  51).  The  holy  of  holies  was  empty, 
for  the  ark  of  the  covenant  had  disappeared 
(Cicero,  pro  Flac.  28  ;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  0). 
The  sanctuary  was  furnished  with  an  altar 
of  incense,  and,  like  the  tabernacle,  with 
only  one  candlestick  and  one  table  for  show- 
bread  (1  Mac.  i.  21,  22;  iv.  49).  Exterior 
chambers  were  attached  to  the  building 
(Neh.  x.  37-39  ;  xii.  44  ;  xiii.  4  ;  1  Mac.  iv. 
38)  ;  and  the  whole  was  surrounded  with 
courts  (Neh.  viii.  16  ;  xiii.  7  :  Antiq.  xiv.  16, 
2).  A  brazen  sea  (Ecclus.  1.  3)  and  an  altar 
for  sacrifice  were  used  (Ezra  vii.  17).  The 
altar  was  built  of  stones  (1  Mac.  iv.  44- 
47).  The  court  of  the  priests  was  event- 
ually separated  from  the  outer  court  by 
a  wooden  railing  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  5).  The 
temple  and  its  precincts  were  closed  by  doors 
and  gates  (Neh.  vi.  10  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  38). 

3.  Herod's  temple  superseded  Zerubbabel's. 
It  is  fully  described  by  Josephus,  who  was 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  building  (An- 
tiq. XV.  11  ;  War  v.  5),  and  in  the  Mishna 
(Middoth).  The  materials  were  brought  to- 
gether before  the  old  structure  was  taken 
uown.  Work  was  commenced  in  the  eight- 
eenth year  of  Herod's  reign,  19  B.  c.  Tlie 
main  edifice  was  built  by  priests  in  a  year 
and  a  half,  and  the  cloisters  were  finished 
in  eight  years,  either  in  11  or  9  B.  c. ;  but  the 


work  on  the  entire  complex  of  courts  and 
buildings  was  not  completed  until  the  proc- 
uratorship  of  Albinus,  A.  D.  62-64  (Antiq. 
XV.  11,  5  and  6;  xx.  9,  7  ;  cp.  John  ii.  20). 
The  old  area  was  enlarged  to  twice  its  former 
dimensions  (War  i.  21,  1).  The  temple 
proper  stood  upon  the  highest  ground  in  the 
inclosure.  It  was  built  of  great  blocks  of 
white  stone.  Its  interior  had  the  length  and 
breadth  of  Solomon's  temple  ;  but  a  height 
of  40  cubits,  exclusive  of  an  upper  chamber, 
instead  of  30  cubits.  It  was  divided  into  the 
holy  of  holies  and  the  sanctuary  on  the  cus- 
tomary lines.  The  holy  of  holies  was  empty. 
It  was  separated  from  the  holy  place  by  a 
veil  (Wr.r  v.  5.  5).  The  rending  of  this  veil 
by  an  earthquake  at  the  death  of  Christ  sig- 
nified that  the  way  to  the  mercy  seat  is  no 
longer  closed  to  all  save  the  mediating  high 
priest,  but  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  sincere 
worshiper  (Mat.  xxvii.  51  ;  Heb.  vi.  19 ;  s. 
20).  The  holy  place  contained,  as  usual,  a 
golden  altar  for  incense,  a  table  for  show- 
bread,  and  a  candlestick.  It  was  entered 
from  the  east  by  a  great  doorway  closed  by 
golden  doors,  each  55  cubits  high  and  16 
broad  ;  hung  with  a  veil  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet  and  fine  linen  ;  and  encompassed  on 
the  outer  or  court  .side  by  a  golden  vine  from 
which  depended  immense  clusters  of  golden 
grapes.  Agaiust  the  two  sides  and  rear  of 
the  temple,  a  three-story  building,  40  cubits 
high,  containing  chambers,  was  constructed 
(cp.  War  vi.  4,  7).  aud  in  addition  two  wings, 
one  containing  winding  stairs,  sprang  from 
the  front  corners.  The  building  meas- 
ured externally  100  cubits  in  length  and  54 
or,  including  the  two  wings  at  the  front,  70 
cubits  in  width.  Over  the  holy  place  and 
the  holy  of  holies  was  an  attic,  which  had 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  sacred  ajiartments 
beneath.  This  attic,  together  with- its  fioor 
and  the  roof,  increased  the  height  of 
the  sacred  edifice  to  over  90  cubits.  A  ves- 
tibule or  porch  ran  along  the  entire  front 
of  the  house,  100  cubits  long  and  high 
and  20  broad.  Its  portal  was  70  cubits  high 
by  25  broad  (or,  according  to  the  Mishna,  40 
aiid  20),  without  doors,  allowing  the  great 
doorway  of  the  sanctuary  to  be  seen  from 
without.  Above  this  porch  Herod  erected 
the  celebrated  goldeii  eagle  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  2 
and  3;  War  i.  33,  2  and  3).  Twelve  steps  de- 
scended from  the  vestibule  to  the  court  of 
the  priests.  This  court  surrounded  the  sacred 
edifice.  It  contained  the  altar  for  burnt 
offerings,  of  which  the  height  was  15  culiits, 
and  the  base  a  square  measuring  50  cubits  to 
the  side.  According  to  the  Mishna,  it  was 
built  of  unhewn  stones  ;  and  contracted  from 
a  base  32  cubits  square  to  a  top  24  cubits 
square.  It  was  reached  by  an  inclined  plane. 
A  brazen  sea  or  laver  was  also  in  use  (Mish- 
na). This  court  was  encompassed  by  a  wall 
or  coping,  about  a  cubit  in  height.  All 
around  the  court  of  the  priests  lay,  as  of  old. 
the  great  court,  now  double.    It  was  inclosed 


Temple 


r65 


Temple 


by  a  wall,  whose  top  was  25  cubits  Ligher 
than  the  pavement.  Against  the  inner  side 
of  this  wall  storage  chambei-s  were  built 
(War  vi.  5,  2),  and  in  front  of  these,  that  is, 
on  the  temple  side,  ran  a  covered  colonnade. 
This  court  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 


gate  in  the  center  of  the  partition  wall  and 
by  a  descent  of  fifteen  steps.  Only  Israelites 
might  enter  this  court,  and  women  might 
not  advance  farther.  These  three  courts  and 
the  temple  were  embraced  in  the  chel,  or 
sacred  inclosure.     The  inclosing  barrier  was 


Approximate  Plan  of  Herod's  Temple  and  its  Courts. 


wall.  The  western  portion,  that  encompass- 
ing the  court  of  the  priests,  was  the  court  of 
Israel.  Only  the  men  of  Israel  were  allowed 
within  it.  The  court  of  the  women  was  the 
eastern  and  lower  portion.  It  was  reached 
from  the  court  of  the  men  through  a  great 


triple :  the  wall  of  the  courts  of  Israel  and 
the  women,  which  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, and  which  was  very  thick,  like  the 
walls  of  a  fortress  (cp.  War  vi.  4,  1)  ;  a  ter- 
race, of  which  the  top  was  level  and  10 cubits 
broad  ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  terrace  a  wall 


Temple 


r66 


Temple 


3  cubits  in  height,  surmounted  by  pillars,  on 
which  were  inscriptions  forbidding  all  per- 
sons save  those  of  the  commonwealth  of  Is- 
rael, from  entering  the  inclosure.  "Let  no 
gentile,"  so  ran  the  Greek  inscription,  "  en- 
ter inside  of  the  barrier  and  the  fence  around 
the  sanctuary.  Anyone  trespassing  will  bring 
death  upon  himself  as  a  penalty."  This 
triple  wall  of  partition  (Eph.  ii.  14)  was 
pierced  by  nine  gates.  These  tower-like 
structures  were  sheathed  with  gold  and  sil- 
ver. Four  were  on  the  northern,  and  four 
on  the  southern  side.  Of  these,  one  on  each 
side  led  into  the  court  of  the  women  and  three 
into  that  of  Israel.  The  ninth  was  the  great 
eastern  gate,  the  only  one  on  that  side,  prob- 
ably the  gate  Beautiful  (Acts  iii.  2,  10).    The 


forming  three  aisles.  Each  column  was  a 
monolith  of  white  stone,  25  cubits  high. 
The  roof  was  ceiled  with  cedar,  curiously 
carved  and  carefully  polished.  The  other 
colonnades  consisted  of  two  rows  of  columns. 
That  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  court  was 
regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  first  temple, 
and  was  called  Solomon's  porch  (John  x.  2.3 ; 
Acts  iii.  11  ;  Antiq.  sx.  9,  7;  War  v.  5,  1). 
It  was  this  court  which  was  so  far  abused 
that  money  changers  were  allowed  to  set  up 
their  tables  and  traders  were  permitted  to 
expose  cattle  for  sale  there  (Mat.  xxi.  12 ; 
John  ii.  14).  Finally  the  sacred  area  was 
surrounded  by  massive  walls.  The  western 
wall  was  pierced  by  four  gates :  the  two  more 
northerly  cues  led  to  the  suburbs ;  the  third 


btones  in  the  Western  \\  all  of  the  lemple,  w  ith  the  \\  aihug  1  lace  of  the  Jews. 


difference  of  level  between  the  vestibule  of 
the  temple  within  the  inclosure  and  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  without  appears  to  have 
been  about  15  cubits.  Fi-om  the  vestibule  to 
the  court  of  the  priests  were  12  steps ;  from 
the  court  of  Israel  to  that  of  the  women  15; 
thence  to  the  terrace  5.  and  thence  to  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  14.  This  court  of  the 
gentiles  occupied  the  remainder  of  the  temple 
yard  and  coni]>l('tely  surrounded  the  sacred 
inclosure.  It  was  foursquare  (War  vi.  5,  4), 
and  measured  fully  6  .stades,  or  three-quarters 
of  a  mile,  in  circuit  (War  v.  5,  2).  It  was 
paved  throughout.  At  the  northwestern  cor- 
ner stood  the  castle  of  Antonia  (q.  v.).  Except 
perhaps  at  that  point,  it  was  bordered  on  all 
sides  by  magnificent,  covered  colonnades  or 
cloisters  (Antiq.  xvii.  10,  2  ;  cp.  War  vi.  3,  2). 
Those  on  the  south  were  the  finest.  They 
contained  162  columns,  arranged  in  four  rows. 


crossed  the  Tyropceon  valley  at  a  point  now 
marked  by  Wilson's  arch  ;  and  the  fourth, 
still  farther  south,  opened  into  the  valley, 
and  was  i-eached  by  steps  from  the  temple 
yard  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  5).  In  the  southern  wall 
were  two  gates,  known  by  the  name  of  Hul- 
dah.  In  the  eastern  wall  was  the  Shushan 
gate.  One  is  mentioned  in  the  northern 
wall  (War  vi.  4,  1). 

During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Eomans  in  A.  v.  70,  the  Jews  themselves, 
who  were  using  the  temple  yard  as  a  fortress, 
set  fire  to  the  outer  cloisters  ;  but  the  temple 
itself  was  lired  by  a  Eoman  soldier  contrary 
to  the  orders  of  Titus,  and  all  that  was  com- 
bustible was  destroj^ed  (War  vi.  3,  1 ;  4,  5 ; 
cp.  5,  1 ;  9,  2).  Afterwards  the  conquerors 
threw  down  the  walls  (vii.  1,  1).  On  its 
site  the  emperor  Hadrian  dedicated  a  temple 
to  Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  A.  x>.  136  or  earlier. 


Ten  Commandments 


767 


Ten  Commandments 


In  A.  D.  363  the  emperor  Julian,  in  order  to 
defeat  the  prophecy  of  Clirist  (Mat.  xxiv.  1, 
2),  undertook  to  rebuild  the  temple  ;  but  his 
plans  were  frustrated  by  flames  which  burst 
from  the  foundation.  The  Dome  of  the 
Rock,  generally  called  the  Mosque  of  Omar, 
now  occupies  the  place  where  the  old  tem- 
ples stood.  Warren  between  February,  1867, 
and  April,  1870,  sunk  shafts  in  the  rubbish,  in 
some  places  100  and  in  one  place  125  feet  deep, 
which  now  covers  portions  of  mount  Moriah. 
The  corner  stones  of  the  foundations,  which 
still  remain,  are  14  to  15  feet  long,  and  from 


the  free  citation  of  the  words  by  Moses  in 
Deut.  V.  6-21.  The  principal  dilference  is 
that  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  is  enforced,  in 
the  original  law,  by  reference  to  God's  rest- 
ing on  the  seventh  day  from  the  work  of 
creation  ;  whereas  when  Moses  cites  the  law 
in  his  public  address,  he  omits  this  funda- 
mental basis  of  the  command  and  urges  the 
deliverance  from  Egypt  as  the  reason  why 
Israel  should  remember  the  day.  Another 
diflereuce,  and  one  upon  which  undue  stress 
has  been  laid,  is  that  when  Moses  repeats 
tlie  tenth  commandment,  he  uses  the  word 


Tlip  Warning  Tablet  of  Herod's  Temple. 

Discovered  by  C leimunl-Ganneau  in  1871. 


3i  to  4'  feet  high.  Some  of  those  at  the  south- 
east angle  have  on  them  Phoenician  charac- 
ters, coming  down  at  least  from  Herod's,  and 
perhaps  from  Solomon's  time.  The  walls 
surrounding  the  temple  area  were  found  to 
have  been  1000  feet  long,  and  the  platform 
on  which  the  holy  place  stood  to  have  been 
supported  by  a  buttress  200  feet  high  from 
the  valley  beneath.  Finally,  one  of  the 
actual  inscriptions  has  been  recovered  which 
forbade  any  foreigner  to  enter  the  second 
court. 

Ten  Com-mand'ments. 

The  fundamental  law  of  the  Hebrew  state; 
see  Theocracy.  The  Hebrews  called  them 
the  ten  words  (R.  V.  margin  of  Ex.  xxxiv. 
28;  Dent.  iv.  13;  x.  4).  They  were  spoken 
by  God  at  Sinai,  and  written  by  him  on 
tables  of  stone.  They  appear  in  two  forms : 
the  original  form,  contained  in  Ex.  xx.,  and 


covet  in  one  clau.se  only  and  employs  de- 
sire instead  of  covet  in  reference  to  a 
neighbor's  house,  field,  etc.  (R.  V.).  These 
diflerences  are  not  contradictions,  and  they 
are  fully  explained  by  the  character  of 
Deuteronomy.  See  Deuteronomy,  Sab- 
bath. 

The  ten  commandments  are  not  indi- 
vidually numbered  in  the  Bible.  Later  Jews 
regarded  the  words  "  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God, 
which  have  brouglit  thee  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage"  (Ex. 
XX.  2)  as  the  first  commandment.  These 
words,  however,  are  not  in  the  form  of  a 
command.  They  constitute  the  preface  to 
the  ten  laws  which  follow.  Omitting  the 
preface,  there  are  two  methods  of  enumera- 
tion :  1.  According  to  the  received  teaching  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  churches, 
based  on  Augustine,  the  fir.st  table  contains 
three  commandments  and  the  second  table 


Ten  Commandments 


768 


Tent  of  Meeting 


seven.  Augustine  adopted  this  classification 
because  it  exhibits  the  symbolical  numbers 
three,  seven,  ten,  and  represents  a  real  dif- 
ference in  the  nature  of  the  commands,  the 
first  three  being  duties  toward  God  and  the 
last  seven  duties  toward  man.  The  first 
division  included  the  command  to  remember 
the  Sabbath ;  and  to  make  out  three  com- 
mands in  this  table,  Augustine  joined  into 
one  the  commands  to  have  no  other  gods 
and  to  make  no  graven  image ;  and  to  secure 
seven  in  the  second  table  he  divided  the 
command  against  covetousness  into  two  laws. 
He  followed  the  text  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
made  the  command  not  to  covet  a  neighbor's 
wife  the  ninth  commandment,  and  that 
against  desiring  a  neighbor's  property  the 
tenth.  The  Eoman  Catholic  church  follows 
the  text  of  Exodus,  and  makes  the  command 
not  to  covet  a  neighbor's  house  the  ninth, 
and  that  against  coveting  a  neighbor's  wife, 
manservant,  etc.,  the  tenth.  The  great  ob- 
jections to  this  method  of  enumeration  are 
that  it  makes  no  distinction  between  poly- 
theism and  idolatry,  and  introduces  an  arbi- 
trary distinction  regarding  kinds  of  cov- 
etousness. 2.  The  division  which  numbers 
the  command  against  polytheism  as  the  first, 
that  against  idolatry  as  the  second,  and  that 
against  covetousness  as  the  tenth.  This  divi- 
sion is  the  oldest  that  is  known.  It  was 
recognized  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  iii.  5,  5),  by 
Philo  (de  Dec.  i.),  and  by  Origen  ;  and  it 
was  adopted  by  the  Keformed  churches  at 
the  Eeformation.  But  there  are  two  methods 
of  distributing  the  ten  between  the  two 
tables  :  (1)  They  are  oi-dinarily  grouped  as 
four  relating  to  man's  duty  toward  God  and 
six  to  his  duty  to  his  fellows.  This  division 
is  simple  enough,  and  it  is  ethically  correct ; 
but  it  lacks  symmetry.  (2)  Five  are  as- 
signed to  each  table  (Antiq.  iii.  5,  8).  This 
arrangement  preserves  the  grouping  of  laws 
into  decads,  subdivided  into  pentads, 
which  characterizes  much  of  the  legisla- 
tion. And  from  the  Jewish  point  of  view, 
doubtless,  the  division  is  ethically  correct ; 
for  the  first  table  includes  duties  of  piety, 
which  imply  no  corresponding  rights,  and 
the  second  table  embraces  duties  of  jus- 
tice, which  involve  rights.  The  duty  of 
honoring  parents  to  the  extent  of  maintain- 
ing them  if  need  be,  was  regarded  as  absolute 
and  unconditional  (Mark  vii.  10-13).  It  was 
a  pious  duty,  a  religious  duty,  and  properly 
belonged  to  the  first  table.  Paul  is  some- 
times cited  as  lending  countenance  to  this 
division ;  for  when  summing  up  the  duties 
which  are  comprehended  in  the  command  to 
love  one's  neighbor  as  one's  self,  he  enumer- 
ates the  last  commandments,  and  makes  no 
mention  of  honoring  parents  (Kom.  xiii.  9). 
But  Paul's  enumeration  is  not  intended  to  be 
complete.  He  omits  the  ninth  command- 
ment. Jesus  placed  the  fifth  commandment 
in  the  same  group  with  the  last  five  (Mark 
X.  19). 


Tent. 

1.  A  movable  habitation  ;  such  as  is  used 
by  nomads,  shepherds,  and  soldiers  ((ien.  iv. 
20;  XXV.  27;  Judg.  viii.  11).  The  tent  was 
frequently  made  of  black  cloth  woven  from 
goats'  hair  (Song  i.  5),  fastened  with  cords 


Arab  s  Tent. 

and  stakes  (Ex.  xxxv.  18;  Is.  liv.  2).  There 
were  both  round  and  tapering  tents ;  and 
flat,  oblong  tents. 

2.  A  habitation  generally:  a  part  of  the 
dwellings  being  put  for  all,  or  one  kind  for 
another,  according  to  circumstances  (Gen. 
ix.  27;  1  Kin.  viii.  66;  2  Kin.  xiii.  5;  Job 
viii.  22,  E.  Y. ;  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  10;  .Ter.  xxx.  18; 
Lam.  ii.  4,  E.  Y. ;  Zech.  xii.  7;  Mai.  ii.  12, 
E.  Y.). 

Tent  of  the  Con-gre-ga'tion.  See  next 
article. 

Tent  of  Meet'ing,  in  A.  Y.  Tent  or  Taber- 
nacle of  the  Congregation  [tent  where  Jeho- 
vah meets  his  people] . 

1.  A  provisional  tent  where  Jehovah  met 
with  his  people  (Ex.  xxxiii.  7-11 ;  xxxiv. 
34,  3.5).  After  the  golden  calf  was  made, 
Jehovah  refused  to  acknowledge  Israel  any 
longer  as  his  people  and  to  dwell  in  their 
midst.  He  was  estranged  and  distant.  Be- 
cause of  this  fact  and  to  symbolize  it,  Moses 
used  to  pitch  the  tent  outside  the  camp 
(xxxiii.  7,  E.  V.),  probably  until  God  again 
promised  to  go  in  the  midst  of  Israel  (xxxiv. 
9).  What  tent  this  was  is  uncertain.  F^wt  a 
tent  uu(iucsti()nably  foriinMl  tlu'  hcachiuarters 
of  the  camp.  It  was  the  place  of  judicial  i)n>- 
ceedings,  where  Moses  sat  to  judge  thei>eople 
(Ex.  xviii.  13).  And  it  was  the  high  tribunal 
after  the  administration  of  justice  had  been 
organized  (21-26).  Naturally  it  was  for  the 
time  being  the  depository  of  the  book  of  the 
covenant  (xx.-x.xiii.),  which  was  at  once  a 
sacred  volume  of  the  statutes  of  God  (xviii. 
16)  and  the  book  containing  the  civil  laws 
for  the  governmi'iit  of  Israel.  It  was  ju-oba- 
bly    this   tent  (the    Greek    translators   read 


Tent  of  the  Testimony 


Terebinth 


''his  teut")  which  Moses  now  pitched  with- 
out the  camp.  He  called  it  the  tent  of  meet- 
ing (1)  because  it  was  the  tribunal  of  .justice, 
whither  everyone  went  that  sought  the 
Lord  (xxxiii.  7) ;  for  the  matter  in  disi)ute 
or  doubt  was  laid  before  God  or,  to  use  their 
l)hrase,  the  party  souglit  Jehovah's  face  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  1,  R.  V.),  incjuircd  of  Clod  (Ex. 
xviii.  15),  brought  the  cause  to  God  (19; 
Num.  xxvii.  5),  came  unto  God  or  came 
l)efore  him  (Ex.  xxi.  6;  xxii.  9,  R.  V.).  stood 
before  Jehovah  (Deut.  xix.  17)  ;  and  (2)  be- 
cause it  was  a  place  of  revelation  :  there 
Jehovah  met  his  people  in  their  represeJita- 
tive,  when  tlie  jiillar  of  cloud  descended  to 
the  door  of  the  teut  (Ex.  xxxiii.  9).  It  may 
have  borne  its  appropriate  name  from  the 
tirst;  if  not,  Moses  borrowed  the  nnme  from 
the  instructions  which  he  received  regarding 
the  permanent  tal)ernacle.  since  it  re]ire- 
sented  the  same  truth  (xxvii.  21).  An  altar 
may  have  stood  near  it  (xviii.  12),  but  the 
tent  was  not  a  national  sanctuary,  did  not 
contain  an  ark  or  paraphernalia  for  worship, 
did  not  possess  a  priesthood.  The  tent  was 
cared  for  by  Moses'  personal  attendant 
(xxxiii.  11).  The  cloud  descended  upon  this 
tent  when  Moses  entered  it  to  inquire  of 
God  ;  l)ut  the  cloud  abode  on  the  permanent 
tabernacle  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled  it, 
and  Moses  could  not  enter  it  (xl.  34,  35,  3!S). 

2.   The  tabernacle  (q.  v.). 

Tent  of  the  Tes'ti-mo-ny  (Num.  ix.  15). 
See  Tabernacle. 

Te'phon,  iu  A.  V.  Taphon. 

A  town  of  Judaea  fortified  by  Bacchides  (1 
Mac.  ix.  .50).  Tephon  is  perhaps  a  modifica- 
tion of  Ta^ipuah,  a  name  which  was  borne 
by  several  towns. 

Te'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Tarah,  (Num.  xxxiii. 
27.  2«)  once  Thara  (Luke  iii.  34)  [prob- 
ably, wild  goat]. 

1.  The  son  of  Nahor,  and  the  father  of 
Abraham,  another  Nahor,  and  Haran.  He 
was  a  resident  at  Ur  of  the  Chaldces  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  life ;  serving  other 
divinities  than  Jehovah  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  prob- 
abl}^  among  the  rest  the  moon-god,  who  had 
a  celebrated  temple  at  Ur.  With  Abraham 
and  Lot,  he  removed  to  Haran,  where  he 
died,  at  the  age  of  205  (Gen.  xi.  25-32). 

2.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  iu  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  27,  28).  The  site  is  un- 
known. 

Ter'a-phim. 

Images,  but  not  of  a  particular  deity,  which 
were  used  in  the  household  and  by  private 
individuals,  and  which  varied  in  size  from 
such  as  were  small  enough  to  be  easily  car- 
ried in  hasty  flight  and  concealed  in  the 
furniture  of  a  camel  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  30,  34, 
R.  V.)  to  one  apparently  large  enough  to 
represent  a  man  (1  Sam.  xix.  13,  R.  V.). 
They  were  probably  regarded  as  bringers  of 
good  luck.  They  were  consulted  with  re- 
spect to  the  advisability  of  proposed  actions 
49 


(Ezek.  xxi.  21  ;  Zech.  x.  2,  both  R.  V.).  The 
word,  like  the  usual  word  for  God,  is  plural 
in  form,  but  may  be  singular  in  signification 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13).  Teraphim  were  employed 
in  Babylonia  (Ezek.  xxi.  21).  Laban  used 
them  in  Haran,  and  his  daughter  Rachel 
stole  them  and  carried  them  with  her  to 
Canaan  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  34).  This  was  done 
without  Jacob's  knowledge  (32).  When  lie 
reached  Shechem,  he  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  all  the  strange  gods  which  members 
of  his  company  had  brought  with  them,  and 
he  removed  them  from  his  people  (xxxv.  2-4). 
In  the  days  of  the  judges  Micah  of  mount 
Ephraim  had  a  private  sanctuary  with  priest, 
ephod,  and  teraphim  (Judg.  xvii.  5),  and 
eventually  a  molten  image  and  a  graven 
image  (4  ;  xviii.  14).  Through  them  prob- 
ably the  Lord  was  consulted  (5,  6).  All  these 
idols  the  band  of  Danites  carried  off  for  their 
own  use  (17-20).  Samuel  the  prophet  classed 
teraphim  with  witchcraft  and  rebellion  (1 
Sam.  XV.  23,  R.  V.)  ;  nevertheless,  there  was 
one  in  David's  house,  doubtless  belonging  to 
his  wife  (xix.  13,  R.  V.).  Teraphim  figured 
largely  iu  the  corrupt  religion  of  the  north- 
ern Israelites  (Hos.  iii.  4).  The  teraphim 
were  condemned  with  other  idols  as  abom- 
inations, and  were  destroyed  by  Josiah  in 
his  work  of  reformation  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  24, 
R.  v.);  but  they  still  found  favor  with  a  part 
of  the  people  after  the  exile  (Zech.  x.  2). 


Terebinth. 

Ter'e-bintli. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'ElaU,  a  ro- 
bust tree,  on  the  R.  V.  margin  with  oak  in 


Teresh  770 


the  text.  Twice,  when  it  is  associated  with 
another  word,  wliicli  is  rendered  oak,  it  ap- 
pears in  the  text  of  the  R.  V.  (Is.  vi.  13; 
Hos.  iv.  13).  ' Elah  is  probahly  the  terebinth. 
The  terebinth  or  tiiriicntiiie  tree  (Pisfncia 
terebhithus)  is  a  small  tree  with  pinnate  leaves, 
inconspicuous  flowers,  with  the  sexes  sepa- 
rated, and  little  roundish  dark-purple  fruit. 
It  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  northern 
Africa,  and  western  Asia,  including  Palestine. 
The  turpentine  is  obtained  by  making  in- 
cisions in  the  trunk.  It  merges  into  Pistacia 
palsestina,  which  is  also  found  in  Palestine, 
and  is  but  a  variety  of  the  species. 

Te'resh  [perhaps  Persian,  austere]. 

A  chamberlain  who  kept  a  door  in  the 
palace  of  king  Ahasuerus,  and  plotted  the 
murder  of  his  master  and  king,  a  crime  for 
which  be  and  an  accomplice  were  executed 
(Esth.  ii.  21-23;  vi.  2). 

Ter'ti-us  [third]. 

Paul's  amanuensis,  who  wrote  for  him  the 
Epistle  to  the  Komans  (Eom.  xvi.  22). 

Ter-tul'lus  [diminutive  of  Tertius]. 

A  Koman  advocate,  employed  by  the  Jew- 
ish authorities  to  prosecute  Paul  before  the 
tribunal  of  Felix,  the  Eoman  procurator 
(Acts  xxiv.  1-8).  His  rhetorical  address  is 
thoroughly  in  the  style  atfected  by  Eoman 
advocates  of  the  time. 

Tes'ta-ment. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Diatheke,  a 
will,  a  covenant.  A  third  meaning  has  no 
bearing  on  the  present  subject.  In  Heb. 
ix.  16,  17  diatheke  is  clearly  a  will.  But  in 
viii.  6-10,  13  and  ix.  1,  4  the  meaning  is 
evidently  covenant,  and  the  term  is  so  trans- 
lated in  the  text.  The  Old  Covenant  and 
the  New  Covenant  would  be  more  accurate 
designations  of  the  two  parts  of  the  Bible 
than  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment. See  Heir,  New  Testament,  Old 
Testament. 

Teth. 

The  ninth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Greek  theta  comes  from  the  same  source  ;  but 
the  Greek  versions  represent  it  in  Hebrew 
names  by  tau,  reserving  theta  for  the  aspi- 
rated Hebrew  tau.  In  the  English  versions 
teth  is  represented  by  t.  It  stands  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  section  of  Ps.  cxix. 
in  several  versions,  in  which  section  each 
verse  begins  with  that  letter. 

Te'trarcli. 

One  who  rules  over  the  fourth  part  of  a 
kingdom  or  province.  Philip  of  Macedon 
divided  Thessaly  into  four  districts  called 
tetrarchies.  Eventually  the  word  was  used 
loosely  for  a  petty  subject  prince,  even  though 
the  land  was  not  divided  among  four  such 
rulers.  The  Eomans  adopted  the  term,  and 
used  it  as  a  convenient  title  for  a  prince  to 
whom  they  granted  a  small  teri-itory  only, 
and  whom  they  were  unwilling  to  dignify 
with  the  authority  and  rank  of  a  king.     The 


Theocracy 

N.  T.  names  three  of  these  pretty  digni- 
taries :  Herod,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  Philip,  te- 
trarch  of  Itursea  and  Trachonitis,  and  Lysa- 
nias,  tetrarch  of  Abilene  (Luke  iii.  1).  In  the 
case  of  the  tetrarchs  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip 
the  title  was  appropriate,  even  in  its  original 
sen.se,  for  Augustus  gave  one-half  of  the 
kingdom  of  Herod  the  Great  to  Archelaus, 
with  the  title  of  ethnarch,  and  divided  the 
remainder  into  two  tetrarchies,  which  he  gave 
to  them  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4;  War  ii.  6,  3).  A 
tetrarch  was  sometimes  in  courtesy  called  a 
king  (Mat.  xiv.  1  with  9;  see  also  Mark  vi. 
14). 

Thad-d83'us.    See  Judas  8. 

Tha'hash.     See  Tahash. 


Tha'mali. 
Tlia'mar. 


See  Temah. 
See  Tamar. 


Tham'na-tha.    See  Timnah. 

Thank  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Tha'ra.     See  Terah. 

Thar'sMsh.     See  Tarshish. 

The'a-ter. 

A  place  where  dramatic  performances  are 
given.  The  theater,  with  its  auditorium, 
orchestra,  and  stage,  and  capable  of  seating 
immense  throngs  (see  Ephesus),  was  admir- 
ably adapted  for  large  public  meetings  and 
the  transaction  of  public  business,  and  in 
Greek  cities  was  often  put  to  that  use  (Acts 
xix.  29,  ,31 ;  Antiq.  xix.  8,  2). 

Thebes.     See  No. 

The'bez  [perhaps,  brightness  or  splendor]. 

A  town  near  Shechem,  having  in  it  a 
strong  tower,  in  besieging  which  Abimelech 
was  killed  (Judg.  ix.  50-55;  2  Sam.  xi.  21). 
It  continues  to  exist  in  the  large  village  of 
Tubas,  9|  miles  northeast  of  Shechem,  on 
the  road  to  Beth-shean. 

The-co'e.     See  Tekoa. 

The-la'sar.    See  Telassar. 

The-oc'ra-cy. 

Josephus  coined  the  word  theocracy  to  de- 
scribe the  government  instituted  at  Sinai. 
"  Our  legislator  .  .  .  ordered  our  government 
to  be  what  I  may  call  by  a  strained  expres- 
sion a  theocracy,  attributing  the  power  and 
the  authority  to  God"  (con.  Apion.  ii.  17). 
Jehovah  was  the  head  of  the  nation,  dwell- 
ing in  its  midst  between  the  cherubim  (Ex. 
XXV.  22).  In  him  all  the  powers  of  the  state, 
legislative,  executive,  judicial,  were  united. 
As  legislator,  he  announced  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  in  the  hearing  of  the  con- 
gregation. After  that  immediate  presenta- 
tion of  himself  to  the  nation,  he  exercised 
his  governmental  offices  for  the  most  part 
through  men  whom  he  raised  up.  Like  all 
potentates,  he  delegated  the  judicial  func- 
tion for  the  most  part  to  judges  ;  only  the 
most  difficult  matters  were  referred  to  Jeho- 
vah (Ex.  xviii.  19)  ;  see  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim.     His  legislative  function  he  exercised 


Theocracy 


Theophany 


throuf;h  ]\roscs  niul  tlirough  pro|i]icts  (I)eiit. 
xviii.  15-19).  Legislation  was  intennittent ; 
the  given  body  of  laws  was  a  siitlicient  rule, 
and  seldom  required  niodiflcation  or  enlarge- 
ment. The  executive  function  was  likewise  ex- 
ercised for  many  years  intermittently  through 
leaders,  called  judges,  who  were  raised  up 
from  time  to  time,  and  who.  accredited  by  the 
great  deeds  which  were  wrought  by  their 
hands,  secured  public  confidence  and  became 
the  acknowledged  head  in  state  afl'airs. 

The  theocratic  government  was  proposed 
by  God  at  Sinai  on  condition  of  obedience 
(Ex.  xix.  4-9).  The  terms  were  accepted  by 
the  elders  of  the  people  (7,  8).  The  ten  com- 
mandments, which  formed  tbe  basis  of  the 
covenant,  were  ]ir(i(laiint"(l  by  .Fcliovah  him- 
self in  such  a  manner  that  all  tbe  people  could 
hear  (xx.  1,  19,  22 ;  Deut.  iv.  12,  33,  36  ;  v. 
4,  22),  in  order  that  they  might  believe  (Ex. 
xix.  9).  At  the  people's  request,  the  remain- 
ing laws,  which  are  a  practical  ai)plicatiou 
and  interpretation  of  the  ten  commandments, 
were  not  spoken  directly  to  them,  but 
through  Moses  (xx.  18-21).  Then  the  cov- 
enant was  ratified.  Moses  wrote  all  the 
words  of  the  Lord,  erected  an  altar  and 
twelve  pillars,  ordered  a  sacrifice,  and 
sprinkled  the  altar  with  half  the  blood.  He 
read  the  book  of  tbe  covenant  in  the  audi- 
ence of  the  people,  and,  on  their  formal  ac- 
ceptance of  it,  sprinkled  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  blood  upon  the  people,  saying: 
"  Behold  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  which 
the  Lord  hath  made  with  you  concerning  all 
these  words."  Finally  the  covenant  meal 
of  the  contracting  parties  was  eaten  (xxiv. 
3-11).     Thus  the  theocracy  was  established. 

This  book  of  the  covenant  contains  the 
constitution  and  earliest  laws  of  Israel.  The 
ten  commandments  fornjed  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  In  modern  mode  of  thought 
and  expression,  they  would  be  called  the  con- 
stitution ;  in  Hebrew  conception  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  were  a  covenant  between 
<iod  and  the  nation.  There  was  a  treaty, 
not  between  several  communities,  but  be- 
tween the  community  and  God.  Being  fun- 
damental law,  they  were  engraven  on  stone, 
and  dejjosited  in  the  ark  ;  they  were  known 
as  the  covenant  (Deut.  iv.  13 ;  ix.  9,  11  ;  1 
Kin.  viii.  9-21 ;  see  also  Num.  x.  33  ;  Judg. 
XX.  27;  1  Sam.  iv.  3)  ;  or  the  testimony  (Ex. 
xxxi.  18 ;  xxxii.  15,  etc.).  The  laws  which 
follow  the  ten  commandments  are  by-laws 
or  statutes.  They  are  constitutional,  involv- 
ing no  principle  contrary  to  the  organic  law 
of  the  state  ;  they  are  expository,  being  the 
application  of  the  doctrines  of  the  constitu- 
tion to  the  afl'airs  of  daily  life  ;  they  are  tem- 
porary, liable  to  abrogation  and  amendment 
and  numerical  increase  to  meet  the  new  con- 
ditions and  peculiar  needs  of  each  age.  They 
are  presented  in  the  form  of  a  code  ;  they 
are  not  a  loose  aggregation  of  statutes,  but 
are  disposed  in  orderly  arrangement,  mostly 
in  groups  of  ten  or  half  of  ten,  and  are  usually 


introduced  by  the  word  if:  1.  Laws  relating 
to  the  form  of  worship  (xx.  23- 2t)).  2.  Laws 
to  protect  the  rights  of  man.  (a)  To  protect 
liberty  (xxi.  2-11).  (b)  Concerning  injury 
•of  person  (12-36).  (c)  Concerning  property 
rights  (xxii.  1-17).  3.  Laws  to  govern  per- 
sonal conduct  (18-xxiii.  9).  4.  Laws  con- 
cerning sacred  seasons  and  sacrifice  (10-19). 
5.  The  promise  annexed  (20-33).  Eegarding; 
the  antiquity,  character,  and  codification  of 
these  laws,  see  Ameaphel  and  Moses  ;  and! 
for  the  process  of  annulment  and  enactment 
during  tiie  ensuing  forty  years,  see  Zelo- 
PHEHAD  and  Deuteronomy. 

At  the  institution  of  the  theocratic  govern- 
ment at  Sinai,  the  idea  before  tiie  people  was 
simply  that  God  was  ruler  and  Moses  his 
accredited  representative  through  whom  he 
exercised  the  legislative,  judicial,  and  execu- 
tive offices.  Moses  already  had  subordinate 
judges  to  assist  him  (Ex.  xviii.  21-26)  ;  and 
at  tlie  end  of  the  wilderness  period,  i)romise 
was  made  of  future  legislation,  that  is,  the 
continued  revelation  of  the  will  of  God 
(Deut.  xviii.  15-19).  The  expectation  was 
also  entertained  by  Moses  that  God  would 
appoint  leaders  to  succeed  him,  and  that 
eventually,  on  account  of  the  people's  lack 
of  faith,  a  king  would  be  needed  as  earthly, 
visible  representative  of  the  executive  power 
when  the  people  should  be  settled  in  Pales- 
tine. Accordingly  a  general  law  of  the  king 
was  framed  (xvii.  14-20). 

The  stability  of  the  state  under  theocratic 
form  of  government  depended  in  the  first  in- 
stance and  ultimately  on  the  faithfulness  of 
God  to  his  election  and  his  promises ;  but  the 
success  of  the  theocracy  at  any  given  period 
was  conditioned  by  the  attitude  of  the  people 
toward  God  and  toward  the  provisions  of  the 
covenant.  Their  obedience  to  God  and 
reliance  on  him  were  requisite.  The  the- 
ocracy was  based  on  the  conception  of 
Israel  as  a  community,  and  it  is  well 
to  note  the  weakness  of  the  bond  which 
at  the  first  bound  Israel  into  a  commun- 
ity. The  children  of  Israel  were  divided 
into  twelve  tribes ;  they  were  bound  to- 
gether by  common  blood  and  common  lan- 
guage, by  common  misfortune  and  common 
need.  They  were  held  together  in  pursuit 
of  a  great  end  by  the  enthusiasm  and  expec- 
tation which  one  man  had  awakened,  by  the 
hope  of  freedom  and  a  country,  by  the  prom- 
ise and  evidence  of  God's  protection.  They 
were  kept  together  by  providence.  All  these 
unifying  elements  save  the  last  were  weak. 
They  were  bonds  that  might  easily  be,  and 
constantly  were,  broken.  This  lack  of  com- 
munal strength  was  an  obstacle  to  the  theoc- 
racy, which  even  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy  did  not  rectify. 

The-oph'a-ny. 

A  manifestation  of  God  to  man  by  actual 
appearance.  It  was  not  an  immediate 
revelation  of  God  the  Father  (John  i.  18 ;  1 


Theophany 


Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the 


Tim.  vi.  16) ;  but  a  manifestatiou  of  Jehovah 
in  the  person  of  the  angel  of  the  Lord  (Gen. 
xvi.  7),  the  angel  of  the  presence  or  the  Lord's 
presence  (Ex.  xxxii.  34;  xxxiii.  14),  the 
angel  of  the  covenant  (Mai.  iii.  1),  or  Clirist. 
A  common  classification  is:  1.  The  O.  T.  the- 
ophany, an  epiphany  of  the  future  Christ. 
2.  The  incarnation  of  Christ,  as  the  revelation 
of  God  in  the  flesh.  3.  The  second  coming 
of  Christ. 

The  O.  T.  theophanies  were  transient  man- 
ifestations and  permanent  localization.  They 
were  temporary  manifestations  to  the  patri- 
archs, and  became  abiding  in  the  shekinah. 
The  theophanies  which  were  granted  to  the 
patriarchs  may  have  been  unsubstantial  mani- 
festations, incorporeal  and  merely  the  appear- 
ance of  the  human  form.  Some  interpreters, 
like  Tertullian,  believe  that  occasionally  at 
least  there  was  actual  flesh,  not  putative 
flesh;  real  and  solid  human  substance;  just 
as  Christ,  who  was  God  manifested  in  the 
flesh,  had  flesh  and  blood  both  before  and 
after  his  resurrection,  and  could  be  seen 
and  handled  (Luke  xxiv.  30-43 ;  John 
XX.  27).  If  the  angel  of  the  Lord  assumed 
an  actual  body,  he  did  so  miraculously, 
as  Christ  made  the  water  wine ;  and  it 
disappeared  miraculously,  as  Christ  who 
possessed  a  human  body  of  flesh  and  blood 
vanished  from  men's  sight.  In  the  O.  T. 
theophany  the  angel  of  the  Lord  ate  actual 
food  (Gen.  xviii.  1-H).  Does  this  prove  that 
the  angel  had  assumed  an  actual  body?  1. 
Josephus  interprets  the  eating  as  mere  ap- 
pearance (Autiq.  i.  11,  2) ;  so  also  Philo  (Op. 
ii.  18)  and  the  writer  of  Tobit  (Tob.  xii.  19). 
2.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  angel  as  con- 
suming food  "as  fire  consumes"  (Dial.  c. 
Tryph.  xxxiv.).  The  angel  of  the  Lord  who 
apj)eared  to  Manoah,  touched  the  food,  and 
it  was  burnt.  "The  thirsty  earth  absorbs 
water  in  one  manner,  the  hot  ray  of  the  sun 
in  another"  (Augustine). 

The  transientmanifestationsgradually  gave 
place  to  the  permanent  localization.  The 
shekinah  was  the  visible  majesty  of  tbe  divine 
presence,  especially  when  dwelling  between 
the  cherubim  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple  in 
the  midst  of  God's  people  Israel.  It  first  ap- 
peared at  the  exodus.  The  Lord  went  be- 
fore the  Israelites  in  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day, 
and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  ro  give  them 
light  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  22).  A  thick  cloud  rested 
upon  mount  Sinai,  and  the  mountain  was  al- 
together on  smoke,  because  the  Lord  de- 
scended upon  niountSinai  in  fire(xix.  16,  18). 
Later  the  glory  of  the  Lord  abode  on  mount 
Sinai,  and  the  cloud  covered  it  six  days ;  and 
the  seventh  day  he  called  unto  Moses  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  cloud,  and  the  ajipearauce 
of  the  glory  of  the  Lord  was  like  devouring 
fire  on  the  top  of  the  mount  in  the  eyes  of 
the  children  of  Israel  (xxiv.  16,  17).  When 
Moses  entered  the  first  tent  of  meeting  the 
cloud  descended  and  hovered  at  the  door,  and 
the  Lord  talked  with  Moses  face  to  face  (Ex. 


xxxiii.  11  ;  cp.  Dent.  v.  4).  When  the 
tabernacle  was  erected,  the  Lord  took  pos- 
session of  it.  The  cloud,  dark  by  day  and 
luminous  by  night,  covered  the  tent,  and  the 
glory  of  the  Lord  filled  it  (Ex.  xl.  34,  35; 
Num.  ix.  15,  16).  When  Moses  ajipeared 
before  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle,  he 
heard  the  voice  of  one  speaking  unto  him 
from  off  the  mercy  seat  (Num.  vii.  89;  cp. 
Ex.  XXV.  22 ;  Lev.  xvi.  2).  Probably  the 
glory  was  not  seen  constantly,  but  gleamed 
forth  occasionally  from  the  cloud  which  con- 
cealed it  (Ex.  xvi.  7,  10 ;  Lev.  ix.  6,  23  ; 
Num.  xiv.  10;  xvi.  19,  42;  xx.  6).  From 
frequent  references,  it  seems  that  God  con- 
tinued to  manifest  his  presence  between  the 
cherubim  on  the  ark.  At  length,  when  the 
temple  of  Solomon  was  dedicated,  the  cloud 
filled  the  house  of  the  Lord,  so  that  the 
priests  could  not  stand  to  minister  l)y  reason 
of  the  cloud  ;  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled 
the  house  (1  Kin.  viii.  10,  11). 

The  temporary  manifestations  had  given 
place  to  the  abiding  presence  in  the  tabernacle 
and  Solomon's  temple  :  and  finally  the  Word 
became  flesh  and  dwelt  among  men  ;  and  men 
beheld  his  glory,  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten 
from  the  Father  (John  i.  14).  The  latter 
glory  of  the  house  was  greater  than  the  for- 
mer (Hag.  ii.  9,  R.  V.).  The  divine  presence 
dwelt  in  Christ's  body  as  in  the  temple. 

The-oph'i-lus  [loved  by  God]. 

The  Christian  to  whom  Luke  addressed  his 
Gospel  (Luke  i.  3)  and  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(Acts  i.  1).     See  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  The. 

Thes-sa-lo'ni-ans,  Epistles  to  the. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
the  Thessalonians  is  the  earliest  of  Paul's 
epistles.  It  was  written  by  the  apostle  in 
conjunction  with  Silvanus  (Silas)  and  Timo- 
thy, to  the  church  at  Thessalonica.  Paul 
had  founded  this  church  on  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  and  had  been  driven  from 
Thessalonica  to  Bercea  and  from  Bercea  to 
Athens  by  the  persecuting  Jews ;  see  Paul. 
The  epistle  contains  allusions  (1  Thes.  ii.)  to 
his  life  at  Thes.salonica.  It  also  relates  that, 
when  at  Athens,  he  had  sent  Timothy  back 
to  Thessalonica  to  encourage  the  Christians 
amid  their  persecutions  (iii.  1-3)  and  that 
Timothy  had  recently  brought  him  good 
news  of  their  steadfastness.  In  Acts  xviii. 
5  we  learn  that  Silas  and  Timothy  rejoined 
the  apostle  at  Corinth.  Hence  the  epistle 
was  written  from  that  city,  probably  in  the 
year  A.  D.  52.  The  allusions  which  the  epistle 
contains  to  Paul's  life  in  Thessalonica  and  to 
the  distress  felt  by  the  Thessalonians  over  the 
death  of  their  friends,  as  well  as  the  ele- 
mentary character  of  the  instruction  given, 
confirm  this  date.  There  apiiear  to  have 
been  three  special  features  in  the  condition  of 
the  Thessalonians  which  occasioned  anxiety 
to  the  apostle,  and  led  him  to  write  this 
epistle  :  (1 )  a  tendency  to  neglect  their  daily 
work,    probably  under    the    idea    that  the 


Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the       773 


Thessalonica 


secoud  advent  would  soon  take  place,  — and 
with  this  was  sometimes  found  a  failure  to 
preserve  moral  purity  of  life ;  (2)  distress 
lest  their  Christian  friends  who  died  would 
fail  to  enjoy  the  glories  of  the  kingdom 
which  the  returning  Christ  was  to  establish  ; 
(3)  friction  between  the  regular  officers  of 
the  church  and  those  who  possessed  miracu- 
lous endowments  of  the  Spirit.  Hence  the 
analysis  of  the  epistle :  1.  A  grateful  state- 
ment of  their  Christian  earnestness,  their 
endurance  of  trial,  and  the  influence  they  had 
already  exerted  over  others  (i.).  2.  A  re- 
minder of  the  uprightness  and  industry  with 
which  he  had  lived  among  them,  and  of  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  they  had  received 
his  preaching  even  in  the  face  of  persecu. 
tion  from  the  Jews  (ii.).  3.  A  recital  of  the 
joy  he  had  had  in  Timothy's  good  report  of 
their  condition  (iii.).  4.  Instruction  on  spe- 
cial points  (iv.  1-v.  24)  :  (a)  Concerning 
])urity  in  the  relation  of  the  sexes  (iv.  3-8). 
(1))  Concerning  a  life  of  mutual  love  and 
orderliness  (9-12).  (c)  Concerning  dead  be- 
lievers, declaring  that  at  the  advent  they 
will  rise  first  and  be  caught  up  with  the 
living  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air,  aud  thus 
will  not  fail  of  their  reward  (13-18).  (d)  Con- 
cerning watchfulness  and  sobriety  of  life  (v. 
1-11).  (e)  Concerning  respect  for  officers  of 
the  church,  consideration  for  those  in  need, 
cultivation  of  spiritual  gifts,  and  other  du- 
tii's  of  the  Christian  life  (12-21).  5.  Closing 
words  {2r)-2:^). 

The  epistle  strikingly  illustrates  the  dif- 
ficulties natural  to  a  newly  formed  gentile 
church  and  the  breadth  and  practical  wisdom 
of  the  apostle's  instructious. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
the  Thessalonians  evidently  followed  the 
first  after  but  a  short  period.  It  too,  there- 
fore, is  to  be  assigned  to  A.  D.  52,  and  was 
written  from  Corinth.  We  learn  from  it 
that  the  difficulties  of  the  Thessalonians  had 
become  more  serious,  but  were  still  of  the 
same  general  character  as  those  dealt  with  in 
the  first  epistle.  Like  the  first,  this  was 
written  by  Paul  in  conjunction  with  Sil- 
vanus  (Silas)  aud  Timothy;  it  deals  largely 
with  the  second  advent  and  misconceptions 
about  it;  and  refers  again  to  the  tendency 
of  some  to  disorderly  living  (2  Thes.  iii.  6- 
12).  If,  however,  the  first  epistle  treated  of 
the  relation  of  the  advent  to  believers,  the 
secoud  treats  of  its  relation  to  the  wicked 
(i.  5-10).  Further  the  apostle  warns  thera 
not  to  suppose  that  ''  the  day  of  the  Lord  is 
now  present"  (ii.  2,  R.  V.),  aud  that  the 
visible  advent  would  therefore  soon  come; 
for,  before  that  happens,  there  must  be  the 
apostasy  (predicted  by  Christ,  cp.  Mat.  xxiv. 
9-12  ;  and  referred  to  by  Paul  in  Acts  xx. 
29,  30;  Eom.  xvi.  17-20;  2  Cor.  xi.  13-15;  1 
Tim.  iv.  1)  and  the  revelation  of  the  man  of 
lawlessness  (2  Thes.  ii.  3,  4,  R.  V. ;  Dan.  vii. 
25;  xi.  36;  1  John  ii.  18;  see  Antichrist), 
whom  the  Lord  will  destroy  at  his  coming. 


He  had,  when  with  them,  told  them  of  these 
things  (ii.  5). 

The  epistle  may  be  divided  as  follows : 
1.  Thanksgiving* for  their  fidelity  amid  per- 
secution, aud  assuran(;e  that  persecution 
should  only  make  stronger  their  faith  in 
the  vindication  of  the  saiiits  and  in  the 
punishment  of  the  ungodly  which  will  take 
place  at  the  second  advent  (i.).  2.  Warning 
against  supposing  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  now  present,"  and  description  of  the  apos- 
tasy and  rise  of  the  man  of  lawlessness, 
which  must  precede  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
(ii.  1-12).  3.  Expression  of  his  confidence 
in  their  election  and  fidelity  (13-17).  4. 
Concludiug  exhortations, — that  they  pray  for 
him,  that  they  avoid  those  who  are  disor- 
derly, that  they  be  industrious  and  faithful, 
that  they  all  subject  themselves  to"  the 
authority  which  he  as  an  apostle  exercised, 
etc.  (iii.).  From  ii.  2  it  appears  that  a  forged 
letter  of  Paul's  had  been  circulated  ;  hence  in 
iii.  17  he  appends  his  signature.  We  thus  see 
also  that  from  the  beginning  the  same  author- 
ity was  attached  in  the  church  to  the  apos- 
tle's letters  as  to  his  oral  teaching.  The 
statements  concerning  the  apostasy  and  the 
man  of  lawlessness  have  been  variously  in- 
terpreted. We  think  it  most  probable  that 
the  apostasy  was  contemplated  by  Paul  as 
arising  within  the  church  ;  the  man  of  law- 
lessue.ssas  the  culmination  of  the  apostasy  in 
a  personal  antichrist ;  and  he  or  that  which 
hindereth  (ii.  7)  as  either  the  civil  ])ower  or 
else,  and  with  much  jirobability,  the  Holy 
Spirit.  G.  T.  p.  (supplemented).  " 

The  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is 
included  in  the  Old  Latin  version  ;  is  listed 
in  the  Muratoriau  fragment ;  is  quoted  by 
Irena^us,  attributed  by  him  to  Paul,  and  de- 
signated the  first  letter  to  the  Thessalonians ; 
is  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  also  and 
assigned  to  Paul ;  aud  is  cited  by  Tertullian 
under  the  name  of  Thessalonians.  Un- 
doubted quotation  from  the  Second  Epistle 
is  found  earlier  still,  occurring  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Polycarp  about  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  and  possibly  in  the  works  of 
Justin  Martyr. 

Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca  [conquest  of  Thessaly]. 

A  city  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf,  now  called 
the  gulf  of  Saloniki.  The  city  was  first 
called  Therme,  or  Tlierma,  hot  spring;  but 
Cassandcr,  one  of  the  successors  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  made  it  his  residence  and  renamed 
it  Thessalonica,  after  his  wife  Thessalonike, 
a  daughter  of  the  conqueror  of  the  Cherso- 
nesus  and  sister  of  the  great  Alexander. 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
second  district  out  of  four  into  which  they 
had  divided  Macedonia.  It  was  a  military 
and  commeccial  station  on  the  Via  Eguatia  ; 
and  was  made  a  free  city  in  42  B.  c.  Its  civil 
magistrates  were  called  politarchs,  rulers  of 
the  city  (Acts  xvii.  6,  Greek  text;  inscrip- 
tion on  arch  in   Thessalonica)  ;  see  EuLEK. 


Theudas 


Theudas 


The  Jews  had  a  synagogue  in  the  city.  Paul 
preached  there  and  made  converts,  who 
became  the  nucleus  of  a  Christian  church 
(Acts  xvii.  1-13;  cp.  Phil.  iv.  16).  To  this 
church  Paul  sent  two  letters.  Two  of  his 
co-workers,  Aristarchus  and  Secundus,  were 
men  of  Thessalonica  (Acts  xx.  4 ;  xxvii.  2). 


many  and  took  many  others  alive,  and  se- 
cured Theudas,  cut  oif  his  head,  and  carried 
it  to  .Jerusalem  (Antiq.  xx.  5,  1). 

The  question  is.  Do  Luke  and  Josephus 
refer  to  the  same  person?  Some  answer  that 
they  do,  and  say  that  either  Luke  or  Josephus 
errs.     Josephus  scarcely  is  mistaken,  for  he 


Thessalonica  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in 
A.  D.  904.  After  various  vicissitudes,  it  was 
captured  by  the  Turkish  sultan  Amurath  II. 
in  1430.  It  still  exists  as  Saloniki,  with  a 
population  of  about  100,000  Mohammedans, 
Christians,  and  Jews. 

Theu'das. 

Gamaliel,  in  his  speech  before  the  sanhe- 
drin,  about  A.  D.  32,  referred  to  Theudas, 
who  gave  himself  out  to  be  somebody,  to 
whom  a  number  of  men,  about  400,  joined 
themselves,  who  was  slain,  and  all,  as  many 
as  obeyed  him,  were  dispersed  and  came  to 
nought,  and  after  whom  Judas  of  Galilee 
rose  up  in  the  days  of  the  enrollment  (Acts 
V.  36,  37).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judas  here  spoken  of  was  Judas  the  Gaulon- 
ite  of  Gamala,  who,  in  the  times  of  Quirinius, 
during  the  procuratorship  of  t'oponius,  raised 
an  insurrection  by  opposing  the  enn>llment 
(Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1 ;  War  ii.  8,  1).  Theudas 
accordingly  arose  sometime  before  a.  d.  6. 
Now  Josephus  mentions  a  magician  named 
Theudas,  who,  while  Fadus  was  procurator 
of  Judsea,  A.  D.  44-46,  persuaded  a  great  part 
of  the  people  to  follow  him  to  the  river 
Jordan,  for  he  told  them  that  he  was  a 
projihet,  and  that  at  his  command  the  waters 
would  divide  and  allow  them  a  pas.sage.  Rut 
Fadus  sent  a  troop  of  horse  against  him, 
who  fell  upon  the  people  unexpectedly,  slew 


gives  details.  But  Luke  has  fully  estab- 
lished his  credibility  as  a  historian,  and  it  is 
a  rash  thing  to  accuse  him  of  an  error. 
Accordingly  other  interpreters  believe  that 
it  is  quite  probable  that  two  persons  by  the 
name  of  Theudas,  at  a  distance  of  forty  years 
or  more  from  each  other,  laid  themselves 
open  to  the  just  vengeance  or  justifiable  sus- 
picions of  the  Romans  and  were  punished. 
It  is  not  at  all  clear  that  Theudas  the  ma- 
gician was  an  insurgent  of  the  same  class  as 
Theudas  whom  Gamaliel  cites.  The  one  was 
an  impostor,  a  pretended  prophet,  who,  on 
the  faith  of  the  people  in  his  supernatural 
powers,  drew  crowds  of  followers  after 
him.  The  other  made  some  sort  of  claim 
to  greatness,  gained  a  following  of  400 
men,  and  came  to  naught.  Who  then  was 
Theudas  to  whom  Gamaliel  refers?  He  was 
])robably  one  of  the  insurrectionary  chiefs, 
who  led  belligerent  bands  in  the  closing  year 
of  Herod  the  Great.  That  year  was  remark- 
ably turbulent.  Josephus  mentions  three 
disturbers  by  name,  and  makes  general  allu- 
sion to  others.  Theudas  was  eitlier  1.  One 
of  these  unnamed  insurrcclionists,  whom 
Gamaliel  cites  to  show  that  a  bad  cause  and 
its  leaders  come  to  grief.  Theudas  was  a 
common  name,  and  within  a  period  of  half 
a  century,  might  be  borne  by  two  persons  of 
.some  i)rominence  and  somewhat  similar  in 
their  career.      Analogously  Josephus    gives 


Thief 


Thorns  and  Thistles 


an  account  of  four  men  named  Simon, 
who  followed  each  other  within  forty 
years,  and  of  three  named  Judas,  within 
ten  years,  who  were  all  instigators  of  rebel- 
lion. Or  2.  One  of  the  three  insurgents  who 
are  named  by  Joseidius.  Two  are  advocated 
as  identical  with  Theudas.  (1)  Simon  (Antiq. 
xvii.  10,  6 ;  War  ii.  4,  2),  a  slave  of 
Herod,  who  attempted  to  make  himself 
king  when  Herod  died.  He  was  noted  as  a 
disturber  of  the  peace  at  this  time  and  his 
name  would  be  apt  to  occur  to  Gamaliel ;  he 
was  a  man  of  lofty  pretensions;  he  died  a 
violent  death  ;  he  appears  to  have  had  com- 
paratively few  adherents ;  he  was  a  slave, 
and  it  was  quite  common  among  the  Jews 
to  assume  a  new  name  on  changing  occupa- 
tion or  mode  of  life.  Gamaliel  .speaks  of  him 
as  Theudas,  the  name  he  had  borne  longest, 
and  by  which  he  was  best  known  in  Jerusa- 
lem and  to  the  members  of  the  sanhedrin, 
while  Josephus  calls  him  by  the  name  Simon, 
which  he  had  adopted  when  appearing  as 
king  of  the  Jews  and  by  which  he  was  nat- 
urally known  to  the  Roman  government  and 
people.  (2)  The  man  called  Matthias  by 
Josephus  (Antiq.  xvii.  G,  2;  War  i.  33,  2). 
Mattjiias  is  a  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Mattanyah,  gift  of  God,  and  is  equivalent  to 
the  Greek  name  Theudas,  which,  it  is  urged, 
is  the  same  as  Tlieodas,  shortened  from  Theo- 
(loros,  gift  of  God.  Matthias  was  an  eloquenv 
teacher,  who  with  another  teacher  headed  a 
band  in  the  days  of  king  Herod,  and  de- 
stroyed the  golden  eagle  set  up  by  the  king 
over  the  great  gate  of  the  temple.  He  was 
caught  and  burnt  alive  with  some  of  his 
companions,  and  many  of  the  rest  were  put 
to  death  by  other  means. 

Thief. 

In  a  broad  sense,  anyone  who  appropriates 
what  is  not  his  own,  as  the  petty  iiilfcrtr 
(John  xii.  6),  the  robber  or  highwayman 
(Luke  X.  30,  E.  V.  robber),  the  burglar  "(Mat. 
vi.  20).  The  highwayman  was  often  a  rebel 
against  Koman  rule  and  a  fomenter  of  strife, 
like  l')arab])as  (Mark  xv.  7),  who  was  com- 
pelled by  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  as  much 
as  by  the  lust  of  plunder,  to  flee  from  the  sol- 
diers and  adopt  the  wild,  robber  life.  Under 
the  Mosaic  law  a  thief  caught  had  to  make 
restitution  of  twice  the  amount  he  had 
taken,  and  if  he  were  unable,  could  be  sold 
into  temporary  servitude  till  he  had  earned 
the  requisite  amount.  If  a  thief  entered  a 
house  and,  coming  into  contact  with  the 
owner  in  the  dark,  was  killed,  the  homicide 
was  not  to  be  charged  with  blood-guiltiness  ; 
but  if  the  sun  had  risen,  the  householder 
was  held  to  be  guilty  if  he  killed  the  in- 
truder (Ex.  xxii.  1-4).  That  the  thieves  on 
the  cross  were  something  far  beyond  petty 
pilferers  is  plain  from  the  Greek  term  applied 
to  them,  the  severity  of  their  punishment 
(War  ii.  13,  2),  and  the  fact  that  one  of  them 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  the  death  pen- 


alty inflicted  on  him  (Luke  xxiii.  41)  ;  he 
must  have  been  a  robber  at  the  least  (Mat. 
xxvii.  38,  K.  V.),  and  quite  possibly  even  a 
brigand.  Both  reviled  Jesus  on  the  cross  (44), 
but  subsequently  one  was  touched  with  awe  at 
the  meekness  and  forgiving  spirit  of  Jesus, 
and  with  the  fear  of  God  in  his  heart,  the 
confession  of  the  sinfulness  of  his  past  life, 
the  acknowledgment  that  Jesus  had  done 
nothing  amiss,  and  was  the  true  King,  and 
would  reign  in  power  after  the  death  on  the 
cross,  turned  to  Jesus  for  acceptance  after 
death  (Luke  xxiii.  30-43). 

TMm'na-thah.     See  Timnah. 

This'tle.     See  Thokns  and  Thistles. 

Thom'as  [Greek,  from  Hebrew  ta'am,  a 
twin]. 

One  of  the  tv>'elve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3).  He 
was  also  called  Didymus,  a  Greek  name, 
meaning,  like  Thomas,  a  twin.  When  the 
disciples  were  astonished  that  Jesus  intended 
going  again  to  Judsea,  where  a  little  before 
the  Jews  had  threatened  to  stone  him  (John 
xi.  7,  8),  Thomas,  in  devotion  to  Jesus,  de- 
termined to  share  the  peril,  and  said  to  his 
fellow-disciples:  "Let  us  also  go,  that  we 
may  die  with  him"  (16).  When  Jesus,  in 
anticipation  of  his  departure,  spoke  of  going 
to  prepare  a  place  for  them,  and  added  that 
they  knew  whither  he  was  going  and  the 
way,  Thomas  said  :  "  Lord,  we  know  not 
whither  thou  goest ;  and  how  can  we  know 
the  way?"  To  which  the  reply  commenced 
with  the  well-known  words :  "  I  am  the 
way,  the  truth,  and  the  life"  (xiv.  1-6). 
Thomas  was  not  at  the  first  meeting  at  which 
the  privilege  was  granted  of  seeing  the  risen 
Lord,  and  when  he  heard  that  Jesus  had 
been  present  he  .said  :  "  Except  I  shall  see  in 
his  hands  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  put  my 
finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  thrust 
my  hand  into  his  side,  I  will  not  believe  "  (xx. 
24, 2.5).  This  incident  has  given  rise  to  his  des- 
ignation, "doubting  Thomas."  But  God 
turned  the  doubt  of  Thomas  to  the  good  of  oth- 
ers. "  He  doubted  that  we  might  not  doubt " 
(.\ugustine),  and  eight  days  later  Jesus  gave 
him  the  evidence  he  required,  and  elicited 
from  him  the  adoring  exclamation :  "  My  Lord 
and  my  God!"  (26-29).  He  was  on  the  sea 
of  Galilee  with  six  other  disciples  when  Jesus 
hailed  them  from  the  beach  and  told  them 
where  to  cast  the  net  (xxi.  1-8)  ;  and  was  with 
the  rest  of  the  apostles  in  the  upper  room  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  13). 
Tradition  makes  Thomas  afterwards  labor  in 
Parthia  and  Persia,  dying  in  the  latter  coun- 
try. At  a  later  period  India  was  named  as 
the  place  where  he  had  preached  and  suffered 
martyrdom,  and  a  place  near  Madras  is  called 
St.  Thomas'  mount. 

Thorns  and  This'tles. 

In  most  passages  where  these  words  occur 
the  terms  are  generic  rather  than  specific. 
Thorny    weeds,    bushes,   and  small  trees  of 


Thousand 


Threshing 


various  kinds  are  abundant  in  Palestine. 
A  mong  them  may  be  mentioned  the  thorny 
burnet  (Poterium  spinosum),  which  is  burnt  as 
fuel  in  lime  kilns  and  ovens;  the  thorny 
caper  {Gappans  spinosr.),  seen  everywhere 
hanging  from  rocks  and  walls  ;  the  James- 
town orjimson  weed  {Datura  stramonium)  by 
the  roadside  and  in  waste  places  -;  the  arti- 
choke (Ci/nara  syriacn) ;  and  in  the  uplands 
the  acanthus  with  its  whitish  flowers.  The 
prickly  pear  (Opuntia  ficus  indica),  a  cactus 
with  yellow  flowers,  is  the  characteristic 
hedge  plant  of  modern  Syria  ;  but  it  was  in- 
troduced from  America  and  was  unknown  iu 
ancient  times.  For  hedge  purposes  there  are 
also  used  the  box  thorn  (Lycium  europxnm) 
and  the  bramble  {Ruhus  discolor).  Various 
hawthorns  are  found,  Crataegus  azarolus,  C. 
monogyna,  and  east  of  the  Jordan  C.  orientaUs. 
Numerous  thistles  grow  in  the  fields  and 
waste  places :  such  as  Cirsium  acarna.  with 
its  leaves  tipped  with  long,  yellow  spines ; 
Carthumus  lanatus,  with  yellow  flowerets,  C. 
glmicns,  with  purple,  C.  cxruleus,  with  blue, 
and  C.  tinctorius,  with  red  flowerets,  which 
are  used  as  a  red  dye  ;  Carduus  pycnocephalus 
and  argentaJns ;  Echinops  viscosus ;  the  tall 
Notohasis  syriaca.  with  ])ink  flowers  and  pow- 
erful spines:  cotton  thistles  (Onopordon  illy- 
ricum&wA  cyudrocephalum);  the  milk  thistle 
{Silybuni  mariiiiiiiiii)  ;  sow  thistles  (Sionchns 
oleraceus  and  glaucesccns)  ;  star  thistles  (C'e/i- 
taurea  calcitrapa  and  verutiim),  the  former 
with  purple,  the  latter  with  yellow  flowers. 
The  cocklebur  (Xanthium)  is  common,  as  is 
also  teasel  {Dipsacus  sylvestris). 

Several  words  rendered  thorn  or  thistle 
appear  to  be  used  specifically  :  1.  Hebrew 
dardar,  Greek  tribolos,  which  grows  in  fields 
(Gen.  iii.  18;  Hos.  x.  8  ;  Mat.  vii.  16  ;  all  in 
E.  V.  thistle  ;  and  Heb.  vi.  8.  in  A.  V.  brier)  is 
probably  a  species  of  Tribnhi.s,  perhaps  T.  ter- 
restris,  one  of  the  plants  called  caltrop.  It  i.? 
common  in  the  fields  and  by  the  roadside. 
The  fruit  is  composed  of  bony  cells  armed 
with  prickles  on  the  back.  It  does  not  be- 
long to  the  Compositte,  as  do  the  thistles.  2,  3, 
and  4,  see  Bramble,  Beikr  .5,  6,  Nettle  2. 

The  crown  of  thorns,  which  was  nlaited  by 
the  Roman  soldiers  and  placed  on  the  head 
of  Jesus  to  torture  and  insult  him  (Mat.  xxvii. 
29),  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  made 
of  the  Zizy2)hns  spina  Christi,  a  sjiecies  of 
juju])e  or  lotus  tree,  with  soft,  round,  pliant 
branches,  and  with  leaves  resembling  the 
ivy  with  which  emperors  and  generals  were 
wont  to  be  crowned.     See  Bramble. 

The  thorn  in  the  flesh  was  some  bodily 
pain  or  infirmity,  s'mt  as  a  messenger  of  Sa- 
tan to  buflet  the  apostle  Paul  and  keep  him 
humble  amid  all  his  spiritual  triumphs  (2  Cor. 
xii.  7).     Its  nature  is  unknown. 

Thou'sand. 

A  division  of  the  tribe  (Num.  xxxi.  5; 
Josh.  .xxii.  14)  ;  consisting  nominally  of  a 
thousand    persons,    but    through    birth    and 


death  ever  varying  and  doubtless  falling  far 
short  of  the  standard  number;  used  for  mil- 
itary and  judicial  purposes  (Ex.  sviii.  21,  25; 
and  Num.  xxxi.  14;  1  Sam.  viii.  12;  xxii.  7; 
2  Sam.  xviii.  1) ;  and  practically,  perhaps  ex- 
actly, equivalent  to  the  subdivision  of  the 
tribe  which  was  technically  known  as  a 
father's  house  (Num.  i.  2,  4  with  16,  R.  V.  : 
.ludg.  vi.  15,  cp.  R.  V.  margin ;  1  Sam.  x.  19 
with  21). 

Three  Tav'erns. 

A  small  station  on  the  Appian  Way,  about 
a  mile  from  A])pii  Forum,  and  30  miles  from 
Rome,  where  a  number  of  Roman  Christians 
met  Paul  on  his  way  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii. 
15J. 

Thresh'ing. 

The  process  of  separating  grain  from  the 
straw.  Small  quantities  of  grain  were  beaten 
out  with  a  stick  or  flail  (Judg.  vi.  11 ;  Ruth  ii. 
7),  and  this  was  the  cu,stomary  method  of  hull- 
ing fitches  and  cummin  (Is.  xxviii.  27)  ;  but 
when  much  work  was  to  be  done,  oxen  and 
threshing  floors  were  employed.  The  weather 
of  Palestine  permits  the  threshing  floor  to  be 
under  the  open  sky  i  Judg.  vi.  37).  It  is  gen- 
erally common  to  the  whole  village,  but 
may  have  a  private  owner  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16). 
If  possible,  it  is  the  surface  of  a  flat  rock  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  exposed  to  any  wind  that 
blows.  If  such  a  natural  floor  is  not  avail- 
able, an  artificial  floor  is  laid  out  by  the 
roadside,  and  soon  assumes  a  circular  shape, 


liiresiiuig  1'  loor. 

about  50  feet  in  diameter,  and  becomes  firm 
an:l  hard  under  the  trampling  of  the  oxen. 
Tlic  sheaves  are  loosened  and  arranged  iu  a 
circle  on  the  floor ;  or,  jf  the  straw  is  to  be 
preserved  whole,  the  ears  are  cut  from  the 
stock  and  cast  on  the  floor.  Oxen,  which  to 
this  day  are  unmuzzled  except  by  the  nig- 
gardly (Deut.  XXV.  4),  are  driven  round  and 
round  to  trample  out  the  kernels;  or  else  are 
made  to  drag  a  sled  or  cart,  weighted  by  a 


Thresholds  of  the  Gates 


777 


Thyine  Wood 


heavy  stone  or  the  driver,  to  facilitate  the 
operation.  The  sled  is  made  of  two  heavy- 
planks,  curved  upward  at  the  front  and  fast- 
ened side  by  side.  Sharp  pieces  of  stone  are 
fixed  in  holes  bored  in  the  bottom.  The  cart, 
at  least  as  used  in  Egypt,  consists  of  a  frame 
containing  three  wooden  rollers  set  with 
sharp  iron  knives.  If  there  is  any  wind,  the 
threshed  grain  is  tossed  high  in  the  air  with 
a  shovel  or  a  fork  (Is.  xxx.  24 ;  Mat.  iii.  12; 
Iliad  xiii.  588),  when  the  chatf  is  blown 
away  and  the  clean  grain  falls  to  the  ground  ; 
but  if  there  is  no  wind,  a  large  fan  is  plied 
by  one  man,  while  another  tosses  the  grain 
with  his  shovel.  The  fan,  however,  is  sel- 
dom used  except  to  purge  the  floor  of  the 
refuse  dust.  Winnowing  is  done  in  the  even- 
ing for  the  sake  of  the  wind  ;  and  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  owner  of  the  grain  to  spend 
the  night  at  the  floor  during  the  time  of 
threshing  to  prevent  stealing  (Ruth  iii.  2 
seq.).  The  grain  is  finally  passed  through  a 
sieve  to  cleanse  it  from  dirt,  after  which  it  is 
ready  for  grinding  (Amos  ix.  9). 

Thresh'olds  of  the  Gates. 

A  building,  in  Hebrew  '"suppim,  which  was 
intended  for  the  storage  of  temple  goods  (Neh. 
xii.  25,  A.  v.).     See  Asuppim. 

Throne. 

A  chair  of  state,  in  Hebrew  Iciss^,  in  Greek 
thronos,  which  was  occujjied  by  a  person 
of  authority,    whether  high   priest,   judge, 


Ancient  Egyptian  Throne. 


military  leader,  governor,  or  king  (Gen.  xli. 
■10;  1  Sam.  i.  9;  2  Sam.  iii.  10;  Neh.  iii.  7; 
Ps.  cxxii.  5 ;  Jer.  i.  15;  Mat.  xix.  28).  Eoyal 
thrones  were  often  portable,  like  those  of 
Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10),  and 
the  one  used  by  Sennacherib  at  Lachish  ;  see 


Sennacherib.  Solomon's  throne  was  an 
elevated  seat  reached  by  six  steps.  Its  frame 
was  probably  made  of  cedar.  It  was  inlaid 
with  ivory,  and  elsewhere  overlaid  with  gold  ; 
the  back  of  it  was  arched  or  rounded  ofi";  it 
was  furnished  with  arms  and  was  providi-d 
with  a  footstool.  A  lion  stood  at  each  side, 
ornamenting  the  arms,  and  on  each  end  of  each 
of  the  six  steps  (1  Kin.  x.  18-20  ;  2Chron.  ix. 
17-19).  It  resembled  the  thrones  of  the  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  monarchs,  but  with  its 
dais  was  the  most  magnificent  royal  chair  of 
the  time. 

The  king,  arrayed  in  his  royal  robes,  regu- 
larly sat  on  his  throne  when  granting  audi- 
ences, receiving  homage,  administering  jus- 
tice, or  promulgating  commands  (1  Kin.  ii. 
19;  vii.  7;  xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  xi.  19;  Jon. 
iii.  6). 

The  throne  symbolized  supreme  power  and 
authority  (Gen.  xli.  40).  It  is  constantly  at- 
tributed to  Jehovah. 

Thum'mim.     See  Ueim  and  Thummim. 

Thun'der. 

The  noise  which  follows  a  flash  of  light- 
ning. It  intensifies  the  awfulne.ss  of  a  ter- 
rific storm  (Ex.  ix.  2.3).  Thunder  is  an  un- 
usual event  during  summer,  which  is  the 
dry  season  in  Palestine  (Prov.  xsvi.  1)  ;  and 
hence,  when  it  occurred  at  that  time  of  year 
after  prayer  for  it,  it  was  an  evident  answer 
and  served  as  a  sign  (1  Sam.  xii.  17).  It  was 
often  called  simply  kol,  voice,  sound,  noise ; 
and  was  poetically  described  as  the  voice  of 
Jehovah  (Job  xxxvii.  2-5  ;  xl.  9 ;  Ps.  xxix. 
3-9),  who  sends  and  directs  the  storm  (Job 
xxviii.  26).  It  accompanied  manifestations 
of  God's  presence  when  he  came  in  dread 
majesty  (Ex.  six.  16;  Rev.  iv.  5)  ;  it  was  an 
indication  of  divine  power  at  work  in  nature 
(Ps.  xxix.  3-9) ;  and  as  thunder  is  a  precursor 
of  the  destructive  storm,  it  symbolized  divine 
vengeance  (1  Sam.  ii.  10  ;  2  Sam.  xxii.  14,  15  ; 
Ps.  Ixxvii.  18). 

Thy-a-ti'ra. 

A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Lydia,  near  the 
boundary  of  Mysia.  It  was  on  the  road  from 
Pergamos  to  Sardis.  It  had  already  come 
into  existence  and  been  known  as  Pelopia 
and  Euhippia  when  Seleucus  Nicator  about 
280  B.  c.  colonized  it  with  Greeks,  giving  it 
the  name  of  Thyatira.  Its  inhabitants  were 
famed  for  their  skill  in  dyeing  purple ;  and 
Lydia.  the  seller  of  purple  at  Philippi,  came 
from  Thyatira  (Acts  xvi.  14).  It  contained 
one  of  the  seven  churches  in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11 ; 
ii.  18-24).  Traces  of  its  existence  remain  in 
fragments  of  columns  built  into  the  streets 
and  edifices  of  its  modern  successor,  Ak  His- 
sar.     Christians  still  live  in  the  place. 

Thy'ine  Wood. 

An  article  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  mys- 
tic Babylon  (Rev.  xviii.  12).  It  was  the  wood 
of  Cnllitris  quadrivaivis,  a  large  tree  of  the  cy- 
press family.  It  is  reddish-brown,  hard,  and 
fragrant;    and    was   greatly   ]>rized    by   the 


Thyine  Wood 


778 


Tiberias 


Thyine  Wood. 

Romans  for  ornamental  purposes.  They  ran 
it  up  to  a  liigh  price.  The  resin  which  ex- 
udes from  the  tree  is  £um  sandarac. 


Ti-be'ri-as. 

A  city  on  the  sea  of  CTiililee  '^Tohn  vi.  2,3), 
built  by  Herod  the  tetrarch,  ard  named  by 
him  after  the  then  reigning  Eoioan  emperor, 
Tiberius  C'aisar  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  3  ;  War  ii.  9, 
1).  Tiberias  was  fortified  by  Jo?'.phus  during 
the  Jewish  war  (Life  8 ;  War  ii.  20,  6).  It 
opened  its  gates  to  Vespasian.  A  number  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Tarichese,  a  reighboring 
town,  whom  he  had  assured  of  their  lives, 
were  afterwards  slain  in  cold  blood  in 
the  race  course  of  Tiberias  (War  iii.  10, 
1-10).  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Judaea,  consequent  on  the  failure  of  Bar- 
cocheba's  rebellion,  Tiberias  became  the 
virtual  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and 
coins  of  the  city  have  been  found,  bearing 
the  names  of  Tiberius,  Claudjus,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  The  saahedrin 
was  transferred  to  Tiberias  about  tbc  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  the  ci^y  became 
the  center  of  Jewish  learning.  A  celebrated 
.school  was  established  in  it,  which  produced 
the  volume  of  Scripture  tradition  called  the 
Mishna  about  A.  i>.  190  or  220,  and  its  sup- 
plement, the  Gemara,  which  was  codified  in 
the  fourth  century.  The  Masorah,  or  body 
of  traditions  which  transmitted  the  details  of 
the  Hebrew  text  of  the  O.  T.  and  preserved  its 
])ronunciatiou  by  means  of  vowel  signs,  orig- 
iuated  in  a  great  measure  at  Tiberias  ;  see 
Old  Testament.  The  Jews  regard  Ti- 
berias as  one  of  their  four  sacred  cities,  Jeru- 
salem, Hebron,  and  Safed  being  the  others, 
in  which  prayer  must  be  oflered  continually, 
or  the  world  will  instantly  fall  back  into 
chaos.  It  still  exists  under  the  name  of 
Tubariya,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  sen 
of  Galilee,  Hi  miles  from  the  entrance  and 


Tiberius  Csesar. 


■79 


Tikvah 


'()  fioni  the  exit  of  the  Jordan.  At  that  place 
the  steep  mountain  ridge  does  not  closely 
approach  the  lake,  but  leaves  on  its  margin 
a  narrow  strip  of  undulating  land,  at  the 
northern  part  of  which  Tiberias  stands.  It 
extends  about  half  a  mile  along  the  shore, 
and  is  defended  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall, 
towers,  and  a  castle.  The  houses  are  mostly 
of  black  basalt.  On  January  1,  1837,  it  suf- 
fered severely  from  an  earthquake,  but  has 
since  in  a  large  measure  been  rebuilt.  The 
Jewish  quarter  is  near  the  lake. 

The  sea  of  Tiberias  is  more  commonly 
called  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi.  1 ;  xxi.  1). 

Ti-be'rl-us  Cse'sar.     See  CiESAR. 
Tib'hatli  [slaughter]. 

A  town  of  Aram-zobah  (1  Chron.  xviii.  8). 
Site  unknown.    See  Betah  and  Tebah. 

Tib'ni. 

A  son  of  Giuath,  and  the  unsuccessful 
■comjietitor  for  the  throne  of  Israel  with 
Umri  (1  Kiu.  xvi.  21,  22). 

Ti'dal. 

King  of  Goiim  and  one  of  Chedorlaomer's 
confederates  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9,  R.  V.).  He  was 
Tudhul,  king  of  Gutium,  northeast  of  Baby- 
lonia. 

Tig-lath-pi-le'ser,  in  Chronicles  Tilgath- 
pilneser  [Assyrian  TukuUi-apil-Eshara,  my 
strength  is  the  god  Ninib]. 

A  king  of  Assyria,  who  reigned  from  745  to 
727  b.  c.  Tiglath-pileser  is  but  another  name 
for  Pul,  as  appears  from  the  fact  that  where 
Ptolemy's  list  of  Babylonian  kings  gives 
Poros,  and  the  so-called  dynastic  tablets  of 
the  Babylonians  give  Pulu,  the  Babylonian 
chronicle  gives  Tiglath-pileser.  Probably  Pul 
was  his  original  name,  and  when  he  secured 
the  throne  he  assumed  the  grander  title  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  which  had  already  been  made 
famous  by  a  great  king  of  the  past.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  he  owed  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  throne  to  the  disturbances  in 
Calah,  which  are  recorded  for  the  year  746  b.  c. 
He  seated  himself  upon  the  Assyrian  throne 
on  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  second  month 
and  in  the  seventh  month  was  nrarching 
against  Babylonia.  He  first  became  known 
to  the  Israelites  as  Pul.  During  the  years 
74.3-740  his  military  headquarters  were  at 
.Xrjiad  in  northern  Syria,  not  far  from  the 
site  of  the  later  Antioch  ;  but  he  found  op- 
portunity to  send  or  lead  exjieditions  and 
terrify  the  country  within  a  radius  of  100 
miles  or  more.  Among  other  places  against 
which  he  came  at  that  time  or  a  little  later 
Avas  the  land  of  Israel,  but  Menahem  itaid 
him  tribute  and  the  Assyrian  confirmed  the 
kingdom  to  Menahem  and  left  the  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19,  20) ;  see  Pekah.  Tiglath- 
pileser  records  the  names  of  kings  who  about 
738  B.  c.  paid  him  tribute,  and  among  others 
the  name  of  Menahem  of  Samaria.  During 
the  next  few  years  he  was  couducting  war 
first  in  the  far  east,  and  then  in  the  country 


north  and  northwest  of  Nineveh ;  but  in 
734  he  was  again  in  the  west.  The  alliance 
of  Pekah  and  Eezin  against  Ahaz  of  Judah 
impelled  Ahaz,  contrary  to  the  exhortation 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  to  turn  for  help  to  a 
human  potentate.  Tiglath-pileser  was  in- 
duced by  large  money  (xvi.  7,  8),  and  by  the 
favorable  opportunity  attbrded  him  of  ex- 
tending his  authority,  to  side  with  Ahaz. 
He  marched  against  Philistia,  capturing  cities 
on  the  Phcenician  coast  as  he  proceeded.  He 
apparently  records  the  seizure  of  towns  in 
northern  Israel ;  but  whether  he  makes  the 
record  or  not,  it  was  during  his  advance 
south  or  as  he  returned  north  that  he  took 
Ijon,  Abel-beth-maacah,  Janoah,  Kedesh, 
Hazor,  Gilead,  and  Galilee,  all  the  land  of 
Naphtali,  and  carried  them  captive  to  Assyria 
(XV.  29).  He  captured  Gaza.  Thus  he  pun- 
ished the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  Judah's  straits  to  pillage  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  18).  In  the  years  733  and  732  he 
was  at  Damascus,  according  to  the  Assyrian 
records.  During  the  siege  or  immediately 
after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  ravaged 
sixteen  districts  of  Damascus ;  leaving  them, 
as  he  says,  like  ruins  after  a  flood-storm. 
He  slew  Eezin  king  of  Damascus.  At  this 
time  God  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Pul  king 
of  Assyria  and  (or  rather,  as  it  may  equally 
well  be  translated,  even)  the  spirit  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  king  of  Assyria,  and  he  carried  them 
away,  even  the  Reubenites  and  the  Gadites, 
and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  v. 
26).  He  reports  his  reception  of  tribute 
from  many  kings,  among  others  from  the 
kings  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Edom,  and 
from  Jehoahaz  of  Judah.  This  statement 
agrees  with  the  biblical  record  that  king 
Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  meet  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi.  10).  In  730  B.  c,  accord- 
ing to  biblical  chronology,  Hoshea  revolted 
against  Pekah.  The  revolt  was  instigated 
or  assisted  by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  may  have 
been  in  Nineveh  at  the  time,  for  he  says: 
"  Pekah  I  slew  and  appointed  Hoshea  to  rule 
over  them."  After  the  fall  of  Damascus  in 
733  or  732  Tiglath-pileser  returned  to  Nin- 
eveh. During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
was  much  engaged  in  building  operations ; 
but  he  found  time  for  war,  and  among  other 
expeditions  he  conducted  an  army  into  Baby- 
lonia and  made  himself  king  of  Babylon. 
He  died  in  the  tenth  month.  Tebeth,  727 
B.  c,  after  having  occupied  the  throne  for 
eighteen  years  and  having  raised  the  As- 
syrian empire  to  a  power  and  glory  unknown 
to  it  under  any  of  his  predecessors. 

Ti'gris.     See  Hiddekel. 

Tik'vah  [expectation]. 

1.  The  father  of  Shallum,  the  husband  of 
Huidah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  In 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22  the  name  appears  as 
Tokhath,  in  A.  V.  Tikvath  ;  but  the  Hebrew 
form  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Tikvah  (cp. 
Lucian"s  Septuagint). 


Tikvath 


Timotheus 


2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jahaziah  (Ezra 
X.  15). 

Tik'vatll.     See  preceding  article. 

Tile. 

A  slab  or  plate  of  baked  clay.  Tiles  were 
the  coramou  writing  material  of  Babylonia 
(Ezek.  iv.  1).  The  characters  were  impressed 
on  the  surface  while  it  was  yet  soft,  and  the 
clay  was  then  baked  to  render  the  writing 
indelible.  Tiles  were  used  in  many  countries 
as  roofing  material  (Luke  v.  19),  but  not,  or 
not  commonly,  in  Palestine.  Probably  either 
Luke,  accustomed  to  the  tiled  roofs  of  Greek 
houses,  uses  the  expression  "through  the 
tiles"  for  through  the  roof,  without  reference 
to  the  material  of  the  roof  in  question,  6r 
else  in  this  particular  house  there  was  an 
opening  in  the  roof  to  permit  the  inmates  to 
ascend  from  the  room  to  the  coolness  of  the 
outer  air,  but  which  during  the  winter  was 
closed  with  a  frame  and  bricked  over. 

Til-gath-pil-ne'ser.     See  Tiglath-pile- 

SER. 

Ti'lon. 

A  son  of  Shimon,  whose  registry  was  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Ti-mse'us  [highly  prized]. 

Father  of  the  blind  beggar  of  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  4G). 

Tim'brel  or  Tab'ret. 

An  humble  kind  of  drum,  which  has  de- 
veloped into  our  modern  tambourine.  By 
the   Hebrews    it    was    called    toph,    an    in- 


Tiinbrel. 

strument  that  is  beaten.  It  was  much  used 
in  domestic  festivities,  was  often  played  by 
women  to  accompany  song  and  beat  time  for 
dances,  and  was  employed  alone  or  in  orches- 
tra in  the  worship  of  God  (Gen.  xxxi.  27 ; 
Ex.  XV.  20;  Judg.  xi.  34  ;  1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  xviii. 
6;  1  Chron.  xiii.  8;  Job  xxi.  12;  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
2;  Is.  V.  12). 

Tim'na,  in  A.  V.  twice  Timnah  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  40 ;  1  Chron.  i.  51),  and  so  once  in 
R.  v.,  oddly  enough  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40)  [re- 
straint, inaccessi))lej. 

1.  Daughter  ofSeir  and  sister  of  Lotan.  She 
became  a  concubine  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  eldest 
son,  and  the  mother  of  Anialek  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
12,  22  ;  1  Chron.  i.  39).  In  interpreting  these 
statements,    it    must    be    remembered    that 


terms  of  relationship  are  used  in  describing 
tribes  as  well  as  individuals. 

2.  A  duke  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40;  1 
Chron.  i.  51). 

Tim'nali,  in  A.  V.  eight  times  Timnath 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  12-14  ;  Judg.  xiv.  1-5),  once 
Thimnathah  (Josh.  xix.  4.3),  and  once  Tham- 
natha  (1  Mac.  ix.  50)  [an  assigned  portion]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  line  of  the  terri- 
tory assigned  to  Judah,  and  not  far  from 
Beth-shemesh  (Josh.  xv.  10).  It  was  subse- 
quently given  over  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  (xix. 
43).  It  was  occupied  by  the  Philistines  in 
the  days  of  Samson  (Judg.  xiv.  2),  and  was 
captured  by  them  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  18).  Its  site  is  at  Tibnah, 
about  3  miles  west  by  south  of  Beth-shemesh, 
15V  west  by  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  16  east 
of  Ashdod. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  .Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  57),  probably  the  place  referred  to 
in  Gen.  xxxviii.  12,  14  ;  cp.  1.  On  the  survey 
map  it  is  placed  at  Tibna,  9  miles  west  by 
south  of  Bethlehem  ;  but  this  site  appears  to 
be  too  remote  from  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Zijih. 

3.  A  town  enumerated  aftt^r  Emmaus,  Betli- 
horon,  and  Bethel,  and  before  Pharathon  (1 
Mac.  ix.  .50).  It  was  fortified  by  Baccliides. 
The  data  point  to  Thamna,  chief  city  of  a 
toparchy  (War  iii.  3,  5).  which  bordered  on 
the  toparchies  of  Gophna,  Lydda,  and  Em- 
maus (ii.  20,  4),  and  lay  between  Antipatris 
and  Lydda  (iv.  8,  1).  Its  site  is  ]irobably 
marked  by  the  ruins  Tibneh,  7^  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Jufna  (Gophna),  on  the  old 
road  from  Antipatris  by  way  of  Gophna  to 
Jerusalem.     See  Timnath-serah. 

4.  An  improper  spelling,  found  in  both 
versions,  of  the  name  of  Timna,  daughter  of 
Seir. 

Tim'natli.     See  preceding  article. 

Tim-nath-he'res.    See  Timnath-serah. 

Tim-nath-se'rali  [superfluous  or  extra 
portion]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim. 
on  the  north  side  of  the  hill  of  Gaash.  It 
was  given  to  Joshua  as  an  inheritance,  and 
there  he  was  buried  (Josh.  xix.  50;  xxiv.  30i. 
It  is  once  written  Timnath-heres.  portion  of 
the  sun  (Judg.  ii.  9),  but  heres  is  probably 
serah  accidentally  written  backwards.  Con- 
der  locates  it  at  Kefr  Haris,  which  might  he 
an  echo  of  Ileres,  and  where  Samaritan  tra- 
'lition  locates  the  graves  of  Joshua  and  Caleb, 
ft  is  rather  Sh  miles  south  by  west  of  this 
village,  at  Tibneh.     See  Timnah  .3. 

Tim'nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Timnah  (Judg. 
XV.  6). 

Ti'mon  [deeming  worthy]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  chosen  to  relieve 
the  apostles  from  seinisecular  work  in  the 
primitive  church  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ti-mo'the-us  [worshiping  God]. 

1.  Leader  of  a  l^irge  body  of  Ammonites, 


Timothy 


781 


Timothy 


with  whom  Judas  Maccabseus  fought  several 
battles  il  Mac.  v.  0,  40). 

■2.  Paul's  couvert  aud  fellow-worker.  See 
Timothy. 

Tim'o-tliy,  in  A.  V.  usually  Timotheus 
[venerating  or  worshiping  God]. 

The  well-known  companion  and  assistant 
of  Paul.  The  terms  which  the  apostle  ap- 
l>lies  to  him,  "my  beloved  and  faithful  child 
ill  the  Lord"  (1  Cor.  iv.  17,  R.  V.),  "my  true 
child  in  faith  "  (1  Tim.  i.  2,  R.  V.,  etc. ),  seem 
to  indicate  not  only  the  apostle's  love  for  his 
youthful  friend,  but  also  that  he  had  been 
the  means  of  Timothy's  conversion.  At  any 
rate  it  is  clear  (2  Tim.  i.  5  ;  iii.  11)  that  when 
on  his  first  missionary  journey  Paul  visited 
Lystra  in  Lycaouia  Timothy's  mother  Eunice 
and  grandmother  Lois  were  led  to  Christ, 
and  that  Timothy  was  old  enougli  to  be  iu- 
.structed  in  the  new  faith  which  his  mother 
liad  adopted.  Though  his  mother  was  a 
Jewess,  his  father  was  a  gentile  (Acts  xvi.  1). 
On  the  one  hand,  he  had  from  a  child  been 
instructed  in  the  O.  T.  (2  Tim.  iii.  15)  ;  yet, 
on  the  other  he  had  not  been  circumcised 
(Acts  xvi.  3).  But,  whether  converted 
through  Paul,  or  afterwards  through  the  in- 
struction of  his  mother,  Timothy  soon  be- 
came active  in  Christian  work,  so  that  when, 
a  few  years  later,  Paul  on  his  second  journey 
again  visited  Lystra  he  found  the  young 
man  well  reported  of  by  the  brethren  both 
at  Lystra  and  Iconium  (xvi.  2).  Already  the 
voice  of  prophecy  had  indicated  that  Timo- 
thy was  destined  for  special  service  (1  Tim. 
i.  18;  iv.  14).  Paul  therefore  determined  to 
take  him  with  him  ;  and  the  young  man  was 
set  apart  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist  by 
the  laying  on  of  the  hands  both  of  Paul  and 
of  the  presbytery  (iv.  14  ;  2  Tim.  i  .6).  In 
order  also  not  to  offend  the  Jews,  Timothy 
was  circumcised  ;  the  apostle  thus  indicating 
his  wish,  where  no  principle  was  involved, 
to  conciliate  those  among  whom  in  nearly 
every  place  he  would  have  to  begin  work. 
Thereafter  Timothy's  fortunes  were  united 
with  Paul's.  He  evidently  accompanied  the 
apostle  through  Galatia,  then  to  Troas  and 
Philippi,  and  then  toThessalonicaand  Beroea, 
for  it  is  mentioned  (Acts  xvii.  14)  that  he 
and  Silas  remained  in  Beroea  when  Paul 
went  on  to  Athens.  Paul  sent  word  for  them 
to  follow  him  to  Athens  speedily  (15)  ;  but 
from  1  Thes.  iii.  1,  2  it  appears  that  he  sent 
Timothy  back  to  Thessalonica,  and  that  Silas 
and  Timothy  did  not  rejoin  him  until  be  had 
reached  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  5  ;  1  Thes.  iii. 
(!).  Timothy  then  remained  with  Paul  in 
Corinth  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1)  and  prob- 
ably, though  his  name  is  not  mentioned,  ac- 
companied the  apostle  on  his  return  voyage. 
We  next  hear  of  him  during  Paul's  ministry 
in  Ephesus.  Paul  informs  us  in  1  Cor.  iv.  17 
that,  before  writing  that  epistle,  he  had  sent 
Timothy  to  Corinth  to  correct  abuses  there. 
Yet  for  some  reason,  as  1  Cor.  xvi.  10  inti- 


mates, there  was  a  possibility  that  Timothy 
might  not  reach  Corinth,  and  in  fact  we  do 
not  know  whether  he  did  so  or  not.  At  any 
rate  he  seems  to  have  returned  to  E])liesus, 
for  shortly  before  Paul  left  that  city  Timothy 
and  Era.stus  preceded  him  into  Macedonia 
(Acts  xis.  22),  where  Paul  soon  joined  his 
young  friend  (2  Cor.  i.  1).  Together  tliey 
went  to  Corinth  (Rom.  xvi.  21),  and  Timothy 
is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  company  who 
escorted  the  apostle  on  his  return  from  the 
third  journey  toward  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  4). 
Whether  Timothy  went  with  the  apostle  to 
Jerusalem  does  not  appear.  No  mention  of 
him  occurs  during  the  imprisonment  at  Cses- 
area  or  the  voyage  to  Rome.  But  in  the 
epistles  written  from  Rome  his  name  occurs 
(Phil.  i.  1  ;  ii.  19-22;  Col.  i.  1;  Philem.  1). 
He  had  evidently  followed  the  apostle  to  the 
capital,  and  was  his  devoted  coworker. 
After  the  apostle's  release,  he  seems  to  have 
more  than  ever  intrusted  important  duties 
to  Timothy.  In  1  Tim.  we  find  that  he  had 
been  left  in  charge  of  the  church  at  Ei)hesus. 
It  was  a  ])ost  of  responsibility  and  difliculty, 
especially  for  one  who  was  still  a  young  man 
(1  Tim.  iv.  12).  False  teachers  were  to  be 
combated,  officials  were  to  be  appointed, 
church  customs  were  to  he  organized  or  regu- 
lated. The  position  of  Timothy  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  an  apostolic  deputy,  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  Paul  wrote  to  him  a 
special  epistle  with  regard  to  his  task.  To 
Timothy  he  also  wrote  his  last  epistle  shortly 
before  his  death  (2  Tim.).  Almost  alone, 
and  with  death  impending,  Paul  desired 
ardently  the  ])resence  of  his  "child"  (iv. 
9,  21),  and  to  him  he  laid  bare  his  whole 
heart.  It  is  probable  that  Timothy  reached 
Paul  before  the  latter's  death,  but  we  do  not 
know.  The  only  further  reference  to  him  is 
Heb.  xiii.  23.  From  it  we  learn  that  Timo- 
thy had  suffered  imprisonment,  but  had  been 
set  at  liberty  again.  If  that  epistle  was 
written  iiy  Paul,  Timothy's  imprisonment 
must  have  occurred  during  the  period  be- 
tween Paul's  release  and  his  second  arrest ; 
see  Paul.  If  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
not  by  Paul,  then  we  may  believe  that  Timo- 
thy joined  Paul  and  for  a  while  shared  his 
imprisonment.  This,  however,  is  mere  con- 
jecture. We  know  nothing  certainly  of 
Timothy's  last  years. 

The  First  Epis'tle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  Tim- 
othy was  written  after  the  apostle's  release 
from  his  first  Roman  imprisonment  and  re- 
sumption of  missionary  work  (cp.  above  ;  also 
Paitl).  Timothy  had  been  left  in  charge  of 
the  church  of  Ephesus  while  Paul  went  into 
Macedonia  (1  Tim.  i.  3).  Many  suppose  that 
the  epistle  was  written  from  Macedonia,  but 
tuat  IS  by  no  means  clear.  It  should  prob- 
ably be  assigned  to  A.  D.  64  or  65.  It  deals 
with  the  ecclesiatical  difhculties  which  con- 
fronted Timothy,  and  gives  him  personal  ad- 
vice. It  evinces  the  interest  of  the  apostle 
in  the  practical  working  of  the  church  and 


I 


Timothy  782 

his  personal  interest  in  Timothy's  own  wel- 
fare and  success.  Its  contents  may  he  ar- 
ranged as  follows:  1.  Instructions  concern- 
ing the  church  (i.-iii.)  ;  including  warnings 
against  false  teachers  (i.),  instructions  con- 
cerning worship  (ii.),  instructions  concerning 
church  officers,  closing  with  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  dignity  of  the  church  and  the 
fundamental  truths  on  whicli  it  rests  (iii.)- 
2.  Advice  for  Timothy's  own  guidance  (iv.- 
vi.),  with  respect  to  the  false  doctrines  and 
practical  errors  which  he  had  to  meet  (iv.), 
and  with  respect  to  his  treatment  of  various 
classes  in  the  church  (v.  1-vi.  2),  followed  by 
concluding  exhortations  ])artly  of  a  personal 
character  and  partly  to  reinforce  the  previous 
instructions  (vi.  3-21). 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
Timothy  was  written  from  Eome  after  the 
apostle  had  been  arrested  the  second  time, 
A.  D.  fi7.  It  is  the  last  product  of  his 
pen.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  a  prisoner 
(2  Tim.  i.  8,  16;  ii.  9),  charged  with  be- 
ing an  evildoer  (ii.  9),  and  he  expected 
soon  to  suflTer  martyrdom  (iv.  6).  Many  of 
his  friends  had  left  him  (i.  15;  iv.  10,  12). 
Luke  only,  of  his  former  friends,  was  with 
him  (iv.  11),  though  other  friends  had  gath- 
ered round  him  (21).  He  had  already  had 
one  trial,  at  which  he  had  not  been  con- 
demned (16,  17),  but  he  was  still  held  on 
some  other  charge.  In  his  loneliness  and 
danger  his  heart  turned  to  Timothy,  and 
this  letter  was  written  partly  to  encourage 
Timothy  in  his  work  as  an  evangelist  and 
partly  to  urge  him  to  hasten  to  Eome  and  to 
perform  some  personal  services  for  the  apostle. 
It  maybe  divided  as  follows:  1.  After  a  brief 
introduction,  expressive  of  his  wish  to  see 
Timothy  and  his  confidence  in  him  (i.  1-5), 
he  urges  him  to  be  courageous  in  spite  of  ex- 
isting trials  (6-12),  and  to  be  faithful  to 
the  truth  he  had  received  in  spite  of  all  op- 
ponents (13-18).  2.  He  charges  Timothy 
to  be  strong;  to  secure  the  preservation  of 
the  truth  ;  to  be  a  good  soldier ;  to  bear  in 
mind  the  imperishable  foundation  of  fact 
and  truth  on  which  tlie  gospel  rests ;  to 
avoid  false  teaching ;  and  to  take  heed  to  his 
own  spiritual  life  (ii.).  3.  He  warns  him  that 
errors  will  increase,  and  bids  him  remember 
the  example  of  steadfast  endurance  which 
Paul  himself  had  shown  him  and  the  teach- 
ing of  inspired  Scripture  in  which  he  had 
been  trained  (iii.).  4.  As  his  last  direction, 
he  bids  him  preach  the  word  and  make  full 
proof  of  his  mini.stry  (iv.  1-5),  solemnly 
adding  that  he,  on  the  verge  of  death,  re- 
joiced that  he  had  been  able  to  do  the  same 
(6-8).  The  epistle  then  closes  with  some 
personal  directions  (9-22). 

The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  are 
called,  from  their  contents,  the  Pastoral 
Epistles.  Rationalistic  critics  refuse  to  be- 
lieve that  Paul  wrote  them,  at  least  in  their 
pi-esent  form  ;  but  the  external  evidence 
that  the  cliurch  of  the  i)o.st-apostolic  age  re- 


Tiras 


ceived  them  as  Pauline  is  abundant,  and  it 
is  most  natural  that  the  closing  years  of  the 
apostle's  ministry  should  be  occupied  with 
the  practical  affairs  of  the  churches.  These 
epistles  teach  the  same  doctrines  which  are 
found  in  Paul's  other  writings,  with  only 
such  an  added  emphasis  on  the  practical 
aspects  of  Christian  faith  as  the  situation 
called  for ;  and  Paul  would  not  be  the  large- 
minded  man  that  we  know  he  was  if  he  had 
not  dealt,  as  he  does  in  these  epistles,  with 
the  organization  of  the  churches  which  he 
was  so  soon  to  leave.  G.  T.  p. 

Tin. 

A  metal,  in  Hebrew  b^dil,  separated,  alloy. 
It  was  obtained  from  its  ore  by  smelting  ;  and 
was  sometimes  refuse  from  silver  ore  (Ezek. 
xxii.  20).  It  was  in  use  in  Palestine  and 
neighboring  countries  before  the  exodus 
(Num.  xxxi.22),  in  Egyptas  early  as  the  sixth 
dynasty  at  least.  Its  principal  use  was  in  mak- 
ing bronze,  which  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
The  Tyrians  got  their  supply  from  Tarshish 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  Tin  was  obtained  in 
Spain,  but  the  most  of  it  came  from  islands  in 
the  western  ocean  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv. 
47;  Herod,  iii.  115).  There  is  little  doubt 
that  tliese  islands  were  identical  with  Eng- 
land, thinly  disguised,  and  that  the  mines 
of  Britain  were  the  chief  source  of  supply 
to  the  ancient  world,  and  that  Phoenician 
mariners  made  direct  voyages  from  Gades  in 
Spain  to  Cornwall  for  the  metal  (Strabo  iii. 
175).  Later  it  was  transported  across  France 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ehone  by  a  thirty  days' 
journey  (Diodorus  Siculus  v.  21,  22).  The 
same  word  signifies  the  base  metal  existing 
in  combination  with  silver  in  the  ore  (Is.  i. 
25),  and  is  supposed  to  denote  the  slag  which 
separates  from  the  lead  when  silver  is  being 
smelted  from  the  ore. 

Tiph'sah  [a  passage]. 

1.  A  town  at  the  extreme  limit  of  Solo- 
mon's dominions,  in  the  direction  of  the 
Euphrates  (1  Kin.  iv.  24).  It  is  generally 
identified  with  Thapsacus,  a  large  city  on 
the  Euphrates,  near  the  modern  Rakka,  by  a 
ford.  The  ford  was  used  by  the  armies  of 
Cyrus  the  Younger  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

2.  A  place  on  the  inhabitants  of  which 
Menahem  inflicted  barbarous  cruelties  (2 
Kin.  XV.  16).  It  is  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Tirzah,  from  which  it  would  seem 
not  to  have  been  far  distant.  Conder  identi- 
fies it  with  the  ruined  village  Tafsah,  6| 
miles  southwest  of  Shechem. 

Ti'ras. 

A  land  and  its  inhabitants,  who  were  a 
Japhetic  peoi)le  ((ien.  x.  2).  Ancient  opiniim 
identified  it  with  Thrace  (Antiq.  i.  6,  1),  from 
slight  similarity  of  .sound.  The  river  Turas, 
the  modern  Dneister,  and  the  Turitai,  who 
dwelt  on  its  banks  I  Herod,  iv.  51),  have  also 
))ecn  suggested.  The  conditions  are  best  met 
l)y  tlie  Tursenoi,  an  ancient  Pelasgic  i)eople 
who  occujiied   islands  and  coast   lands  of  the 


Tirathites 


783 


Tithe 


^gean  Sea  (Herod,  i.  57,  94),  probably  the 
jtiratical  Tiinisha  who  invaded  Syria  and 
Euypt  in  tiH>  13th  century  b.  c.  Turseno.i  is 
the  Ionic  and  okl  Attic  form  of  Tio-renos, 
Tyrrhenian. 

Ti'rath-ites. 

A  family  of  scribes,  Kenites  from  Tirah, 
dwelling  at  Jabez  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Tire. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P^'er,  orna- 
mental. It  means  an  ornamental  headdress 
(Ezek.  xxiv.  17,  23).  Aaron  in  his  priestly 
capacity  wore  one  of  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxix. 
28;  in  A.  V.  bonnet).  Women  used  them  (Is. 
iii.  20;  in  A.  V.  bonnet).  The  bridegroom 
decked  himself  with  it  (Is.  Ixi.  10;  in  A.  V. 
ornaments,  R.  V.  garland). 

Tir'ha-kah.     See  Pharaoh. 

Tir'ha-nah. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  the  brother  of  Jerahmeel, 
by  Maacah,  his  concubine  (1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

Tir'i-a. 

A  son  of  Jehallelel  (1  C^hron.  iv.  16). 

Tir-sha'tha. 

The  Persian  title  of  the  governor  of  .Tudah 
under  the  Persians.  It  is  borne  by  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  63;  Neh.  vii.  65,  70),  and  Ne- 
hemiah  (Neh.  viii.  9;  x.  1).  In  xii.  26  the 
latter  ruler  is  called  pchah  or  governor,  to 
which  Tirshatha,  therefore,  must  have  been 
practically  equivalent. 

Tlr'zah  [pleasantness,  delightfulness]. 

1.  The  youngest  among  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33 ;  xxvii.  1 ; 
xxxvi.  11 ;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

2.  A  town  noted  for  beauty  (Song  vi.  4), 
which  belonged  originally  to  the  Canaanites, 
but  was  captured  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  24). 
Jeroboam  I.  took  up  his  residence  in  Tirzah 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  17),  and  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  ten  tribes  (xv.  21,  33 ;  xvi.  6,  8,  9,  15, 17) 
till  Omri  built  Samaria  (23,  24),  after  which  it 
sank  into  a  provincial  but  still  important 
town  (2  Kin.  xv.  14,  16).  Eobinson,  with 
much  doubt,  suggests  as  its  site  Tulluza,  6 
miles  east,  very  slightly  south,  of  Samaria. 
Conder,  with  no  hesitation,  fixes  it  at  Teiasir, 
with  ancient  ruins,  13  miles  east-northeast  of 
Samaria,  on  a  table-land  w'here  the  valleys 
begin  to  dip  suddenly  toward  the  Jordan. 

Tish'bite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  native  of  the 
town,  called  Tishbeh  or  something  similar 
(1  Kin.  xvii.  1).  A  family  of  the  name  is 
unknown.  Towns  only  claim  attention. 
One  is  mentioned  by  Tobit  (i.  2),  "  Thisbe  on 
the  right  [south]  of  Kydiosof  Naphtali,"  i.e., 
Kedesh  of  Naphtali  (E.  V.).  Another  is  dis- 
cerned by  the  Septuagintand  .Josephus  in  the 
text  of  1  Kin.  xvii.  1,  lying  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  Gilead.  The  construct  plural  before 
Gilead  in  the  Hebrew  text,  which  is  ren- 
dered sojourners  in  the  E.  V.,  the  makers  of 
the  Septuagint  regarded  as  a  local  name,  and 
transferred  it  to   their  i)ages  as  a   geuitivt. 


plural,  Thesbon  or  Thesfsebon,  of  Thesbeh. 
Josephus  prefixed  the  word  city  and  added  a 
singular  termination  to  the  name  (Autiq.  viii. 
13,  2,  Niese's  text). 

Tithe. 

A  tenth  part  of  one's  income  cousccrated  to 
God.  The  separation  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  products  of  one's  industry  or  of  the 
spoils  of  war  as  tribute  to  their  gods  was  prac- 
ticed by  various  nations  of  antiquity.  The 
Lydiaus  oifered  a  tithe  of  their  booty  (Herod, 
i.  89).  The  Phcenicians  and  Carthaginians 
sent  a  tithe  annually  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules. 
These  tithes  might  be  regular  or  occasional, 
voluntary  or  prescribed  by  law.  The  Egyp- 
tians were  required  to  give  a  fifth  part  of 
their  crops  to  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xlvii.  24).  Be- 
fore the  days  of  Joseph  and  Pharaoh,  Abra- 
ham, returning  with  spoil  from  his  victory 
over  the  confederate  kings,  gave  to  Melchiz- 
edek,  priest-king  of  Salem,  a  tenth  part  of 
all  (xiv.  20).  Jacob  said  that  if  God  con- 
ferred on  him  certain  specified  benefits,  he 
would  surely  give  the  tenth  of  it  unto  God 
(xxviii.  22).  Under  the  Mosaic  law  the  fruits- 
of  the  ground  and  cattle  were  subject  to 
tithing  (Lev.  xxvii.  30,  .32).  The  tithe  of 
grain  and  fruit  need  not  be  paid  in  kind. 
The  owner  might  redeem  it  by  purchasing  it 
at  one-fifth  moi'e  than  its  market  value  (31). 
But  the  tithe  of  the  herd  and  flock  might 
not  be  redeemed.  This  tithe  was  separated 
by  causing  the  cattle  to  pass  under  the  rod, 
and  every  tenth  animal  was  taken,  whether 
it  was  defective  or  without  blemish.  The 
choice  had  been  committed  to  God,  and  the 
beast  might  not  be  exchanged  (32,  33).  Grajn 
was  threshed  before  it  was  tithed,  and  the  fruit 
of  vineyard  and  oliveyard  was  converted  into 
wine  and  oil  before  the  tenth  was  taken  ( Num. 
xviii.  27).  All  the  tithe  of  Israel,  which 
they  offered  as  a  heave  oflTering,  was  given 
unto  the  Levites  (21,  24).  It  was  given  to 
them  as  an  inheritance  in  return  for  the  serv- 
ice which  they  rendered  at  the  sanctuary 
(21),  and  as  compensation  for  their  lack  of 
landed  possessions.  They  paid  a  tithe  of  it 
to  the  priest  (26,  27),  and  freely  ate  the  rest 
anywhere  (31).  On  the  eve  of  entering 
Canaan,  where  many  of  the  Israelites  would 
obtain  homes  far  from  the  sanctuary,  it  was 
necessary  to  insist  that  the  people  should 
bring  all  prescribed  sacrifices  and  freewill 
otferings,  and  all  tithes,  to  the  sanctuary 
(Deut.  xii.  5,  6,  11).  They  might  not  eat  at 
home  the  tithe  of  their  grain,  wine,  or  oil, 
nor  any  ofiering,  but  before  the  Lord  (17, 18). 
They  must  tithe  all  the  increase  of  the  field, 
and  eat  before  the  Lord  the  tithe  of  grain, 
wine,  and  oil,  and  the  firstlings  of  flock  and 
l>6rd ;  but  if  the  distance  to  the  sanctuary 
was  great,  they  might  convert  the  ofi'ering 
into  money,  carry  tliat  to  the  sanctuary,  and 
there  buy  what  thej  chose  for  the  eucharistic 
meal  (xiv.  23-27).  Every  third  year  each 
man's  tithe  should  be  'hiid  up  in  his  town,, 


Tithe 


784 


Titus 


and  the  Levite.  the  stranger,  the  widow,  and 
the  fatherless  should  go  to  the  store  and  eat 
(28,29).  After  tithing  the  tithe  in  this  third 
year,  which  was  distinguished  as  the  year  of 
tithing,  and  reminded  the  people  that  the 
tithe  was  to  be  kept  in  the  town,  it  was  put 
at  the  disposal  of  those  for  whom  it  was  in- 
tended (xxvi.  12).  There  were  two  third- 
year  tithiugs  between  Sabbatic  years,  when 
there  was  no  tithe. 

Inconsistencies  between  these  laws  do  not 
exist,  although  interiTreters  often  force  them 
into  contradiction.  The  Israelites  took  the 
tithe  to  the  sanctuary  both  during  the  so- 
journ in  the  wilderness  and  after  the  settle- 
inent  in  the  land  (Num.  xviii.  24  ;  Deut.  xii. 
(i).  There  a  portion  was  eaten  by  the  offerer 
and  the  Levites  in  a  eucharistic  feast,  and 
the  rest  was  given  to  the  Levites.  The  law 
was  slightly  modified  in  anticipation  of  the 
settlement  of  Canaan,  and  the  residence  of 
Levites  and  producers  in  many  cases  far  from 
the  sanctuary.  Every  third  year  they  should 
.store  the  tithe  in  the  town  where  they  dwelt, 
dispense  with  the  eucharistic  meal,  place  all 
the  tithe  at  the  disposal  of  the  Levites  and 
other  dependent  persons,  and  make  solemn 
protestation  before  the  Lord  to  having  done 
this  (Dent.  xxvi.  12-15).  This  asseveration 
before  the  Lord  may  have  been  made  in  the 
town,  or  at  the  sanctuary  on  occasion  of 
attending  one  of  the  annual  festivals.  It  is 
sometimes  a!3serted  that  Deuteronomy  is  pecu- 
liar in  two  respects :  it  prescribes  vegetable 
tithes  only,  and  enjoins  that  they  shall  be 
eaten  at  the  altar  by  the  offerer  and  the 
Levites  in  company.  If  Deuteronomy  does 
actually  differ  from  the  law  of  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  in  these  points,  it  is  a  modification 
of  the  law  forty  years  after  its  first  enact- 
ment and  in  view  of  new  circumstances.  In 
the  later  history,  even  when  the  Levitical 
legislation  was  in  full  force,  the  vegetable 
titlie  alone  is  often  mentioned  (Neh.  x.  37 ;  xii. 
44:  xiii.  12).  It  was  the  more  prominent,  since 
agriculture  and  horticulture  were  the  chief 
indu.stries  of  the  people.  The  tithe  of  the  cat- 
tle is,  however,  referred  to  (2Chron.  xxxi.  6). 
It  would  be  in  itself  natural,  if  the  euchar- 
istic feast  did  not  already  exist,  for  Moses 
to  introduce  it  in  connection  with  tithes  and 
firstlings,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  offerer 
frequently  came  from  a  distance,  and  natur- 
ally required  at  least  one  meal  at  the  .sanctu- 
ary before  returning.  Still  the  omission  of 
all  mention  of  the  feast  in  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  may  be  due  to  the  feast's  being  re- 
garded as  a  matter  of  course,  a  meal  having 
been  customary  from  time  immemorial  in 
connection  with  certain  kinds  of  .sacrifices 
and  offerings;  and  the  tithe  on  agricultural 
and  horticultural  products  alone  is  mentioned 
in  Deuteronomy,  because  among  tithes  it  was 
with  them  only  thiit  a  meal  at  the  sanctu- 
ary was  connected,  and  the  legislation  in 
question  is  treating  of  eucharistic  meals. 

Another  interi)retation  of  tlie  tithing  laws 


requires  mention.  Not  a  few  scholars  have 
believed  that  the  setting  apart  of  one-fifth 
for  Pharaoh,  to  which  the  Israelites  had  been 
accustomed  in  Egypt,  was  perpetuated  by  the 
Mosaic  law  as  tribute  to  Jehovah.  This  fifth 
was  made  up  of  two  tithes.  The  first  went 
to  the  Levites,  the  second  was  taken  to  the 
sanctuary  and  consumed  there  (Antiq.  iv. 
8,  8),  but  in  the  third  year  was  given  to  the 
Levites  in  addition  to  their  own  tithe.  Some 
interpreters  have  even  thought  of  three 
tithes.  They  regard  the  tithing  of  the  third 
year  as  additional  to  the  two  others.  This 
interpretation  is  as  old  as  Josephus  at  least 
(8,  22),  but  it  is  unnecessarj%  and  was  scarcely 
the  original  intention  of  the  law.  The  law 
is  satisfied  by  the  theory  of  one  tithing. 

In  times  of  religious  declension  the  people 
neglected  to  pay  tithes.  Hezekiah  found  it 
necessary  to  call  authoritatively  for  their 
payment  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  4-12),  and  the 
prophet  Malachi  was  obliged  to  rebuke  the 
people  of  his  day  for  robbing  God  by  with- 
holding tithes  and  offerings  (Mai.  iii.  7-12). 
The  response  of  the  people  to  Hezekiah's 
appeal  was  so  hearty  that  he  had  to  prepare 
chambers  in  the  temple  precincts  for  storing 
the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  11).  Whether  he 
built  additional  quarters  or  cleared  out  old 
storehouses  is  not  stated.  The  second  temple 
was  likewise  provided  with  storehouses  (Neh. 
xiii.  10-14;  Mai.  iii.  10),  and  Levites  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  priest  gathered  the 
tithes  into  the  towns  and  tithed  them  for  the 
sanctuary  (Neh.  x.  37,  38).  The  payment  of 
tithes  continued  (Ecclus.  xxxv.  8 ;  1  Mac.  iii. 
49;  Luke  xi.  42;  xviii.  12)  ;  buf  by  the  time  of 
Christ  changes  had  occurred.  The  tithe 
went  to  the  priests  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  8 ;  con. 
Apion.  i.  22;  cp.  Heb.  vii.  5),  and  was  col- 
lected by  them  (Life  12,  15).  Later  the 
ordinary  priests  suffered  from  the  cupidity 
of  the  chief  priests,  who  forcibly  took  pos 
session  of  the  tithes  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  8  ;  9.  2). 

Tit'tle,  in  A.  V.  of  1611  Title  [late  Latin 
titidus,  in  the  sense  of  a  mark  made  above  a 
letter  to  distinguish  it  from  another  letter 
of  similar  form]. 

A  point  or  small  line  used  to  distinguish 
one  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  from 
another,  as  t/  from  \y,  or  1  from  1 ;  hence 
a  minute  requirement  of  the  law  (Mat.  v.  18, 
in  Greek  keraia,  little  horn). 

Ti'tus. 

1.  A  gi)dly  man  of  Corinth  who  was  sur- 
named  .Justus  (Acts  xviii.  7,  R.V.);  see  Justus. 

2.  A  trusted  companion  of  Paul.  He  is  not 
mentioned  in  The  Acts,  but  is  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  Paul's  epistles.  He  was  born  of 
gentile  luirents  (Gal.  ii.  3),  and  was  one  of 
the  delegation  from  Antioch  (Acts  xv.  2)  who 
accompanied  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  the  council  (Gal.  ii.  3).  It 
is  possible  that  he  was  a  native  of  Antioch, 
and,  since  Paul  calls  him  "my  true  child 
after  a  common  faith  "  (Tit.  i.  4,  E.  \.).  he 


Titus 


785 


Toi 


may  have  been  converted  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  apostle.  He  was  evidently 
also  much  younger  than  Paul.  His  presence 
at  the  council  gave  offense  to  the  Judaizers, 
but  the  church  refused  to  compel  him  to  be 
circumcised,  thus  siding  with  Paul  in  his  ad- 
vocacy of  the  freedom  of  gentiles  from  the 
Mo.saic  law  (Gal.  ii.  3-5).  Titus  nest  appears 
during  and  after  Paul's  residence  in  Kjihesus. 
We  learn  from  2  Cor.  ii.  13 ;  vii.  G,  13 ;  viii. 
G,  l(i ;  xii.  18  that  Titus  had  been  sent  to 
Corinth  to  correct  certain  abuses  there  which 
caused  anxiety  to  the  apostle.  Some  suppose 
that  he  was  one  of  the  brethren  who  carried 
the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (1  t'or. 
xvi.  12).  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that 
he  and  another  (2  Cor.  xii.  18)  were  dispatched 
after  1  Cor.  had  been  sent,  on  account  of 
later  rejjorts  which  the  apostle  had  received. 
His  task  was  a  delicate  one,  and  Paul 
awaited  his  return  with  much  solicitude  (2 
Cor.  ii.  13).  When  the  apostle  left  Ephesus, 
he  expected  to  naeet  Titus  at  Troas  112,  13), 
and,  failing  in  this,  went  to  Macedonia. 
There  Titus  rejoined  him  with  good  news 
(vii.  6,  13,  14),  and  was  forthwith  sent  back 
to  Corinth  with  our  Second  Epistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians (viii.  6,18,23).  We  do  not  read  again 
of  Titus  until  after  Paul's  release  from  his 
first  Roman  imprisonment ;  see  Paul.  The 
Epistle  to  Titus  informs  us  that  he  had  been 
left  in  Crete  to  superintend  the  organization 
of  the  churches  in  that  island.  He  seems  to 
have  been,  like  Timothy  in  Ephesus,  an 
apostolic  deputy.  His  mission,  however,  was 
but  a  temporary  one,  and  he  was  told  to  re- 
join the  apostle  in  Nicopolis.  The  onlj-  re- 
maining notice  of  him  is  in  2  Tim.  iv.  10, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Dalmatia. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Titus  was  written 
after  Paul's  release  from  his  first  Roman  im- 
prisonment and  resumption  of  missionary 
work.  It  may  be  assigned  to  A.  D.  65  or  66. 
Titus  had  been  left  as  superintendent  of  the 
churches  in  Crete,  and  the  epistle,  like  the 
First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  was  intended  to  di- 
rect him  in  the  performance  of  his  difficult 
task.  It  may  be  divided  as  follows :  1.  Saluta- 
tion, particularly  describing  the  dignity  of  the 
apostolic  message  (i.  1-4).  2.  Instructions 
concerning  the  character  of  those  selected  for 
bishops  or  elders,  especially  in  view  of  the 
many  false  disciples  whom  Titus  would  be 
likely  to  meet  and  by  whom  he  might  be  im- 
posed upon  (5-16).  3.  Instructions  which 
Titus  should  give  to  various  classes  in  the 
church,  all  to  the  effect  that  Christians 
should  be  "zealous  of  good  works  "  (ii.).  4. 
Directions  concerning  the  duty  of  Christians 
to  society,  bidding  them  emulate  the  love  of 
man  which  God  has  shown  in  Christ  (iii.  1-8). 
5.  Warnings  against  false  teaching  and  here- 
tics (9-11).  6.  Personal  directions  and  clos- 
ing exhortation  and  benediction  (12-15). 
The  leading  thought  of  the  epistle  is  the  im- 
portance of  good  works  in  all  those  repre- 
senting or  professing  Christianity.  On  the 
50 


pastoral  ejiistles  see  remarks  at  close  of  the 
article  on  Timothy.  g.  t.  v. 

Tl'zite. 

The  designation  of  a  certain  Joha  (1  Chron. 
xi.  45),  probably  derived  from  the  place  of 
which  he  was  a  native. 

To'ah  [perhaps,  low]. 

A  Kohathite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  34)  ;  see 
Nahath. 

Tob  [good]. 

A  region  east  of  the  Jordan,  to  which 
Jephtliah  fled  when  disowned  by  his  breth- 
ren (Judg.  xi.  3,  5).  When  Hanun,  king  of 
Amnion,  gave  David  just  ofl'euse,  he  drew 
soldiers  from  Tob,  among  other  places  (2 
Sam.  X.  6,  R.  V.),  which  indicates  that  it 
was  beyond  the  borders  of  Israel.  It  was 
probably  the  district  of  Gilead  known  in 
Greek  as  the  land  of  Tubias  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  2  Mac.  xii.  17).  Exact  situation  is  debata- 
ble. 

Tob-ad-o-ni'jah  [good  is  my  Lord  Jeho- 
vah]. 

One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

To-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  good]. 

1.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which, 
coming  to  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity, 
failed  to  prove  their  descent  (Ezra  ii.  60 ; 
Neh.  vii.  62). 

2.  An  Ammonite  servant  who  ridiculed  the 
effort  of  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  ii.  10  ;  iv.  3,  7). 

To'bie.     See  Tubias. 

To-bi'jab  [Jehovah  is  good]. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

2.  A  Jew,  one  of  those  of  the  captivity 
from  whom  the  prophet  Zechariah  obtained 
gold  and  silver  to  make  crowns  to  put  on 
the  head  of  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (Zech.  vi. 
10.  14). 

To'bit.     See  Apocrypha. 
To'chen  [a  weight,  a  measure]. 
A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1 
Chron.  iv.  32).     Site  unknown. 

To-gar'mah. 

A  country  of  the  far  north  (Ezek.  xxxviii. 
6),  inhabited  by  a  people  descended  from 
Japheth  through  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  3).  They 
traded  in  horses  and  mules  (Ezek.  xxvii.  14). 
It  is  generally  identified  with  Armenia. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch.  however,  believes  that 
the  name  appears  in  Til-garimmu,  a  city  in 
the  extreme  east  of  Cappadocia,  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

To'hu  [perhaps,  low]. 

A  son  of  Zuph  (1  Sam.  i.  1)  ;  see  Nahath. 

To'i  and  To'u  [wandering,  error]. 
A   king  of  Hamath,    probably   a   Hittite, 
who  was  at  war  with   Hadadezer,  king  of 


Tokhatn 


Tongue 


Zobab,  a  Syrian.  He  sent  to  congratulate 
David  ou  his  victory  over  their  common  foe 
(2  Sam.  viii.  9-12;  1  Chron.  xviii.  9-11). 

Tok'hath.     See  Tikvah. 

To'la  [worm,  scarlet]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  aud  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  I'd;  Num.  xxvi.  23;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  Son  of  Puab,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
who  judged  Israel  twenty-three  years.  He 
lived,  died,  and  was  buried  at  Shamir,  on 
mount  Ephraim  (Judg.  x.  1,  2). 

To'lad.     See  Eltolad. 
Tomb.     See  Sepulchek. 
Tongue. 

An  organ  of  the  body  (Ex.  xi.  7;  Jas.  iii. 
6),  situated  in  the  mouth  (Job  xxix.  10),  and 
much  used  in  speaking  (Ps.  xxxix.  3;  Ixxi, 
24;  Mark  vii.  35). 

A  bar  of  gold  (Josh.  vii.  21,  24,  literally 
tongue,  but  translated  wedge).  The  Baby- 
lonians also  spoke  of  tongues  of  gold,  aud  a 
gold  bar  resembling  a  tongue  has  been  found 
in  the  mound  of  ruined  Gezer. 

Figuratively,  speech  or  language  (Gen.  x. 
5;  Acts  ii.  8  with  11).  The  descendants  of 
Noah  inherited,  and  for  a  long  time  after  the 
flood  spoke,  one  language  (Gen.  xi.  1).  Dif- 
ferences of  speech  were  produced  by  divine 
judgment  at  Babel,  which  resulted  in  scat- 
tering the  people  who  had  gathered  there 
abroad,  to  all  parts  of  the  known  world  (2-9) ; 
see  Babel.  This  event,  which  is  known  as 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  may  have  occurred 
annmg  the  Semites  alone,  after  the  rise  of 
the  family  of  Eber  (x.  25).  In  process  of 
time  the  descendants  of  Noah  came  to  speak 
several  distinct  languages  and  many  dif- 
ferent dialects.  The  Japhetic  peoples  largely 
used  the  languages  now  classed  as  ludo-Ger- 
manic  (x.  2-5),  including  the  languages 
spoken  in  Media  and  louia  (ver.  2).  The 
Semitic  peoples  generally  .spoke  various  dia- 
lects of  the  Semitic  group  (21-31),  embracing 
Assyrian,  Aramaic  (22),  Arabic  (26-29),  and 
Hebrew  ;  but  the  Elamites  (22)  used  an  ag- 
glutinative language,  which  is  supposed  to 
be  akin  to  the  Finnish.  Many  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Ham  also  spoke  Semitic  ;  as,  for 
example,  Cush  in  Assyria  (11),  Arabia  (6,  7), 
and  Africa,  and  Canaan  in  Palestine  and 
Phoenicia  (15)  ;  but  the  old  inhabitants  of 
Mizraim  (6,  13),  better  known  as  Egypt,  used 
an  agglutinative  language,  although  many 
Egyptologists  of  the  first  rank  believe  in  its 
descent  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Semitic. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  tribes  which 
migrate  to  a  new  locality  frequently  adopt 
the  language  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  have  taken  up  their  residence. 

The  gift  of  tongues  was  granted  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  which  followed  the  feast  of  the 
passover  at  which  Jesus  suffered.  The  disci- 
])les  being  assembled  together,  suddenly  there 
came  from  heaven  a  sound  like  that  of  a 
rushing,  mighty  wind,  and  visil)le  tongues, 


liaving  the  appearance  of  fire,  were  dis- 
tributed to  eacl),  and  they  were  all  filled 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  1-4).  The 
church  was  qualified  and  symbolically  com- 
missioned by  the  Spirit  to  dcclart^  the  gospel 
to  all  men.  Two  general  theoi-ies  exist  as  to 
the  nature  of  this  gift.  1.  The  gift  of  tongues 
was  manifested  in  ecstatic  or  elevated  praise 
of  God  (Acts  X.  4fi),  but  which  was  unintel- 
ligible to  man.  The  tongue  was  the  organ 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  not  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  gift  was  given  ;  and  the  words 
spoken  were  devotional  and  not  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  church.  In  defense  of  this 
view  it  is  urged  that:  (1)  Paul  makes  no 
mention  of  foreign  languages  having  been 
introduced  at  Corinth  ;  and  if  tongues  were 
referred  to  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  only,  the  impres- 
.sion  would  never  have  been  made  that  they 
denote  foreign  languages.  (2)  Paul  teaches, 
that  the  understanding  was  not  engaged  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  2).  (3)  The  multitude  could  not 
understand  them  at  Pentecost,  and  accused 
the  speakers  of  beiug  drunken.  It  was 
necessary  for  Peter  to  interpret  to  the  mul- 
titude what  had  taken  place  (Acts  ii.  13-17). 
Or  if  the  di.sciples  used  foreign  languages  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  this  was  a  temporary 
form  in  which  the  gift  of  tongues  was  mani- 
fested and  did  not  appear  again.  2.  The 
gift  of  tongues  was  manifested  in  intelligible 
discourse  in  tongues  before  unknown.  (1> 
Luke's  language  clearly  implies  this  (Acts  ii. 
6-12).  (2)  Anybody  could  babble  hysteri- 
cally ;  only  when  the  speakers  used  lan- 
guages which  they  did  not  know  before 
could  the  gift  of  tongues  be  recognized  as 
miraculous.  (3)  The  whole  argument  in  1 
Cor.  assumes  that  the  gift  was  speech  in  a 
foreign  language,  Paul  contrasting  speech 
and  prayer  in  a  foreign  language  uninter- 
preted with  speaking  and  praying  so  as  to 
be  understood  (xii.  10,  30  ;  xiv.  13-16,  27,  28). 
Christians  who  had  the  gift  should  use  it  for 
missionary  purposes,  and  not  exhibit  their 
skill  before  their  brethren,  who  did  not  un- 
derstand what  they  said  unless  an  inter- 
preter were  present. 

Tongues  were  a  sign  that  followed  them 
that  believed  (Mark  xvi.  17).  They  were  a 
visible  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  bestowed  in 
connection  with  the  preaching  of  the  apostles, 
or  by  the  apostles  through  laying  on  of  their 
hands  (Acts  x.  44-46;  xix.  1-7;  cp.  viii.  14- 
24).  They  were  a  phenomenon  of  the  apos- 
tolic age,  and  gradually  disappeared  after- 
wards. In  the  next  century,  perhaps  fifty 
or  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  the  last 
apostle,  Irenajus  can  still  report  that  he  had 
"heard  many  brethren  who  had  prophetic 
gifts  and  spoke  through  the  Spirit  in  all  kinds 
of  tongues"  (adv.  Haer.  v.  6,  1). 

In  1830  some  i)eop]e  in  Scotland,  and  in 
1831  others  in  London,  chiefly  females  of  ex- 
citable temperament,  believed  that  they  had 
received  the  gift  of  tongues.  They  persuaded 
the  Rev.  Edward  Irving  to  embrace  their  opin- 


Topaz 


Tragacanth 


ions,  but  failed  to  conviace  his  brethren  in 
the  ministry.  The  movement  led  to  tlie 
creation  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  C'luirch. 

To'paz 

A  ])recious  stone,  called  by  the  Greeks  to- 
piision,  and  f;:enerally  believed  to  be  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  pifdah.  It  was  the  second 
stone  in  the  first  row  of  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17;  cp.  the  Greek 
version  and  Antiq.  iii.  7,  5).  It  was  found  in 
tthioiiia  (Job  xxviii.  19)  and  on  an  island  in 
the  Ked  Sea  (Diodorus  Stculus  iii.  38;  Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii.  9),  and  was  known  at  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13).  It  adorns  the  ninth  foun- 
dation of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Kev.  xxi.  20). 
The  topaz  of  the  ancients  was  a  yellow  va- 
riety of  corundum.  The  Komans  seem  to 
have  transferred  the  name  chrysolite  to  to- 
paz, and  called  both  chrysolite  and  precious 
stones  resembling  it  topaz. 

To'phel  [perhaps,  untempered  mortar]. 

A  place,  perhaps  once  a  station  of  the  Is- 
raelites in  the  wilderness  (Dent.  i.  1).  Rob- 
inson and  others  have  identified  it  with 
Tufileh,  about  14  miles  southeast  of  the 
southeastern  curve  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
consonants,  however,  are  different,  teth  in- 
stead of  tan,  which  raises  a  doubt  as  to  the 
correctness  of  the  identification. 

To'pheth,  in  A.  V.  Tophet  (except  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  10)  [spitting  out,  abhorrence]. 

Certain  high  places  built  in  the  valley  of 
the  son  of  Hinnom,  on  which  the  people  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  times  of  Isaiah  and  Jere- 
miah were  accustomed  to  burn  their  sons  and 
their  daughters  in  the  fire  (Jer.  vii.  31),  as 
offerings  to  Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10).  Appar- 
ently on  the  top  of  the  high  ])lace  there  was 
a  deep  and  large  hole,  in  which  much  wood 
was  piled,  ignition  being  i)roduced  by  a 
stream  of  brimstone  (Is.  xxx.  33).  Josiah 
defiled  it  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10),  and  Jeremiah 
prophesied  tliat  such  a  number  of  people 
should  be  killed  there  that  the  name  To- 
])heth  should  disappear,  and  the  valley  where 
it  stood  be  called  the  valley  of  slaughter 
(Jer.  vii.  32,  33  ;  xix.  6).  A  Topheth,  appar- 
ently of  the  same  type,  was  to  be  prepared 
for  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  xxx.  33).  See 
Hinnom. 

Torch. 

A  flambeau,  giving  a  flaring  light,  and 
often  portable  (Judg.  vii.  10,  R.  V.;  Mat. 
XXV.  3i,  R.  V.  margin;  John  xviii.  3,  R.  V.; 
cp.  the  proper  name  Lappidoth) ;  primitively, 
merely  a  piece  of  resinous  wood,  or  a  bunch 
or  twist  of  absorbent  material  soaked  in  oil 
and  borne  on  a  rod  or  carried  by  some  othei 
form  of  holder  or  incased  in  a  narrow,  coni- 
cal clay  wrapping  or  vase. 

Tor'mah  [fraud]. 

A  town  in  which  Abimelech  was  once 
found  (Judg.  ix.  31,  margin).  More  proba- 
bly the  word  means  craftily,  as  it  is  rendered 
in  the  R.  V. :  in  which  case  the  town  of  Tor- 
mah  disap})ears. 


Tor-ment'»rs. 

The  jailers  who  were  to  keep  the  debtor 
safe  and  make  his  life  miserable  by  chains, 
stocks,  and  doubtless  other  means  of  distress 
and  torture  until  his  debts  were  ])aid  (Mat. 
xviii.  34).  Torture  was  often  applied  to  ex- 
tort confessions  (Acts  xxii.  24  ;  Antiq.  xvi. 
8,  4;  11,  6). 

Tor'toise.     See  Lizard. 

To'u.     See  Toi. 

Tow'er. 

A  lofty  building,  much  higher  than  broad. 
A  booth  was  sufficient  to  shelter  the  watch- 
man placed  to  guard  a  vineyard  (Is.  i.  8)  ; 
but  a  tower,  being  more  permanent  and  or- 
namental, indicated  the  owner's  interest  in 
his  vineyard  and  his  expectation  of  many 
seasons  of  fruitfulness  (v.  2;  Mat.  xxi.  33; 
Mark  xii.  1).  Stronger  towers  were  built  for 
defense.  They  were  erected  in  the  wilder- 
ness for  the  security  of  the  shepherds  and 
to  keep  marauders  away  (2  Kin.  xvii.  9;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  10).  They  formed  part  of  the 
defenses  of  fortified  cities  (xiv.  7;  Neh.  iii. 
1).  They  were  erected  beside  the  city  gates, 
at  the  corners  of  the  walls,  and  at  intervals 
in  the  intervening  space  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9)  ; 
see  illustrations,  Lachish,  Ram.  Watch- 
men were  stationed  on  them  (2  Kin.  ix.  17), 
military  engines  for  shooting  arrows  and 
stones  were  mounted  on  them  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  15),  and  the  citizens  found  refuge  in 
them  when  sore  pressed  by  the  enemy  (Judg. 
ix.  51,  52  ;  Ps.  Ixi.  3).  Within  their  massive 
walls  the  inmates  were  secure ;  their  height 
allowed  openings  for  light  and  air,  out  of 
reach  of  the  adversary  ;  and  from  their  top 
missiles  could  be  advantageously  discharged 
at  the  foe. 

Town  Clerk. 

An  official  with  the  title  of  (jrammateus  or 
scribe  (Acts  xix.  35).  Probably  the  duties 
of  a  grammateus  originally  were  to  record  the 
laws  and  read  them  in  public,  but  in  course 
of  time  other  functions  were  added  to  the 
office.  Coins  show  that  in  the  several  cities 
of  Asia  Minor  the  town  clerk  presided  in 
popular  assemblies,  and  was  the  virtual,  or  in 
some  cases  the  actual,  head  of  the  municipal 
government. 

Trach-0-ni'tis  [rough,  stony]. 

A  region  which  at  the  appearance  of  John 
the  Baptist  as  a  preacher  constituted,  with 
Iturfea,  a  tetrarchy,  ruled  over  by  Philip,  the 
brother  of  Herod,  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee 
(Luke  iii.  1).  It  lay  behind  Damascus 
(Strabo  xvi.  2,  20),  and  comprehended  the 
stretch  of  volcanic  rocks  now  called  el-Lej- 
jah,  and  extended  westward  to  Ulatha  and 
Paneas,  and  southward  to  the  borders  of  Ba- 
tanea  and  Jebel  Hauran  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3  ; 
xvii.  2,  1  and  2  ;  Ptolemy  v.  15,  4). 

Trag'a-canth. 

A  gum  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11,  E.  V. 
margin),    produced   by  several    low,    spiny 


Trance 


788 


Trumpet 


shrubs  of  the  genus  Astragalus,  especially 
from  Astragalus  (jummifer.  The  plant  islegiim- 
inous.  Those  from  which  gum  is  obtained 
are  dwarf  shrubs,  protected  bj-  a  dense  mass 
of  long  thorns.  The  flowers  are  axillary; 
and  in  most  species  are  yellow,  but  in  some 
are  white  or  purple.  Under  the  heat  of  the 
sun  the  gum  exudes  from  the  trunk,  branches, 
thorns, and  leaves;  and  is  collected  in  Pales- 
tine by  passing  over  the  shrub  a  cloth  or 
bunch  of  threads  to  which  the  viscous  ex- 
udation adheres.  It  is  used  to  impart  firm- 
ness to  pills,  to  marble  books,  and  to  stiffen 
crapes  and  calicoes. 

Trance. 

A  state  in  which  the  functions  of  the 
senses  are  suspended  and  the  soul  seems  to 
be  liberated  from  the  body  while  it  contem- 
plates some  extraordinary  object;  ecstasy. 
Peter  on  one  occasion  (Acts  xi.  5),  and  Paul 
on  another,  fell  into  such  a  trance  (xxii.  17). 
See  Visions. 

Tres'pass  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Tribe.     See  Egypt  III.  7. 

Trib'ute. 

1.  Money,  goods,  or  service  exacted  by  a 
nation  or  king  from  foreign  subjects  (Deut. 
XX.  11,  E.  V.  margin  taskwork;  Judg.  i.  28; 
Ezra  iv.  13;  Neh.  v.  4;  Esth.  x.  1;  Mat. 
xvii.  25).  The  Pharisees  endeavored  to  put 
Jesus  in  a  dilemma  by  asking  him  whether 
it  was  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Roman 
emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17).  If  he  answered  in 
the  affirmative,  he  would  offend  the  people, 
since  with  them  independence  was  a  matter 
of  religion  and  they  paid  the  foreign  tax 
with  undisguised  reluctance.  The  Pharisees 
expected  him  to  declare  that  tribute  to  the 
Ivomaus  was  unlawful,  for  they  knew  that 
he  had  publicly  announced  his  claims  to  the 
throne  of  David  ;  and  an  answer  of  this  sort 
would  justify  a  charge  of  rebellion  against 
him.  He  replied  by  calling  for  a  coin.  The 
coinage  of  money  is  the  prerogative  of  the 
ruler.  Pointing  to  the  image  of  the  Eoman 
emperor  which  it  bore,  he  said:  "Give  to 
the  ruler  whom  you  acknowledge  whatever 
belongs  to  him,  and  to  God  whatever  belongs 
to  God."  Jesus  recognized  the  distinction 
between  the  two  spheres  of  duty. 

2.  The  didrachma  or  half  shekel  paid  for 
the  expenses  of  the  temple  worship  (Mat. 
xvii.  24,  in  R.  V.  half  shekel).  This  pay- 
ment was  suggested  at  first  by  the  half 
shekel  which  each  male  Israelite  above 
twenty  years  of  age  paid  as  atonement 
money  when  he  was  numbered  in  the  census 
(Ex.  XXX.  11-16).  In  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
the  Israelites  voluntarily  assumed  an  annual 
payment  of  the  third  part  of  a  shekel 
toward  defraying  the  cost  of  the  temple 
service  (Neh.  x.  32,  33).  Later  the  third 
part  of  a  shekel  was  changed  to  half  a 
shekel,  and  was  made  an  annual  tax  col- 
lected from  every  Jew  of  twenty  years  of  age 
and  upward   throughout  the  world  (Autiq. 


xviii.  9,  1).  The  collector  at  Capernaum 
asked  Peter  whether  his  Master  paid  this 
half  shekel,  and  Peter  impulsively  answered 
that  he  did  (Mat.  xvii.  24,  25).  Jesus  xlid  in- 
deed pay  it ;  but  it  was  incongruous  for  him  to 
do  so,  and  he  drew  Peter's  attention  to  the 
matter.  He  pointed  out  to  him  that  earthly 
kings  exact  tribute  .from  aliens,  not  from 
their  own  children.  Peter  had  recently  con  • 
fessed  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God.  It  was  for 
God's  house  and  worship  that  this  tax  was 
levied,  and  it  was  scarcely  proper  for  God's 
Son  to  be  required  to  pay  it.  Such  is  the 
common  interpretation  of  Christ's  words  on 
this  occasion.  After  the  fall  of  .Terusalem 
the  Roman  emperor  Yaspasian  enjoined  the 
Jews  throughout  the  empire  to  bring  to 
.Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  Rome  the  two  drachmas 
which  thev  had  formerly  paid  to  the  temple 
.(War  vii.  6,  6). 

Tro'as  [the  Troad,  region  around  Troy]. 

A  seapoi't  (Acts  xvi.  11)  of  Mysia  ;  where 
Paul  saw  in  vision  a  man  of  Macedonia  in- 
viting him  to  Europe  (Acts  xvi.  8-10;  2  Cor. 
ii.  12).  The  apostle  tarried  there  a  week 
while  returning  from  his  third  journey  (Acts 
XX.  6).  On  one  occasion  lie  left  his  cloak, 
liooks,  and  parchments  there  (2  Tim.  iv.  13). 
It  was  founded  by  Antigonus,  one  of  Alex- 
ander's successors,  who  called  it  Antigonia ; 
but  after  his  death  his  o])ponent  Lysimachus, 
king  of  Thrace,  altered  its  name  to  Alex- 
andria, and  Troas  was  added  to  distinguish 
it  from  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  It  was  situated 
some  distance  south  of  Homer's  Troy,  which 
furnished  the  name  Troas  to  the  district. 
Its  ruins,  which  are  extensive,  are  now 
called  Eski  Stamboul. 

Tro-gyl'li-um. 

A  town  and  a  promontory  on  the  western 
coa.st  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  island  of 
Samos-  Paul  tarried  there  on  the  return  to 
Jerusalem  from  his  third  journey  (Acts  xx. 
15;  see  R.  V.  margin).  An  anchorage  at  the 
place  is  called  St.  Paul's  Port. 

Troph'i-mus  [nourishing]. 

A  gentile  Christian  of  Ephesus,  who  was 
with  Paul  for  a  time  on  his  missionary 
travels,  and  whom  he  was  falsely  accused  of 
having  brought  into  the  temple  in  defiance 
of  the  law  (Acts  xx.  4;  xxi.  29).  The  last 
we  hear  of  him  is  that  he  was  left  by  the 
apostle  at  Miletus  sick  (2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A. 
V.  Miletum). 

Trump'et. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  made  of  the  horn 
of  an  animal  or  in  imitation  of  it  (Josh.  vi. 
5;  cp.  Dan.  iii.  5,  where  heren.  horn,  is  ren- 
dered cornet),  and  called  in  Hebrew  shophar. 
The  word  is  rendered  cornet  in  four  passages 
where  the  h'sufrah  is  mentioned  with  it 
and  rendered  trum])et  (1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2 
Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps.  xcviii.  6;  Hos.  v.  8).  Its 
sound  was  loud,  and  audible  at  a  great  dis- 
tance (Ex.  xix.  16,  19)  ;  and  was  well  adapted 
to  increase  the  noise  of  shouting  (2  Sam.  vi. 


Trumpet 


789 


Tryplion 


15;  2  Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps.  xcviii.  6),  bnt  was 
ill-suited  to  be  played  with  liarps  and  pipes 
iu  an  orchestra.    It  was  used  in  war  to  assem- 


culjit  in  length.  The  tube  was  narrow,  some- 
what thicker  than  a  flute,  and  ended  in  the 
form  of  a  bell,  like  common  trumpets  (An- 


Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Trumpets. 


ble  the  army  (Judg.  iii.  27;  vi.  34  ;  1  Sam. 
xiii.  3),  to  sound  the  attack  (Job  xxxix.  24), 
to  signal  the  cessation  of  the  pursuit  (2  Sam. 
ii.  2b  ;  xviii.  16),  and  to  announce  the  dis- 
banding of  the  army  (xx.  1,  22).  Watchmen 
blew  it  to  sound  the  alarm  (Jer.  vi.  1 ;  Amos 
iii.  (J).  Its  blast  proclaimed  the  accession  of 
the  king  (2  Sam.  xv.  10;  1  Kin.  i.  34;  2  Kin. 
ix.  13),  and  the  commencement  of  the  year 
of  jubile  (Lev.  xxv.  9).  The  lirst  day  of 
the  seventh  mouth  was  celebrated  by  solemn 
rest  from  ordinary  labor,  a  holy  convocation, 
and  the  offering  of  special  burnt  oflerings 
(xxiii.  24,  25;  Num.  xxix.  1-6),  because 
the  day  marked  a  recurring  seventh  portion 
of  time.     It  was  a  day  or  memorial  of  blow- 


Ancient  Horns  and  Curved  Trumpets. 

ingof  trumpets,  designed  to  bring  the  people 
into  remembrance  before  the  Lord  (cp.  Ex. 
xxviii.  12,29;  xxx.  16).  The  Jewish  tradi- 
tion is  doubtless  correct  which  states  that 
the  trumpet  used  was  the  shophar  (cp.  Lev. 
xxv.  9). 

2.  The  invariable  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Ifsofrah.  Two  were  made,  for  use  at  the 
tabernacle  (Num.  x.  2) :  but  the  number  was 
increased  as  time  went  on  (2  Kin.  xii.  13). 
One  hundred  and  twenty  were  blown  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 
Those  used  at  the  sanctuary  w-ere  of  silver 
(Xum.  X.  2).     They  were  a  little  less  than  a 


tiq.  iii.  12,  6) ;  see  illustration  under  Show- 
bread.  They  were  used  by  the  priests  to 
announce  festivals,  to  call  the  congregation, 
and  on  advancing  to  battle  (Num.  x.  1-10 ; 
xxxi.  6).  Earely  is  mention  made  of  their 
being  blown  by  laymen  in  war  (Hos.  v.  8). 
Priests  may  have  blown  them  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Joash  (2  Kin.  xi.  14 ;  2  Chron.  xxiii. 
13).  For  their  use  in  the  temple  orchestra 
see  Music. 

3.  Trumpet  is  expressed  by  the  Greek 
word  salpinx  in  N.  T.  It  was  used  in  war  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  8),  and  will  announce  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ  (Mat.  xxiv.  31),  and  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  (1  Cor.  xv.  52).  Seven 
trumpets  were  sounded  to  introduce  as  many 
apocalyptic  visions  (Rev.  viii.-xi.  19).  By 
salpigx  the  h'sofrah  or  sacred  trumpet  is 
meant  in  Ecclus.  1.  16 ;  1  Mac.  iii.  54 ;  and 
probably  iv.  40 ;  v.  33 ;  xvi.  8. 

Try-phse'na,  in  A.  V.  Tryphena  [delicate, 
dainty]. 

A  woman  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation,  commending  her  for  laboring  in 
the  Lord  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Try'phon  [luxurious]. 

A  general  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  xi. 
39 ^  He  was  a  native  of  Casiana  near  Apamea 


Tryph 


in  Syria,  and  originally  bore  the  name  of 
Diodotus  (Strabo  xvi.  2,  10).  After  the 
death    of    Balas    and     the    recognition    of 


Tryphosa 


790 


Tyre 


Demetrius  II.,  as  king  of  Syria,  ]4f)  B.  c, 
Tryphon  set  up  Antiochus  VI.,  the  infant 
son  of  Alexander  Balas,  as  a  rival  to  De- 
metrius (xi.  39,  40),  and  with  the  help  of  the 
Jews  was  rapidly  conquering  the  country.  His 
treachery  to  Jonathan  Maccabseus,  however 
(xii.  39-50;  xiii.  23),  caused  his  Jewish  allies 
to  go  over  to  the  side  of  Demetrius.  Tryphon 
meantime  had  murdered  young  Antiochus 
and  declared  himself  king  (xii.  31,  39).  The 
capture  of  Demetrius  by  Arsaces,  the  Par- 
thian king,  left  Tryphon  to  his  own  schemes 
for  a  while,  but  Demetrius'  brother,  Anti- 
ochus VII.,  opposed  him  and  succeeded  in 
besieging  him,  first  in  Dor  on  the  Phoenician 
coast  (xv.  10-14,  37),  and  afterwards  in 
Apamea,  where  Tryphon  lost  his  life  in  13S 
B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiii.  7,  2). 

Try-pho'sa  [delicate]. 

A  woman  at  Rome  whose  name  is  coni^lcfl 
with  that  of  Tryphajua  in  the  list  of  those 
Eomans  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation. 
They  may  have  been  sisters  or  fellow-deacon- 
esses. They  are  mentioned  as  laboring  in  the 
Lord  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Tsa'dhe.     See  Tzade. 

Tu'bal. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  It  is  mentioned  with  Javan  (Is.  Ixvi. 
19)  and  with  Meshech  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26)  as 
trading  in  the  Tyrian  markets  with  slaves 
and  vessels  of  brass  (xxvii.  13).  Gog  was 
prince  of  Meshech  and  Tubal  (xxxviii.  2, 
3  ;  xxxix.  1).  The  descendants  of  Tubal  are 
the  Tubla  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  and 
the  Tibareni  or  Tibarenoi  of  the  classical 
writers.  For  their  country  and  history,  see 
Meshech. 

Tu'bal-cain  [possibly,  production  of  forged 
work]. 

A  son  of  the  Cainite  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Zillah.  He  was  the  tprger  of  cutting  instru- 
ments of  brass  and  iron  (Gen  iv.  22). 

Tu'bi-as,  in  A.  V.  To'bie. 

A  district  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  2  Mac.  xii.  17),  probably  the  land  of  Tob ; 
see  Tob. 

Tur'ban.     See  Diadem. 

Tur'tle  and  Tur'tle-dove. 

A  species  of  pigeon.  It  is  gentle  and  harm- 
less, fit  emblem  of  a  defenseless  and  innocent 
people  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  19).  It  is  migratory  (Jer. 
viii.  7),  and  a  herald  of  spring  (Song  ii.  12). 
Abraham  sacrificed  a  turtledove  and  other 
victims  when  the  Lord's  covenant  was  made 
with  him  (Gen.  xv.  9).  Under  the  law  it 
served  as  a  burnt  offering  (Lev.  i.  14)  and  for 
a  sin  offering ;  and  two  turtledoves  were 
prescribed  for  these  two  sacrifices  in  case  a 
poor  person  was  obliged  to  make  a  guilt  ofl'er- 
ing,  and  for  the  purification  of  a  woman  after 
childbirth  if  she  was  poor,  of  a  man  or  woman 
with  an  issue,  and  of  a  Nazirite  (v.  7 ;  xii.  6, 
8;  XV.  14,29,  30;  Num.  vi.  10,  11).  It  was 
readily  obtainable  by  the  poor,  for  it  abounds 


in  Palestine  and  is  easily  trapped.  Three  spe- 
cies of  turtledove  are' described  by  Tristram 
as  occurring  in  Palestine.  The  most  abun- 
dant is  the  common  turtledove  (Tio-tur  vul^ 
garis),  which  reaches  Palestine  from  the 
south  in  countless  numbers  at  the  beginning 
of  March,  and  departs  again  at  the  approach 
of  winter.  The  second  is  the  collared  turtle- 
dove ( Turiur  risoriHs).  It  is  a  summer  mi- 
grant, breeding  in  Palestine  in  trees  and 
bushes.  The  third  species,  the  palm  turtle- 
dove (Turtur  senegalensis),  does  not  migrate, 
but  remains  permanently  in  the  Dead  Sea 
valley,  which  has  a  tropical  climate. 

Tu'tor.     See  Schoolmaster. 

Twin  Broth'ers.  See  Castor  and  Pollux 

Tych'i-cus  [fortuitous]. 

A  Christian  of  the  province  of  Asia  who. 
with  others,  traveled  on  in  advance  of  Paul 
from  Macedonia  to  Troas,  and  awaited  the 
apostle's  arrival  in  that  city  (Acts  xx.  4).  He 
was  a  beloved  brother  and  faithful  minister 
in  the  Lord,  and  was  sent  by  Paul  to  carry 
to  their  destination  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  Colossians  (Eph.  vi.  21 ;  Col.  iv.  7). 
Paul  proposed  also  to  send  him  as  a  messen- 
ger to  Titus  in  Crete  (Titus  iii.  12).  After- 
wards he  was  dispatched  to  Ephesus  (2  Tim. 
iv.  12). 

Ty-ran'nus  [an  absolute  sovereign,  a  ty- 
rant] . 

A  man  at  Ephesus  who  was  either  a  teacher 
of  philosophy  or  rhetoric,  or  else  a  Jewish 
scribe  who  gave  instruction  in  the  law.  In 
his  school  Paul  disputed  with  the  view  of 
making  Christianity  known  after  he  no 
longer  had  access  for  the  purpose  to  the  Jew- 
ish synagogue  (Acts  xix.  9). 

Tyre,  in  A.  V.  often  Ty'rus  [a  rock]. 

An  important  city  of  Phoenicia.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  antiquity  (Is.  xxiii.  7;  Antiq. 
viii.  3,  1) ;  but  it  was  founded  or  attained  to 
importance  after  Sidon  (Gen.  x.  15  ;  Is.  xxiii. 
12).  The  priests  of  Melkarth  told  Herodotus 
that  it  was  founded  2300  years  before  his 
visit,  which  would  make  the  city  come  into 
existence  about  2750  B.  c.  (Herod,  ii.  44). 
According  to  ancient  testimony.  Tyre  origin- 
ally stood  on  the  mainland  ;  but  in  course 
of  time,  for  safety  against  besiegers,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  neighboring  rocky  island 
which  gave  name  to  the  locality.  Ancient 
writers  frequently  allude  to  its  situatiou  in 
the  sea  (Ezek.  xxvi.  17;  xxvii.  32).  The 
town  on  the  mainland  became  known  as 
Palfetyrus  or  Old  Tyre.  Tyre  was  nearer  to 
the  Israelites  than  Sidon,  and  this  fact,  with 
the  increasing  greatness  of  Tyre  over  Si(h(n, 
established  the  constant  order  observccl  in 
speaking  of  the  two  cities.  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
Tyre  was  subject  to  Egypt  in  the  fifteenth 
century  b.  c.  (Toll  el-Amarna  tablets).  In 
the  time  of  Joshua,  it  was  a  strong  place 
(Josh.  xix.  29).  It  lay  on  the  border  of 
Asher,  but  was  not  assigned  to  that  or  any 


Tyre 


791 


Tyre 


other  tribe  (xix.  29 ;  Judg.  i.  31,  32j,  nor  do 
tlie  Israelites  appear  to  have  possessed  it  at 
any  period  of  their  history.  lu  the  time  of 
David  it  was  regarded  as  a  stronghold  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  7).  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  was  friendly 
with  David  and  Solomon,  and  aided  them 
with  materials  for  the  erection  by  the  former 
of  his  palace  (v.  11;  1  Kin.  v.  1 ;  1  Chron. 
xiv.  1)  and  by  the  latter  of  the  temple  and 
the  other  edifices  which  he  built  (1  Kin.  v. 
1 ;  ix.  10-11 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  3,  11 ;  cp.  Ps.  xlv. 
12).  Another  Hiram,  a  brass  founder,  who 
c;ist  pillars  and  other  work  for  the  temple, 
was  of  mixed  Tyrian  and  Hebrew  parentage 
(1  Kin.  vii.  13,  14,  40,  45).  The  taste  of  the 
Tyrians  was  not  for  war,  but  for  manufac- 
ture, commerce,  money-making,  sea  voyages, 
and  colonization.  They  produced  purple 
dyes,  metal  work,  and  glass  ware  ;  and  they 
trafficked  even  with  remotest  peoples  (cp.  1 
Kin.  ix.  28).  Their  merchants  were  princes, 
tiie  honorable  of  the  earth  (Is.  xxiii.  8).  In 
the  ninth  century  b.  c.  a  colony  from  Tyre 
founded  Carthage,  which  became  a  formid- 
able rival  to  Rome.  Still,  though  by  taste  a 
commercial  people,  they  were  often  forced 
into  war.  Early  in  the  ninth  century  they 
purchased  immunity  from  Ashurnasirpal, 
king  of  Assyria,  and  later  were  represented 
in  the  alliance,  which  included  Ahab,  formed 
to  resist  Ashurnasirpal's  son  and  successor 
Shalmaneser.  But  at  length  Tyre  with 
others  paid  him  tribute.  About  724  B.  c. 
Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  called  the 
Fourth,  after  receiving  the  submission  of  old 
Tyre,  laid  siege  to  island  Tyre,  but  he  died 
in  722  without  eflecting  its  capture  (Antiq. 
ix.  14,  2;  cp.  probably  Is.  xxiii.).  It  yielded 
to  his  successor  Sargon.  The  friendliness  of 
the  Tyrians  toward  Israel  had  ceased  by  this 
time.  The  prophets  denounced  the  Tyrians 
for  delivering  Israelites  to  the  Edomites 
(Amos  i.  9),  and  despoiling  them  of  goods  and 
selling  them  as  slaves  to  the  Greeks  (Joel 
iii.  5,  6).  The  city  was  not  plundered,  as 
were  the  neighboring  towns  by  Sennacherib, 
but  was  besieged  by  Esarhaddon,  and  yielded 
on  honorable  terms  to  Ashurbanipal  in 
6G4  B.  c.  In  the  next  century  it  enjoyed 
great  commercial  prosperity,  and  its  mer- 
chants traded  with  all  the  countries  of  the 
known  world  (Ezek.  xxvii.).  Jeremiah  pro- 
phesied Tyre's  subjection  (Jer.  xxvii.  1-11). 
The  classic  prophecy  against  Tyre,  entering 
into  more  details,  is  that  of  Ezekiei  (Ezek. 
xxvi.-xxviii.  19;  xxix.  18-20).  These  pro- 
phecies of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiei  refer  largely 
to  a  .siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  last- 
ing thirteen  years  (con.  Apion.  i.  21).  It  is 
not  certainly  known  whether  he  actually 
captured  any  part  of  the  two  cities  (cp.  Ezek. 
xxix.  18-20) ;  if  he  did,  it  was  probably  only 
ihe  one  on  the  shore  (xxvi.  7-11  ami  perhaps 
12),  and  the  result  did  not  compensate  the 
besiegers  for  their  toil.  However,  Tyre 
finally  made  terms  and  acknowledged  Neb- 
uchadnezzar's  suzerainty    (as   indicated   bj- 


the  date  of  a  contract  tablet).  In  332  B.  c. 
Alexander  the  Great  took  the  city  on  the 
island  after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  having 
made  his  way  to  it  by  building  a  mole  from 
the  mainland  across  the  narrow  strait.  But 
it  soon  recovered  considerable  prosperity  (cp. 
Is.  xxiii.  15-18).  Our  Lord  once  visited  the 
coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Mat.  xv.  21-31 ; 
Mark  vii.  24-31),  and  people  from  the  region 
occasionally  attended  on  his  ministry  (Mark 
iii.  8  ;  Luke  vi.  17).  He  pointed  ont'tliat  the 
responsibilities  of  those  heathen  cities  were 
much  less  than  those  of  the  ])laces  around 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  constantly  heard 
his  preaching  and  saw  his  miracles  (Mat.  xi. 
21,22;  Luke  x.  13,  14).  A  Christian  com- 
munity existed  there  in  the  first  century 
(Acts  xxi.  3-6).  The  scholar  Origen,  who 
died  about  A.  u.  254,  was  buried  in  the 
Christian  basilica.  A  larger  and  grander 
basilica  was  erected  by  bishop  Paulinos,  and 
at  its  consecration  in  323  the  church  historian 
Eusebius,  bishoji  of  Csesarea,  preached  the 
sermon.  In  (}38  the  city  was  captured  by  the 
Mohammedans.  The  lives  and  property  of 
the  citizens  were  spared  on  the  humiliating 
condition  that  no  new  churches  be  built,  no 
bells  be  rung,  no  horses  be  ridden  by  Chris- 
tians, no  insults  be  offered  to  the  Moham- 
medan religion.  On  the  27tli  of  June,  1124, 
Tyre  was  taken  by  the  crusaders.  The  Ger- 
man emperor  Barbarossa,  who  was  drowned 
on  his  crusade  in  1190,  was  buried  in  their 
cathedral.  They  lost  the  city  again  in  March, 
1291,  when  it  was  reduced  almost  to  a  heap 
of  stones.  Since  then  it  has  nearly  always 
been  in  Mohammedan  hands.  Quantities  of 
its  stones  have  been  carried  away  to  Beirut, 
Acre,  and  Joppa,  for  building  purposes.  The 
walls  are  in  ruinous  condition,  and  have  in 
part  disappeared  or  been  covered  with  sand. 
Formerly  there  were  two  harbors;  now  only 
the  old  Sidonian  port  is  in  use.  It  is  on  the 
northeast  side  of  the  island  ;  the  other,  or 
the  Egyptian  port,  has  been  filled  with  sand. 
Alexander's  mole  still  remains ;  its  breadth 
is  nearly  half  a  mile.  Most  of  the  ruins,  in- 
cluding the  cathedral,  are  of  Crusading 
times.  The  fountains  and  reservoirs  called 
Ras  el-'  Ain  supplied  the  city  with  water  by 
means  of  an  aqueduct  starting  15  or  20  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  give  a 
sufficient  slope  for  its  descent.  Tyre  was  for 
a  considerable  period  all  but  destitute  of  in- 
habitants. In  the  present  century  it  has 
slightly  revived,  so  that  it  may  have  at  pres- 
ent al)out  f)500  inhabitants.  It  is  called  es- 
Sur,  the  old  name  in  Arabic  form.  Its  houses  . 
are  chiefly  on  the  eastern  i)art  of  what  was 
once  the  island,  but  the  former  island  has 
been  converted  by  Alexander's  mole  and 
accumulated  .sand  into  a  promontory  jutting 
out  from  the  shore. 

The  ladder  of  Tyre  is  a  high  mountain  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  100  stades  or  about  11 
miles  north  of  Ptolemais  (War  ii.  10,  2).  This 
statement  of  distance  and  direction  identi- 


Tzade 


792 


Unclean  Animals 


fies  it  with  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  mas- 
sive, mountainous  promontory,  7  miles  in 
width,  which  thrusts  itself  into  the  sea  and 
forms  the  natural  boundary  between  Pales- 
tine and  Phoenicia  (1  Mac.  xi.  59).  At  its 
southwestern  angle  Eas  en-Nakurah,  a  bold 
headland,  projects,  leaving  no  beach  between 
its  base  and  the  water,  and  forcing  the  coast 
road  to  ascend  and  cross  it.  This  part  of  the 
great  promontory  is  commonly  identified 
with  the  Ladder.  Some  travelers,  however, 
localize  the  Ladder  at  the  northwestern  angle, 
where  Ras  el-'Abyad,  the  white  promontory, 
stands.  In  its  precipitous  clifl's  the  road  is 
cut  for  about  a  mile,  overhanging  the  sea  and 
rising  at  points  to  the  height  of  200  feet  above 
the  water. 

Tza'de,  in  A.V.  Tzaddi,  in  A.  R.  V.  Tsadhe. 

The  eighteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  in  the  English  alphabet  cor- 
responds to  it.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew  names, 
s,  t,  or  z  is  used  to  represent  it.  It  heads  the 
eighteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  of  the  original  begins  with 
this  letter. 


U. 


U'cal  [I  am  strong]. 

One  of  two  sons,  pupils,  or  contemporaries, 
to  whom  Agur  addressed  his  prophecy  or 
proverbs  (Prov.  xxx.  1).  This  interpretation 
represents  the  traditional  Hebrew  punctua- 
tion, and  derives  support  from  ver.  4,  where 
a  person  is  addressed  and  asked  to  answer, 
if  he  knows.  Another  interpretation,  which, 
however,  neglects  the  punctuation,  is  given 
on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 

U'el  [will  of  God]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Uk'naz. 

The  marginal  reading  at  1  Chron.  iv.  15, 
A.  V.  ;  but  a  Hebrew  proper  name  would  not 
begin  as  this  word  does.  In  the  text  it  is 
properly  regarded  as  two  words,  and  the 
R.  V.  correctly  renders  it  "and  Kenaz." 

U'lai. 

A  river  on  the  banks  of  which  Daniel  was 
in  vision  when  he  saw  the  prophetic  ram, 
the  he  goat,  etc.  (Dan.  viii.  2,  16).  The  Ulai 
is  undoubtedly  the  Euhieus;  identified  both 
with  the  Kerkha,  which  washes  the  walls 
of  Susa,  that  is  Shushan,  and  the  Karun, 
which  flows  considerably  eastward  of  the 
city.  The  conflicting  views  have  been  recon- 
ciled by  the  apparently  well-founded  suppo- 
sition that  the  Kerklia  sent  out  a  branch 
from  a  spot  20  miles  northwest  of  Susa, 
which  joined  the  Karun,  so  that  the  name 
Ulai  might  be  applied  to  both  rivers. 

U'lam  [front]. 

1.  A  Manassite  (1  Chron.  vii.  16.  17). 

2.  A  son  of  Eshek,  a  Benjamite  descended 


from  Saul  through  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii 
39,  40). 

Ul'Ia  [a  yoke]. 

An  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  39),  probably 
descended  from  Helem  (35). 

Um'mali  [conjunction]. 

A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  30).  Not 
identified.  Thomson  proposes  'Alma,  about  5 
miles  from  the  shore  at  Ras  en-Nakurah. 
Some  considerations  suggest  that  Akko  may 
be  the  original  text.  Caph  was  not  infre- 
quently mistaken  for  mem,  i.  e.  k  for  m  ;  see 
Beth. 

Un'cle. 

The  brother  of  one's  father  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17,  Hebrew).  The  Hebrew  word  is  dod, 
which  is  of  broader  meaning  than  uncle  and 
denotes  any  kinsman  on  the  father's  side 
(Lev.  X.  4 ;  Amos  vi.  10) ;  as  a  cousin  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12  with  8,  9),  or  a  member  of  the  same 
tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  11). 

Un-clean'  An'i-mals. 

A  general  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  made  by  the  nations  of 
antiquity.  Some  animals  were  recognized  as 
fit  for  food  and  sacrifice,  while  others  were 
not.  The  distinction  was  based  partly  on 
the  discovered  unsuitableuess  or  uuwhole- 
someness  of  the  flesh  for  food,  partly  on 
habits  and  prey,  and  partly  on  an  inexplica- 
ble natural  abhorrence  to  certain  animals. 
Regard  was  paid  in  the  Mosaic  legislation  to 
this  customary  attitude  of  the  men  of  the 
age,  and  the  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  incorporated  in  the  law. 
Other  animals  were  added  to  the  list  of  the 
unclean,  out  of  special  considerations  in- 
volved in  the  religion  of  the  Israelites.  Un- 
clean animals  were  classified  as  follows  :  1. 
Beasts  that  do  not  both  part  the  hoof  en- 
tirely and  chew  the  cud  (Lev.  xi.  3,  4), 
including  all  that  go  on  four  paws  (27).  The 
law  accordingly  allows  only  animals  of  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  goat  kind,  and  deer  and 
gazelles  (Deut.  xiv.  4,  5).  It  excludes  among 
other  animals  all  carnivorous  beasts.  They 
eat  blood  or  carrion,  and  were  therefore  in- 
tolerable to  the  Israelite.  2.  Carnivorous 
birds,  of  which  twenty  or  twenty-one  are 
specially  named  (Lev.  xi.  13-19  :  Dent.  xiv. 
12-18).  The  enumeration  included  the  bat, 
which  was  classed  as  a  bird.  They  eat  blood 
or  carrion.  3.  Winged  insects  which  do  not 
have  in  addition  to  the  four  legs  two  hind  legs 
for  leaping  (Lev.  xi.  20-23).  All  insects  are 
excluded  except  the  locust  (grassho]>per).  4. 
Whatever  in  tlie  water  liad  not  both  fins  and 
scales  (9,  10).  This  jirohihifion  left  for  use 
the  most  wholesome  varieties  of  fish  found 
in  the  waters  of  Palestine.  It  excludes  eels, 
and  water  animals  which  are  not  fish,  snch 
as  crabs.  Numa  forbade  the  Romans  to  ofier 
scaleless  fish  in  sacrifice  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat. 
xxxii.  10) ;  and  the  modern  Egyptians  are 
said  to  regard  such  fish  as  unwholesome. 
Some  of  these  scalele.ss  and  finlc-ss  creatures 


Uncleanness 


793 


Unicorn 


were  snakelike,  and  recalled  the  first  sin  and 
its  curse.  5.  Small  creeping  things  (Lev.  xi. 
29,  30)  ;  every  creeping  thing  that  goeth 
upon  its  belly  or  upon  all  fours,  or  has  many 
feet  (41,  42).  Some  were  unwholesome. 
Others  crept  in  the  dust  or  through  slime. 
Others  still  were  snakelike.  Not  improbably 
there  was  a  religious  repugnance  to  creeping 
things  in  general,  because  their  mode  of  lo- 
comotion was  a  reminder  of  the  serpent  and 
the  curse  on  the  tempter. 

These  animals  were  unclean  under  any 
circumstance.  But  the  flesh  of  even  clean 
unimals  might  become  unclean.  The  law 
forbade  the  eating  of  things  otlered  in  sac- 
rifice to  idols,  things  strangled  or  dead  of 
themselves  or  killed  by  beast  or  bird  of  prey. 
Blood  and  fat  of  bird  and  beast  were  sacred 
to  the  Lord.  None  might  eat  of  the  blood, 
not  even  the  stranger  that  sojourned  in  Israel 
(Lev.  xvii.  10-14).  The  violator  of  the  law 
respecting  blood  was  cut  off  from  his  people 
(vii.  27 ;  xvii.  10,  14).  The  ofl'euder  against 
the  laws  regarding  unclean  animals  was  un- 
clean until  the  evening  (xi.  24,  40;  xvii.  15). 
Animals  that  died  of  themselves  might  be 
sold  to  strangers  and  eaten  by  them  (Deut. 
xiv.  21). 

Un-clean'ness. 

The  law  distinguished  between  clean  and 
holy  (Lev.  x.  10);  for  example,  animals  are 
clean  or  unclean,  not  holy  or  unholy.  Un- 
cleanness, when  not  presumptuously  in- 
curred, was  ceremonial,  not  moral  defile- 
ment. Tt  excluded  man  from  the  sanctuary 
(vii.  20,  21)  and  from  fellowship  with  mem- 
bers of  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  but  it 
did  not  interrupt  spiritual  communion  with 
God  in  prayer.  At  the  same  time,  the  laws 
that  defined  uncleanness  were  in  some  cases 
enforced  by  the  injunction,  "  Be  ye  holy,  for 
I  am  holy"  (xi.  44,  45).  In  keeping  himself 
from  the  unclean,  man  had  regard  to  the  fact 
that  he  was  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a 
sacred  service,  and  that  as  a  man  of  God  he 
was  holy  unto  the  Lord  and  must  be  separate 
and  touch  no  unclean  thing.  Furthermore, 
ceremonial  uncleanness  was  typical  of  sin. 
Physical  cleanliness  also  is  different  from 
ceremonial  cleanness.  The  two  were  not 
synonymous,  although  the  two  conditions 
sometimes  coincided.  Comfort  and  the  de- 
mands of  society  required  bodily  cleanliness 
on  the  part  of  the  Hebrews.  There  were 
divers  washings  which  had  nothing  to  do 
with  ceremonial  purity.  The  laws  of  clean- 
liness which  governed  men  in  their  inter- 
course with  each  other  were  instinctively 
observed  by  reverent  persons  in  their  ap- 
proach to  God,  and  found  expression  in  com- 
mands and  institutions  (Ex.  xix.  12, 14  ;  xxx. 
18-21  ;  Josh.  iii.  5).  Ceremonial  defilement, 
for  which  purification  was  provided,  was 
incurred  in  a  s})ecial  manner  and  was  re- 
stricted to  certain  acts  and  processes.  It 
was  acquired  by — 1.  Contact  with  a  human 


corpse  (Num.  xix.  11-22).  This  defilement 
was  the  gravest,  for  the  effect  of  sin  is  re- 
vealed in  strongest  light  in  the  death  of  man 
and  the  dissolution  of  the  body.  Unclean- 
ness arising  from  this  cause  continued  seven 
days,  and  was  removed  by  the  water  of 
separation.  Even  the  necessary  handling 
of  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer,  which  were 
used  to  cleanse  from  defilement  by  contact 
with  the  dead,  rendered  unclean  (7-10) ;  and 
contact  with  the  unclean  person  rendered 
the  clean  person  unclean  until  evening  (22). 
2.  Leprosy  in  man,  clothing,  or  building 
(Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.).  The  leper  was  excluded 
from  human  society  (xiii.  46),  and  for  his 
cleansing  he  required  special  ablution  and 
sacrifice.  3.  Natural  and  morbid  issues  from 
the  generative  organs  (xv.),  including  puer- 
peral uncleanness  (xii.).  Generation  and 
parturition  were  not  sinful  in  themselves; 
they  were  ordained  by  the  Creator  (Gen.  i. 
27,  28).  The  bodily  issues  connected  with 
them,  however,  in  man  or  woman,  whether 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  defiled;  man's 
affinity  to  the  lower  animals  is  apparent  in 
reproduction,  for  right  though  it  is,  in 
heaven  they  neither  marry  nor  are  given 
in  marriage;  and  probably  the  divine  judg- 
ment pronounced  on  Eve  for  sin  was  remem- 
bered in  connection  with  childbirth.  4. 
Eating  the  flesh  of  an  unclean  animal,  or 
contact  with  its  carcass  or  with  that  of  a 
clean  animal  not  slain  for  food  and  which 
had  thus  become  subject  to  the  corruption 
of  death  (Lev.  xi.).  See  Unclean  Animals; 

PUEIFICATION. 

U'ni-corn. 

Any  one-horned  animal,  as  the  rhinoceros 
(Is.  xxxiv.  7,  A.  V.  margin).  The  biblical  ani- 
mal, however,  was  two-horned  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
17,  where  the  word  is  singular,  and  not  plural, 
as  in  A.  V.).  It  was  possessed  of  great 
strength  (Num.  xxiii.  22  ;  xxiv.  8),  but  was 
too  untamable  to  bend  its  neck  to  the  yoke, 
or  assist  man  in  his  agricultural  labors  (Job 
xxxix.  9-12).  It  was  frisky  in  youth  (Ps. 
xxix.  6).  It  was  not  the  wild  buflalo,  for 
this  beast  is  quite  tamable.  The  R.  V.  margin 
(Num.  xxiii.  22)  renders  it  by  ox-antelope, 
meaning  the  oryx  (Aniilope  leiicoi-yx)  ;  see 
Antelope.  This  interpretation  is  supported 
by  the  analogy  of  the  Hebrew  r'^'em  to  the 
Arabic  rhn,  which  is  now  used  in  Syria  for 
the  white  and  yellow  gazelle ;  but  the  oryx 
is  timid  and  in  ancient  Egypt  was  frequently 
tamed  and  used  in  the  plow.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifies the  wild  ox  (R.  V.) ;  for  this  animal  i.'-, 
denoted  by  the  corresponding  Assyrian  word 
rimii.  Admirable  representations  of  it  by 
Assyrian  artists  show  it  to  be  the  aurochs 
{Bos  primigenhis).  Tiglath-pileser  about  1120 
to  1100  B.  c.  hunted  it  in  the  land  of  the 
Hittites,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon.  It  is  now 
extinct,  and  its  name  has  been  transferred 
in  Syria  to  another  animal ;  but  its  previous 


Unni 


94 


Uriah 


occurrence  on  and  around  Lebanon  is  inde- 
pendently proved  by  the  fact  that  Tristram 
discovered  its  teeth  in  the  bone  caves  of 
Lebanon.  Julius  Ctesar,  who  met  with  it  in 
Gaul,  described  it  as  the  Bus  urus  (Bello  Gal- 
lico  vi.  28).  Independently  of  its  size,  it  is 
distinguished  from  its  descendant,  the  com- 
mon ox,  by  having  a  flatter  forehead  and 
large  horns  with  double  curvature. 

Un'ni  [oppressed,  afflicted]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree  in  David's 
reign,  who  played  the  psaltery  (1  Chron.  xv. 
18,  20).  It  is"  doubtful  whether  the  word 
doorkeepers  (18)  is  intended  to  include  him. 

2.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Zerubbabel 
<Neh.  xii.  9,  A.  V.) ;  see  Unno. 

Un'no,  in  A.  V.  Unni,  which  was  substi- 
tuted by  the  Hebrews  in  reading  the  text 
[oppressed,,  afflicted]. 

A  Levite  who  was  a  contemporary  of  the 
high  priest  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  9). 

U-phar'sin.     See  Mene. 

U'phaz. 

A  place  from  which  gold  was  brought  (Jer. 
X.  9;  Dau.  x.  5).  The  same,  apparently,  as 
■Ophir,  though  the  difl'erence  in  form  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  explained. 

Ur,  I.  [perhaps,  settlement]. 

A  city  of  the  Chaldees,  the  birthplace  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  28,  31 ;  xv.  7;  Neh.  ix.  7). 
Its  site  is  now  generally  held  to  have  been 
at  Mugheir  or  Um-mugheir,   Bitumeued  or 


called  Kaldu  as  early  as  at  least  the  ninth 
century  B.  c. ;  and  was  a  seat  of  the  worship 
of  the  moon-god.  Considerable  ruins  are 
still  found  on  its  site. 

Ur,  II. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  35).  The  transcriber  perhaps  made 
two  heroes,  Ur  and  Hepher,  out  of  one  whose 
name  was  Ahasbai  or  something  similar  (cp. 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 

Ur-ba'nus,  in  A.  V.  Ur'bane  [urbane,  po- 
lite]. 

A  Christian  to  whom  the  apostle  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  9). 

U'ri  [fiery,  or,  perhaps,  light  of  (Jehovah), 
being  an  abbreviation  of  Urijali]. 

1.  Father  of  Bezalel,  the  craftsman  (Ex. 
xxxi.  2). 

2.  Father  of  Solomon's  taxgatherer  Geber 
(1  Kin.  iv.  19). 

3.  A  porter  whom  Ezra  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

U-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Urias  [light  of 
Jehovah].  The  Hebrew  name  is  often  ren- 
dered Urijah. 

1.  A  Hittite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  39  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  41),  whom 
the  king  arranged  to  have  placed  at  an  ex- 
posed point  in  a  battle  with  the  Ammonites 
and  lose  his  life,  to  prevent  his  discovering 
an  intrigue  which  his  sovereign   had  been 


Muglicir,  the  Site  of  Vr  of  the  t'halrtces. 


the  Mother  of  Bitumen,  in  Lower  Babylonia, 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  It  is 
called  on  inscribed  tablets  Urn  ;  was  in  a  dis- 
trict which,   according  to  inscriptions,   was 


carrying  on  with  the  faithful  soldier's  wife 
(2Sam.  xi.  1-27;  Mat.  i.  6). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  two  witnesses  to  a  tablet 
written  by  Isaiah  (Is.  viii.  2) ;  see  Urijah  1. 


Uriel 


795 


Urim  and  Thummim 


3.  A  prophet,  the  son  of  Shcniaiah  of  Kir- 
jath-jearim.  He  predicted  that  tlio  kingdom 
of  Judah  was  ahout  to  he  temporarily  de- 
stroyed, whicli  so  enraged  king  Johoiakini 
that  he  sought  to  kill  the  prophet  of  evil. 
Uriah  fled  to  Egypt,  but  was  brought  hack 
and  slain  (Jer.  xxvi.  20-23  ;  in  A.  Y.  Urijah). 

4.  A  priest,  father  of  a  certain  Meremoth 
(Ezra  viii.  33).    Called  in  Neh.  iii.  4,  21  Urijah. 

5.  One  of  those,  probably  priests,  who 
«tood  by  Ezra  while  he  addressed  the  people 
(Neh.  viii.  4;  in  A.  V.  Urijah). 

U'ri-el  [light  of  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  descended  through  Korah,  Abiasaph, 
and  Tahath  (1  Chron.  yi.  24).  He  is  proba- 
bly a  different  person  from  Zephaniah  (36), 
and  belonged  to  the  collateral  line  which 
sprang  from  Tahath.  The  head  of  the  Ko- 
hathite  family  in  David's  reign  bore  this 
name  (xv.  5,  11),  and  is  conceivably  the  same 
person. 

2.  A  man  of  Gibeah  whose  daughter  Mica- 
iah  was  Abijah's  mother  (2  Chron.  xiii.  2). 

U-ri'jah  [light  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  The  high  priest  in  Ahaz'  reign  who  was 
directed  to  make  an  altar  like  that  which 
-caught  the  king's  fancy  at  Damascus  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  10-16).  He  was  probably  one  of  the  two 
witnesses  to  the  enigmatical  inscription  writ- 
ten by  Isaiah  (Is.  viii.  2,  in  E.  V.  Uriah). 

2.  A  prophet  (Jer.  xxvi.  20,  A.  V.) ;  see 
Uriah  3. 

3.  A  priest  (Neh.  iii.  4,  21)  ;  see  Uriah  4. 

4.  One  who  stood  by  Ezra  while  he  ad- 
dressed the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4;  in  R.  V. 
Uriah) ;  see  Uriah  5. 

U'rim  and  Thum'miin  [lights  and  perfec- 
tions]. The  order  is  once  reversed  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8),  and  twice  Urim  alone  is  used 
(Num.  xxvii.  21 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  6). 

One  or  more  objects  belonging  to  the  ephod 
of  the  high  priest,  put  in  the  breastplate  of 
judgment  so  as  to  be  on  the  high  priest's 
heart  when  he  went  in  before  the  Lord  (Ex. 
xxviii.  30;  Lev.  viii.  8).  The  receptacle  was 
probably  a  fold  of  the  breastplate  or  the 
space  underneath  it.  In  connection  with  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  the  high  priest  learned 
the  will  of  God  in  doubtful  cases.  This 
method  was  not  adopted  for  inquiring  the 
divine  will  concerning  private  individuals  or 
private  matters,  hut  was  only  employed  in 
behalf  of  the  nation  ;  hence  the  required 
place  for  the  Urim  and  Thummim  was  in  the 
breastplate  of  judgment,  which  bore  the 
names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  on 
twelve  precious  stones.  With  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  the  will  of  Jehovah,  the  judge, 
concerning  judicial  matters,  and  the  royal 
desire  of  Jehovah,  the  king,  were  learned 
(Num.  xxvii.  21 ;  cp  Josh.  ix.  14  ;  Judg.  i.  1 ; 
XX.  18,  23,  27,  28;  1  Sam.  x.  22:  xiv.  36- 
42;  xxii.  10,  13;  xxiii.  9-12;  xxviii.  fi;  xxx. 
7,  8  ;  2  Sam.  ii.  1  ;  v.  19,  2.3,  24).  The  will 
of  Jehovah   was  inquired   with   Urim   and 


Thummim,  not  only  in  the  sanctuary  or 
where  the  ark  was  (Judg.  xx.  27,  28  ;  1  Sam. 
xxii.  10),  but  in  any  place,  provided  the 
authorized  priest  with  the  ephod  was  present. 
The  answer  was  usually  quite  simple,  often  a 
mere  affirmation  or  denial,  or  a  choice  of  one 
tribe  or  place  out  of  several  ;  but  it  was  not 
always  so  (1  Sam.  x.  22  ;  2  Sam.  v.  23,  24). 
Occasionally,  also,  when  sin  had  interrupted 
communion  with  God,  no  answer  was  granted 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  37  ;  xxviii.  6).  There  is  no  ref- 
erence to  the  use  of  Urim  and  Thummim 
after  the  reign  of  David,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  exile  there  was  no  priest 
with  Urim  and  Thummim  (Ezra  ii.  63  ;  Neh. 
vii.  65) ;  hence  Josephus  is  probably  wrong  in 
saying  that  the  virtue  or  use  ceased  200  years 
before  his  time  (Antiq.  iii.  8,  9).  The  use 
of  this  method  was  a  prerogative  of  the  high 
priest  alone  ;  and,  since  he  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  the  possession  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  was  a  glory  of  that  tribe  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8). 

Different  explanations  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  have  been  offered.  For  example, 
an  analogue  has  been  sought  in  the  badge  of 
office  which  the  Egyptian  high  priest,  as  su- 
preme judge,  is  reported  by  cla.ssical  writers 
to  have  worn,  consisting  of  an  emblem  of 
truth  suspended  from  his  neck  on  a  golden 
chain ;  but  the  Egyptian  high  priest  carried 
this  official  token  during  the  judicial  pro- 
ceedings only,  and  hanged  it  on  the  person 
in  whose  favor  judgment  was  pronounced ; 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  as  a  means  for  inquiring  the  divine 
will.  Other  interpreters  have  supposed  that 
when  to  the  high  priest,  clad  in  the  ephod 
with  the  Urim  and  Thummim  and  offering 
prayer,  an  idea  occurred,  its  divine  origin 
and  truth  were  confirmed  by  the  unwonted 
gleaming  of  the  gems  in  the  breastplate. 
From  this  phenomenon  was  derived  the  name 
Urim,  lights.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
answer  was  spelled  out  by  the  successive 
gleaming  of  the  letters  which  composed  the 
proper  names  on  the  stones;  but  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  fact  that  the  complete  alphabet  is 
not  yielded  by  these  names,  and  that  in  sev- 
eral of  the  recorded  responses  letters  occur 
which  are  not  found  on  the  stones,  the  whole 
idea  smacks  of  the  feigned  miracles  of  Greek 
and  Eoman  priests,  and  is  foreign  to  the 
methods  and  conceptions  of  the  Hebrew 
ritual. 

Only  two  theories  are  important.  1.  The 
Urim  and  Thummim  were  one  or  more  ap- 
pendages of  the  ephod  and  detachable,  and 
were  used  as  the  lot,  cast  like  dice,  and  by 
their  fall  revealed  the  divine  will.  This  is, 
indeed,  a  possible  conception,  but  it  lacks 
proof.  Support  is  sought  for  it  in  the  fact 
that  the  casting  of  the  lot  is  twice  referred 
to  in  close  association  with  seeking  revelation 
through  Urim  and  Thummim  (1  Sam.  x.  19-22 ; 
xiv.  37-42).  In  the  latter  case,  Saul  prayed  . 
"  Give  a  perfect  lot "  (41,  R.  V.  margin).   The 


Usury 


(96 


Uzziah 


word  thamim  is  used,  which  it  is  proposed  to 
pronounce  thummim,  and  tlius  make  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  to  have  been  a  kind  of  sacred 
lot.  But  in  the  two  cases  mentioned,  the 
casting  of  lots  was  a  distinct  act  from  inquir- 
ing of  the  Lord,  and  was  undertaken  for  a 
difl'erent  purpose  from  that  for  which  coun- 
sel was  asked.  2.  The  Urim  and  Thummim 
gave  no  outward  manifestation,  but  served 
as  a  symbol.  The  high  priest  arrayed  him- 
self in  the  ephod  with  Urim  and  Thummim. 
which  betokened  his  authority  to  obtain 
light  and  truth,  as  the  name  indicates,  in 
order  that  he  might  seek  counsel  of  Je- 
hovah in  the  divinely  appointed  manner. 
He  laid  the  matter  humbly  before  God  in 
prayer  ;  the  answer  dawned  in  his  mind  ;  he 
Ijelieved  that  the  response  was  correct,  be- 
cause he  had  made  his  request  in  the  manner 
of  God's  appointment,  and  because  he  had 
God's  promise  that  he  should  receive  light 
and  truth.  Faith  in  God  was  the  evidence 
of  things  not  seen.  This  interpretation  of 
the  use  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  accords 
with  the  spirituality  of  the  entire  ritualism 
of  the  tabernacle.  The  answer  was  inward 
illumination,  without  any  external  sign,  and 
finds  its  parallel  in  the  revelations  granted  to 
the  prophets. 

U'su-ry. 

Interest  on  loaned  money,  the  word  being 
used  in  its  primary  sense,  without  any  im- 
putation that  the  interest  is  extortionate  in 
amount.     See  Loan. 

U'thai  [probably,  he.li)ful]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez,  and 
son  of  Ammihud.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
father's  house  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Bigvai.  He  accom- 
panied Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  14). 

Uz,  in  A.  V.  once  Huz  (Gen.  xxii.  21). 

A  tribe  of  the  Aramaeans  (Gen.  x.  23),  able 
to  trace  their  descent  partly  from  Nahor 
(xxii.  21),  and  connected  by  blood  or  political 
ties  with  Dishan  the  Horite  (xxxvi.  28).  Job 
resided  in  the  land  of  Uz  (Job  i.  1),  and  was 
exposed  to  attack  from  the  Sabeans  and  Chal- 
deans (lo,  17).  At  the  time  of  Jeremiah, 
Edomites  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Uz  (Lam.  iv. 
21).  Josephus  regarded  Uz  as  the  founder 
of  Trachonitis  and  Damascus  (Antiq.  i.  6,  4). 
Ptolemy  locates  the  Au.sitai  in  the  desert 
west  of  the  Euphrates.  Uz,  according  to 
these  data,  was  in  the  Syrian  desert  between 
the  latitudes  of  Damascus  and  Edom. 

U'zai. 

Father  of  one  who  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

U'zal  [possibly,  travel  or  wandering]. 

A  people  of  Arabia  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21;  Ezek.  xxvii.  19, 
R.Y.  margin).  The  kindred  name  Azal  was, 
according  to  Arabian  tradition,  the  ancient 
name  of  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen,  in  Arabia. 


ITz'za  [strength].  The  orthography  is 
Aramaic. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  or  a  descendant  of 
Ehud  (1  Chron.  viii.  7). 

2.  The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  from  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  49;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

3.  A  man  known  only  as  the  original  owner 
of  a  garden.  This  garden  ultimately  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah, 
and  was  within  the  precincts  of  his  palace. 
Both  Manasseh  and  his  son  Anion  were  buried 
in  it  (2  Kin.  xxi.  18,  26;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxxiii, 
20).  The  garden  was  apparently  at  or  near 
Jerusalem,  but  the  exact  spot  is  uudeter- 
mined. 

4  and  5.  Two  men  otherwise  called  Uzzah. 
Uz'zali,   and  Uzza  in  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-11 
and  A.  V.  of  vi.  29  [strength]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab,  of  what  ti-ibe  is  un- 
known. When  the  ark  had  reached  the 
threshing  floor  of  Nacon,  or  Chidou,  on  its 
way  to  the  city  of  David,  the  oxen  stumbled, 
and  Uzzah,  putting  forth  his  hand  to  sup 
port  the  sacred  symbol,  was  struck  dead. 
The  place  was  therefore  called  Perez-uzzah, 
breach  of  Uzzah,  or  breaking  out  against 
Uzzah,  and  long  retained  the  name  (2  Sam. 
vi.  3-11;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-14). 

2.  A  son  of  Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  29). 
Uz-zen-she'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  Uzzen-sherah. 
A  village  built  by  Sheerah,  daughter  of  an 

Ephraimite  named  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  24). 
It  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  two 
Beth-horons,  and  is  considered  to  have  been 
at  Beit  Sira,  3  miles  west  by  south  of  the 
nether  Beth-horon,  and  13  west  by  north  of 
Jerusalem. 

Uz'zi  [my  strength,  or  might  of  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  2,  3). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Bukki,  and  father  of 
Zerahiah,  of  the  line  of  Eleazar  (1  Chron.  vi. 
5,  6,  51).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  Ezra  (Ezra 
vii.  4). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela,  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

4.  Another  Benjamite,  son  of  Michri,  and 
father  of  Elah  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph.  He  was 
son  of  Bani,  and  overseer  of  the  Levites  at 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  22). 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  the  house  of  Jedaiah 
in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  19). 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  assisted  at 
the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Uz-zi'a  [probably,  Aramaic  spelling  of 
'Ussii/i/ah,  might  of  Jehovah]. 

A  man  from  the  town  of  Ashtaroth,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  ('hron.  xi.  44). 

Uz-zfah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ozias  [might 
of  .Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Koliatliite  Levite,  the  son  of  Shau/ 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24). 


Uzziel 


Vashti 


2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jehouathan  in 
David's  time  (1  Ghroii.  xxvii.  25). 

.S.  A  king  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xv.  13,  30-34  ; 
2  Chronicles  and  Isaiah ;  Hos.  i.  1  ;  Amos  i. 
1 ;  Zeoh.  xiv.  5  ;  Mat.  i.  9)  ;  called  Azariah  in 
2  Kin.  xiv.  21 ;  xv.  1-8,  17-27  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  12 
(see  Azariah).  He  succeeded  his  father  Ama- 
ziah  abont  786  b.  c.  during  the  latter's  life- 
time, a  few  years  after  the  crushing  defeat 
was  inflicted  on  Araaziah  bythe  kingof  Israel. 
That  he  reigned  daring  his  father's  lifetime 
is  evident  from  the  statement  made  in  con- 
nection with  the  record  of  his  reign,  that  he 
built  Elath  after  the  death  of  the  .king  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  22).  He  was  sixteen  years  old 
when  he  ascended  the  throne  (21).  After 
conducting  the  government  for  twenty-four 
years,  it  is  recorded  that  "lie  reigned  in 
the  twenty-seventh  year  of  Jeroboam  "  (xv. 
1 ;  the  word  "  began "  is  not  in  the  He- 
brew text).  This  statement  "is  most  easily 
explained,"  says  Kleinert,  "bythe  assump- 
tion that  in  this  year  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
had  regained  the  full  sovereignty  ;  "  freeing 
itself  from  vassalage  to  Jeroboam,  in  which 
it  had  been  held  since  the  overthrow  of 
Amaziah,  the  capture  and  dismantlement  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  enforcement  of  hostages. 
Uzziah  organized  the  army  ;  and  he  improved 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
weapons  and  military  engines  of  his  troops. 
He  gained  important  victories  over  the  Phi- 
listines and  Arabs  razed  the  walls  of  Gath, 
Jabneh,  and  Ashdod,  and  received  tribute 
from  the  Ammonites  and  other  foes  ( 2 
Chron.  xxvi.  6-8).  So  strong  did  Judah  be- 
come. Uzziah  promoted  agriculture  by  build- 
ing towers  in  the  desert  and  digging  wells. 
Uzziah  himself  worshiped  Jehovah,  but  did 
not  take  away  the  high  places  at  which  his 
people  sacrificed  to  other  gods.  At  length, 
elated  by  his  prosperity,  he  entered  the  tem- 
ple against  priestly  remonstrance,  and  at- 
tempted to  oft'er  incense,  but  was  struck 
with  leprosy,  from  whicli  he  never  recovered. 
He  had  therefore  to  associate  his  son  Jotham 
with  him  in  the  government.  A  notable 
earthquake  occurred  during  his  reign  (Amos 
i.  1;  Zecli.  xiv.  5),  which  took  place  near 
enough  to  his  attempt  to  invade  the  priest's 
office  to  be  connected  with  it  in  the  popular 
memory  (Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  His  reign  ex- 
tended to  fifty-two  years.  He  died  about  the 
year  735  b.  c.  (2  Kin.  xv.  1-7 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
1-23).  Before  his  decease  the  prophets  Isaiah, 
Hosea,  and  Amos  had  begun  their  public 
career  (Is.  i.  1 ;  vi.  1 ;  Hos.  i.  1  ;  Amos 
1.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Harim.  He  was  in- 
duced bv  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  x.^  21). 

5.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
yi.  4). 

Uz'zi-el  [might  of  God]. 
1.   A   Levite,  son  of  Kohath,  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18,  22;  Num.   iii. 


19,  27,  30).  He  was  a  kinsman  of  Aaron  on 
the  father's  side  (Lev.  x.  4).  Amminadab, 
the  chief  of  the  Uzzielites,  and  112  of  his 
brethren,  were  organized  by  David  for  ser- 
vice when  he  brought  up  the  ark  to  the  city 
of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  10). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
vii.  7). 

3.  A  Levite,  instrumentalist  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  Called  in  verse  18 
Azarel ;  see  Azarel  2. 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun.  He  assisted 
king  Hezekiah  in  his  work  of  reformation  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  14). 

5.  A  Simeonite  captain,  one  of  those  who, 
in  Hezekiah's  reign,  led  a  successful  expedi- 
tion against  the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir  (1 
Chron.  iv.  41-43). 

6.  A  goldsmith,  son  of  Harhaiah.  He 
helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  8). 


V. 


Va'lieb. 

A  place  near  the  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  14,  15, 
E.  v.),  otherwise  unknown.     See  Di-zahab. 

Va-iz'a-tha,  in  A.  V.  Va-jez'a-tha  [Per- 
sian, perhaps  meaning  strong  as  the  wind]. 

A  son  of  Hamau  (Esth.  ix.  9J. 

Vale  and  Valley. 

The  vale  or  the  valley,  par  excellence,  is 
in  A.  Y.  the  Shephelah  or  lowland  (q.  v.). 

Va-ni'ah  [perhaps,  distress]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  36). 

Vash'ni. 

According  to  1  Chron.  vi.  28  (A.  V.  follow- 
ing the  Hebrew  text),  the  eldest  son  of  Sam- 
uel, in  which  case  he  would  be  the  same  as 
Joel  of  verse  33,  and  of  1  Sam.  viii.  2.  But 
the  text  is  corrupt.  Joel  has  accidentally 
slipped  out,  the  conjunction  vau  before 
Abiah  has  crept  in,  and  vaslmi  should  be  ren- 
dered "and  the  second"  (R.  V.  following 
Syriac  and  1  Sam.  viii.  2). 

Vash'ti. 

The  queen  of  the  Persian  sovereign  Ahasu- 
erus.  For  refusing  to  show  herself  to  the 
king's  guests  at  a  feast  celebrated  in  his 
third  year,  she  was  divorced  and  depcsed 
(Esth.  i.  3  and  9-ii.  1).  Vashti  may  be  a 
title,  old  FeTsiani^ahishii,  sweetest;  or  it  may 
be  connected  with  the  name  of  an  Elamite 
deity  called  Washti  (see  discussion,  article 
Esther)  ;  or  it  may  be  the  Hebrew  repro- 
duction of  the  Persian  name  which  the 
Greeks  pronounced  Amestris.  Amestris, 
daughter  of  Otanes,  was  the  wife  of  Xerxes 
(Herod,  vii.  61,  114).  If  she  was  Vashti, 
Vashti  was  ultimately  restored  to  favor;  for 
Amestris  was  the  recognized  wife  of  Xerxes 
about  479  b.  c,  at  the  end  of  his  eighth  or  in 
his  ninth  regnal  year  (ix.  109). 


Vav 


(98 


Versions 


Vav,  in  A.  V.  and  E.  R.  V.  Vau. 

The  sixth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet 
The  English  F.  through  the  Greek  digammii 
or  fau,  has  the  same  origin.  Where  it  is  a 
consonant  in  Hebrew  names,  it  appears  as  v 
in  the  anglicized  form. 

It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sixth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  begins  with  this  letter. 

At  several  diiiereut  periods  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  it  has  had 
similarity  with  other  letters.  On  the  tomb 
of  James,  dating  from  the  first  century  be- 
fore Christ,  vau  and  zain  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  one  another,  and  jod  dif- 
fers only  by  a  hook  at  the  top  and  a  slope  ; 
thus,  in  the  order  named,  HjH,"^ 
In  the  inscription  on  the  synagogue  at  Kefr 
Bir'im  the  ditference  between  vau  and  jod 
has  disappeared. 

Ve'dan. 

A  place  with  which  Tyre  traded  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  19,  K.  y.) ;  possibly  either  Adin  or 
Weddan,  between  Mecca  and  Medina.  But 
the  text  may  be  corrupt.  The  A.  V.  has  the 
rendering  "  Dan  also,"  the  first  syllable  being 
regarded  as  the  Hebrew  conjunction  vau. 

Veil,  in  A.  V.  often  Vail.  See  Clothing, 
Tabernacle,  and  Temple,  Herod's. 

Ver-mil'ion. 

A  red  pigment  obtained  by  grinding  the 
mineral  cinnabar  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiii. 
38).  It  was  called  shashar  in  Hebrew,  miltos 
in  Greek ;  and  was  used  to  paint  walls, 
mural  decorations,  and  idols  (Jer.  xxii.  14  ; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  14  ;  Wisd.  xiii.  14).  Vermilion 
is  a  satisfactory  translation  of  the  word  in 
these  passages;  but  miltos  was  of  broader 
meaning  and  denoted  any  red,  mineral,  color- 
ing matter ;  as  red  lead,  or  clay  mingled  with 
fhe  oxide  of  iron  and  known  as  ocher.  Rude 
Africans  bedaubed  the  body  with  it  (Herod, 
iv.  191, 194),  and  certain  tribes  used  it  as  war 
paint  (vii.  69). 

Ver'sions. 

Translations  of  the  Bible  or  of  any  por- 
tions of  it  into  vernacular  tongues,  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  understand  the  original 
imperfectly  or  not  at  all. 

Versions  are  immediate  or  mediate,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  made  directly  from  the  orig- 
inal text  or  through  the  medium  of  other 
translations.  Four  ancient  immediate  ver- 
sions of  the  O.  T.  have  come  down  to  modern 
times :  the  Sei)tuagint,  the  Targums  of  On- 
kelos  and  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  the  Syriac 
Peshito  with  a  considerable  portion  of  its  pred- 
ecessors, and  the  I^atin  Vulgate.  They  de- 
rive special  value  from  the  fact  that  they 
were  made  before  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Masoretes  was  established. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  not  a  version  ; 
it  is  the  Hebrew  text  written  in  Samaritan 
or  old  Hebrew  chai-acters,  with  various  di- 
vergences from  tiic  Hebrew  text  of  the  Mas- 


oretes (see  Samaritan  Pentateuch)  -.  ard 
the  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
a  translation  of  this  divergent  text  into  the 
Samaritan  dialect. 

I.  Ancient  Versions  of  the  0.  T.,  made  for 
the  use  of  Jeivs. 

1.  Tlie  l^epiuafiint.  The  most  celebrated 
Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
and  the  oldest  complete  translation  of  them 
It  was  called  the  Septuagiut,  commonly 
designated  by  LXX.,  after  the  seventy 
translators  reputed  to  have  been  employed 
on  it  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
285-247_  B.  c.  Aristobulus,  a  Jewish  priest 
who  lived  in  Alexandria  during  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  181-146  B.  c,  and 
who  is  mentioned  in  2  Mac.  i.  10,  is  quoted  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius  as. 
stating  that  while  portions  relating  to  He- 
brew history  had  been  translated  into  Greek 
previously,  the  entire  law  was  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  under  the  direction  of  Deme- 
trius Phalereus.  The  same  tradition,  but  con- 
siderably embellished,  is  contained  in  a  letter 
purporting  to  have  been  written  by  Aristeas- 
to  his  brother.  This  letter  is  condemned  by 
modern  scholars  as  spurious.  The  same  story 
as  that  told  by  Aristeas  is  repeated  with 
slight  variations  by  Josephus,  who  may  have 
had  the  letter  before  him.  Josephus  relates 
that  Demetrius  Phalereus,  librarian  to  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,  who  rei«tned  alone  from 
283-247  B.  c,  wished  to  add  to  the  200,000 
volumes  in  the  library  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew 
books  of  the  law,  and  to  have  them  translated 
into  Greek,  as  they  were  unintelligible  in 
the  original.  The  king  consented,  and  made 
application  to  Eleazar  the  high  priest  at 
Jerusalem  for  seventy-two  aged  and  skillful 
interpreters,  six  from  each  tribe,  to  make  the 
translation.  They  arrived  in  Alexandria, 
bringing  the  law  written  in  golden  letters 
on  books  of  parchment.  They  were  hos- 
pitably received,  were  assigned  a  quiet  house 
on  the  island  of  Pharos  in  the  harbor  of 
Alexandria,  and  transcribed  and  interpreted 
the  law  in  seventy-two  days  (Antiq.  xii.  2, 
1-13;  con.  Ajiion.  ii.  4). 

These  ancient  reports  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  Septuagiut  have  great  value,  although 
reliance  cannot  be  placed  on  the  details,  and 
the  statements  regarding  the  scope  of  the 
work  are  difiicult  of  interpretation.  It  is, 
however,  commonly  agreed  that  the  Sep- 
tuagiut originated  in  Egypt,  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  translated  into  Greek  in  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Philadeli)hus,  that  the  other 
books  followed  gradually,  and  that  the  entire 
work  was  completed  by  150  B.  c.  Reference 
to  a  Greek  version  of  the  law,  the  prophets, 
and  the  other  books  is  made  by  Jesus,  .son  of 
Sirach,  as  early  as  132  B.  c.  (Ecclus.  prologue). 
It  is  possible  that  the  work  was  revised  in 
the  Maccabsean  period.  The  version  is  the 
work  of  many  translators,  as  difierences  in 
stylo  and  method  show,  and  its  quality  is 


Versions 


799 


Versions 


unequal  in  different  parts ;  it  is  also  much 
corrupted.  The  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, except  poetic  portions  (Gen.  xlix.  : 
Deut.  sxxii.  xxxiii.),  is  the  best  part  of  the 
work,  and  on  the  whole  is  well  executed,  al- 
though not  literal.  The  translators  of  The 
I'roverbs  and  Job  were  masters  of  a  pood 
(inck  style,  but  were  impeifectly  acquainted 
with  Hebrew  and  handled  the  original  arbi- 
trarily. The  translation  of  The  Proverbs  is 
based  on  a  Hebrew  text  that  varied  consid- 
erably from  the  present  Masoretic  text.  Tbe 
general  sense  of  the  Psalms  is  fairly  well 
re])roduced.  Ecclesiastes  is  rendered  with 
slavish  literalness.  The  translation  of  the 
jirophets  is  unequal  in  quality.  That  of 
Amos  and  Ezekiel  is  tolerably  well  done,  but 
that  of  Isaiah  is  quite  inferior.  The  version 
of  Jeremiah  was  possibly  made  from  a  differ- 
ent form  of  the  Hebrew  text  tlian  the  Maso- 
retic. Of  all  the  O.  T.  books.  Daniel  is  the 
most  poorly  translated,  so  mucli  so  that  the 
early  Christians,  since  tlie  time  of  Irena?us 
and  Hi]ipolytus,  substituted  for  it  the  version 
of  Theodotion. 

Christ  and  his  apostles  used  the  Septuagint 
frequently.  In  quotiug  from  the  O.T.  some- 
times they  cited  the  Septuagint  verbatim,  or 
with  unimportant  verbal  changes  :  at  others, 
they  apparently  themselves  translated  from 
the  original  Hebrew.  There  are  about  350 
quotations  from  the  O.  T.  in  the  gospels.  The 
Acts,  and  the  epistles,  and  only  about  fifty 
materially  differ  from  the  Greek  version. 
1  lie  Ethiopian  eunuch  whom  Philip  met  was 
reading  the  Septuagint  (Acts  viii.  30-33). 

Three  main  recensions  of  the  Septuagint 
were  made.  One  was  issued  about  A.  D.  236, 
and  the  others  previous  to  A.  d.  311.  They 
were  that  of  Origen  in  Palestine,  of  Lucian 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Constantinople,  and  of 
Hesychius  in  Egypt.  The  Vatican  manu- 
script of  the  Septuagint  is  acknowledged  to 
exhibit  relatively  the  purest  and  most  origi- 
nal text,  and  it  probably  descended  from  that 
upon  which  Origen  based  the  text  of  the  Septu- 
agint given  in  the  fifth  column  of  his  Hex- 
apla;  see  I.  2.  Lucian's  recension  has  been 
edited  in  part  by  Lagarde  and  by  Oesterley. 
Lucian  was  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  and  died 
a  martyr's  death  at  Nicomadia  in  A.  D.  311 
or  312.  He  issued  a  revised  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint based  on  a  comparison  of  the  com- 
mon Greek  text  with  the  Hebrew  text, 
which  proves  to  have  been  a  good  text,  but 
different  from  that  of  the  Masoretes.  Hesy- 
chius was  bishop  of  Egypt,  and  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom A.  D.  310  or  311 ;  his  text  has  been  lost; 
but  a  codex,  known  as  Q,  preserved  in  the 
Vatican  lilirary,  and  containing  the  Proph- 
ets, is  believed  to  show  it  for  these  books. 

2.  Minor  Greek  Versions.  After  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  in  A.  d.  70,  the 
Septuagint  lost  favor  among  the  Jews,  partly 
because  of  the  successful  use  made  of  it 
by  the  Christians  in  establishing  the  claims 
of  Jesus,  and  partly  because  they  discovered 


that  its  style  lacked  elegance.  Accordingly 
three  translations  of  tlie  canonical  books  of 
the  O.  T.  were  made  by  Jews  in  the  second 
century.  1.  The  translation  by  Aquila,  a 
native  of  Pontus  and  a  proselyte  to  Judaism. 
He  lived  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hadrian, 
and  he  undertook  to  make  a  literal  version 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  in  order  to  coun-. 
teract  the  use  of  the  Septuagint  made  by  the 
Christians  in  advancing  their  doctrines.  It 
was  so  slavishly  literal  as  often  to  be  unin- 
telligible to  readers  who  did  notknow  Hebrew 
as  well  as  Greek.  2.  The  revision  of  the 
Septuagint  by  Theodotion,  a  Jewish  prose- 
lyte of  Ephesus  according  to  Irenaius,  and 
according  to  Eu.sebius  an  Ebionite,  believ- 
ing in  the  Messiahshij),  but  not  in  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  He  lived  before  A.  D.  160,  for  he 
is  mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr.  In  his  re- 
vision of  the  Septuagint  he  made  use  both 
of  Aquila's  translation  and  of  the  Hebrew 
original.  3.  The  elegant,  but  periphrastic, 
translation  by  Symmachus,  a  Samaritan 
Ebionite. 

Origen  arranged  the  Hebrew  text  and  four 
different  versions  in  six  parallel  columns  for 
purposes  of  comparison.  In  the  first  column 
he  put  the  Hebrew  text,  in  the  second  the 
Hebrew  written  in  Greek  letters,  in  the  third 
the  version  of  Aquila,  in  the  fourth  that  of 
Symmachus,  in  the  fifth  the  Septuagint,  in 
the  sixth  the  revision  by  Theodotion.  From 
these  six  columns  his  work  takes  its  name 
of  Hexapla.  In  the  column  devoted  to  the 
Septuagint  he  marked  with  obeli  words 
which  were  not  in  his  Hebrew  text.  He 
emended  the  Greek  text  by  supplying  words 
lacking  in  it,  but  found  in  the  Hebrew. 
These  he  indicated  by  asterisks.  He  con- 
formed the  spelling  of  proper  names  to  the 
fiebrew.  Origen  prepared  a  smaller  edition 
containing  the  last  four  columns  only,  and 
hence  called  theTetrapla.  These  two  works 
were  deposited  in  the  library  founded  by 
Origen's  disciple,  Pamphilus,  at  C'jesarea  in 
Palestine.  They  were  consulted  by  Jerome 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  were  still  in  ex- 
istence in  the  sixth  century.  It  is  thought 
that  they  were  destroyed  when  the  Moham- 
medans "took  the  town  in  A.  D.  638.  Frag- 
ments of  Origen's  great  work  are  preserved  in 
quotations  made  by  the  fathers.  The  Septua- 
gint column  was  separately  published  by 
Pamphilus  and  Eusebius  ;  and  it  was  trans- 
lated into  Syriac  by  Paul,  bishop  of  Telia,  in 
A.  D.  617-18.'  Origen  pur.sued  an  unfortunate 
method  when  he  conformed  the  text  of  the 
Septuagint  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  his  day ; 
since  the  great  desideratum  of  scholars  is 
the  Greek  text  as  it  left  the  translators' 
bands,  for  that  text  would  throw  light  on 
the  Hebrew  text  which  they  used.  More- 
over, the  obeli  and  asterisks,  which  Origen 
used,  were  often  neglected  or  carelessly  em- 
ployed by  copyists,  so  that  the  additions 
which  he  made  to  the  Septuagint  and  the 
portions  of  the  Septuagint  which  he  did  not 


Versions 


8U0 


V  ersions 


find  in  his  Hebrew  test  cannot  always  be 
discovered. 

3.  The  Taryvms.  When  the  Jews  returned 
from  the  Babylonian  exile,  the  Hebrew  of 
their  forefathers  ceased  to  be  their  ordinary 
speech,  and  Aramaic,  misnamed  Chaldee, 
took  its  place.  It  soon  became  necessary  at 
the  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  for  the 
reader  or  his  assistant  to  translate  the  pas- 
sage orally  that  the  iico]>le  might  understand. 
Tlie  custom  of  explaining  ol)scure  words  and 
phrases  at  the  public  reading  was  in  vogue 
in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  viii.  8).  The  event  re- 
ferred to  has  been  cited  as  evidence  that  the 
words  read  were  translated  ;  but  this  is  more 
tlian  the  statement  warrants,  and  depends 
upon  the  answer  to  the  question  whether 
tlie  Hehrews  had  adopted  a  foreign  language 
during  the  exile.  The  oral  ta^rgum— that  is. 
interpretation  or  translation — which  became 
necessary,  was  at  first  a  simple  paraphrase  in 
Aramaic  ;  but  eventually  it  became  elaborate, 
and  in  order  to  fix  it  as  a  translation  and 
render  it  authoritative  as  an  interpretation, 
it  was  reduced  to  writing.  These  written 
Targums  are  a  valuable  aid  in  determining 
the  text  as  read  in  the  early  synagogues  and 
in  discovering  the  meaning  which  the  Jews 
attached  to  difficult  passages.  The  principal 
Targums  are  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  on  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Targum  of  Jonathan 
ben  Uzziel  on  the  prophets.  According  to 
the  Talmud,  Onkelos  was  the  friend  of 
Gamaliel  and  a  fellow-pupil  of  Paul,  and 
therefore  lived  about  A.  D.  70.  His  Targum 
would  then  antedate  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  ;  but  it  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  later  production,  perhaps  as  early  as 
the  second  century.  It  is  quite  literal.  The 
Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  periphrastic  ;  and  it  is  of  later  date. 
The  Targums  on  the  Hagiographa  date  from 
the  eleventh  century. 

II.  Ancient  Versions  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  Bible,  and  intended  chiefly  for  Christians. 

1.  Si/riac  Versions. 

(1)  The  Old  Syriac  Version  of  the  N.  T. 
This  is  represented  by  the  gosjjels  discov- 
ered by  Mi-s.  Lewis  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Catherine  on  mount  Sinai  in  1892,  and  by 
the  closely  related  fragments  found  by  Cure- 
ton  in  a  Syrian  convent  in  the  Nitrian  desert 
in  1841-43. 

(2)  The  Pe.shito.  Peshito  means  simple  or 
vulgate.  The  O.  T.  was  made  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  first  instance  was 
in-obably  prepared  for  the  use  of  Jewish 
proselytes.  It  was  made  as  early  as  the  first 
century.  The  N.  T.  is  a  revision  of  the  old 
Syriac  in  order  to  bring  it  into  closer  agree- 
ment with  the  Greek  text  and  improve  its 
diction  and  style.  The  Peshito  seems  to 
have  been  in  circulation  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. By  reason  of  its  elegance  it  has  often 
been  called  tlie  queen  of  ver.sions. 

(3)  The  Philoj-enian  Version  of  the  X.  T 
This  is  so  called    because   it  was  translated 


in  A.  D.  508  by  Phiioxenus,  bishop  of  Hier- 
apolis,  in  Asia  Minor. 

(4)  The  .Terusalem  or  Palestinian  Syriac  Ver- 
sion of  the  N.  T.  is  but  little  known  as  yet, 
but  promises  to  be  of  critical  value. 

2.   Latin  Versions. 

(1)  The  Old  Latin  or  North  African  Version. 
By  the  end  of  the  second  century  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Scriptures  was  in  circulation 
in  northern  Africa.  It  was  used  by  Tertul- 
lian,  who  died  about  A.  D.  220,  and  by 
Cyprian  and  Augustine.  The  O.  T.  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  was  based  on  the  Greek  version. 

(2)  The  Itala  or  Italian  Version.  Augustine 
testifies  that  a  translation  of  the  N.  T.  was 
made  by  any  one  who  had  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  Greek.  The  North  African  version 
of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  was  provincial  in  its  lan- 
guage and  offisnsive  to  the  ears  of  the  Latin 
speaking  Romans  of  the  capital.  In  the 
fourth  century,  therefore,  a  recension  of  the 
text  took  place,  which,  from  being  made  in 
Italy,  was  called  the  Itala. 

(3)  The  VuUjate.  The  issue  of  the  Itala 
was  followed  by  other  recensions,  of  which 
almost  the  only  etfect  was  to  bring  the  text 
into  confusion ;  till  at  length  in  A.  D.  383  a 
Christian  father,  Jerome  or  Hieronymus, 
A.  D.  329  or  331  to  420,  the  most  learned 
scholar  of  his  day  and  a  man  of  moral 
earnestness  and  piety,  was  requested  by 
Damasus,  bishop  of  Eome,  to  undertake  a 
revision  of  the  Latin  N.  T.  The  gospels 
were  compared  with  the  original  Greek,  in- 
terpolations were  removed,  and  gross  errors 
were  corrected.  He  also  made  two  revisions 
of  the  old  Latin  version  of  the  Psalms  by 
comparing  it  with  the  Septuagint.  These 
are  known  as  the  Eoman  and  Galilean 
psalters,  because  introduced  into  Rome  and 
Gaul  respectively.  Jerome  then  designed  a 
revi-sion  of  the  entire  O.  T.  In  387  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  a  monastery  at  Bethle- 
hem. He  began  and  completed  a  revision 
based  on  the  hexaplar  text  of  Origen  ;  but 
ultimately  he  made  a  version  immediately 
from  the  Hebrew,  with  constant  reference  to 
the  Greek  versions  and  with  special  respect 
for  Synnnachns.  As  a  youth  he  had  pursued 
the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  after  his  removal 
to  Betlilcliein  he  resumed  it  with  the  aid  of 
Jewish  teachers.  Samuel  and  Kings,  prefaced 
by  the  famous  Prolo<jns  galleatiis  giving  an 
account  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  were  issued 
in  392,  and  the  entire  work  was  completed 
in  403.  His  own  generation  gave  him  abuse 
rather  than  gratitude  for  the  very  imjiortiint 
service  he  had  rendered  it ;  and  the  eminent 
father,  whose  temper  was  none  of  the  l)est, 
retorted  by  expressing  the  contempt  which 
knowledge  feels  for  blatant  and  aggressive 
ignorance.  As  the  ages  rolled  forward,  his 
work,  which  was  done  not  for  one  genera- 
tion, but  for  all  succeeding  time,  was  more 
and  more  api)reciated.  The  Vulgate  became 
the  Bible  of  the  whole   western  church    in 


Versions 


801 


Versions 


the  Middle  Ages,  and  notwithstaudiug  ver- 
nacular translations,  remains  the  Bible  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  still.  A  recen- 
sion of  the  text  was  made  by  Alcuin,  at  the 
instance  of  Charlemagne,  about  H02.  The 
Latin  Vulgate  was  the  first  book  ever  printed, 
having  been  issued  from  the  press  about 
1455,  soon  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing. On  April  8,  1546,  the  Council  of  Trent 
made  a  decree  which  expressed  the  wish  for 
a  fresh  revision.  Scholars  were  dilatory 
about  undertaking  the  duty,  till  a  pontiff 
of  iron  will,  Sixtus  V.,  urged  on  the  work 
and  even  took  a  personal  part  in  its  accom- 
plishment. The  revision  was  published  in 
1590.  A  diflferent  one  came  forth  under  the 
auspices  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1592.  It 
was  an  improvement  on  the  Sixtine  edition, 
but  did  not  quite  render  it  obsolete.  Both 
editions  are  still  in  use.  The  Clementine 
text  of  the  Vulgate  of  the  O.  T.,  with  the 
various  readings  of  the  codex  Amiatinus, 
has  been  edited  by  Heyse  and  Tischendorf, 
and  the  N.  T.  according  to  the  codex  Ami- 
atinus by  Tischendorf.  It  is  from  the  Vul- 
gate that  a  large  part  of  the  technical  lan- 
guage used  in  theology  is  derived.  For 
instance,  sacrament,  justification,  and  sanc- 
tification  are  simply  the  anglicized  forms  of 
sacramentum,  jnstijicatio,  and  sanctificatio,  oc- 
curring in  the  Vulgate. 

3.  Copllc  ]'erduti.s  of  the.  N.  T.  They  appear 
princijjally  in  two  dialects,  Memphitic  and 
Thebaic.  The  Memphitic  version  is  supposed 
to  date  from  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  faithful,  and  preserves 
the  best  text  as  current  among  the  Alexan- 
drian fathers,  free  from  the  corruj)tions 
that  prevailed  in  the  second  century.  The 
Thebaic  version  is  believed  to  be  slightly 
later  in  date,  and  it  is  less  faithful  to  the 
original. 

4.  The  Ethiopic  VersionoftheBibleyvasiaa.de 
some  time  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies A.  D. ;.  it  is  the  oldest  monument  as 
well  as  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Ethiopic 
literature.  Its  translators  were  not  learned 
men,  nor  entirely  familiar  with  Greek,  but 
the  rendering  is  faithful  and  has  jireserved 
peculiarities.  The  O.  T.  portion  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  was  made  from  the  Greek  version,  and 
is  therefore  valuable  as  an  aid  in  determining 
the  text  of  the  Septuagint. 

5.  The  Gothic  ]'eysion  was  made  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  century  by  Ul]!hilas, 
bishop  of  the  West  Goths.  It  embraced  the 
whole  Bible  exccjjt  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
Kings,  which  the  bishop  omitted,  because  he 
thought  it  would  be  dangerous  to  place  them, 
with  their  warlike  spirit  and  opposition  to 
idolatrj',  in  the  hands  of  the  Goths.  Most 
of  the'N.  T.,  but  little  of  the  O.  T.  in  this 
version  is  extant.  The  translation  is  faith- 
ful and  skillful. 

6.  The  vj-taiit  Arahic  J'ersions  are  late,  and 
of  no  critical  importance. 

51 


III.   English  Versions. 

1.  Earh/  English  Ver.'iions.  In  Anglo-Saxon 
times  portions  of  Scripture,  especially  the 
Psalms,  the  ten  coinniandments,  and  por- 
tions of  the  gospels,  were  tran.slated  into 
the  vernacular  tongue.  After  the  language 
had  been  modified  by  the  Norman  conquest, 
various  portions  of  Scri])ture,  especially  the 
gospels,  were  reudcriMl  into  the  language  of 
the  nation.  But  no  effort  was  made  simi- 
larly to  treat  the  Bible  as  a  whole. 

2.'  Wydiffe  and  Pnrrei/'s  Bible.  Of  this 
there  are  two  versions :  the  first  apparently 
between  1382  and  1.3S.3,  and  the  second  about 
1388.  The  first,  which  was  robust  and  terse, 
l)ut  unpolished  in  language,  was  mainly  Wyc- 
liffe's :  the  second,  which  was  more  refined, 
emanated  chiefly  from  Purvey,  for  Wycliffe, 
who  was  born  about  a.  d.  1324,  had  died 
on  December  31,  1384.  The  best-known  ver- 
sion is  Purvey's.  Here  are  specimens  of 
both  versions.  Gen.  i.  1  :  "In  the  firste  made 
God  of  nou3t  heuene  and  erthe."  In  the  later 
version  this  reads  :  "  In  the  bigynuyng  God 
made  of  nou3t  heuene  and  erthe."  In 
the  older  version  John  iii.  16  is :  "  Forsothe 
God  so  loued  the  world,  that  he  gaf  his  oon 
bigetun  sone,  that  ech  man  that  bileueth  iu 
to  him  perische  not,  but  haue  euere  lasting 
lyf "  ;  but  in  the  later  version  it  is  changed 
to :  "  For  God  louede  so  the  world,  that  he  gaf 
his  oon  bigetun  sone,  that  ech  man  that 
bileueth  in  him  perische  not,  but  haue  euer- 
lastynge  lijf."  Both  versions  were  made 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Wycliffe's  version 
was  the  first  rendering  of  the  Scriptures  into 
any  form  of  modern  English,  and  it  helped 
to  mold  the  language ;  it  also  exei'ted  great 
influence  on  the  national  life  ;  but  it  was 
circulated  in  manuscript  copies  only,  and 
was  not  printed  until  1848. 

3.  About  1.526  there  arrived  from  abroad  a 
translation  of  the  N.  T.  from  the  original 
Greek  by  the  reformer  William  Tyndale, 
who  had  left  his  native  England  to  escape 
persecution.  It  was  published  at  Worms, 
and  was  made  from  the  Greek  of  Erasmus, 
probably  from  the  edition  of  1519,  although 
the  edition  of  1522  was  consulted.  Tyndale 
translated  immediately  from  the  Greek,  u.sing 
the  German  N.  T.  of  Luther  and  the  Vulgate 
as  aids.  His  work  excited  great  opposition 
from  the  leading  dignitaries  of  the  then 
dominant  church,  though  many  of  the  com- 
mon people  received  it  gladly.  The  book 
was  pronounced  full  of  pestilent  errors,  and 
was  burnt  at  Paul's  Cross.  In  1,530,  and 
again  in  1534,  he  published  a  translation  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  in  1531  of  the  book  of 
.Tonah.  They  were  made  immediately  from 
the  original  Hebrew,  Luther  and  the  Vulgate 
being  used  as  aids.  In  1534  a  fresh  edition 
of  his  N.  T.  was  issued  from  Antwerp.  There 
is  evidence  that  he  translated  other  portions 
of  the  O.  T.  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
most  probably  to  the  end  of  Chronicles  with 
several  prophetical   books;  but  he  did  not 


Versions 


S()2 


Versions 


live  to  publish  them.  He  was  arrested  on 
the  23d  or  24th  of  May,  1535,  at  Antwerp, 
where  he  had  permanently  settled,  and  on 
the  6th  of  f>ctober,  1536,  was  first  strangled 
and  then  bnrnt  as  a  heretic.  But  his  woi'k 
remained.  It  fixed  the  English  standard  of 
Bible  translation,  and  its  diction  and  style 
still  live  in  the  English  version  and  lend  it 
literary  charm  and  character. 

4.  Cover(lnIe\'i  Bible.  This  work  was  pub- 
lished in  1535,  with  no  mention  who  the 
printer  was  nor  from  what  city  or  town  it 
issued.  Probably  Zurich  is  entitled  to  the 
honor,  but  possibly  Frankfort  or  Cologne.  It 
was  the  first  complete  English  Bible  issued 
from  the  press.  The  N.  T.  and  much  of  the 
O.  T.  are  practically  Tyndalc's.  Only  the 
portion  from  Job  to  Malachi  was  translated 
independently  by  Miles  Coverdale,  and  he 
used  not  the  original  Hebrew,  but  a  Swi.ss- 
German  Bible  printed  at  Zurich  in  1527-29. 
He  describes  the  book  as  "  translated  out  of 
Douche  and  Latyn  in  to  Euglishe."  Cover- 
dale's  version  of  the  Psalms,  virtually  un- 
changed, is  still  used  by  the  church  of  Eng- 
land in  its  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

5.  Matthew's  Bible.  Thomas  Matthew  is 
believed  to  have  been  only  a  name  assumed 
l)y  John  Rogers,  successor  to  Tyndale  as 
chaplain  to  the  English  merchants  of  the 
Steelyard  at  Antwerp,  the  first  martyr  in  the 
persecution  under  Mary  Tudor.  In  1537  he 
printed  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  iierhaps  at 
Antwerp.  It  contains  Tyndale's  translations 
in  their  latest  form.  For  books  not  trans- 
lated by  Tyndale,  the  text  is  taken  from 
Coverdale's  version.  It  had  bold  annota- 
tions, yet  it  was  the  first  Bible  licensed  by 
public  authority. 

6.  Taverner's  Bible.  This  was  published  in 
the  year  15.39,  and  was  designed  to  counter- 
act the  influence  of  Matthew's  Bible,  and 
especially  of  his  daring  explanatory  notes. 

7.  The  Great  Bible ;  called  also  Cranmer's 
Bible.  The  first  name  was  given  it  on  ac- 
count of  its  size,  the  page  of  type  measuring 
13^  by  7|  inches,  and  the  second  name  came 
into  use  because  Cranraer  wrote  the  introduc- 
tion to  it.  It  was  undertaken  by  Coverdale 
at  Cromwell's  suggestion,  was  produced 
mainly  by  the  revision  of  the  text  of  Mat- 
thew's Bible,  and  appeared  in  1539-41.  It 
was  warmly  welcomed,  and  seven  editions  of 
it  ere  long  appeared. 

8.  The  Geneva  Bible.  This  revision  was  the 
work  of  three  exiles,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  Geneva  during  the  Marian  persecution, 
Whittingham,  Gilby,  and  Sampson.  It  was 
a  revision  of  Tyndale,  collated  with  the 
Great  Bible.  From  the  occurrence  of  the 
word  breeches  in  Gen.  iii.,  where  the  A.  V. 
was  subsequently  to  have  aprons,  it  is  some- 
times called  the  Breeches  Bible.  The  N.  T. 
appeared  in  1557,  and  the  whole  Bible  in 
1560.  These  two  editions  were  the  first 
English  translations  to  use  the  division 
into  verses.    The  translators  availed  them- 


selves of  the  aids  furnished  by  the  best 
biblical  scholarship  of  the  age,  and  it  is 
itself  the  most  scholarly  of  the  early 
English  versions.  It  was  a  handy  volume, 
being  small  quarto  in  size.  It  was  well 
received  among  the  common  people,  espe- 
cially those  of  Puritan  tendency,  and  for  .sev- 
enty-five years  was  the  Bible  in  current  use. 
It  was  provided  with  notes,  which  form  a 
sound  and  helpful  commentary  along  practi- 
cal, expository,  and  doctrinal  lines,  and  was 
the  first  Bible  printed  in  Scotland. 

9.  The  Bishops' Bible.  The  popularity  of  the 
Geneva  Bible  was  not  acceptable  to  the  bish- 
ops, and  in  1568  they  issued  one  of  their  own. 
It  borrowed  from  the  Geneva  version  the 
division  of  the  chapters  into  verses.  In  1571 
Convocation  pronounced  in  its  favor,  and 
ordered  copies  to  be  placed  in  all  the  churches. 
It  was  founded  chiefly  on  the  Great  Bible, 
though  borrowing  a  few  variations  from  the 
Geneva  version. 

10.  The  Rheims  and  Douay  Bible.  This  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  version  of  the  Scriptures 
into  English.  It  was  made  from  the  Vulgate, 
and  published,  the  N.  T.  at  Rheims  in  1582, 
and  the  O.  T.  at  Douay  in  1609-10.  It  con- 
tains a  highly  controversial  commentary.  Its 
language  and  style  smack  more  of  Latin 
than  English  ;  but  it  gave  currency  to  many 
words  borrowed  from  the  Latin,  and  not  a 
few  of  them,  such  as  impenitent,  ])ropitia- 
tion,  remission,  found  a  place  in  the  A.  V. 

11.  The  Authorised  Version.  The  proposal 
to  make  this  version  came,  apparently  on  the 
spur  of  the  moment,  from  Dr.  Eeinolds,  or 
Reynolds,  president  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  during  the  discussion  between 
the  Anglicans  and  the  Puritans  at  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  on  the  14th, 
16th,  and  18th  of  Januar.y,  1604.  King  James 
I.,  whose  interest  in  theology  is  well  known, 
was  pleased  by  the  proposal,  and  on, the  10th 
of  February,  1604,  he  ordered,  among  other 
things,  "  that  a  translation  be  made  of  the 
whole  Bible,  as  consonant  as  can  be  to  the 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek ;  and  this  to  be 
set  out  and  printed,  without  any  marginal 
notes,  and  only  to  be  used  in  all  churches  of 
England  in  time  of  divine  service."  The 
king  appointed  fifty-four  translators,  but 
only  forty-.seven  took  part  in  the  work.  They 
were  formed  into  six  companies,  two  of 
which  met  at  Westminster,  two  at  Oxford, 
and  two  at  Cambridge.  The  work  was  issued 
in  1611,  with  a  fulsome  dedication  to  king 
James.  It  was  not  a  new  translation,  but  a 
scholarly  revision  of  a  good  version.  It  has 
endeared  itself  to  all  English-speaking  Chris- 
tians, and  is  the  translation  now  in  common 
use. 

12.  The  Revised  Version.  A  revision  of  the 
A.  V.  became  necessary  because  in  thecour.se 
of  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half 
through  new  manuscripts  and  careful  study 
corruptions  had  been  discovered  in  the  text 
of  the   (ireek   Testament   which   had    been 


Vine 


so:5 


Vine 


used  for  the  English  version,  and  a  superior 
text  had  been  provided.  Greek  and  Hebrew 
scholarship  had  also  made  great  advances 
during  the  same  period.  In  February,  1870, 
the  Convocation  of  the  Province  of  Canter- 
bury planned,  not  a  new  translation,  but  a 
fresh  revision  of  the  time-honored  version. 
Two  companies  were  formed  for  the  purpose, 
one  for  each  Testament.  That  for  the  O.  T. 
consisted  of  twenty-seven  members;  and 
that  for  the  N.  T.  likewise  of  twenty-seven 
members  at  first,  but  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  time  of  twenty-four.  Two-thirds  of 
these  belonged  to  the  church  of  England. 
Two  companies  of  scholars  in  America  co- 
operated, fourteen  for  the  O.  T.  and  thirteen 
for  the  N.  T.,  representing  the  different 
Protestant  churches.  The  work  was  begun 
on  the  22d  of  June,  1870.  The  N.  T.  took 
ten  and  a  half  years,  and  was  published  in 
May,  1881.  The  revision  of  the  O.  T.  was 
commenced  on  the  30th  of  .June,  1870,  and 
was  completed  in  fourteen  years,  on  June 
20th,  1884.  The  American  Revised  Version 
is  the  Eevised  Version  of  1,^81  and  1884  newly 
edited,  the  N.  T.  in  the  year  1900,  and  tlu- 
O.  T.  in  1901.  The  American  edition  incor- 
porates in  the  text  the  readings  and  render- 
ings preferred  by  the  two  American  commit- 
tees, adds  references  to  parallel  and  illustra- 
tive passages,  provides  a  running  headline  to 
indicate  the  topics  in  the  page,  removes  the 
verse  numbers  from  the  margin  to  the  text, 
substitutes  the  name  Jehovah  for  Lord  and 
God,  wherever  it  is  found  in  the  original, 
and  increases  the  number  of  changes  made 
for  the  sake  of  euphemism.  The  Eevised  is 
inferior  to  the  Authorized  Version  in  felicity 
of  expression,  and  the  sentences  are  less  per- 
fect in  their  rhythm  and  their  cadence.  But 
as  a  work  of  science  it  is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  A.V.  Especially  in  the  poetic  and 
prophetical  portions  of  the  O.  T.  and  in  the 
epistles  of  the  N.  T.  has  the  true  meaning  been 
made  clear.  The  orthography  also  of  the 
proper  names  has  been  vastly  improved. 

Vine. 

Any  plant  with  a  long,  slender,  prostrate 
or  climbing  stem,  with  tendrils,  as  a  gourd 
(2  Kin.  iv.  39).  The  word  usually  denotes 
the  common  or  grape  vine  (Vitis  viiiifera).  It 
is  believed  to  be  indigenous  in  western  Asia 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  (cp.  Gen.  ix.  20,  21). 
It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Egypt  (xl.  9-11; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  47) ;  and  Egyptian  sculptures  of 
the  Old  Empire,  before  the  time  of  Joseph, 
represent  vineyards,  vines  laden  with  grapes, 
presses,  and  the  manufacture  of  wine.  The 
soil  and  climate  of  Palestine  were  favorable 
to  the  vine,  and  it  was  early  cultivated  in 
Canaan  (Gen.  xiv.  18).  It  is  incidentally  re- 
ferred to  as  growing  in  the  lowland  of  Phil- 
istia,  at  Jezreel,  and  in  the  plain  of  Genne- 
saret  (Judg.  xv.  5;  1  Kin.  xxi.  1;  War  iii. 
10,  8),  and  especially  in  the  mountainous 
districts,  as  near  Hebron,  Shiloh,  and  Shechem 


(Num.  xiii.  23;  Judg.  ix.  27;  xxi.  20;  Jer. 
xxxi.  5).  Especial  mention  is  made  of  the 
vines  of  Eshcol  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Num.  xiii.  23),  of  En-gedi  in  the  valley  of 
the  Dead  Sea  (Song  i.  14),  of  Heshbou, 
Elealeh,  and  Sibmah  beyond  .Jordan  (Is.  xvi. 
8-10;  Jer.  xlviii.  32),  and  of  Lebanon  (Hos. 
xiv.  7).  There  was  great  difference  in  value 
between  the  choicest,  noble  vines  and  the 
degenerate  plant  of  a  strange  vine  (Is.  v.  2; 
Jer.  ii.   21).     Israel  is  compared  to  a  vine 


(Ps.  Ixxx.  8-lG).  and  our  Lord  to  the  stem  of 
a  vine,  and  his  true  followers  to  the  branches 
(John  XV.  1-8). 

The  vineyard  was  frequently  on  a  hill- 
side or  peak"  (Is.  v.  1 ;  Joel  iii.  18),  which  was 
terraced  when  necessary.  It  was  surrounded 
by  a  hedge  or  a  stone  wall  to  keep  out  destruc- 
tive animals  (Num.  xxii.  24  ;  Ps.  Ixxx.  8-13  ; 
Prov.  xxiv.  31  ;  Song  ii.  l.'j ;  Is.  v.  .5).  The 
ground  was  cleared  of  stones,  the  vines  were 
planted,  a  booth  or  tower  was  erected  for  the 
watchman,  a  press  was  constructed,  and  a 
vat  was  hewn  in  the  rock  (Is.  i.  8;  v.  1-7; 
Mat.  xxi.  3.3-41).  Laborers  were  some- 
times hired  to  work  in  it  (xx.  1-16),  for  it 
was  necessary  to  prune  the  vines,  dig  about 
them,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds 
(Lev.  XXV.  3;  Prov.  xxiv.  30,  31;  Is.  v.  (i : 
John  XV.  2).  The  vines  were  allowed  to 
spread  on  the  ground,  the  stock  not  being 
supported,  only  the  fruit-bearing  branches 
being  slightly  raised  from  the  earth  (Is.  xvi. 
8;  Ezek.  xvii.  6;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xvii.  3."), 
15).  Other  vines  were  doubtless  trained  to 
trees ;  and  yet  others  were  probably  planted, 
as  at  present  in  Palestine,  in  rows,  8  to  10 
feet  apart,  the  stock  being  allowed  to  grow  fi 
or  8  feet  high  and  then  fastened  to  stout 
stakes  and  the  branches  trained  from  stock 
to  stock. 

The  grapes  ordinarily  grown  were  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2  ;  Rev.  xiv.  19,  20)  ;  but  at  the  present 
day  a  white  variety  is  almost  exclusively 
raised  at  Bethlehem  and  Hebron.  The 
grapes  began  to  ripen  about  August,  in  fa- 
vored   localities    somewhat    earlier.      They 


Vine  of  Sodom 


804 


Visions 


were  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried  (Num.  vi. 
3  ;  Dent,  xxiii.  24).  Tlie  dried  grapes  or 
raisins  were  preserved  in  clusters  or  pressed 
into  cakes,  and  were  esteemed  as  food  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  18  ;  1  Chron.  xvi.  3).  The  juice  of  grapes 
was  expressed,  and  was  drunk  fresh  and  fer- 
mented ;  see  Wine. 

The  vintage  hegan  in  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember and  c(mtinued  into  October.  It  was 
a  season  of  festivity.  In  the  vineyards  there 
were  singing  and  .joyful  noise,  and  the  tread- 
ers  in  the  press  kejit  time  by  shouting  as  they 
trod  the  grapes  (.Tudg.  ix.  27  ;  Is.  xvi.  10  ; 
Jer.  XXV.  30;  xlviii.  33). 

Vine  of  Sod'om. 

A  plant  growing  near  Sodom,  and  bearing 
clusters  of  bitter  fruit  (Deut.  xxxii.  32).  But 
the  language  may  be  figurative.  Josephus 
describes  fruits  growing  near  the  site  of 
Sodom,  which  bear  a  color  as  if  they  are  fit 
to  be  eaten ;  but  contain  ashes,  and  if 
plucked  with  the  hands,  dissolve  into  smoke 
and  ashes  (War  iv.  8,  4;  cp.  Tacitus.  Hist.  v. 
6).  This  fruit  does  not  correspond  to  the 
grapes  of  gall  and  bitter  clusters  which  ajv 
parently  characterize  the  vine  of  Sodom.  It 
is  often  assumed,  however,  that  the  plants 
are  one.  and  the  effort  is  made  to  identify  it. 
Excluding  plants  which  are  common  else- 
where in  Palestine,  the  principal  claimants 
are:  1.  What  the  Arabs  call  the  'ushdr,  an 
a.sclepiadaceous  plant  (C'aloiropis  ghjuntea  or 
procera),  a  native  of  Ui>per  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  India.  It  grows  at  Eu-gedi  and  other 
parts  of  the  tropical  Dead  Sea  valley,  isa  tree 
10  or  15  feet  high,  and  bears  a  fruit  resem- 
bling an  apple  or  orange,  three  or  four  of  them 
in  a  cluster.  They  are  pleasant  to  the  eye 
and  to  the  touch  ;  but  if  pressed  or  struck 
they  explode  like  a  puffball,  leaving  only 
fragments  of  the  rind  and  a  few  fibers  in  the 
hand.  A  formidable  objection  to  the  identi- 
fication is  the  difficulty  of  seeing  how  the 
term  vine  can  be  applied  to  a  small,  erect  tree. 
2.  The  colocynth  {CitrnUus  color i/nthus),  a 
trailing  plant.  Its  fruit  is  "  fair  to  look 
upon  ;  but  when  fully  ripe,  merely  a  quantity 
of  dusty  powder  with  the  seeds  inside  its 
beautiful  orange  rind"  (Tristram);  see 
Gourd,  Wild. 

Vin'e-gar. 

Wine  or  other  strong  drink  turned  sour  by 
acetous  fermentation  (Num.  vi.  3).  If  vinous 
fermentation  was  pushed  too  far,  or  if  the 
wine  was  kept  too  long,  it  became  vinegar. 
Vinegar  is  acid,  setting  the  teeth  on  edge 
(Prov.  X.  26),  and  hardening  soap  or  neutral- 
izing its  alkali  (xxv.  20).  In  itself  it  is  unfit 
to  drink  (Ps.  Ixix.  21)  ;  but  mingled  with  a 
little  oil  it  is  drunk  by  the  common  pcuple 
in  the  East  to  quench  thirst  when  fresh  water 
is  not  obtainable;  and  it  was  used  at  meals 
in  the  heat  of  harvest,  bread  being  dipjied  in 
it,  as  it  brouglit  grateful  refreshment  to  tlie 
system  (Ituth  ii.  14).  Tlie  vinegar  used  liy 
Boaz'  reapers  is,  however,  regarded  by  many 


interpreters  as  sour,  not  soured,  wine.  Tlie 
Eoman  soldiers  when  in  camp  drank  a  thin, 
sour  wine  called  acetum,  vinegar,  both  in  its 
pure  state  and  diluted  with  water.  In  the 
latter  condition  it  was  termed  poaca  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xix.  29).  It  was  probably  a  drink 
of  this  sort  which  the  Roman  soldier  offered 
to  .Tesus  on  the  cross  to  quench  his  burning 
thirst  (Mark  xv.  36  ;  John  xix.  29,  30).  This 
draught,  which  Jesus  accepted,  was  different 
from  the  sour  wine,  previously  offered  and 
refused,  which  was  mingled  with  a  bitter 
substance  or  more  definitely  with  myrrh, 
which  is  astringent  (Mat.  xxvii.  34 ;  Mark 
XV.  23). 

Vine'yard.     See  Vine. 

Vine'yards,  Plain  of.     See  Abel-chera- 

MIM. 

Vi'ol.     See  Psaltery. 

Vi'per. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ' Eph'eh, 
blowing,  hissing ;  a  venomous  serpent  re- 
ferred to  as  inhabiting  the  south  country 
(Job  XX.  16  ;  Is.  XXX.  6;  lix.  5).  The  species 
is  not  properly  determined. 

2.  A  poisonous  reptile,  in  Greek  echidna, 
incidentally  mentioned  as  found  on  the  island 
of  Melita  (Acts  xxviii.  3)  and  familiar  to  the 
Jews  (Mat.  iii.  7) ;  probably  the  common 
viper  (  Vipera  commaniK  or  Fellas  herus),  which 
is  common  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

Vi'sions. 

No  sharp  line  of  demarcation  is  discernible 
between  visions  and  dreams  (q.  v.).  The  one 
shades  into  the  other.  The  Bible  recognizes 
— 1.  Vain  visions  (Job  xx.  8;  Is.  xxix.  7). 
2.  Visions  of  the  prophets.  These  were  for 
the  most  part  private  ;  they  were  appre- 
hended by  the  individual,  not  by  his  com- 
panions. A  natural  cause  sometimes  co- 
operated in  producing  the  vision  :  the  vision 
of  the  great  sheet  let  down  from  heaven, 
which  Peter  saw,  and  the  voice  heard  saying 
"  Kise,  Peter;  kill  and  eat,"  stood  in  some 
relation  to  his  bodily  hunger,  as  the  account 
in  the  book  of  The  Acts  clearly  intimates  (x.  9 
seq.).  Thus  far  the  visions  of  the  projihets 
have  points  in  common  with  visions  begotten 
of  an  abnormal  mental  condition,  and  to  this 
extent  are  to  be  classed  as  mental  phe- 
nomena. These  fa.cts  are  only  additional 
proofs  of  what  might  be  exiiected,  namely, 
that  God,  in  holding  communication  with 
men,  works  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
man's  mind.  The  visions  of  the  prophets, 
however,  form  a  unique  class.  With  jier- 
haps  one  exception  (Num.  xxiv.  4),  they 
were  granted  to  holy  men  only,  men  who 
were  surrendered  to  God's  service,  men  be- 
tween whom  and  their  divine  sovereign 
there  "had  arisen  an  understanding."  These 
visions,  again,  were  clearly  distinguished,  by 
those  who  saw  them,  from  ordinary  visions 
and  were  recognized  as  proceeding  from  God. 
They  were  cautiously  accepted  by  the  church ; 


Vophsi 


805 


Wages 


by  law  they  were  not  received  as  genuine 
until  their  teaching  and  their  credentials 
had  been  subjected  to  tests  (Jer.  xxiii.  IH,  21, 
22,  27;  cp.  Is.  viii.  20;  Deut.  xviii.  10  seq.). 
The  visions  recorded  in  the  Bitde  stand 
alone,  in  the  history  of  religions,  for  purity 
and  righteousness.  They  were  never  vain  ; 
never  meaningless  vagaries  or  lying  wonders. 
They  always  have  a  clear'y  discernible  moral 
and  didactic  content.  They  were  often  pre- 
dictive, upon  which  fulfillment  has  set  the 
seal  of  truth.  They  belong  to  an  age  of 
revelation  and  came  to  men  who  in  mani- 
fold manner  proved  themselves  to  be  vehicles 
of  revelation. 

Because  there  were  genuine  visions,  false 
prophets  feigned  visions.  These  men  are 
denounced  and  their  destruction  is  foretold 
(Jer.  xiv.  14;  xxiii.  16;  Ezek.  xiii.  7  seq.). 

Voph'si. 

Father  of  Nahbi,  the  Naphtalite  spv  (Num. 
xiii.  14). 

Vow. 

A  voluntary  obligation  to  God,  generally 
assumed  on  condition  of  his  bestowing  cer- 
tain specified  blessings.  Man  has  shown  a 
tendency  during  sickness  or  any  other  afflic- 
tioji,  or  in  time  of  anxiety  or  earnest  desire, 
to  make  a  vow  to  God  to  be  fulfilled  when 
the  calamity  is  over  or  the  desired  object 
obtained  (Gen.  xxviii.  20-22;  Num.  xxi.  2 ; 
1  Sam.  i.  11  ;  2  Sam.  xv.  8).  The  vow  sprang 
l)rimarily  from  the  consciousness  of  entire 
dependence  on  the  will  of  God  and  of  the 
obligation  of  thankfulness.  Vows  were  taken 
by  persons  of  every  nation  (Jonah  i.  16),  and 
not  by  the  Jews  only.  The  earliest  mention 
of  a  vow  in  Scripture,  and  a  typical  case,  is 
that  of  Jacob  at  Bethel,  who  promised  that 
if  God  would  care  for  him  and  bring  him 
again  to  his  father's  house,  the  place  -wijere 
he  was  should  be  a  sanctuary  and  the  tenth 
of  his  income  should  be  the  Lord's  (Gen. 
xxviii.  18-22). 

The  Mosaic  law  did  not  prescribe  vows,  it 
only  regulated  them.  Three  kinds  were  the 
subject  of  legislation.  Vows  of  devotion,  of 
abstinence,  and  of  devotion  to  destruction. 
1.  By  the  vow  of  devotion,  any  i)erst)n  or 
possession,  not  already  set  a])art  for  sacred 
uses,  or  otherwise  removed  from  the  legal 
control  of  the  devoter,  might  be  devoted  and 
turned  over  to  the  sanctuary  ;  but  anything 
thus  devoted  to  the  service  of  God  was  re- 
deemable, except  a  sacrificial  animal  (Lev. 
xxvii.  1-27),  usually  at  one-fifth  more  than 
its  assessed  value.  Devoted  land  sold  by  the 
owner,  without  having  been  first  redeemed, 
was  retained  by  the  buyer,  but  at  the  year 
of  jubile  did  not  return  to  the  seller,  but 
became  the  possession  of  the  sanctuary  (20, 
21).  Persons  devoted  to  God  served  at  the 
sanctuary  (1  Sam.  i.  11,  24,  28),  but  were 
usually  redeemed  (2  Kin.  xii.  4),  especially  as 
the  service  of  the  Levites  rendered  such  de- 
votion as  a  rule  useless.     The  price  of  re- 


demption varied  with  age  and  sex.  2.  The 
vow  of  abstinence  involved  a  renunciation 
of  some  enjoyment,  otherwise  allowable,  for 
the  glory  of  God.  It  included  such  acts  as 
fasting,  in  testimony  of  penitence,  and  such 
obligation  as  was  assumed  by  the  Nazirite. 
3.  It  has  been  inferred  from  Ex.  xxii.  20; 
Deut.  xiii.  16,  that  only  what  was  under 
judgment  for  idolatry  could  be  devoted  by  a 
vow  of  destruction.  Nothing  devoted  by  siich 
a  vow  was  redeemable  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,29). 

General  principles  applying  to  vows  were  : 
1.  Vows  were  assumed  voluntarily,  but  once 
made  were  regarded  as  compulsory  (Num. 
XXX.  2 ;  Deut.  xxiii.  21-23) ;  only  in  excep- 
tional cases  as  in  those  of  Samson,  Samuel, 
and  John  the  Baptist,  who  had  a  special 
mission  to  fulfill,  was  the  Nazirite  vow  pre- 
scribed. 2.  A  vow,  especially  a  vow  of  ab- 
stinence, made  by  an  unmarried  daughter  or 
a  wife,  was  void  if  disallowed  by  the  father 
or  husband  (Num.  xxx.  3-16).  3.  The 
produce  of  sinful  traffic  could  not  be  devoted 
(Deut.  xxiii.  18) ;  see  Dog.  4.  Vows  must 
not  be  taken  rashly.  This  principle  was  en- 
forced by  the  exam])le  of  Jejihthah,  and 
inculcated  by  proverb  (I'rov.  xx.  25). 

■Vul'gate.     See  Versions. 

Vul'ture. 

A  bird  of  prey,  which  has  the  head  naked 
or  but  thinly  covered  with  feathers,  and 
feeds  largely  or  wholly  on  carrion.  It  is 
employed  in  the  A.  V.  to  render  the  Hebrew 
words  'Ayyah  (Job  xxviii.  7,  elsewhere  kite; 
in  E.  V.  always  falcon).  Da' ah  (Lev.  xi.  14; 
in  E.  V.  kite),  and  Dayyah  (Deut.  xiv.  13; 
Is.  xxxiv.  17 ;  in  E.  V.  kite).  In  the  E.  V.  it  is 
used  to  tran.slate  Rahani  (Lev.  xi.  18;  in  A.  V. 
gier  eagle)  ;  and  frequently  on  the  margin, 
where  the  text  has  eagle,  to  render  the  He- 
brew Nesher,  Greek  Aetus. 

The  great  vulture  (Lev.  xi.  13,  E.  V. 
margin)  is  the  fulvous  or  tawny  vulture, 
generally  called  the  griffin  (Gj/ps  fulvus). 
The  neck  and  head  arc  bald,  covered  with 
down.  The  whole  of  the  body,  the  wings, 
and  the  back  on  to  the  tail  are  yellowish- 
brown.  It  is  about  4  feet  high.  Its  talons 
are  not  formidable,  but  its  bill  is.  "The 
griffon,"  says  Tristram,  "is  the  most  strik- 
ing ornithological  feature  of  Palestine.  It 
is  impossible  in  any  part  of  the  country 
to  look  up  without  seeing  some  of  them 
majestically  soaring  at  an  immen.se  height, 
and  their  eyries  abound  in  great  colonies  in 
all  the  ravinec  of  the  country." 


W. 


'Wa'ges. 

In  early  timesand  not  infrequently  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date  wages  were  paid  in  kind 
(Gen.  xxix.  15,  20  ;  xxx.  28-34).  In  Egypt 
money  or  goods  were  given  as  hire  at  the  time 


Wagon 


806 


Water  of  Bitterness 


of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  there  (Ex.  ii.  9). 
By  the  law  of  Moses,  wages  were  to  be  paid 
each  evening  (Lev.  xix.  13;  Deut.  xxiv.  14, 
15),  and  the  withholding  of  wages  due  was 
severely  denounced  by  religious  teachers 
(Jer.  xxii.  13;  Mai.  iii.  5;  .Tas.  v.  4).  Tobit 
offered  a  drachma,  or  16  cents,  a  day  and  food 
as  wages  (Tob.  v.  14).  When  our  Lord  was 
on  earth  the  rate  for  a  day's  labor  was  a 
deuarius,  worth  about  17  cents  (Mat.  xx.  2, 
in  E.  V.  penny).  What  the  purchasing 
power  of  that  amount  was  is,  however,  un- 
known ;  it  was  evidently  great  (cp.  Luke  x. 
3.5;.  In  the  later  days  of  the  Eoman  re- 
public, the  usual  pay  of  a  Koman  soldier  was 
10  asses,  or  about  a  dime,  a  day  (Tacitus, 
Annal.  1.  17). 


Wag'on. 
Wal'let. 
War. 


See  Cart. 
See  Scrip. 


Before  engaging  in  aggressive  war,  the 
Israelites  consulted  God's  will  in  the  matter 
( Judg.  XX.  23,  27, 28  ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  37  ;  xxiii.  2 ; 

1  Kin.  xxii.  6)  or,  when  conflict  was  unavoid- 
able, invoked  God's  help  by  prayer  and 
sometimes  by  sacrifice  (1  Sam.  vii.  8,  9  ;  xiii. 
12;  2  Chron.  xx.  6-12;  1  Mac.  iii.  47-54). 
The  heathen  had  recourse  to  divination  for 
the  same  purpose  (Ezek.  xxi.  21),  and  were 
careful  to  set  forth  on  a  day  pronounced  to 
be  propitious.  Frequently  before  entering  a 
hostile  country  or  engaging  in  battle  spies 
were  sent  forward  to  obtain  information  re- 
garding the  country,  and  the  preparation  for 
resistance  (Num.  xiii.  17;  Josh.  ii.  1;  Judg.  vii. 
10 ;  1  Sam.  xxvi.  4) ;  and,  when  captives  were 
taken,  they  were  questioned  with  the  same 
intention  (Judg.  viii.  14;  1  Sam.  xxx.  11). 
W^hen  the  host  drew  nigh  unto  battle,  a 
priest  or  the  commander  encouraged  the 
people  by  reminding  them  of  God's  presence 
and  help  ;  and  the  oflicers  exempted  from 
service  those  who  were  faint-hearted  and 
those  who  had  built  a  new  house  but  not 
inhabited  it,  planted  a  vineyard  but  not 
enjoyed  the  fruit  of  it,  betrothed  a  wife  but 
not  married  her  (Deut.  xx.  2-9 ;  2  Chron.  xx. 
14-20;  1  Mac.  iii.  56;  iv.  8-11).  Various 
stratagems  were  practiced,  such  as  surprise, 
ambush,  pretended  flight,  circumvention 
(Gen.  xiv.  15;  Josh.  viii.  2,  5;  Judg.  vii.  16; 

2  Sam.  V.  23).  Occasionally  when  the  op- 
posing armies  were  drawn  up  in  battle  array, 
a  champion  was  chosen  by  each  party  (1 
Sam.  xvii.).  Otherwise  the  battle  was  joined. 
A  trumpet  sounded  the  attack,  the  blast 
being  both  a  signal  to  advance  and  an  appeal 
to  God  (Num.  x.  9;  Josh.  vi.  5;  Judg.  vii. 
20;  2  Chron.  xiii.  12;  1  Mac.  iv.  13;  v.  33). 
The  host  pressed  forward  with  shouting 
(Josh.  vi.  5;  1  Sam.  xvii.  52;  Jer.  1.  42; 
Ezek.  xxi.  22;  Amos  i.  14),  and  engaged  in 
hand  to  hand  conflict.  The  pursuit  was 
bloody.  Like  other  nations  of  their  time, 
the  Israelites  when  victorious  pillaged  the 
camp  of  the  enemj',  ri)})bert  the  dead  (Judg. 


viii.  24-26  ;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  9  ;  2  Chron.  xx.  25  ; 
1  Mac.  iv.  17-23),  and  sometimes  killed  or 
mutilated  the  prisoners  (Josh.  viii.  23,  29  ;  x. 
22-27 ;  Judg.  i.  6 ;  viii.  21 ;  2  Sam.  viii.  2), 
but  more  frequently  reduced  them  to  slavery. 

When  a  city  was  besieged,  the  besiegers 
fortified  their  own  camp  against  attack  (War 
V.  2,  3) ;  if  possible,  they  cut  oft'  the  water 
supply  from  the  city  (Judith  vii.  7).  In 
order  to  bring  their  engines  into  play  they 
cast  up  mounds  in  the  direction  of  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XX.  15 ;  Ezek.  iv.  2).  The  mound  grad- 
ually increased  in  height  until  it  was  some- 
times half  as  high  as  the  city  wall.  Upon 
this  inclined  plane  the  battering-ram  was 
rolled  into  position  ;  from  its  roof  and  from 
the  mound,  archers  and  slingers  discharged 
their  missiles,  and  from  the  summit  of  the 
mound  scaling-ladders  were  leaned  against 
the  wall;  see  illustrations  Lachish,  Eam. 
Sometimes  fuel  was  laid  against  the  gates 
and  fired  in  order  to  burn  them  and  afi"ord 
ingress  (Judg.  ix.  52) ;  and  often  the  de- 
fenders of  the  wall  were  attacked  by  archers 
posted,  not  on  the  mound,  but  at  the  base  of 
the  wall.  The  besieged  were  not  idle  :  they 
prepared  for  the  investment  by  protecting 
their  water  supply,  and  repairing  and 
strengthening  the  fortifications  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  3-5) ;  they  harassed  the  enemy  and 
attempted  to  drive  them  off  by  sallies  ;  they 
repelled  attack  and  hindered  the  besiegers 
in  their  aggressive  operations  by  casting 
darts  and  stones  and  shooting  arrows  at 
them  from  the  walls ;  and  they  destroyed, 
or  attempted  to  destroy,  the  military  engines 
by  hurling  burning  torches  at  them  and  by 
undermining  the  banks  on  which  the  batter- 
ing-rams stood  (2  Sam.  xi.  21,  24 ;  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  15 ;  1  Mac.  vi.  31 ;  War  v.  2,  2  and  4 ; 
6,  4;  11,  4).  Captured  cities  were  often  de- 
stro5'ed  and  their  inhabitants  slaughtered, 
neither  age  nor  sex  being  sjjared  (Josh.  vi. 
21,  24  ;  viii.  24-29  ;  x.  22-27  ;  2  Kin.  xv.  16). 
Victory  was  celebrated  with  song  and  dance 
(Ex.  XV.  1-18;  Judg.  v.  ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6  ;  2 
Chron.  xx.  26-28 ;  1  Mac.  iv.  24).   See  Army. 

Wash'ing.     See  Bathing. 

Watch.     See  Night. 

Wa'ter  of  Bit'ter-ness. 

Holy  water  in  an  earthen  vessel,  mingled 
with  dust  from  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary 
(Num.  V.  17),  intended  to  reveal  the  inno- 
cence or  guilt  of  a  woman  accused  of  adultery 
by  her  husband,  when  there  were  no  wit- 
nesses. The  charge  was  perhaps  only  brought 
when  suspicion  was  aroused  by  the  woman's 
being  found  with  child.  The  accused  woman, 
with  loo.sened  hair,  sat  before  the  Lord  in 
the  sanctuary,  and  held  an  offering  of  dry, 
unscented,  barley  meal  in  her  hand  (18, 
R.  v.).  The  priest,  taking  the  water  of  bit- 
terness, asked  that  it  have  no  effect  upon 
the  woman,  if  she  were  innocent,  but  that 
God  would  cause  her  body  to  swell  and  her 
thigh  to  fall  away,  if  she  were  guilty.     The 


Water  of  Separation 


HOI 


Weaving 


woman  responded,  Amen.  The  priest  wrote 
the  imprecation  in  a  book,  and  washed  it  out 
into  the  water  ;  and  having  waved  the  meal 
offering  before  the  Lord  and  tlirown  a  hand- 
ful of  it  on  the  altar,  he  gave  the  water  of 
bitterness  to  the  woman  to  drink.  If  guilty, 
it  became  bitter  within  her  and  the  curse 
went  into  etfect ;  if  innocent,  the  potion  re- 
mained inoperative,  and  the  woman  was 
pronounced  clean  and  received  or  retained 
ability  to  conceive.  Tln5  essential  part  of 
this  procedure  was  the  oath,  the  ritual  was 
symbolical,  the  efiect  was  left  to  God.  It  is 
probable  that  this  ordeal  was  an  old  custom, 
wliich  the  Mosaic  law  took  up  in  order  to 
regulate  and  elevate  it. 

Wa'ter  of  Sep-a-ra'tion.  See  Purifica- 
tion 1. 

Wa'ter-pot.     See  Pitcher,  Pot. 
Wave  Of 'fer-ing. 

The  rite  of  waving  was  regularly  per- 
formed in  connection  with — 1.  Peace  offer- 
ings :  the  right  thigh  or  shoulder  was  heaved 
and  the  breast  was  waved  before  the  Lord 
and,  having  been  thus  consecrated,  were 
eaten  by  the  priest.  2.  The  sheaf  of  first 
ripe  grain  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover, 
whereby  the  harvest  was  consecrated  to  the 
Lord  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  11).  3.  The  two  loaves 
made  from  the  new  grain  and  the  two  lambs 
for  a  peace  offerine  at  Pentecost,  fifty  days 
from  the  waving  of  the  sheaf  at  tlie  passover 
(13,  20).  4.  The  guilt  ofieriiig  of  the  leper 
(xiv.  12,  21),  whereby  the  offerer  represented 
by  it  was  consecrated  again  to  the  service  of 
<Jod.  5.  The  meal  oflering  of  jealousy  (Num. 
V.  25). 

When  the  peace  oflfering  was  private,  the 
wave  breast  and  the  heave  shoulder  or  thigh 
went  to  the  priest,  and  the  rest  of  the  flesh 
was  eaten  by  the  offerer  and  his  friends  be- 
fore the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  vii.  30- 
34;  X.  14,  15;  Num.  xviii.  18).  Of  the  peace 
offering  brought  by  the  Nazirite,  the  sodden 
shoulder  of  the  ram  went  to  the  priest,  in 
addition  to  his  regular  perquisites  (Num.  vi. 
17-20).  At  Pentecost,  the  whole  of  the  two 
lambs  of  the  peace  offering  and  the  loaves 
went  to  the  priests  (Lev.  xxiii.  20),  since  they 
were  offered  in  behalf  of  the  nation. 

In  performing  the  rite  the  priest  laid  the 
matter  to  be  waved  upon  the  liauds  of  the 
ofierer,  probably  placed  his  own  liands  under 
the  hands  of  tlie  latter,  and  moved  them 
(Ex.  xxix.  24,  25;  Num.  vi.  19,  20).  The 
motiou  was  horizontal  backward  and  for- 
ward (Talmud),  and  toward  the  right  and 
left  (Rabbis),  that  is,  toward  the  four  car- 
dinal points;  but  t'lis  fourfold  movement 
may  have  been  a  late  refinement  of  the 
original  waving. 

Wea'sel. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Holed,  glider 
or  burrower,  applied  to  an  unclean  quad- 
ruped (Lev.  xi.  29).  It  is  confessedly  either 
a  weasel  or  a  mole.    The  corresponding  word 


in  Arabic  and  Syriac  signifies  a  mole:  but 
probably  the  former  meaning  is  intended  by 
the  Hebrew  word,  as  the  ancient  versions, 
followed  by  the  A.  V.  and  E.  V.,  render 
it  by  weasel  ;  in  the  Talmud  the  hid'dah 
is  often  mentioned  as  an  animal  that  cap- 
tures birds  and  creeping  things,  like  the 
mouse,  can  run  with  such  jney  in  its  mouth, 
and  that  can  lap  water  out  of  a  dish  ;  and, 
finally,  the  typical  mole  genus  7V(/^jrt  is  not 
believed  to  occur  in  Palestine  (see  Mole  2), 
while  the  weasel  (Piitorins  vidfiaris)  and  the 
jiolecat  { Pittorius  fa'tidus)  are  found  through- 
out the  country. 
Weav'ing. 

The  Egyptians  practiced  the  art  of  weav- 
ing before  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites  in 
their  midst,  producing  woven  goods,  such  as 
linen  (Gen.  xli.  42).  The  work  was  usually 
done  by  men  (Herod,  ii.  35),  but  not  ex- 
clusively, for  women  appear  at  the  loom  in 
ancient  Egyptian  delineations.  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  the  Hebrews  understood  both 
simple  and  elaborate  weaving  (Ex.  xxxv.  35). 
They  produced  various  textures  on  the 
looms.  Coarse  kinds,  such  as  tent  cloth  and 
rough  garments  for  the  poor,  were  made  of 
goats'  and  camels'  hair  (xxvi.  7 ;  Mat.  iii.  4) ; 
finer  goods  were  woven  of  flax  and  wool 
(Lev.  xiii.  47)  ;  chequered  and  figured  pat- 
terns, as  well  as  variegated  stuffs,  were  made 
by  the  use  of  difi'erently  colored  threads 
(Ex.  xxvi.  1;  cp.  xxviii.  39,  R.  V.;  cp. 
Herod,  iii.  47),  and  gold  threads  were  even 
woven  in  (Ex.  xxxix.  3)  ;  cloth  was  also  em- 
broidered with  figures  or  patterns  (xxvii.  16  ; 
xxxviii.  23)  with  the  needle  (ibid.,  Septua- 
gint) ;  see  Embroidery.  Many  interpre- 
ters, however,  believe  that  the  Hebrew  word 
rendered  embroiderer  denotes  one  who  in- 
weaves designs,  as  the  modern  Arabic  marhim, 
from  the  same  root,  signifies  the  curtain  with 
inwoven  flowers  or  other  patterns  which  is 
used  to  partition  oflT  apiartments  in  a  tent. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  the  weaving  as  well  as 
the  spinning  was  usually  done  by  the  women 
(2  Kin.  xxiii,  7  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  ii.  19 ;  Prov.  xxxi. 
22,  24;  Acts  ix.  39).  Mantles  and  even 
tunics  came  from  the  loom  ready  for  use ;  the 
latter,  when  thus  woven  complete,  required  no 
seam.  Such  tunics  were  prescribed  for  the 
priests  (Ex.  xxviii.  6,  8 ;  Antiq.  iii.  7,  4) ;  and 
one  was  worn  by  Jesus  previous  to  his  cruci- 
'fixion  (John  xix.  23),  perhaps  not  without 
symbolical  purpose. 

"  The  loom  in  Egypt  was  placed  either  ver- 
tically or  horizontally.  The  accompanying 
illustration  is  intended  to  represent  a  loom 
in  the  latter  position.  The  frame  is  but 
slightly  raised  above  the  ground,  the  weaver 
squats  at  his  work  and  apparently  treads  on 
the  threads.  The  warp  threads  run  in  paral- 
lel relation  and  extend  between  the  two 
beams  to  which  they  are  attached ;  heddles 
of  primitive  sort,  which  separate  the  warp 
threads  into  two  series  and  form  a  shed  for 
tlie  passage  of  thy  shuttle  or  other  bearer  of 


Wedding 


808 


Week 


the  woof  threads,  are  next  to  him,  between 
him  aud  the  woven  cloth.  With  a  reed  he 
strikes  tlie  last  thread  which  he  shot  through 
against  the  woof,  pressing  it  close. 

The  Hebrew  loom  likewise  had  its  beam 


Weaving  and  Spinning  in  Ancient  Egypt 


and  shuttle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7;  2  Sam.  xxi.  19; 
Job  vii.  6).  The  pin  of  the  beam,  or  rather 
weaving  pin,  for  a  different  Hel^rew  word  is 
used  from  that  elsewhere  rendered  beam, 
may  have  been  the  slay  or  reed  by  which 
the  thread  of  the  woof  was  struck  home 
(Judg.  xvi.  13,  14).  The  web  was  cut  off 
from  the  thrum  (Is.  xxxviii.  12,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin), or  to  speak  more  generally  from  the 
loom  (R.  V.  text). 

Wed'ding.     See  Marriage. 

Wedge.     See  Tongue. 

Week. 

The  division  of  time  into  periods  of  seven 
days  appears  in  Scripture  in  connection  with 
the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  ii.  1-3), 
and  according  to  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Babylonian  account  was  in  vogue  at  the  time 
of  the  flood  (vii.  4, 10 ;  viii.  10,  i2) ;  see  Flood. 
In  the  Babylonian  legend  of  Adapa,  which 
was  current  fifteen  centuries  and  more  be- 
fore Christ,  it  is  mentioned  that  the  wind 
ceased  to  blow  for  seven  days.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  reference  to  its 
cessation  for  seven  days  is  more  than  the 
mere  note  of  a  chance  fact.  Izdubar's  sleep 
lasted  six  days  and  seven  nights;  and  this 
peculiar  phrase  was  the  fiimiliar  designation 
for  a  week.  Gudea,  prince  of  Lagash,  cele- 
brated the  completion  of  a  temple  by  a  fes- 
tival of  seven  days'  duration.  Seven  days 
was  the  conventional  i)eriod  for  niai-riage 
festivities  in  Syria  at  the  time  of  La])an  and 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  27,  28)  ;  and  the  same 
custom  prevailed  among  the  Philistines  in 
the  days  of  Samson  (.Tndg.  xiv.  12,  17). 
Funeral  obsequies  also,  like  those  of  .Jacob 
and  others,  were  conducted  for  seven  days 
(Gen.  1.  10;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).  Weeks  con- 
stantly entered  into  all  the  arrangements  of 
the  ceremonial  law  (Ex.  xii.  l.'S;  xiii.  H.  7; 
xxii.  30  ;  xxix.  .30,  .3."),  I'.7;  Lev.  xii.  2  ;  xiii.  ."> ; 
xiv.  S,  etc.).  A  week  with  a  fixed  beginning, 
which  everybody  reckoned  as  the  first  day, 
is,  of  course,  not  intended  in  all  or  even  in  the 


majority  of  these  cases.  The  week  of  nup- 
tial festivities,  for  example,  began  on  the  day 
of  the  wedding  on  whatever  date  it  occurred. 
Nevertheless  these  numerous  instances  show 
that  the  seven-day  period  was  a  standard  in 
common  use ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  the 
periods  are  consecutive 
in  the  narrative  of  the 
flood  (see  Flood),  as  well 
as  later,  in  determining 
the  date  of  Pentecost. 
For  the  origin  of  the 
week,  see  Sabbath. 

The  ancient  Hebrews 
named  none  of  the  days 
of  the  week  except  the 
seventh  day,  which  they 
called  the  Sabbath.  They 
numbered  the  days  of  the 
festivals,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian narrator  enumerates  each  of  the  .seven 
days  during  which  the  ark  lay  stranded.  In 
the  N.  T.  period  the  Hebrews  numbered  the 
days  of  the  week  (Mat.  xxviii.  1 ;  Acts  xx. 
7),  and  besides  the  seventh  day  named  also 
the  preceding  day,  which  they  called  the  prep- 
aration (Mark  xv.  42). 

The  week  and  the  names  of  its  days  were 
introduced  at  a  comparatively  late  period 
into  the  Roman  empire.  The  ancient  Romans 
had  a  week  of  eight  days.  The  Greeks  di- 
vided the  month  into  three  periods.  The 
Egyptians,  as  early  as  the  time  when  the 
pyramids  were  built,  had  a  ten-day  period, 
each  one  of  which  began  with  the  rising  of 
one  of  thirty-six  constellations  in  succession. 
Dio  Cassius,  who  wrote  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  s])eaks  of  the  hebdomadal  division 
of  time  being  universal  in  his  day  in  the 
Roman  empire  and  a  recent  introductiim. 
He  represents  it  as  borrowed  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  as  based  upon  astrology.  Of  the 
two  schemes,  by  one  or  the  other  of  which 
he  considers  that  the  planetary  names  of  the 
different  days  were  fixed,  only  one  has 
plausibility  :  each  day  in  succession  was  as- 
.signed  to  one  of  the  planets  as  regent,  and 
the  hours  were  also  allotted  to  the  planets. 
If  the  planets  are  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  distiince  from  the  earth,  as  believed  at 
the  time  of  Dio  Cassius,  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Moon,  and  if, 
further,  the  first  hour  is  allotted  to  Saturn, 
the  second  to  Jupiter,  and  so  on,  the  twcMity- 
fifth  hour,  or  the  fir.st  hotir  of  the  morrow, 
will  fall  to  the  sun  and  on  the  following 
inorning  to  the  moon,  and  so  on  to  Mars, 
M(M-cnrv.  Jui)itcr,  and  Venus.  If  the  jilanet 
to  which  the  first  hour  of  the  day  belongs 
be  reckoned  as  the  regent  of  the  day,  the 
days  of  the  week  will  be,  Saturn's  day,  Sun's 
day,  Moon's  day,  and  so  on.  This  theory  must 
be  held  with  cautious  res(>rve.  There  may  be 
an  entirely  diU'erent  reason  from  that  given 
for  the  order  of  the  planets,  although  the 
effort  to  explain  satisfactorily  the  names  from 


Weeks,  Feast  of 


809 


Weights 


Babylonian  astronomy  has  not  been  success- 
ful as  yet.  The  names  passed  from  Eoman 
to  European  use,  both  in  their  Latin  form, 
and  also,  when  translated  into  the  Germanic 
languages,  with  the  names  of  Germanic 
deities  substituted  for  the  corresponding 
Roman  ones.  They  are  found  also  in  India, 
which  is  believed  to  have  received  them  with 
astronomy  and  astrology  from  Greece  and 
Kome.  The  names  are  of  heathen  origin, 
and  originated  in  superstition,  but  no  asso- 
ciations of  any  kind  are  now  connected  with 
them  any  more  than  with  January,  the 
month  of  Janus,  god  of  the  sun  and  the 
year,  or  with  jNIarch,  month  of  Mars,  god 
of  war,  or  with  June,  which  was  sacred  to 
the  goddess  Juno. 

The  Hebrew  word  for  week,  shahua',  heb- 
domad, might  of  itself  refer  to  a  period  of 
seven  years  as  well  as  to  one  of  seven  days. 
The  existence  of  the  Sabbatic  year  would 
tend  to  produce  this  usage.  It  is  therefore 
not  surprising  to  find  the  Hebrew  word  for 
week  used  by  Daniel  for  a  period  of  seven 
years,  as  interpreters  commonly  understand 
(Dan.  ix.  24-27;  cp.  Lev.  xxv.  8). 

Weeks,  Feast  of. 

The  second  of  the  three  annual  festivals  at 
which  every  male  Israelite  was  required  to 
appear  before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary,  and 
the  first  of  the  two  agricultural  festivals 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  22,  23;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13;  cp. 
1  Kin.  ix.  25).  It  was  so  called  because  its 
date  was  set  seven  complete  weeks  after  the 
conseci"ation  of  the  harvest  season  by  the 
offering  of  the  sheaf  of  the  first  ripe  bar- 
ley (Lev.  xxiii.  1.5,  16;  cp.  Dent.  xvi.  9, 
10).  This  sheaf  was  waved  on  the  morrow 
after  the  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  11).  The 
Baithoseans  (Sadducees)  interpreted  this  Sab- 
bath as  meaning  the  weekly  Sabbath  which 
occurred  during  the  festival  of  unleavened 
bread ;  and  some  modern  scholars  have 
adopted  this  view.  The  opinion  has  even 
y)ef'n  held  that  it  denoted  merely  the  weekly 
Sabbath  which  fell  immediately  before  the 
harvest.  The  older  and  better  opinion  is 
that  it  denotes  the  first  day  of  the  festival 
of  unleavened  bread.  The  Greek  translators 
understood  it  so  (Lev.  xxiii.  7,  11,  Septua- 
gint),  as  did  also  those  who  directed  the 
services  of  the  second  temple  (Antiq.  iii.  10, 
5)  ;  this  first  day  was  kept  as  a  Sabbath,  no 
work  was  done  on  it  and  there  was  a  holy 
convocation:  and  such  rest  days,  not  less 
than  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  were 
called  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  32  ;  xxv.  2) ;  on 
the  morrow  after  the  passover  the  new  grain 
was  used,  which  could  not  be  eaten  until  the 
sheaf  had  been  waved  before  the  Lord  (Lev. 
xxiii.  14;  Josh.  v.  10,  11,  R.  V.  margin).  The 
festival  fell  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the 
waving  of  the  sheaf,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
name  Pentecost  or  fiftieth  day  (Acts  ii.  1). 
It  was  also  called  the  feast  of  harvest  or  day 
of  firstfruits,  because  the   firstfruits  of  the 


wheat  harvest,  then  ended  in  most  districts, 
were  presented  (Ex.  xxiii.  1(J ;  xxxiv.  22: 
Num.  xxviii.  26).  It  celebrated  the  close  of 
the  grain  harvest.  It  was  bound  U])with  the 
cj-cle  of  religious  feasts  by  the  number  seven. 
It  was  observed  as  a  Sabbath,  ordinary  labors 
were  suspended  and  there  was  a  holy  convo- 
cation (Lev.  xxiii.  21  ;  Num.  xxviii.  26) ;  two 
loaves  of  leavened  bread,  such  as  was  used  in 
the  household,  representing  the  firstfruits  of 
the  grain  harvest,  were  oflered  to  the  Lord 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17,  20;  cp.  Ex.  xxxiv.  22  ;  Num. 
xxviii.  26 ;  Dent.  xvi.  10)  ;  and  with  them 
ten  proper  animals  were  sacrificed  for  a 
burnt  oflering,  a  kid  for  a  sin  ofiTering,  and 
two  lambs  for  a  peace  offering  (Lev.  xxiii.  18, 
19).  The  sacrifices  for  the  entire  day  were 
disti-ibuted  into — 1.  The  regular  daily  burnt 
offering  of  two  lambs  (Num.  xxviii.  3,  31). 
2.  The  special  sacrifices  for  the  feast  day 
(27-30),  which  were  the  same  as  on  the  day 
of  the  new  moon  and  each  day  of  unleav- 
ened bread  (ver.  11,  19).  3.  The  sacrifices 
connected  with  the  oflering  of  the  loaves 
and  the  two  lambs  (Lev.  xxiii.  17-19).  Jo- 
sephus  correctly  sums  up  the  offerings 
additional  to  the  daily  burnt  offering,  ex- 
cept that  he  or  his  text  as  transmitted  men- 
tions two  instead  of  three  rams  (Antiq.  iii. 
10,  6).  As  at  the  culminating  agricultural 
festival,  so  at  this  the  people  were  urged  to 
remember  the  needy  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  12). 
Pentecost  came  to  be  regarded  in  later  times, 
especially  in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  as 
the  commemoration  of  the  giving  of  the  law 
on  mount  Sinai ;  but  there  is  no  authority 
for  this  belief  in  the  O.  T.,  and  it  cannot  be 
shown  that  the  law  was  given  exactly  fifty 
days  after  the  passover. 

The  most  notable  Pentecost  was  the  first 
W'hich  occurred  after  the  resurrection  and 
ascension  of  Christ  (Acts  ii.).  From  it  dates 
the  founding  of  the  Christian  church.  The 
essential  traits  of  an  institution  are  seen  in 
the  history  of  its  establishment.  At  the  in- 
stitution of  the  church,  the  Holy  Spirit  de- 
scended into  all  believers,  Avithout  distinc- 
tion of  age,  sex,  or  class  (1-4,  14-21)  ;  see 
Tongue.  Life  had  been  imparted.  The 
Spirit  had  been  given  to  men  before,  but  now 
the  church  entered  upon  what  is  character- 
istically the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit.  The 
Spirit  is  now  given  in  full  measure  to  all 
believers  without  the  intervention  of  pre- 
scribed rites.  He  had  preserved  a  peo- 
ple of  God  on  earth ;  in  this  new  era  of 
his  power  he  devotes  his  divine  energy 
to  enlarging,  perfecting,  and  edifying  the 
church. 

Weights. 

The  Hebrews  used  scales  and  weights  (Lev. 
xix.  36).  and  they  weighed  money  as  well  as 
other  commodities  (Jer.  xxxii.  10).  The  de- 
nominations were  talent  (circle),  maneh 
(part),  shekel  (weight),  gerah  (grain),  and 
beka  (half  [shekel]). 


Weights  MO 


20  gerahs  =  1  shekel 
60  shekels  =  1  maneh 
60  manehs  =  1  talent. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  table  for 
gold  and  silver  is  ditierent  from  the  table  for 
commodities,  and  is — 

20  gerahs  =  1  shekel 
50  shekels  =  1  maneh 
60  manehs  =  1  talent. 

Pound  is  the  rendering  of  1.  Hebrew  Maneh 
(1  Kin.  X.  17);  2.  Greek  Mua  (1  Mac.  xiv. 


Bronze  and  Stone  Weights  in  the  form  of  Lions 
and  Ducks.    They  were  used  by  Trades- 
people in  Nineveh. 

24 ;  XV.  18),  which  is  generally  believed   to 
be  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  Attic  talent. 


Weights 

Hebrew  maneh  of  gold.  Pound  as  a  sum  of 
money  was  equivalent  to  100  drachmas  and 
worth  about  sixteen  dollars  (Luke  xix.  13, 
E.  V.  margin) ;  see  Money. 

In  weight  a  shekel  equaled  20  gerahs,  and  a 
maneh  was  20  +  25  +  15  =  60  shekels  (Ezek. 
xlv.  12).  This  interpretation  is  confirmed  by 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  division  of 
their  maneh  into  sixty  parts.  Weights  of 
the  denomination  of  maneh  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Nineveh  and  Babylonia,  and  show 
that  a  heavy  and  a  light  talent  were  used, 
the  former  weighing  60.6  kilogrammes  and 
the  latter  exactly  one-half  or  30.3  kilo- 
grammes. The  heavy  and  light  manehs 
weighed  1010  and  505  grammes  respectively, 
and  the  shekels  16.83  and  8.41  grammes. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  Hebrew  maneh 
of  gold  equaled  two  and  a  half  Eoman 
pounds  (Antiq.  xiv.  7,  1)  or  818.57,  according 
to  Madden,  819.538  grammes.  It  appears 
from  this  that  the  Jewish  maneh  of  gold  was 
reckoned  at  50  shekels,  that  the  shekel  of 
gold  was  a  trifle  lighter  than  the  Assyrian 
shekel  of  weight,  being  16.37,  according  to 
Madden  16.39,  grammes,  and  that  the  shekel 
of  gold  and  the  shekel  of  weight  were  in- 
tended to  be  identical.  The  difference  be- 
tween this  Hebrew  shekel  and  the  Assyrian 
shekel  was  about  seven  troy  grains.  A  com- 
parison of  1  Kin.  x.  17  (E.  V.  margin  maneh) 
with  2  Chron.  ix.  16,  if  the  text  is  pure, 
probably  indicates  that  a  maneh  of  gold 
was  sometimes  reckoned  at  one  hundred 
light  shekels,  instead  of  at  fifty  normal 
shekels. 

Three  thousand  shekels  of  silver  equaled 
one  talent.  This  appears  from  the  fact  that 
603,550  half  shekels  or  301,775  shekels  of  the 
sanctuary  equaled  100  talents  and  1775  shek- 
els (Ex.  xxxviii.  25,  26).  It  may  justly  be 
concluded  that  the  talent  of  silver  was  reck- 
oned at  sixty  manehs  of  fifty  shekels  each. 
The  shekel  equaled  twenty  gerahs  (Ex.  xxx. 
13).     The  shekel   of   silver,   however,    was 


Weigliliig  and  Kcconung  in  AiicR'Ut  Egypt. 


and  hence  a  little  more  than  half  as  heavy 
as  the  Hebrew  maneh  ;  and  3.  Lifra  (John 
xii.  3;  xix.  39),  equivalent  to  the  Eoman 
libra,   of  which  two  and  a  half  equaled  a 


lighter  than  the  shekel  of  gold  and  weight, 
the  average  weight  of  the  extant  silver  shek- 
el coins  being  only  14.5565,  according  to 
Madden   14.5668,  grammes. 


Well 


811 


Wheat 


Table  of  Weight. 


Avoirdupois. 

Troy. 

lb. 

oz. 

grains. 

lb. 

oz. 

pwt. 

grains. 

lis 

=  12it 

14 

313.48 

157 

10 

13 

6.48 

=      2 

2 

•282.308 

2 

7 

11 

13.308 

=-- 

252.621 

10 

12.621 

T. 

IBLE    OF 

Gold. 

Tr( 

y- 

lb. 

oz. 

pwt. 

grains. 

grains  = 

131 

U 

17 

17 

.4 

=  $29,374.50 

'      = 

2 

2 

6 

7 

.09 

489.577 

'      = 

10 

12 

.62 

= 

9.791 

Talent  =  909,438.48 
Maneh  =    15,157.308 
Shekel  =         252.6218 


Talent  =  757,865.4 

Maneh  -=    12,631.09 

Shekel  =         252.6218 

The  dollar  coutainiug  25.8  grains. 

Table  of  Silver. 

Troy, 
lb.  oz.  pwt.  grains. 

Talent  -  673,907.724    grains  =  116  11  19  11.724 

Maneh  =     11,231.7954      '•       =      1  11  7  23.795 

Shekel  --=         224.6359      "       =  9  8.6359 

The  value  of  the  silver  shekel  was  one-fifteenth  that  of  tlie  gold  shekel,  or 
about  65  cents. 


Well. 

A  pit  sunk  in  the  earth  to  reach  a  supply 
of  water.  It  was  called  in  Hebrew  b'er,  a 
word  often  used  in  compound  names  like 
Beer-sheba.  The  water  reached  was  found 
collected  in  a  depression,  or  slowly  percolat- 
ing through  the  sand  on  its  way  to  a  lower 
level,  or  flowing  as  an  underground  stream 
(Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14  ;  xxiv.  11  with  13).  Wells 
were  often  scooped  in  the  sandy  soil  by  those 
who  knew  of  the  presence  of  M'ater.  They 
were  dug  in  the  wadies  and  fed  by  an  under- 
flow, even  when  the  bed  of  the  torrent  was 
dry,  as  at  Beer-sheba  and  in  the  valley  of 
Gerar  (xxi.  30,  31 ;  xxiv.  19).  They  were 
Runk  far  and  wide  through  the  surface  soil 
of  the  Philistine  plain  into  the  lower  sand, 
^•here  an  inexhaustible  stream  makes  its 
(vay  to  the  sea.  In  hilly  Palestine  they  were 
iug  in  the  limestone  rock.  The  well  did  not 
essentially  diff'er  in  outward  appearance  from 
i  cistern.  The  mouth  was  protected  by  a 
stone  curb  (John  iv.  6),  and  to  prevent  acci- 
dents to  man  or  beast  was  covered  by  a  stone 
or  plank  (Ex.  xxi.  33  :  2  Sam.  xvii.  19 ;  An- 
tiq.  iv.  8,  37).  When  the  well  was  shallow, 
steps  were  cut  in  the  rock  which  led  down 
to  the  water.  Troughs  of  wood  or  stone 
were  placed  near  the  mouth  for  the  benefit 
of  the  cattle  (Gen.  xxiv.  30).  The  water 
was  dipped  with  the  pitcher  (16),  or,  when 
the  well  was  deep,  was  drawn  by  a  rope  with 
bucket,  jar,  or  waterskin  attached  (John  iv. 
11).  The  rope  was  either  dragged  over  the  curb 
by  the  person  getting  the  water,  or  perhaps 
an  ox  or  ass  was  sometimes  employed,  as  now, 
for  the  purpose,  and  occasionally  a  wheel 
was,  as  now,  fixed  over  the  well  to  assist  in 
the  work. 

The  shaduf  is  common  in  Egypt  for  raising 
water  from  the  Nile,  and  it  was  used  there  in 


antiquity.  It  is  not  employed  in  Palestine, 
but  its  counterpart,  the  well  sweep  and 
bucket,  is  used.  In  the  Philistine  plain,  the 
Persian  wheel,  called  na^ura,  is  employed  by 
the  hundred.  It  consists  of  a  tall  upright 
axle,  bearing  a  horizontal  cogwheel,  and 
turned  by  a  mule  attached  to  a  sweep ;  this 
turns  a  vertical  wheel  which  is  directly  over 
the  mouth  of  the  well.  Over  this  pass 
two  thick  ropes,  made  of  twigs  twisted  to- 
gether and  carrying  jars  or  wooden  buckets. 
The  ascending  buckets  come  up  full  of  water, 
which  they  empty  into  a  spout  as  they  pass 
over  the  wheel ;  this  spout  conducts  the  water 
to  a  reservoir.    See  Cisteen,  Fountain. 

Whale. 

The  word  rendered  whale  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  O.  T.  denotes  any  great  animal  of  the 
sea,  except  in  Ezek.  xxxii.  2,  where  the  He- 
brew text  must  be  emended  and  translated 
dragon  (E.  V.)  ;  see  Dragon. 

The  Greek  word  kefos,  which  is  used  in 
Mat.  xii.  40  and  rendered  whale  in  the  E.  V., 
means  any  huge  fish  or  other  large  animal 
of  the  sea,  such  as  the  dolphin,  sea  dog,  and 
seal,  and  later  whale,  shark,  tunny.  The 
Septuagint  employs  kefos  megalos  in  Jon.  i. 
17  (in  Septuagint  ii.  1)  to  render  the  two 
words  "great  fish"  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
thus  the  word  ketos  passed  into  Mat.  xii.  40. 

Wheat. 

Wheat  was  cultivated  in  Babylonia  (Herod, 
i.  193),  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxx.  14),  in 
Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  32),  in  Palestine  (xxxiv.  22; 
Deut.  viii.  8 ;  Judg.  vi.  11),  and  elsewhere, 
from  a  very  early  period. 

In  Palestine  wheat  was  sown  in  November 
or  December,  after  the  rains  began.  It  was 
thought  that  the  best  manner  of  planting  it 
was  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  R.  Y.).     The  har- 


Wheat 


812       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


vest  was  in  April,  May,  or  June  in  Palestine, 
varying  according  to  the  locality,  the  soil  at 
the  place,  and  the  weather  at  the  time  ;  see 
Year. 

The  ordinary  bread  of  the  Hebrews  was 
made  of  the  flour  of  wheat  (Ex.  xxix.  2). 
The  ears  were  also  roasted  and  eaten  (Lev. 
ii.  14 ;  Ruth  ii.  14) ;  see  Parched  Corn.  The 
wheat,  bruised  and  crushed,  was  also  used  as 
food  (Lev.  ii.  14,  16).  New  wheat  thus  pre- 
pared, or  else  the  fresh  ear,  is  mentioned  as 
eaten  (xxiii.  14;  2  Kin.  iv.  42). 

Egypt  was  the  granary  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean region,  and  vast  quantities  were  shipped 
annually  to  Rome  from  Alexandria  (Acts 
xxvii.  <j,  38).  The  best  quality,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  grown  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the 
Thebaid  (Hist.  Nat.  xviii.  47).     The  Egyptian 


Egyptiiui  Wheat. 


wheat  was  a  bearded  variety,  with  many  ears 
on  the  head  {Tnticiim  compositnm).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  xli.  22,  is  depicted  on  the  an- 
cient monuments,  and  is  still  grown.  The 
wheat  commonly  cultivated  in  Palestine  is 
Triticum  vulgare,  with  a  simple  bead. 


Wheel.     See  Garden,  Well. 
Whore.    See  Harlot. 
Widow. 

A  widow  from  early  times  wore  an  appro- 
priate garb  (Gen.  xxxviii.  14,  19) ;  she  laid 
aside  her  ornaments,  clothed  herself  in  sack- 
cloth, let  her  hair  hang  unbound,  and  did 
not  anoint  her  face  (Judith  x.  o,  4;  xvi.  H). 
God  shows  special  compassion  to  the  more 
helpless  classes,  among  whom  he  reckons 
widows  (Deut.  x.  18;  Ps.  Ixviii.  5;  cxlvi.  9; 
Prov.  XV.  25;  Jer.  xlix.  11).  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law,  and  subsequently,  the  Hebrews 
were  enjoined  to  treat  widows  with  justice 
and  consideration,  threatening  judgment  on 
those  who  did  ditlerently  (Ex.  xxii.  22;  Deut. 
xiv.  29;  xvi.  11,  14;  xxiv.  17-21;  xxvi.  12, 
13;  Is.  i.  17;  Jer.  vii.  (i;  xxii.  3;  Zech.  vii. 
10;  Mai.  iii.  5),  as  our  Lord  also  did  in  his 
preaching  (Mark  xii.  40).  The  apostolic 
church  looked  after  poor  widows  (Acts  vi.  1 ; 
Jas.  i.  27).  In  the  churches  under  Timothy's 
care  certain  widows,  who  were  widows  in- 
deed, and  had  neither  children  nor  grand- 
children to  provide  for  them  (1  Tim.  v.  4), 
were  enrolled  and  cared  for  by  the  church 
(16).  To  obtain  enrollment  it  was  required 
that  they  be  at  least  sixty  years  of  age,  have 
been  married  but  once,  and  be  well  reported 
of  for  good  works  (9,  10).  Here  are  the  be- 
ginnings of  an  institution.  From  the  end  of 
the  second  century  to  the  fourth  they  are 
mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers  as  elder 
widows  or  the  order  of  widows.  Their  duty 
was  to  serve  the  church,  and  they  had  over- 
sight over  the  women  of  the  congregati<m, 
especially  over  widows  and  orphans.  The 
office  was  abolished  by  the  synod  of  Laodicea, 
a.  d.  364. 

For  the  enactment  as  to  marriage  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  to  a  deceased  husband's 
brother,  see  Marriage. 

Wife.     See  Marriage. 

Wild  Ass,  Bull,  Goat,  etc.  See  Ass  and 
the  other  nouns;  but  for  Wild  Ox  see  both 
Ox  and  Unicorn. 

Wil'der-ness.     Sec  Desert. 

Wil'der-ness  of  the  Wan'der-ing. 

1.  Ii(iiiii(h(ri('s  and  Extent  of  the  Wilderness. 
Nature  has  defined  a  large  inverted  triangle, 
having  for  its  base  the  southeastern  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  Palestine,  for  its  western  side 
the  depression  in  which  the  gulf  of  Suez 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes  lie,  and  for  its  eastern 
side  the  depression  occu])ied  by  the  gulf  of 
Akaba  and  the  gorge  of  the  Arabah.  The 
base  of  this  triangle  measures  200  miles,  and 
its  area  about  22.000  square  miles.  This  dis- 
trict may  be  called  the  wilderness  of  the 
wandering;  but  this  designation  in  Arabic, 
Badiet  et-Tib,  is  restricted  to  the  table-land 
north  of  Sinai.  The  region  is  barren,  little 
desired  by  man  ;  and  the  great  tuitions  of 
antiquity    accordingly    left    it   virtually   to 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


813 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


itself.  The  Israelites  pushed  their  southern 
houndary  but  a  short  distance  into  its  limits, 
and  the  Egyptians  fortified  a  frontier  for 
themselves  where  its  sands  began. 

2.  Physical  Features  of  the  Wilderness.  The 
chief  features  of  the  territory  are  four :  a 
region  of  sand,  or  the  northern  and  north- 
western coast ;  a  region  of  limestone,  or  the 
table-land  ;  a  region  of  sandstone,  or  the  low 
mountains;  and  a  region  of  granite,  or  the 
liigh  mountains.  (1)  The  region  of  sand 
extends  in  a  broad  band  from  Philistia  along 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the 
boundary  of  Egypt  and  beyond,  bending  to 
the  south  and  continuing  in  a  strip  about  10 
miles  wide  past  Suez  to  a  point  one-third  of 
the  way  down  the  coast.  This  sandy  region 
is  more  or  less  coextensive  with  the  wilder- 
ness of  Shur  (Saadia,  quoted  by  Delitzsch, 
Gen.  xvi.  7).  (2)  The  northern  and  central 
portion  of  the  triangle  is  a  sterile  table-land 
of  limestone,  from  2000  to  2500  feet  high  ; 
sloping  down  on  the  north  to  the  sandy 
region  on  the  Mediterranean ;  swelling  in 
the  northeast  into  a  mountainous  coun- 
try; and  confined  on  the  other  sides  by  an 
encircling  chain  of  mountains,  4000  and 
more  feet  high,  now  called  Jebel  et-Tih. 
The  middle  of  this  desert  is  occupied  by  a 
long  central  basin,  which  is  drained  into  the 
Mediterranean  by  the  wady  el-'Arish  and  its 
tributaries.  These  water  courses  are  dry 
most  of  the  year,  but  filled  by  the  rains  with 
raging  torrents.  West  of  this  basin,  other 
wadies  run  by  themselves  down  to  the  sea. 
On  the  east  of  the  same  central  basin,  be- 
tween it  and  the  Arabah,  is  another  similar 
and  parallel  one,  extending  from  Jebel  et- 
Tih  nearly  to  Jebel  'Araif  and  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  the  northeast,  and  drained 
throughout  by  the  wady  el-Jerafeh.  The 
table-land  proper,  with  its  continuation  in 
the  adjacent  clusters  of  mountains  in  the 
northeast  as  far  as  the  cleft  of  the  wady  el- 
Fikreh,  was  the  wilderness  of  Paran  (Num. 
X.  11,  12;  xiii.  26;  1  Sam.  xxv.  1,  2),  in 
which  the  Israelites  wandered  for  38  years, 
and  of  which  the  portion  lying  between 
Horeb  and  Kadesh  was  remembered  by  them 
as  "  the  great  and  terrible  wilderness  "  (Dent. 
i.  19).  This  plateau  is  mostly  naked  of  vege- 
tation, and  has  a  gravelly  surface.  The 
wadies,  however,  seldom  fail  to  show  vegeta- 
tion of  some  sort,  and  after  the  rainy  season 
are  covered  with  a  thin  herbage.  The  s])rings 
are  few,  and  generally  send  forth  impure 
wat«r;  but  in  the  region  about  Kadesh  and 
along  the  border  of  the  Arabah  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  living  fountains,  and 
near  Kadesh  and  even  at  other  ])la(cs  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  desert  water  is  (il)taiiiable 
])y  digging.  (3)  The  sandstone  fnrniation 
crosses  the  peninsula  in  a  broad  l)elt  imme- 
diately south  of  Jebel  et-Tih  and  extends 
nearlj'  from  shore  to  shore,  separating  the 
limestone  table-land  from  tlie  granite  moun- 
tains.    It  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth.     It  may 


be  compared  to  a  dumb-bell  in  shape  :  ibr  it 
consists  of  two  groups  of  mountains  con- 
nected by  a  central  plateau.  This  sandy 
table-land  has  an  altitude  of  about  1500  feet. 
(4)  The  region  of  granite  consists  of  the 
groups  of  mountain  ranges  about  mount 
Sinai.  The  watershed  runs  nortli  and  south, 
and  lies  just  east  of  wady  esh-Sheikh. 

3.  Possibility  of  a  l^ojourn  of  Forty  Ycnrs  in 
the  Wilderness.  The  Israelites  numbered 
600,000  men  from  20  years  old  and  upward, 
according  to  the  repeated  testimony  of  the 
Hebrew  records.  According  to  statistics  of 
population,  which  yield  the  projKirtion  of 
four  to  five  between  those  under  and  those 
above  20  years  of  age  in  a  given  community, 
the  whole  body  of  fugitives  from  Egyjit 
numbered  2.100.000.  The  Bible,  as  well"  as 
ex])l()rati(»n,  teaches  that  this  great  host  could 
not  have  survived  for  any  great  length  of 
time  in  the  wilderness  save  by  the  ]irovi- 
dence  and  miracles  of  God.  Moses  reminded 
the  people  that  in  the  wilderness  tliey  had 
seen  how  that  the  Lord  their  God  did  bear 
them,  as  a  man  doth  bear  his  son,  in  all  the 
way  that  they  went  (Dent.  i.  31).  The  re- 
corded miracles  of  sustenance  are  few.  In 
the  wilderness  of  Sin,  at  the  beginning  of 
their  journey,  to  the  children  of  Israel 
manna  was  given,  of  which  they  continued 
to  eat  for  forty  years,  until  they  came  into  the 
borders  of  Canaan  (Ex.  xvi.  1,  4,  14,  15,  35). 
This  was  the  permanent  provision  for  their 
needs.  The  occasional  supplies  were  the 
quails,  given  at  the  same  time  as  the  manna, 
but  apparently  only  as  a  sign  and  tempo- 
rarily, for  they  are  not  again  mentioned 
(xvi.  12,  13) ;  the  water  provided  shortly 
afterwards  from  the  rock  near  Eephidim 
(xvii.  3-7)  ;  the  quails  given  in  the  second 
year  for  a  month  (Num.  x.  11 ;  xi.  4-6,  31)  ; 
and  the  water  caused  to  gush  from  the  rock 
at  Kadesh  toward  the  end  of  the  forty  years' 
sojourn  (xx.  2-11).  Tlie  Bible  teaches  further 
that,  notwithstanding  these  miracles,  certain 
periods  of  the  sojourn  remained  a  horrible 
meinory  (Deut.  1.  19  ;  viii.  15)  ;  that  though 
it  could  be  said  "Thou  hast  lacked  nothing" 
(ii.  7),  yet  the  life  in  the  wilderness  was  one 
of  repeated  privation  and  hardship.  The 
water  was  insutficient  at  Ee])hidim  and 
Kadesh  (Ex.  xvii.  1 ;  Num.  xx.  2) ;  the  people 
were  murmuring  three  days  after  leaving 
Sinai  before  reaching  Hazeroth  (x.  33;  xi.  1, 
35)  and  as  they  journeyed  from  mount  Hor 
toward  the  Eed  Sea  (xxi.  4,  5)  ;  and  the 
wilderness  was  found  to  be  terrible  (Deut. 
viii.  15). 

It  appears  from  the  biblical  narrative 
that  the  manna  sufficed  as  staple  fare,  though 
the  people  grew  weary  of  it  ;  and  that  the 
water  supply,  though  scanty  often  to  distress, 
was  ordinarily  sufficient.  Food  was  fur- 
nished continuously.  In  regard  to  the  supply 
of  water  in  this  region  of  desolation,  there 
are  two  considerations  of  importance:  (1) 
The  ability  of  the  people  to  alleviate  the 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


814 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


distress  of  the  desert  journey  arising  from 
the  scarcity  of  water.  The  power  of  man 
and  heast  to  endure  thirst  is  great  in  these 
dry  countries.  The  camel  drivers  of  Egypt, 
both  men  and  boys,  escort  travelers  across 
scorching  sands  and  under  a  burning  sun 
without  tasting  a  drop  of  water  from  early 
morning  until  after  nightfall,  because  unable 
to  obtain  it..  Dr.  Eobinson  relates  that  his 
Arab  guide  spent  a  fortnight  on  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula  near  mount  Serbal  pasturing  his 
camels,  without  a  drop  of  water  for  himself 
or  them.  He  drank  the  milk  of  the  camels ; 
and  they,  as  well  as  sheep  and  goats,  when 
they  have  fresh  pasture,  need  no  water,  some- 
times going  three  or  four  mouths  without 
it  (Researches  i.  150).  Again,  like  other 
travelers  in  the  desert,  the  Israelites  un- 
doubtedly carried  a  supply  of  water  with 
them,  which  they  replenished  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. It  is  evident  from  the  narrative  that 
at  the  beginning  of  their  journey  they  pro- 
vided water  sufficient  for  a  march  of  at  least 
three  days  into  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xv.  22). 
Again,  the  Israelites  discovered  hidden  natu- 
ral supplies.  Frequently  when  the  bed  of 
the  wady  or  the  surface  of  the  plain  is  dry, 
a  stream  flows  or  water  lies  in  a  basin  under- 
ground. According  to  the  geologist  Fraas, 
the  so-called  wells  of  Moses,  which  bubble 
up  in  the  desert  a  short  distance  from  Suez, 
are  fed  by  a  subterranean  stream  which 
flows  from  the  mountains  of  er-Rahah,  10  or 
14  miles  away  (Baedeker,  Lower  Egypt,  421). 
In  the  wady  Ghurundel,  which  is  commonly 
identified  with  Elim,  there  is  a  subterranean 
stream  which  the  Arabs  open  when  the 
upper  water  course  is  dry.  Though  the  rains 
fail  for  two  or  three  years,  water  is  always  to 
be  found  by  digging  a  little  below  the  sur- 
face (Robinson,  Researches  i.  69).  Back  of 
Tur,  at  Mabuk,  at  Kubab,  and  elsewhere, 
water  collects  beneath  the  surface  and  may 
be  reached  with  slight  efl"ort  (Ritter,  Erd- 
knnde  xiv.  161,  185 ;  Robinson,  Researches  i. 
167).  The  Hebrews  understood  this  fact  and 
took  advantage  of  it  during  their  sojourn  in 
the  wilderness,  as  tlie  song  of  the  well  testi- 
fies (Num.  xxi.  17,  18).  Again,  if  the  man- 
ner of  travel  was  like  the  migrations  of 
other  large  bodies  of  people,  the  Israelites 
scattered  in  order  to  utilize  for  man  and 
beast  all  the  soil  and  herbage  and  water. 
Again,  the  Israelites  husbanded  the  resources 
of  water.  The  rainfall  is  considerable ;  the 
wadies  bear  evidence  of  the  torrents  which 
at  times  sweep  down  their  courses.  The 
early  Christian  monks  who  dwelt  in  the 
mountains  of  Sinai  and  the  former  inhab- 
itants and  cultivators  of  the  district  about 
Kadesh  built  dams  across  the  ravines  and 
dug  cisterns,  and  thus  secured  water  for 
themselves,  their  cattle,  and  their  gardens. 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  forefathers 
of  these  Israelites  of  the  exodus,  had  like- 
wise husbanded  the  rainfall,  and  the  de- 
scendants of  these  Israelites  dug  trenches  in 


the  valleys  and  built  reservoirs  for  a  liko 
purpose;  and  doubtless  so  did  the  Israelites, 
during  their  sojourn  of  30  and  8  years  in  the 
wilderness.  (2)  A  second  important  con- 
sideration is  the  evidence  that  the  country 
was  better  wooded  in  former  times.  Char- 
coal has  been  made  in  the  peninsula  from 
the  acacia  tree  for  ages,  but  the  improvident 
Arabs  have  never  been  wont  to  replace  the 
destroyed  timber  by  replanting.  Bartlett  in 
1874  mentions  seeing  stumps  where  the 
Arabs  had  burned  down  the  trees,  and  acacias 
with  the  boughs  lopped  oflT  for  the  camels  to 
eat  (From  Egypt  to  Palestine,  pp.  225,  300,  301). 
Burckhardt,  one  of  the  earliest  travelers  to 
explore  Sinai,  in  his  journey  across  the 
country  in  1812  came  across  charcoal  burners 
(Erdkunde  xiv.  183)  ;  and  Eiippell  in  1822' 
mentioned  the  burning  of  charcoal  for  sale 
in  Egypt  as  an  immemorial  industry  of  the 
Bedouin,  and  ascribed  the  nakedness  of  the 
valleys  to  the  neglect  of  the  Arabs  to  replant 
the  ground  which  they  had  denuded  (Erd- 
kunde xiv.  274,  342).  A  tribute  in  charcoal 
has  also  been  imposed  on  the  Arabs  of  Sinai 
by  Egypt  since  1823.  But  charcoal  burnings 
for  domestic  purposes  and  export  has  not 
been  the  only  means  whereby  the  peninsula 
has  been  impoverished  of  wood  ;  mining  and 
smelting  have  also  caused  the  destruction  of 
great  quantities  of  timber.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  worked  copper  mines  in  the  sand- 
stone mountains  of  the  west  intermittently 
from  a  very  early  period,  and  were  still 
operating  them  subsequently  to  the  exodus. 
Acacia  wood  was  sometimes  used  as  supports 
for  the  roofs  of  the  mines  (Palmer,  Desert  of 
the  Exodus  i.  205),  and  the  smelting  opera- 
tions, which  were  of  magnitude,  demanded 
large  quantities  of  timber  for  fuel  (ibid.  26, 
43,  231-235;  Erdkunde  xiv.  786,  787).  One 
should  recall  the  disappearance  of  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  and  of  wide  stretches  of  forest  in 
America.  It  is  clear  that,  beginning  long 
before  the  exodus  and  continuing  down  to- 
the  present  day,  causes  have  been  at  work 
reducing  the  timber  in  the  region  traversed 
by  the  Israelites.  This  fact  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  water  supply 
in  earlier  times;  for  the  country  being  better 
wooded,  there  was  a  natural  preservation  of 
the  rainfall.  As  always  where  there  is  vege- 
tation, the  rain  fell  more  regularly ;  the 
water  was  admitted  to  the  wadies  more 
slowly  and  gently ;  soil  and  vegetation  were 
less  ruthlessly  swept  away ;  springs  were 
more  numerous  and  flowed  more  copiously  ; 
and  streams  endured  longer  into  the  dry 
season  and  were  more  frequently  perennial. 
Under  an  energetic,  competent,  and  provi- 
dent leader  who  was  acquainted  with  the 
desert  and  its  resources,  by  husbanding  the 
supply,  by  extending  the  bounds  of  the  en- 
campment, and  by  scattering  from  the  cen- 
tral camp  in  groups  of  various  size,  and  with 
no  failure  of  the  annual  rains,  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted   that  a  large   host  could   have  se- 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       815       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


cured  a  sufficieut  though  scant  supply  of 
water  for  man  and  beast. 

4.  The  BoHte  of  the  Israelites  throiujh  the 
Wilderness.  Certain  sites  have  been  identified  : 
Succoth  in  Egypt  at  the  beginning  of  the 
journey,  the  river  Arnon  wliich  was  reached 
at  the  close  of  the  forty  years,  when  the 
wilderness  was  left,  and  the  encampments 
beyond  the  Arnon  which  are  mentioned  in 
the  itinerary ;  Kadesh,  with  which  there  is 
reason  to  believe  Eithmah  was  print ically 
equivalent,  where  the  camp  was  twice  jiilched, 
and  Avhence  the  Israelites  expected  to  march 
directly  into  the  promised  land,  and  Ezion- 
geber,  where  the  camp  was  located  just  before 
the  second  march  to  Kadesh,  and  near  which 
they  afterwards  passed  on  their  way  to  the 
Arnon.  Mount  Sinai  is  almost  universally 
located  in  the  peninsula,  which  is  accord- 
ingly called  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  The 
camp  at  Moserah  was  hard  by  mount  Hor, 
on  the  border  of  Edom  ;  and  the  wells  of 
Bene-jaakan  and  Hor-haggidgad  were  also 
near  the  boundary  of  Edom.  Punon  was 
east  of  Edom  and  northeast  of  Petra.  With 
a  knowledge  of  the  location  of  these  places, 
one  may  readily  trace  the  general  route. 
See  maps,  Abraham,  Egypt. 

An  itinerary  covering  the  journey  from 
Eameses  and  Succoth  to  the  camp  opposite 
Jericho  was  drawn  up  by  Moses  (Num. 
xxxiii.).    The  encampments  recorded  in  it 


after  Sinai  represent  the  movements  of  the 
tabernacle.  The  people  were,  however, 
doubtless  often  dispersed  through  the  wil- 
derness, tending  their  flocks  wherever  herb- 
age and  water  were  found.  When  they  were 
collected  and  encam]iing  in  a  body,  their 
camp  was  very  large  and,  in  a  settled  coun- 
try, covered  the  distance  between  several 
towns  ;  hence  the  same  encampment  may  be 
ditferently  described  or  designated  (49  with 
XXV.  1).  Besides  the  itinerary  there  is  the 
narrative  of  the  journey  (Ex.  xii.-Num. 
XXV.),  and  there  are  also  scattered  allusions 
in  the  address  of  Moses  to  various  incidents 
that  occurred  on  the  way.  It  is  important 
to  remember  that  each  of  these  three  recitals 
was  prepared  for  a  special  purpose  of  its 
own.  The  itinerary  records  formal  encamp- 
ments, and  does  not  mention  every  halting 
place  and  every  place  of  spending  the  night 
(Ex.  XV.  22;  Num.  x.  33).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  it  omits  a  single  encampment  where 
the  tabernacle  was  set  up.  The  narrative  is 
apt  to  mention  an  encampment  or  even  a 
stopping  place  where  an  important  event  oc- 
curred, and  to  pass  over  the  others.  In  the 
address  events  are  cited  as  illustrations  or  to 
enforce  the  argument;  and  of  course  they 
are  chosen  at  random,  without  reference  to 
chronological  sequence,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently alluded  to  broadly  and  by  compre- 
hensive statement. 


Itixerary. 
From    Rameses  to  mount 
Sinai. 

Rameses,  lift  in  1st  month, 
15th  day  .   .    .  Num.  xxxiii.  3,  5 

Succoth 5 

Etham,  in  the  edge  of  the 

wildprness 6 

Pi-hahiroth 7 

Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  .  8 

Went  three  days'  journey 
into  the  wilderness  of 
Etham  and  pitched  at 

Marah 8 

Elim     9 

By  the  Red  Sea 10 

Wilderness  of  Sin     ...  11 

Dophkah 12 

Alush 13 

Rephidira,  where  was  no 
water  for   the   people  to 

drink      14 

Wilderness  of  Sinai  ...  15 

From  mount  Sinai  to  Ka- 
desh-barnea. 

Wilderness  of  Sinai    .   . 


Kibroth-hattaavah 


Narrative. 


Night  after  14th  day  of  1st 
mouth  ....  Ex.  xii.  18,  34,  37 

37 

xiil.  20 

xiv.    2 

22 

Went  out  into  the  wilder- 
ness ot  Shur,  and  went 
three  days  in  tlie   wil- 
derness and  came  to 
Marah  xv.  23 
27 

2d  month,  loth  day   .    .    .  xvi.    1 

xvii.    1 

before  the  mount      ...   xix.    2 
in  3d  month 1 

Num.  X.  12 

.  in  2d  year,  2d  month, 

20th  day     .  11 ;  cp.  i.  1 ;  ix.  5 
Three  days' journey     .    .        x.  33 
.    .    .the  outermost  part  of 
the  camp  wliere  tlie  fire 
devoured   being   called 

Taberah xi.  1,  3,  34 

Apparently      remained 

30  days    ." 21 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 


Deut.  xvi.  1 


Horeb 


.  ix.  22 


xi.    4 


vi.  16 ;  XXV.  17 

iv.  10,  11 ;  V.  2 


through  all 
tliat  great 
and 

terrible 
wilderness 
by  the  way 
to  the  hill 
country 
of  the 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       816       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


Itinerary. 


Hazeroth  . 
Kithmah  . 


Num.  xxxiii.  17 
18 


From    Kadesh    to    Ezion- 

geber  and  Return,  until 

tlie    men   of   that    geiieiation 

(lied. 

Rithmah 

Rimmou-perez 19 

Libnah 20 

Rissah    ...       21 

Kehelathah        22 

Mount  Shepher     ....  23 

Hariidah 24 

Mrtkhfloth 25 

Tahath 26 

Terah 27 

Mithkah 28 

Hashmonah 29 

Moseroth 30 

Bene-jaakan 31 

Hor-haggidgad      ...  3'2 

Jotbathah 33 

Abronah 34 

Ezion-gelier 35 

Wilderuess  of  Zin,  i.  e. 

Kadesh 36 


From  Kadesh  to  the  Jor- 
dan. 


Kadesh 


Mount  Ilor,  in  tlie  edge  of 
the  land  of  Edom  .  . 
In  40th  year, 5th  month, 
Ist  (laj- 

Aaron  ascendi'd  the 
mountain  and  died  .  . 
The  Idngof  Arad  heard  of 
the  coming  of  the  Israel- 
ites      


Narrative. 

Num.  xi.  35 

Keniained  at  least  7  days  .  xii.  1.3 
Kadesh,  in  tlie  wiMeruess 

of  Paran  .    .   .  xii.  16;  xiii.  -6 
About  the    time  of    the 
first  1  ipe  grapes,  i.  e.  in 
the  latter  part  of  tlie  5th 

month xiii.  20 

Discouraged  by  the  spies' 
report,  the  Israelites  re- 
fused to  advance.  After 
being  condemned  to 
wander  iu  the  wilder- 
ness 40  years  and  oi- 
dered  to  turn  back  into 
the  wilderness  by  the 
way  to  the  Red  S'  a,  ihe 
people  attempted  to  en- 
ter Canaan,  and  went 
up  into  the  mountain, 
but  were  smitten,  even 
unto  Hormah.  Moses 
departed  not  from  the 
camp xiv.  25,  33-45 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 


Amoiites 

Deut.  xxiv.  9      to 

Kadesh-barnea  ... 

It  is  1 1  days' journey  from 

Horeb  by   the   way  of 

mount  Seir  to  Kadisli- 

bainea 


i.    19 


i.  40-45  ;  ix.  23 


In  the  wilderness 


In  the  wilderness 


xvi.  13 


At  Kadesh  many  days  . 
Tnrned  and  took  their 
journey  into  the  wilder- 
ness by  the  way  to  the 
Red  Sea,  as  God  had 
commanded 


46 


Compassed 


i 


i 


Wilderness  of  Zin  at  Ka- 
desh, in  Isl  month  [of 

40th  year] XX.   1 

Moses  and  Aaron  sinned 
against  God  when 
siiiiting  the  rock  .  .  .  2-13 
Messengers  were  sent 
to  the  king  of  Kdom, 
asking  permission  lor 
Israel  to  cross  his  terri- 
tory         1-1-17 

Kadesh 22 

Journey  toward  Edom  by 
the  way  of  Atharim  or 
the  spies xxi.  1 

Mount  Hor,  hy  the  border 

of  the  land  of  Edom   XX.  22,  23, 


The  king  of  Aiail  heard 
of  their  coming,  fought 
against  them,  and  took 
some  of  them  captive    .   Xxi.  1 


.  cp.  xxxii.  51 


.  iii.  26;  iv.  21 


days,  ii.  2 


finally 
toward 


■Wells  of  Bene-jaakan. 
Moserah,  x.  6 

the 


where  Aaron  died.     x.  6 


X.6 


close 
of  the 


Willow 


817 


Willow 


Itinerary. 

Narrative. 

At  iiKjiiiit  II. ir-  the  Israel- 
iics    piiil.iibly    received 
the  ;iijswei-  of  the  king 

Allx'sions  in  Moses' 
Address. 

forty 
years 

uf  Eduni,  and  found  his 

Deut.  ii 

.7- 

army  diawn   up  to  op- 

xxix.  5 

l)ose    them,    wherefore 

they 

Israel     turned      away 

from  him   .    .   Num.  xx.  18-21 

peace- 

From   mount    Hor    tliey 

journeyed,  by  the  way 
to  the  Reel  Sea,  to  com- 

Gudgodah.   x   7       fully 

pass  the  land  of  Kdoui 

xxi.  4 

Jotbalhah.    x.  7 

crossed     the     southern 
end     of     Edoui,     near 
Elath  and  Ezion-geber, 
and  turned  northwaid. 

Zalmonah    .   .    Num.  xxxiii 

41 

Fiery  serpents  hereabouts  . 

6-9 

Deut.  viii.  15             journeying 

Pillion 

42 
43 

10 

by  the  way 
of  the  wil- 
derness of 

Oboth 

lye-abarim,  in  the  border 

.    .    .  in  the  wilderness  east 

of  MoaL) 

44 

of  Moab 

11 

Moab .  ii.  4, 
and 

""'.S 

Valley  of  Zered     .... 

12 

Crossed  the  brook  Zered 
38  years  after  their  con- 
demnation at  Kadesh- 
barnea  

13 
14 

In  the  wilderness  on  the 

other,   i..  e.   the  south, 

side  of  tiie  [upper]  Ar- 

non 

13 

Crossed   the   [upper]   Ar- 

non,  perhaps  the  tribu- 

tary known  as  wady  es- 

Saideh,  and  so  were  in 

the  neighborhood  of  the 

Ammonites ii.  18 

19 

and  on   the  borders  of 

the  Amorite  kingdom   . 

24 

Beer,  in  the  wilderness     . 

16,18 

From      the       wilderness 
which    took     its  name 
from     Kedemoth,     the 
Israelites  sent  messen- 
gers to  Sihon 

26 

Sihon  went  against  Israel 

into  the  w  ilderness,  and 

the  battle  was  fought  at 

.lahaz 

Mattanah,  not  in  the  wil- 

23 

32 

derness  

18 
19 

Dibon-gad,  the  camp  prob- 

Nahaliel  

ably  extending  to  Na- 

haliel 

45 

Almon     to     Diblathaim 

Bamoth 

19 

andprohaMv  to  ISaiiicith 

46 

In  the  mountains  nl'Ab- 

Valley  at  the  top  of  Pis- 

arim,  before  Nebo     . 

47 

gah 

20 

Plains  of  Moab,  opposite 

Jericho,    Irom    Betli- 

jeshinioth  to  Abel-shit- 

tim 48 

49 

xxli.  1 

In  the  valley  over  against 
Betb-peor  .   .    .  iii.  29;  iv. 

46 

atShittim 

XXV.   1 

In  the  4Utli  year,  beloiu  the 
11th  month i. 

3 

Willow,  Willow  Tree. 

1.  .\iiy  tree  of  the  genus  SnJix.  It  was 
called  siiph.fphah  in  Hebrew  (Ezek.  xvii.  5), 
safsdf  in  Arabic.  Several  species  are  com- 
mon ill  Pfle-stine. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"rnhnh. 
The  Israelites  were  directed  to  take  branches 
from  it,  as  well  as  from  other  trees,  to  make 
>)ooths  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (Lev. 
xxiii.  40).  It  grew  beside  brooks  or  water 
courses  (ibid.;  Is.  sliv.  4),  and  afforded  cover 

52 


even  to  the  bulky  behemoth  (Job  xl.  22).  It 
was  the  tree  on  which  the  Hebrews  hung 
tlieir  harps  wheii  exiles  at  Babylon  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  2).  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
render  the  Hebrew  word  by  willow,  and 
they  are  followed  by  the  English  version. 
It  may  have  been  the  weeping  willow  (Salix 
bahyJonica).  which  is  found  abundautly  on 
the  Euphrates,  and  is  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine. But  leading  interpreters,  following 
Wetzstein,    understand    the    Arabic   gharab. 


Willows,  Brook  of  the 


818 


Wine 


and  consequently  its  etymological  equiva- 
lent, the  Hebrew  '"rabah,  to  denote  the  Eu- 
phrateaii  pophir  (Pupulus  euphratica). 

Willows.  Brook  of  the. 

A  willow-lVingL(l  brook  in  Moab  (Is.  xv.  7), 
probably  wady  el-'Ahsy,  the  upper  course  of 
wady  Kuralii,  the  boundary  between  Moab 
and  Edoiu.  It  may  be  identical  with  the 
brook  of  tlie  Arabah  (Amos  vi.  14,  R.  V.). 

Wim'ple. 

An  article  of  woman's  attire,  made  of  silk 
or  linen,  and  worn  as  a  covering  for  the 
neck,  chin,  and  sides  of  the  face.  In  A.  V. 
of  Is.  iii.  2r2,  it  is  the  rendering  of  tlie  He- 
brew Mitpahhath,  a  shawl  or  mantle  (ibid. ; 
Ruth  iii."  15,"both  R.  V.). 

Wind. 

The  Hebrews,  who  did  not  define  direction 
with  the  minuteness  customary  in  modern 
times,  recognized  four  winds :  the  east,  the 
west,  the  north,  and  the  south  winds  (Jer. 
xlix.  3fj;  Ezek.  xxxvii.  9;  Rev.  vii.  1).  God 
created  the  wiml  (Amos  iv.  13) ;  and  it  stands 
at  his  summons,  is  under  his  control,  and 
performs  his  pleasure  (Job  xxviii.  25 ;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  '26;  cvii.  25;  cxxxv.  7 ;  cxlviii.  8; 
Mat.  viii.  26).  The  wind  that  blew  from  the 
west,  southwest,  and  northwest  brought  rain 
to  Palestine,  and  accompanied  the  storm  (1 
Kin  xviii.  43-45;  Ps.  cxlvii.  18;  Prov.  xxv. 
23,  R.  v.;  Ezek.  xiii.  13).  Wind  was  often 
destructive  to  houses  and  ship])ing  (Job  i. 
19;  Ps.  xlviii.7;  Mat.  vii.  27).  The  scorch- 
ing wind  dried  up  streams,  and  blasted  vege- 
tation (Gen.  xli.  (i ;  Is.  xi.  15  ;  Ezek.  xix.  12  ; 
Jon.  iv.  8) ;  see  East  Wind.  The  south  and 
southeast  winds  traversed  the  Arabian  desert, 
and  were  dry  and  hot  (Job  xxxvii.  17  ;  Luke 
xii.  55).  The  north  wind  was  cooler  (Ecclus. 
xliii.  20),  and  was  favorable  to  vegetation 
(Song  iv.  16).  Wind  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  the  thresher  to  blow  away  the  chaff 
and  broken  straw  (Job  xxi.  18;  Ps.  i.  4) ;  see 
Threshing.  The  mariner  also  availed  him- 
self of  the  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  40).  The  words 
which  are  rendered  whirlwind  in  the  E.  V. 
do  not  denote  a  rotary  wind  specifically,  but 
signify  a  violent  storm  of  any  kind. 

Win'dow. 

An  aperture  especially  in  the  wall  of  a 
building  (Gen.  xxvi.  8;  1  Kin.  vi.  4;  Jer. 
xxii.  14),  which  was  opened  and  closed  at 
convenience  by  means  of  a  movable  shutter 
of  some  sort  (Gen.  viii.  6;  2  Kin.  xiii.  17; 
Dan.  vi.  10),  generally  a  lattice  (Judg.  v.  28; 
2  Kin.  i.  2;  Prov.  vii.  6;  Song  ii.  9);  but  a 
window  on  the  ground  floor,  that  looked  into 
the  street,  was  doubtless  in  ancient  as  in 
modern  times  small,  high  up  in  the  wall, 
and  strongly  barred.  In  tlie  better  class  of 
houses  most  of  tlie  windows  faced  the  court. 
Hou.ses  that  abutted  on  the  town  wall  usually 
had  windows  looking  toward  the  country 
(Josh.  ii.  15;  2  Cor.  xi.  33). 


Wine. 

Wine  was  made  from  grapes.  The  ripe 
clusters  were  gathered  in  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9), 
carried  to  the  press,  and  thrown  into  it.  The 
press  consisted  of  a  shallow  vat,  built  above 
ground  or  excavated  in  the  rock  (Is.  v.  2)  and, 
through  holes  in  the  bottom,  communicating 
with  a  lower  vat  also  frequently  excavated 
in  the  rock  (Joel  iii.  13).  An  upper  vat  meas- 
uring 8  feet  square  and  15  inches  deep  had 
at  times  a  lower  vat  4  feet  square  and  3  feet 
deep.  The  grapes  were  crushed  by  treading 
(Neh.  xiii.  15;  Job  xxi  v.  11),  one  or  more 
men  being  employed  according  to  the  size  of 
the  vat.     In  Egypt,  and  probably  in   Pales- 


m\\%mm%\mim/m/^//rm' 


Treading  the  Wine  Press  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

tine,  the  treaders  held  to  ropes  overhead  to 
keep  from  falling ;  they  sang  at  their  work 
and  shouted,  doubtless  to  keep  time  (Is.  xvi. 
10 ;  Jer.  xxv.  30 ;  xlviii.  33) ;  and  the  red 
blood  of  the  grapes  flowed  around  them  and 
stained  their  skin  and  their  garments  (Is. 
Ixiii.  1-3).  From  the  upper  vat  the  juice 
trickled  into  the  lower.  From  this  receptacle 
the  juice  was  put  in  bottles  of  skin  (Job 
xxxii.  19;  Mat.  ix.  17),  or  in  large  earthen- 
ware jars,  where  it  was  allowed  to  ferment. 
When  fermentation  had  proceeded  far  enough 
the  wine  was  drawn  oif  into  other  vessels 
(Jer.  xlviii.  11,  12). 

The  juice  of  the  grape  when  expressed 
was  used  in  various  conditions :  as  must, 
fresh  from  the  press;  as  wine,  which  was 
produced  by  vinous  fermentation  ;  and  as 
vinegar,  which  resulted  when  the  fermenta- 
tion was  continued  too  long.  Probably  in 
ancient  times,  as  at  the  present  day,  some  of 
the  must  was  reduced  to  a  .syrup  or  honey 
bylxiiling;  see  Honey.  As  vinegar  it  was 
called  homf.%  in  Greek,  oxos ;  see  Vinegar. 
Various  names  were  applied  to  it  in  the  other 
states : 

The  Hebrew  iirosh,  that  which  takes  pos- 
session of,  intoxicates  :  or  better,  possession, 
product   of   labor.      The  R.    V.   sometimes 


Wine 


819 


Wine 


renders  tbis  word  by  vintage  (Num.  xviii. 
12;  Neb.  x.  37,  margin)  ;  and  tbe  attempt 
has  been  made  by  some  interpreters  to  limit 
tbe  meaning  to  tbis  sense,  and  to  deny  tbat 
it  ever  signifies  new  wine  or  must.  It  means 
juice  of  tbe  grape  or  must  in  Joel  ii.  24  : 
"  Tbe  floors  sball  be  full  of  wbeat,  and  tbe 
fats  sball  overflow  witb  wine  and  oil ;  "  cp. 
iii.  13  :  "  Put  ye  in  tbe  sickle,  for  the  barvest 
is  ripe:  come,  tread  ye;  for  tbe  wine  press 
in  full  [of  grapes],  tbe  fats  [botb  of  tbem] 
overflow."  It  also  means  juice  of  tbe  grape 
or  new  wine,  as  it  is  rendered  in  tbe  E.  V., 
in  Hos.  iv.  11:  "Whoredom  and  wine  and 
new  wine  take  away  tbe  understanding;" 
for  tbe  exegesis  is  forced  and  invalid  which 
interprets  this  verse  as  meaning  tbat  whore- 
dom proceeds  from  tbe  abuse  of  wine,  and 
wine  is  connected  witb  the  abuse,  tbat  is,  the 
fermentation,  of  tirosh  or  must  Tbe  passage 
artirms  that  all  three  take  away  the  under- 
standing. There  is  no  need  to  depart  from 
this- meaning  of  tirosh  anywhere,  and  render 
it  vintage  ;  for  example :  1.  Not  in  Is.  Ixii.  8, 
9:  "Surely  I  will  no  more  give  thy  corn  to 
be  meat  for  thine  enemies;  and  strangers 
shall  not  drink  thy  wine  [on  margin,  vint- 
age], for  the  which  thou  hast  labored:  but 
they  tbat  have  garnered  it  shall  eat  it,  and 
praise  the  Lord  ;  and  they  that  have  gathered 
it  shall  drink  it  in  the  courts  of  my  sanc- 
tuary "  (R.  v.).  There  is  no  need  to  give 
tirosh  the  meaning  of  vintage  here,  as  the 
R.  V.  shows  by  placing  wine  in  the  text,  as 
tbe  A.  V.  did.  It  is  said  indeed  to  be  gath- 
ered ;  but  tbis  is  a  proleptic  form  of  speech, 
and  elsewhere  wine  and  oil  are  said  to  be 
gathered  (Jer.  xl.  10 ;  the  Hebrew  word  for 
wine  being  yayin).  2.  Not  in  Is.  Ixv.  8  :  "As 
the  new  wine  is  found  in  the  cluster,  and  one 
saith,  Destroy  it  not,  for  a  blessing  is  in 
it."  Cheyne  renders  "  As  when  [a  few  good] 
grapes  are  found  in  the  cluster,  and  one  saith 
[to  the  other  gleaners]  destroy  it  not,  for  a 
blessing  is  in  it."  But  the  same  meaning 
exactly  is  yielded  by  rendering  :  "  As  when 
tbe  juice  is  found  in  tbe  cluster,"  etc.  (Alex- 
ander, Delitzsch,  Dillmann).  3.  Not  in  Mic. 
vi.  15:  "  Thou  shalt  sow,  but  shalt  not  reap  : 
thou  .shalt  tread  tbe  olives,  but  shalt  not 
anoint  thee  with  oil ;  and  the  vintage  [in 
A.  V.  sweet  wine],  but  shalt  not  drink  the 
wine."  Tbe  Hebrews  spoke  of  treading 
grapes  (Amos  ix.  13)  and  of  treading  wine  (Is. 
xvi.  10 ;  yayin  being  used,  and  the  word  "  out " 
not  being  found  in  tbe  original).  4.  Not 
even  in  those  numerous  passages  where  tbe 
fruits  of  tbe  ground  are  mentioned  compre- 
hensively as  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (Num.  xviii. 
12,  R.  V.  vintage;  Deut.  vii.  13;  xi.  14; 
xii.  17;  Hos.  ii.  8,  22;  Joel  i.  10;  ii.  19,  in 
all  18  times).  In  many  of  these  passages 
the  tithe  of  the  corn,  wine,  and  oil  is  spoken 
of.  Since  yishar  denotes  tbe  oil  which  is 
found  in  the  olive  (2  Kin.  xviii.  32;  Zecb. 
iv.  14),  tirosh  may  denote  the  juice  which  is 
found  in  the  grape ;  and  as  the  grain  was 


thought  of  as  threshed,  the  tirosh  and  tbe  oil 
may  be  thought  of  as  expressed.  Indeed  tbe 
threshed  grain  rather  indicates  tbat  the  grape 
juice  and  the  oil  were  expressed.  Tbe  only 
question  then  is  :  Were  not  firstfruits  and 
tithes  brought  from  the  other  produce  of  the 
vineyard  which  was  not  reduced  to  wine  ? 
They  were  ;  but  they  are  not  specifically  in- 
cluded in  the  threefold  designation  so  often 
employed.  Tbe  firstfruits  of  all  that  was  in 
the  land  were  presented  to  the  Lord,  as  is 
more  explicitly  stated  in  Num.  xviii.  13 ; 
and  mint  and  anise  were  tithed,  although 
tbe  threefold  designation  does  not  when 
interpreted  literally  embrace  them.  Grain, 
must,  and  oil  were  prominent  enough  to  stand 
for  all. 

Tbe  Hebrew  'asis,  something  trodden  out ; 
hence  grajie  juice,  must  (Is.  xlix.  26  ;  Amos 
ix.  13).  It  does  not  denote  the  expressed 
juice  of  tbe  grape  only,  but  of  other  fruits 
as  tbe  pomegranate. 

The  Greek  (ileul-os  is  used  by  Josepbus  in 
speaking  of  the  grape  juice  squeezed  into 
Pharaoh's  cup  (Gen.  xl.  11  ;  Antiq.  ii.  5,  2). 
It  is  explained  by  Hesychius  as  the  juice 
that  flowed  spontaneously  from  tbe  grapes 
before  the  treading  commenced.  It  was 
drawn  oflT  and  kept  separate  from  tbe  juice 
which  flowed  under  pressure.  It  was  with 
tbis  tbat  tbe  apostles  were  accused  of  being 
filled  on  tbe  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  13). 

Must  was  drunk  ;  and,  after  fermentation 
had  set  in,  was  intoxicating  (Hos.  iv.  11, 
tirosh;  Acts  ii.  13,  glenkos ;  and  probably  Is. 
xlix.  26,  'asis).  But  although  must  was 
used  as  a  drink,  the  old  wine  was  preferred 
(Ecclus.  ix.  10;  Luke  v.  39).  Pliny  regarded 
must  as  hurtful  to  tbe  stomach  (Hist.  Nat. 
xxiii.  18). 

The  Hebrew  yayin  is  undoubtedly  the 
same  word  etymologically  as  the  Greek  oinos 
and  the  Latin  vinum.  H''mar  is  the  Aramaic 
name  for  tbe  same  thing;  and  hemer  is  the 
etymological  equivalent  of  the  Aramaic 
word,  and  is  occasionally  used  in  Hebrew 
poetry.  W^hen  the  Hebrew  word  yayin  first 
occurs  in  Scripture,  it  is  tbe  fermented  juice 
of  the  grape  (Gen.  ix.  21),  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  tbat  it  has  a  diflerent  mean- 
ing elsewhere.  The  Greek  oinos  also  means 
the  fermented  juice  of  tbe  grape,  except 
when  it  is  qualified  by  the  word  new,  and 
even  then  there  are  not  two  wines,  one  fer- 
mented and  tbe  other  unfermented.  New^ 
wine  is  must,  which  only  becomes  wine  by 
fermentation.  An  argument  for  tbe  use  of 
the  term  wine  for  unfermented  grape  juice 
has  been  sought  in  tbe  fact  that  wine  was 
used  in  later  times  at  tbe  passovcr,  and  yet 
leaven  was  strictly  forbidden  during  the 
seven  days  of  the  paschal  festival ;  hence  tbe 
term  wine,  it  has  been  argued,  must  have 
been  applied  to  unfermented  juice.  But  tbe 
reason  is  invalid.  Vinous  fermentation  was 
not  regarded  as  leaven.  During  tbe  passover 
it  was  fermented  drinks  into  which  grain, 


Wine 


820 


Winnowing 


and  hence  the  leaven  of  bread,  had  entered 
that  the  Jews  would  not  taste  or  touch 
(Mishna,  Pesachuth  ii.)-  There  were  numer- 
ous varieties  of  wine  which  differed  in  body 
and  flavor,  such  as  the  wiue  of  Lebanon,  the 
wine  of  Helbon.     See  Vine. 

Fruit  of  the  vine,  the  designation  used  by 
Jesus  at  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
(Mat.  XX vi.  29),  is  the  expression  employed 
by  the  Jews  from  time  immemorial  for  the 
wine  partaken  of  on  sacred  occasions,  as  at 
the  passover  and  on  the  evening  of  the  Sab- 
hath  (Mishna,  Berakoth  vi.  1).  The  Greeks 
also  used  the  term  as  a  synonym  of  wine 
which  was  capable  of  producing  intoxication 
(flerod.  i.  211,  212).     The  juice  of  the  grape 


Vintage  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

which  was  ordinarily  planted  was  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2;  Eev.  xiv.  19,  20)  and  v/as  called  the 
blood  of  the  grape  (Gen.  xlix.  11 ;  Deut. 
xxxii.  14;  1  Mac.  vi.  34).  It  was  wine 
(Ecclus.  1.  15). 

Mixed  wine  was  known  by  the  specific 
names  of  mesek  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8),  miinsak  (Prov. 
xxiii.  30;  Is.  Ixv.  11),  and  mezeg  (Song  vii. 
2),  each  of  which  means  mixture  and  de- 
notes wine  mixed  with  spices  to  give  it  a 
pleasant  flavor  (Song  viii.  2;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Xat.  xiv.  19,  5),  or  with  water  to  diminish  its 
strength  (Herod,  vi.  84  ;  see  below). 

Wine  differed  from  shekar,  rendered  strong 
drink  in  E.  V.,  in  that  wine  was  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  shekar  from  the 
juice  of  other  fruits  and  of  grain.  It  was 
fermented,  for  it  was  capable  of  producing 
intoxication  (Is.  xxviii.  7;  xxix.  9).  It  was 
prepared  from  barley  (Herod,  ii.  77),  from 
honey,  or  from  dates  (i.  193  ;  ii.  86  ;  Jerome, 
Epist.  ad  Nepofiamim),  or  from  the  lotus 
(Herod,  iv.  177).  The  drink  made  from  dates 
is  wholesome  and  refreshing,  but  in  one  day's 
heat  it  undergoes  rapid  fermentation,  effer- 
vesces, and  produces  intoxication  if  taken 
immoderately.  Shekar  is  once  used  in  a  broad 
sense  for  strong  drink  generally  in  distinc- 
tion from  water,  and  refers  to  the  drink 
olfei'ing,  which  consi.sted  of  wine  exclusively 
(Num.  xxviii.  7). 

Other  words  are  nobe',  a  name  derived  from 
a  root  which  signifies  to  soak  or  drink  to 
excess  (Is.  i.  22;  Nah.  i.  10);  and  sh'marim, 
which  strictly  denotes  the  lees  of  wine  and 
then  is  used  for  wine  kept  long  on  the  lees, 
and  hence,  old. 

Wine  was  emplovcd  medicinally  (Prov. 
xxxi.  6;  Luke  x.  34;  1  Tim.  v.  23);  was 
Used  in  the  service  of  God  (Ex.  xxix.  39-41 ; 


Lev.  xxiii.  13) ;  and  light  wine  was  a  staple 
article  of  diet  in  Palestine,  as  it  has  been  in 
other  Mediteri'aneau  lands  from  time  im- 
memorial (Num.  vi.  20 ;  Deut.  xiv.  26 ;  2 
Chron.  ii.  15 ;  Neh.  v.  18  ;  Mat.  xi.  19  ;  1  Tim. 
iii.  8).  Palestine  was  a  country  where  meat 
was  difficult  to  obtain  and  vegetables  were 
rare  ;  and  wine  supplied  the  lack.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  wine 
was  the  invariable  accompaniment  of  a  meal ; 
many  a  repast  was  partaken  of  without  it ; 
see  Food.  Still  wine  was  in  common  use. 
Bread  and  wine  signified  the  staples  of  life 
(Ps.  civ.  14,  15;  Prov.  iv.  17).  Wine  was 
offered  as  an  ordinary  hospitality  (Gen.  xiv. 
18)  and  was  served  at  festivities  (Job  i.  13. 
18;  John  ii.  3).  The  Hebrew  people 
were,  as  a  rule,  simple  in  their  mode 
of  living,  and  temperate ;  but  the  dan- 
ger of  excess  in  the  use  of  even  light 
wine,  especially  at  feasts,  was  clearly 
discerned.  Its  use  was  accordingly 
forbidden  to  priests  when  ministering 
at  the  .sanctuarj'  (Lev.  x.  9),  and  was 
declared  to  be  improper  for  those  about 
to  sit  on  the  judgment  seat  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5;  cp.  Ecc.  x.  17;  Is.  xxviii. 
7)  ;  and  precautions  were  taken  to  guard 
all  men  against  excess.  The  means  em- 
ployed to  prevent  the  danger  line  from 
being  crossed  were  :  1.  The  weakening  of 
the  wine  with  water  (2  Mac.  xv.  39  ;  Herod. 
vi.  84).  That  this  was  done  further  appears, 
for  example,  in  connection  with  the  kettle 
of  warm  water  and  the  servants  to  mix  the 
wine,  which  were  employed  at  the  passover 
(Mishna,  Pesarhim  vii.  1.3;  x.  2,  4,  7);  hence 
in  the  early  Christian  church  it  was  custom- 
ary to  mix  the  sacramental  wine  with  water 
(.Tustin  Martyr,  Apol.,  i.  65).  2.  The  gover- 
nor of  the  feast  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  1,  2;  John  ii. 
9,  10),  one  of  whose  duties,  at  least  where 
Greek  customs  were  observed,  was  to  fix  the 
proportion  in  which  the  wine  and  water 
should  be  mixed  and  to  determine  liow  much 
wine  each  guest  might  drink  ;  see  Meals. 
3.  Warnings  against  the  danger  of  lingering 
over  the  wine,  of  tampering  with  the  cup 
when  it  delights  the  eye,  and  of  making  strong 
intoxicants  were  urgently  given,  and  the 
degradation  of  the  drunkard  was  pointed  out 
by  .sad  example  (Gen.  ix.  21;  Prov.  xxiii. 
29-35;  Is.  v.  22).  4.  The  folly  of  excess 
even  from  a  worldly  standpoint  Avas  em- 
phasized and  expressed  in  proverbs,  and  put 
on  record  in  the  religious  literature  of  the 
people  (Prov.  xx.  1  ;  xxi.  17  ;  xxiii.  20,  21  ; 
Hab.  ii.  5;  Ecclus.  xxxi.  25-31).  5.  The 
sinfulness  of  drunkenness  was  earnestly 
taught  and  the  condemnation  of  the  drunk- 
ard by  God  the  Judge  was  fully  known  (1 
Sam.  i.  14-16;  Is.  v.  11-17;  1  Cor.  v.  11 ;  vi. 
10;  Gal.  V.  21;  Eph.  v.  18  ;  1  Pet.  iv.  3). 

Wine  Press.     See  Wine. 

Win'now-ing.     See  Threshing. 


Wisdom 


821 


Wolf 


Wis'dom. 

One  of  the  tliree  departments  of  knowl- 
edge among  the  Hebrews,  the  other  two 
being  the  law  and  prophecy.  The  law  pre- 
sents the  commandments  and  claims  of  Je- 
hovah to  man  ;  prophecy  passes  judgment 
on  conduct  in  the  light  of  God's  revealed 
will  and  explains  the  object  of  God's  dealings 
with  men ;  wisdom  seeks  by  observation, 
experience,  and  retlection  to  know  things  in 
their  essence  and  reality  as  they  stand  re- 
lated to  man  and  God.  The  law  and  prophecy 
proceed  directly  from  God,  and  in  the  highest 
sense  are  the  word  of  God.  Wisdom  proceeds 
from  man,  and  is  the  product  of  his  own 
experience  and  observation.  But  while  it  is 
a  human  etibrt,  it  recognizes  that  a  good 
understanding  is  the  gift  of  God,  and  it 
postulates  the  fear  of  God  and  obedience  to 
his  commands  as  its  first  principle  (Ps.  cxi. 
10  ;  Prov.  ix.  10  ;  Ecc.  xii.  13).  In  the  earlier 
chapters  of  The  Proverbs,  in  the  Book  of 
Job,  and  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  wisdom 
is  personified.     See  Philosophy. 

The  wise  in  counsel  (Jer.  xviii.  18)  are  met 
with  from  time  to  time  during  Israel's  na- 
tional history  ;  as  the  wise  woman  of  Tekoa 
CJ  Sam.  xiv.  2),  tike  wise  won)an  of  Abel- 
betii-maacah  (xx.  18),  the  four  celebrities 
Ethan,  Heman,  Calcol.and  Darda(l  Kin.  iv. 
81).  Their  utterances  took  the  form  of 
l)arable(2  Sam.  xiv.  4-11),  precept(Prov.  xxiv. 
27-29),  proverb  (23-26),  riddle  (i.ti),  the  story 
of  real  life  and  its  lesson  (xxiv.  30-34);  and 
it  is  customary  to  see  specimens  of  their  keen 
observation,  method,  and  shrewd  sayings  in 
Jotham's  fable  (Judg.  ix.  7-20),  Samson's 
riddle  or  dark  saying  (xiv.  14),  Nathan's 
parable  and  those  enacted  by  the  wise  woman 
of  Tekoa  and  a  certain  prophet  (2  Sam.  xii. 
17;  xiv.  4-17;  1  Kin.  xx.  3.'5-43),  and  the 
faille  uttered  by  king  Jehoasli  (2  Kin.  xiv.  9, 
10).  But  the  great  books  of  Hebrew  wisdom 
are  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiasces,  Ecclesiasti- 
cus,  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

Wis'dom  of  Solomon.    See  Apocrypha. 

Witch  and  Witch'craft.     See  Sorcerer. 

Wit'ness. 

Evidence  which  could  be  appealed  to  in 
the  future  was  secured  by  some  tangible 
token  or  memorial,  as  a  heap  of  stones  (Gen. 
xxxi.  46-52),  or  by  calling  in  men  to  witness 
the  event  (xxiii.  10-18),  by  a  written  docu- 
ment, as  a  deed  or  a  letter  of  divorce  (Deut. 
xxiv.  1,  3:  Jer.  xxxii.  10). 

The  concurrent  testimony  of  at  least  two 
witnesses  was  required  under  the  Mosaic  law 
to  establisli  guilt  of  a  capital  crime  (Num. 
XXXV.  30;  Deut.  xvii.  6;  Heb.  x.  28;  cp.  1 
Kin.  xxi.  10,  13;  Mat.  xxvi.  60).  This  prin- 
ciple was  a  general  rule  in  all  judicial  jiro- 
cedure  (Deut.  xix.  1.5).  The  Mosaic  law  did 
not  sanction  the  use  of  torture  to  extract 
testimony;  see  Punishment.  The  witness, 
before  his  testimony  was  given,  was  adjured 
to  tell  the  truth  and  to  conceal  nothing  ;  and 


then  it  was  sin  for  him  to  withhold  evidence 
in  his  possession  (Lev.  v.  1  ;  Prov.  xxix.  24). 
False  witness  bearing  was  denounced  in  the 
decalogue  (Ex.  xx.  16),  and  when  detected, 
it  drew  upon  the  false  witness  the  same 
penalty  that  he  had  attempted  to  get  im- 
posed on  the  accused  (Deut.  xix.  16,  19). 
The  witnesses  aided  in  executing  a  sentence 
of  death  ;  see  Stoning.  Josephus  asserts 
that  women  and  children  were  excluded 
from  giving  testimony  by  the  Mosaic  law 
(Antiq.  iv.  8, 15).  The  law  itself  says  nothing 
on  the  subject;  but  the  participation  of  the 
witnesses  in  the  execution  of  the  death  pen- 
alty would  make  the  exclusion  of  women 
and  children  from  witness  bearing  expedient. 
Josephus'  statement  evidently  represents  the 
current  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  law  in 
his  day. 

The  excellent  principle  involved  in  having 
at  least  two  witnesses  is  capable  of  liroad  a]>- 
plication  in  the  dealings  of  man  with  man 
(Is.  viii.  2;  Mat.  xvii.  1,  2;  xviii.  Ki ;  John 
viii.  17,  18;  1  Tim.  v.  19). 

Those  who  in  the  face  of  danger  and  dis- 
tress testify  to  the  truth  of  God  ai'e  witnesses 
in  the  highest  sense  (Heb.  x.,  xi.,  xii.  1).  Mar- 
tyr is  a  Greek  word  meaning  witness,  and  it 
came  to  signify  one  who  sealed  his  testimony 
with  his  blood,  as  Stephen  and  Antipas  (Acts 
xxii.  20;  Rev.  ii.  13). 

Wiz'ard. 

A  professed  possessor  of  supernatural 
knowledge  derived,  in  the  form  of  wizardry 
referred  to  in  the  Bible,  from  the  pretended 
ability  to  converse  with  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  (Is.  viii.  19).  The  wizard  chirped  and 
muttered  (ibid.)  in  imitation  of  the  voice  of 
the  spirit  (cp.  xxix.  4).  The  wizard  is  never 
mentioned  alone,  but  always  in  connection 
with  them  that  have  familiar  spirits,  because 
he  belonged  to  the  same  class  of  questioners  of 
the  dead.  The  Canaanites  consulted  wizards 
(Deut.  xviii.  9-12),  so  did  the  Egyptians  (Is. 
xix.  3)  ;  but  for  a  Hebrew  to  go  to  such  an 
oracle  defiled  him,  and  was  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  xx.  6  ;  Is.  viii.  19). 
The  ofl'ense  of  wizardry  was  punished  with 
death  (Lev.  xx.  27).  Saul,  and  subsequently 
Josiah,  put  the  law  in  force  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3, 
9;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  24);  whilst  Manasseh  vio- 
lated it  shamelessly  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6). 

Wolf. 

1.  A  carnivorous  animal,  wild  and  fierce 
(Is.  xi.  6  ;  Hab.  i.  8),  that  kills  sheep  (Ecclus. 
xiii.  17;  John  x.  12),  and  is  accustomed  to 
remain  in  hiding  by  day  and  seek  its  prey 
in  the  evening  (Zeph.  iii.  3).  Benjamin 
was  compared  to  the  fierce  and  dreaded 
wolf  (Gen.  xlix.  9.  27;  cp.  the  warrior 
Zeebl.  But  comparison  with  the  wolf  was 
not  always  intended  as  an  honor.  Violent 
princes  who  prey  upon  the  helpless  are 
likened  to  ravening  wolves  (Ezek.  xxii. 
27);  and  so  are  false  teachers  'Mat.  vii.  1.'); 
Acts  XX.  29),   and   enemies  of  the  flock  of 


Woman 


822 


World 


God  (Mat.  X.  16).  The  wolf  of  Palestine  is  a 
variety  of  tlie  European  species (('««(«  lupus), 
and  is  diffused  throughout  tlie  country. 
Owiiifr  to  the  ease  with  which  food  is  ob- 
tained and  tlie  niiklness  of  the  winter,  tliey 
do  not  hunt  in  packs,  as  in  the  colder  north, 
but  prowl  alone. 

•i.  The  reiideriug  of  the  Hebrew  'lyyiin, 
howlinj;  creatures  (Is.  xiii.  22;  xxxiv.  14; 
Jer.  1.  ;i9;  in  A.  V.  wild  beasts  of  the  islands). 
The  wolf  belongs  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
dog;  but  it  cannot  bark,  it  cau  only  howl. 

Worn 'an. 

The  counterpart  of  man,  made  to  be  his 
helpmeet  and  social  equal  (Gen.  ii.  21-24 ; 
see  Eve)  ;  and  monogamy,  or  the  marriage 
of  one  man  and  one  woman,  was  the  Crea- 
tor's intention ;  see  Marriage. 

The  younger  women  of  the  family,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  times  and  among  the  no- 
mads, tended  the  sheep  (Gen.  xxix.  6 ;  Ex. 
ii.  16),  and  they  went  to  the  harvest  field  and 
gleaned  (Ruth  ii.  3,  8)  ;  but  the  main  duties 
of  women  were  about  the  household.  They 
brought  water  from  the  well  (Gen.  xxiv.  13 ; 
John  iv.  7),  ground  the  grain  for  daily  use 
(Mat.  xxiv.  41),  prepared  the  meals  (Gen. 
xviii.  6  ;  2  Sam.  xiii.  8 ;  Luke  x.  40),  spun 
wool  and  made  clothing  (1  Sam.  ii.  19  ;  Pro  v. 
xxxi.  13,  19 ;  Acts  ix.  36-39).  taught  the 
children  religious  truth  (Prov.  i.  8 ;  xxxi.  1  ; 
cp.  2  Tim.  iii.  1.")),  and  directed  the  house- 
hold (Prov.  xxxi.  27  :  1  Tim.    v.  14). 

The  Mosaic  law  and  also  public  opinion 
among  the  Hebrews  secured  to  women  the 
enjoyment  of  many  rights  ;  see  Concubine, 
Divorce,  Marriage.  Marriage  was  re- 
garded by  the  Hebrews  as  a  .sacred  relation 
(Mai.  ii.  14-16).  The  wife  was  spoken  of 
with  respect  and  accorded  honor  (Prov.  v. 
18;  xviii.  22;  xxxi.  10-12;  Ecc.  ix.  9).  To 
the  mother  honor  was  due,  and  her  law  had 
authority  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Prov.  i.  8).  The  capa- 
ble woman  was  highly  praised  (xxxi.  10-31), 
and  examples  of  noble  womanhood  were 
freely  and  purposely  admitted  to  the  sacred 
writings.  The  spirit  of  the  N.  T.  was  equally 
hostile  to  woman's  degradation.  It  insisted 
that  man  and  woman  shall  occupy  their  re- 
spective splieres  as  indicated  by  the  Creator 
in  mutual  respect  and  dependence  (Mark  x. 
0-9 ;  Eph.  V.  31 ;  1  Tim.  ii.  12-15).  The  sanc- 
tity and  permanence  of  the  marriage  relation 
were  taught,  and  divorce  permitted  only  for 
extreme  causes  (Mat.  xix.  8,  9  ;  1  Cor.  vii. 
15;  Eph.  V.  22-.33).  Woman  was  made  the 
recipient  of  the  same  grace  as  man,  and  heir 
of  the  same  promises  (Gal.  iii.  28)  ;  she  was 
accorded  honorable  position  in  the  church, 
and  her  services  in  the  cause  of  Christ  were 
fully  appreciated  and  acknowledged  (Rom. 
xvi.  1-4,  6,  12).  The  practical  precepts  in 
the  epistles  were  calculated,  whether  ad- 
dressed to  saints  generally  or  to  woman  in 
particular,  to  refine  and  ennoble  her,  and  to 
bring  her  best  qualities  into  exercise  (1  Tim. 
ii.  9,  10;  iii.  11). 


Wool.    See  Sheep,  Spinning,  Weaving. 
World. 

The  world  as  known  in  the  Mosaic  age  was 
small  (Geu.  x.).  On  the  south  it  extended 
from  the  mountains  east  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  the  Nile  ;  and  on  the  north,  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  to  the  Grecian  islands :  in  other 
words,  it  measured  about  1500  miles  from 
east  to  .c,  and  900,  or  including  southern 
Arabia  iioout  1500,  miles  from  north  to  south. 
The  area  was  about  2,250,000  square  miles  ; 
but  a  large  part  of  the  surface  was  occupied 
by  sea,  so  that  the  land  was  scarcely  two- 
thirds  of  the  extent  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cluding Alaska.  The  history  which  is  re- 
corded in  the  Bible,  and  the  great  events  of 
the  world's  history,  were  enacted  in  the 
northern  portion  of  this  region,  in  an  area 
about  one-third  that  of  the  United  States. 

During  O.  T.  times  these  limits  remained 
essentially  unchanged,  although  the  geo- 
graphical horizon  widened  a  little.  Media 
and  Persia  rose  to  importance  before  the 
close  of  this  period,  making  themselves 
known  as  never  before  and  taking  the  first 
place  among  the  nations.  India  became  a 
boundary  (Esth.  i.  1).  The  existence  of  the 
Sinim  was  known  (Is.  xlix.  12).  In  the  west 
Africa  was  circumnavigated  during  the  reign 
of  Pharaoh-necho,  but  without  increasing 
geographical  knowledge.  The  navigators  did 
not  realize  the  meaning  of  their  achievement. 
They  had  spent  more  than  two  years  on  the 
voyage,  and  what  appeared  most  noteworthy 
to  them  was  that  the  sun,  which  rose  upon 
their  left  hand  when  they  sailed  south  from 
Egypt,  rose  on  their  right  before  they  re- 
turned (Herod,  iv.  42,  43).  In  Italy  and  on 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  jiopulation  was 
increasing  and  civilization  was  slowly  devel- 
oping ;  but  these  facts  seldom  reached  the 
ears  of  men  in  the  east,  and  then  only 
through  the  reports  of  traders.  Almost  at 
the  close  of  the  O.  T.  period  Greece  emerged 
from  obscurity  by  the  vigorous  resistance  j 
which  it  offered  to  the   Persians. 

Alexander  the  Great  conquered  the  world. 
He  extended  its  eastern  limits,  and  added 
immensely  to  geographical  knowledge,  by 
carrying  his  arms  across  the  Oxus  into  mod- 
ern Turkestan,  eastward  beyond  the  bounds 
of  modern  Afghanistan,  and  southward  into 
northern  India.  The  Romans  followed  him. 
In  the  time  of  Christ  the  world,  as  currently 
thought  of  by  men,  extended  from  Si)ain  and 
Britain  to  the  plateau  of  Iran  and  India,  and 
from  the  desert  of  Sahara  on  the  south  to  the 
forests  of  Germany  and  the  .steppes  of  Russia 
and  Siberia  on  the  north.  Knowledge  of  in- 
habited regions  beyond  these  limits  existed  ; 
but  there  was  little  contact  with  this  outside 
world,  it  seldom  engaged  men's  attention, 
and  the  ideas  of  its  geography  were  confused. 

World  is  frequently  put  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  world  (P.s.  ix.  8;  Is.  xiii.  11;  John 
iii.  K) ;  vii.  7 ;  Rom.  iii.  19),  and  in  the  N.  T. 
for  that  which  pertains  to  the  earth  and  this 


Worm 


823 


Writing 


present  state  of  existence  merely  (1  Cor.  vii. 
31 ;  Gal.  vi.  14  ;  Eph.  ii.  2  ;  Jas.  i.  27  ;  iv.  4  ; 
1  John  ii.  15). 

Worm. 

Any  small,  creeping  animal,  whose  body  is 
boneless  and  consists  of  a  number  of  movable 
joints  or  rings,  and  which  has  no  limbs  or 
only  very  short  ones.  It  was  generically 
called  tola'ath  or  tole'ah  in  Hebrew,  skolex  in 
Greek ;  and  it  is  mentioned  as  destroying 
grapes  and  the  gourd  vine  (Deut.  xxviii.  39  ; 
Jonah  iv.  7),  being  bred  over  night  in  manna 
(Ex.  xvi.  20),  consuming  the  corpse  (Is.  xiv. 
11 ;  cp.  Ixvi.  24  with  Mark  ix.  4H),  and  caus- 
ing death  to  the  living  (Acts  xii.  23).  Man 
as  feeble  and  despised  is  likened  to  a  worm 
(Job  XXV.  6  ;  Is.  xli.  14). 

Specific  worms  referred  to  are  : 

1.  Maggots,  in  Hebrew  a  collective  term 
rimmah,  putridity  and  the  worm  bred  in  it. 
They  feed  on  corpses  (Job  xxi.  26  ;  xxiv.  20 ; 
Is.  xiv.  11),  and  might  be  expected  in  putrid 
manna  (Ex.  xvi.  24).  Man  as  very  small  and 
despicable  is  likened  to  the  maggot  (Job  xxv. 
ti).  In  all  these  passages  the  E.  V.  uses  the 
general  term  worm. 

2.  The  larva  of  the  moth,  in  Hebrew  sas 
(Is.  11.  8)  ;  see  Moth. 

3.  The  coccus  worm,  tola'ath  sliani,  which, 
however,  is  not  a  worm,  but  an  insect,  ac- 
cording to  modern  classification  ;  see  Scar- 
let. 

The  Hebrew  word  salmi,  creeper,  denotes 
something  that  crawls  on  the  ground,  and  is 
rendered  by  worm  in  A.  V.  (Mic.  vii.  17  ;  in 
E.  V.  crawlipg  things). 

Worm'wood. 

A  plant,  ranked  with  gall,  having  very 
bitter  juice  (Deut.  xxix.  18;  Prov.  v.  4),  un- 
palatable and,  when  exclusively  drunk,  nox- 
ious (Eev.  viii.  11)  ;  called  in  Hebrew  /«""- 
iiah,  in  Greek  of  N.  T.  apuinthos.  It  is  used 
figuratively  for  injustice  (Amos  v.  7;  vi.  12  ; 
in  latter  passage  rendered  hemlock  in  A.  V.), 
for  sore  punishment  (Jer.  ix.  1.5),  for  bitter 
suffering  (Lam.  iii.  19)  with  which  one  is 
sated,  not  intoxicated  (15).  It  seems  to  be 
some  species  of  the  great  composite  genus 
Artemisia.  About  180  species  arc  known. 
Post  enumerates  five  species  and  several 
varieties  as  occurring  in  Palestine  or  the 
adjacent  regions.  The  type  is  the  common 
wormwood  {Artemisia  absinthium),  cultivated 
in  gardens. 

Wor'ship. 

Respect  and  honor  shown  to  a  per.son 
(Luke  xiv.  10,  in  R.  V.  glory).  This  sen.se 
of  the  word  worship  has  become  obsolete. 
Respect  which  implies  that  the  object  there- 
of possesses  divine  attributes  (Mat.  xiv.  33  ; 
XV.  25 :  Rev.  xiv.  7).  Man  is  forbidden  to 
give  this  worship  to  any  but  God  alone  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  14  ;  Mat.  iv.  10 ;  Acts  x.  25  ;  Rev. 
xix.  10).  The  same  outward  act  may  be 
civility  shown  to  man,  as  when  peojile  bowed 
down    to    Esau,   to   Joseph,   or   to   the  king 


Wormwood  (Artemisia  absinthium). 

(Gen.  xxxiii.  3  ;  xlii.  6  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  20),  or 
worship  rendered  to  God  (Gen.  xxiv.  52,  E. 
V.  ;  Ps.  xcv.  6),  the  same  Hebrew  word  be- 
ing used  in  all  these  passages.  The  perform- 
ance of  this  outward  act  to  idols  was  strictly 
forbidden  (Ex.  xx.  5). 

For  public  worship  in  apostolic  times  see 
Church. 

Writ'ing. 

The  Hebrews,  or  rather  some  of  them, 
were  able  to  write  (Ex.  xvii.  14;  xxiv.  4; 


Writing  Materials. 

Num.  xxxiii.  2).  The  art  had  been  practiced 
in  Babylonia  centuries  before  Abraham  left 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  in  Egypt  centuries 


Yarn 


824 


Year 


before  the  Israelites  sojourned  on  the  Nile. 
It  was  in  use  in  the  towns  of  Canaan  before 
the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews. 
It  is  recorded  that  the  Hebrews  at  the  time 
of  the  exodus  wrote  documents  (ibid.  ;  Deut. 
xxxi.  24),  inscribed  the  law  on  the  plaster  of 
an  altar  (xxvii.  4,  8  ;  Josh.  viii.  32),  and  en- 
graved words  on  gems  aud  metallic  plates  (Ex. 
xxxix.  14,  30).  The  ancient  inscriptions  of 
Babylonia  were  impressed  on  soft  clay,  after- 
wards baked  ;  and  were  engraven  on  stone 
tablets,  on  the  surface  of  stone  statues,  on 
metal,  and  on  the  gem  of  which  the  seal  was 
made.  The  letters  sent  from  Canaan  to  Pha- 
raoh previous  to  the  exodus  were  written  on 
clay  tablets.  The  Egyptians,  long  before  the 
sojourn  of  the  Israelites  among  them,  cut 
records  in  stone  and  wrote  on  papyrus.  See 
Book,  Ink-horn,  Papyrus,  Parchment, 
Tile. 


Y. 


Yarn.     See  Linen  6. 
Year. 

The  year  of  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  twelve 
months  (1  Kin.  iv.  7 ;  1  Chrou.  xxvii.  1-15). 
These  appear  to  have  been  lunar  (see  Month), 
and  the  year  would  accordingly  contain 
354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  32.4  seconds. 


The  annual  festivals  were  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  agricultural  seasons.  A 
strictly  lunar  year  would  cause  these  festi- 
vals, as  fixed  by  the  calendar,  to  constantly 
recede  from  their  appropriate  season.  It  was 
necessary  to  bring  the  lunar  year  into  corre- 
spondence with  the  solar  year  of  3fJ5  days. 
This  was  doubtless  accomplished  by  the  in- 
tercalation of  an  additional  month  every 
three  or  four  years,  although  the  custom  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  year  began 
with  the  month  Abib  or  Nisan  (Ex.  xii.  2; 
xxiii.  15;  Esth.  iii.  7),  with  the  new  moon 
next  before  or  next  after  the  vernal  equinox, 
when  the  sun  is  in  Aries  (Antiq.  iii.  8,  4 ;  10, 
5) ;  but  there  was  from  the  earliest  times  a 
civil,  or  rather  agricultural,  year  which  be- 
gan in  the  autumn  (cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  16 ;  xxxiv. 
22  ;  Lev.  xxv.  4,  9,  seq.).  It  was  convenient 
for  a  people  devoted  to  horticulture  and  agri- 
culture to  begin  the  year  with  the  season  of 
plowing  and  sowing,  and  to  close  it  with 
harvest.  In  practice  they  frequently  pre- 
ferred to  indicate  the  time  of  year  by  the 
particular  harvest  or  agricultural  occupation 
than  by  the  number  or  name  of  the  month 
(e.  g.  Num.  xiii.  20  ;  Ruth  i.  22).  Sometime 
after  the  exile  the  new  moon  of  the  seventh 
month  came  to  be  kept  as  new  year's  day. 
The  custom  was  probably  not  started  by  the 
events  recorded  in  Ezra  iii.  6  and  Neh.  viii. 
2,  but  was  yet  favored  by  them. 


Month. 

Approxi- 
mation. 

Festival. 

Season. 

1.  Abib  or  Nisan. 

April. 

Latter  or  spring  rains. 

Ex.  xxiii.  15; 

Flax  harvest  at  Jericho  (Josh. 

Neh.    il.    1; 

ii.  6). 

Antiq.  iii.  10, 

14.  Passover  in  the  evening,  the 

Jordan  at  flood  (Josh,  iii.^l.'i;  1 

5. 

beginning  of  the   l-5th  day 

Chron.  xii.  15,  Ecelus.  xxiv. 

(Ex.  xii.  IS,  19;  xiii.  3-10), 

26). 

introducing 

15-21.  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread 

Barley  harvest  in  the  maritime 

(Lev.  xxiii.  6). 

plain. 

16.  Sheafof  firstfruitsofthe  har- 

vest presented  (Lev.  xxiii. 

10-14 ;  cp.  Josh.  v.  11 ;  Antiq. 

Wheat  ripe  in  hot  Jordan  val- 

iii. 10,  5). 

ley. 
Pods  on  the  oarob  tree. 
Dry  season  begins,  continuing  to 
early  October,  with   prevail- 

2. Ziv  or  lyar. 

May. 

ing  wind  from  the  northwest. 

1  Kin.  vi.  1,37; 

14.  Passover  for  those  who  could 

Barley  harvest  in  uphtnds. 

Antiq.  viii.  3, 

not  keep  regular  one  (Num. 

Wheat  harvest  in  lowlands. 

1. 

ix.  10, 11). 

3.  Sivan. 

June. 

6.  Pentecost,  or  Feast  of  Weeks 

Apples  on  sea  coa,st. 

Bsth.  viii.  9. 

or   of  Harvest,  or    Day  of 

Early  figs  general. 

Firstfruits.    I^oaves  as  first- 

Oleander  in  bloom. 

fruits  of  gathered  harvest 

Almonds  ripe. 

presented    (Ex.    xxiii.    Ifi  ; 

Intense  heat  (War  iii.  7,  32). 

xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  15-21 ; 

Num  xxviii.  26;  Deut.  xvi. 

9,  10). 

4.  Tanunuz. 

July. 

■ 

Wheat  harvest  in  high  moun- 
tains. 
First  grapes  ripe. 

Yoke 


82o 


Zabbai 


Month. 

Approxi- 
mation. 

Festival. 

Season. 

5.  Ab. 

August. 

Antiq.  iv.  4,  7. 

Olives  in  lowlands. 

6.  Elul. 

September. 

Dates  and  summer  figs. 

Nell.  vi.  15. 

Vintage  general. 

7.  Ethanim  or 

October. 

1.  Memorial  of  Trumpetblowing 

Tishri. 

(Num.  xxix.  1). 

1  Kin.  viii.  2; 

10.  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 

Pomegranates  ripe. 

Antiq.  viii.  4, 

29). 

Season  changing  to   the   winter 
(Antiq.  iii.  10,  4)  or  rainy  sea- 

1. 

15-21.  Feast  of  Ingathering  or  Tab- 

ernacles. Firstfruits  of  wine 

son,    with    prevailing    wind 

and  oil  (Ex.  xxiii.  16;  Lev. 

from  west  and  southwest. 

xxiii.  34;  Deut.  xvi.  13). 

Former  or  early  rains. 

22.  Solemn  Assembly  (Lev.  xxiii. 

Pistachio  nuts  ripe. 

36;    Num.    xxix.   35;    Neh. 

Plowing. 

viii.   18;  cp.  Jolm  vii.  37). 

8.  Bul    or    Mar- 

November. 

Barley  and  wheat  sown. 

cheshvan. 

1  Kin.  vi.  38; 

Olives   gathered    in    northern 

Antiq.  i.  3,  3. 

Galilee. 

9.  Chislev. 

December. 

Winter  flgs  on  trees. 

Zech.    vii.    1; 

25.  Feast  of  Dedication  (1  Mac. 

Rainfall  increases  (cp.  Ezra  x.  9, 

cp.    Antiq. 

iv.  62;  John  x.  22). 

13). 

xii.  b,4;  7,  6. 

10.  Tebeth. 

January. 

Hail ;  snow  on  higher  hills  and 

Esth.    ii.    16; 

occasionally  at  Jerusalem. 

Antiq.  xi.  5, 

In  lowlands  grain    fields    and 

4. 

pastures  green,  wild  flowers 
abundant. 

11.  Shebat. 

February. 

Zech.  i.   7;    1 

Almond  trees  in  blossom. 

Mac.  xvi.  14. 

Appearance  of  young  fruit,  or 

rather  blossom,  of  the  fig. 
Carob  tree  in  blossom. 

12.  Adar. 

March. 

Oranges  and  lemons  ripe  in  the 

Esth.     iii.    7; 

14, 15.  Feast  of  Purim  (Esth.  ix. 

lowlands.    Storax  blossoming 

Antiq.  iv.  8, 

21-28). 

and   pomegranates    showing 

49. 

their  first  flowers. 
Barley  harvest  at  Jericho. 

Yoke. 

A  small  transverse  bar  of  timber,  generally 
with  two  portions  of  the  lower  surface  hol- 
lowed so  as  to  rest  on  the  necks  of  two  oxen, 
used  to  draw  a  cart  or  a  plow  (Num.  xix.  2)  ; 
see  illustration.  Plow.  Two  oxen  thus  held 
together  were  also  called  a  yoke  (1  Kin.  xix. 
19),  and  so,  figuratively,  was  any  burden  im- 
posed on  one  as  a  token  and  means  of  sub- 
jection (xii.  4;  Mat.  xi.  30;  Acts  xv.  10). 


Z. 


Za-a-na'im.     See  Zaanannim. 

Za'a-nan  [place  of  flocks]. 

A  town  (Mic.  i.  11),  perhaps  the  same  as 
Zenan. 

Za-a-nan'nim,  in  A.  V.  once  Zaanaim 
(Judg.  iv.  11),  the  Hebrew  text  being  pre- 
ferred to  the  traditional  reading  [departures] . 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (.Tosh.  xix.  1:53), 
near  Kede.sh  (.Tudg.  iv.  11).  Conder  follows 
Septnagint  which  has  Besemiin,  having  made 
one  word  f)f  "in  Zaanannim"  (so  Josh.  xix. 
33,  R.  V.  margin),  and  he  believes  it  to  have 
probably  been  near  Bessiim,  on  the  table-land 
west  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 


Za'a-van,  in  A.  V.  once  Zavan  [unquiet]. 
A  son  of  Ezer  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27  ; 
1  Chron.  i.  42). 

Za'had  [he  hath  given  or  endowed]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ejihraim,  family  of 
Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel,  descended  through  She- 
shan,  and  a  great-grandson  of  Ahlai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  31,  34-37).  Possibly  he  was  David's  mighty 
man  of  this  name  (xi.  41). 

3.  Corrupt  form  of  Jozacar  (2  Chron.  xxiv. 
26) ;  see  Jozacar. 

4.  5,  (i.  Three  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
induced  bv  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  x.  27.  3.'^,  43). 

Zab-a-dae'ans,  in  A.  V.  Zabadeans. 

An  Arabian  tribe  which  dwelt  between  the 
river  Eleutherus,  Hamath,  and  Damascus 
(]  Mac.  xii.  30-32;  cp.  25),  and  hence  prob- 
ably occupied  that  part  of  the  Anti-Lebanon 
mountains  where  the  villages  of  Zebedani 
and  Zebad  are  situated,  on  the  route  from 
Ba'al-bek  to  Damascus. 

Zab'bai  [humming]. 

.\  son  of  Bebai.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 
He  was  the  father  of  a  certain  Baruch  (Neh. 
iii.  20). 


Zabbud 


826 


Zadok 


Zab'bud  [endowed]. 

Head  of  a  family  among  the  sons  of  Bigvai, 
who  accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
viii.  14). 

Zab'di  [gift  of  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  and 
founder  of  a  house  (Josh.  vii.  1).  Called  in 
1  Chron.  ii.  6  Zimri.  For  the  confusion  of  b 
and  m,  d  and  r,  see  Beth,  Daleth. 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  19). 

3.  A  Shiphmite,  David's  officer  over  the 
increase  of  the  vineyards  for  the  wine  cellars 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Asaph  (Neh.  xi.  17) ; 
see  ZiCHRi  5. 

Zab'dl-el  [gift  of  God]. 

1.  Father  of  Jashobeam  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2). 

2.  Son  of  Haggedolim  (Neh.  xi.  14),  or  one 
of  the  great  men  (A.  V^.  and  margin  of  R.  V.). 

3.  An  Arabian  prince  who  treacherously 
decapitated  Alexander  Balas  and  sent  the 
head  to  Ptolemy  Philometor  (1  Mac.  xi.  17; 
Antiq.  xiii.  4,  8).  He  is  probably  the  person 
referred  to  by  Diodorus  Siculus  as  Diodes, 
ruler  of  Abfe,  to  whose  care  Alexander  com- 
mitted his  infant  son,  and  while  sojourn- 
ing with  whom  Alexander  was  murdered  by 
two  of  his  own  officers. 

Za'bud  [given,  endowed]. 

Son  of  Nathan  and  chief  minister  in  Solo- 
mon's reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  5,  R.  V.  margin). 

Zab'u-lon.     See  Zebulun. 

Zac'cai  [pure,  innocent]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  9  ;  Neh.  vii.  14). 

Zac-chse'us  [Greek  from  Hebrew  Zakkay, 
pure]. 

A  wealthy  man  of  Jericho  who  farmed  the 
revenue  for  the  Roman  government.  He  be- 
came a  disciple  of  Christ  (Luke  xix.  1-10). 

Zac'cur,  in  A.  V.  once  Zacchur  (1  Chron. 

iv.  26)  [mindful  1. 

1.  A  Reubenite  (Num.  xiii.  4). 

2.  A  Simeonite,  descended  through  Mishma 
(1  Chron.  iv.  26). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite,  a  son  of  Jaaziah  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  27). 

4.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  a  son  of  Asaph, 
and  head  of  a  course  of  musicians  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2,  10;  Neh.  xii.  35). 
See  ZiCHRi  .5. 

5.  A  son  of  Imri,  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  2). 

6.  A  Levite,  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  12). 

7.  Son  of  Mattaniah  and  father  of  Hanan 
(Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Zach-a-ri'as,  in  R.  V.  twice  Zachariali 
(Mat.  xxiii.  3,^:  Tjuke  xi.  51)  [Greek  form 
of  the  Hebrew  Z'karyah,  Jehovah  hath  re- 
membered] 

1.  Father  of  the  captain  Joseph  (1  Mac. 
V.  18). 


2.  Father  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was 
a  priest  of  the  course  of  Abijah  (Luke  i. 
5) ;  see  Abi.jah.  He  and  his  wife  were  godly 
people,  and  she  was  related  to  Mary  of 
Nazareth  (6,  36).  Their  home  was  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judsea  (39,  40.)  It  was 
customary  to  allot  to  the  members  of  the 
course  on  duty  at  the  sanctuary  the  several 
parts  to  be  performed  in  the  daily  min- 
istrations. When  Zacharias'  course  assem- 
bled at  Jerusalem  the  lot  fell  to  him  to  burn 
incense;  and  while  he  was  discharging  this 
service  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  an  angel  aji- 
peared  to  him  and  announced  that  his  sup- 
plication was  heard.  His  old  prayer  for 
a  son,  although  long  abandoned  as  denied 
by  God  (18),  and  the  prayer  which  he  con- 
tinually offered  for  the  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah (68-75),  were  heard;  and  he  was  told 
that  his  wife  should  bear  a  son  who  should 
go  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  to  make  ready 
for  the  Lord  a  people  prepared  for  him  (13- 
17).  Zacharias  questioned  the  promise  on 
account  of  the  advanced  age  of  himself  and 
his  wife,  and  asked  for  a  sign.  The  sign  was 
granted  in  the  form  of  a  punishment.  Zach- 
arias was  smitten  with  dumbness  until  the 
promise  was  fulfilled  (18-22;  62-64).  When 
the  child  was  born,  not  only  was  the  tongue 
of  Zacharias  released  from  its  speechlessness, 
but  he  himself  was  filled  with  the  Spirit  and 
prophesied  in  words  of  thanksgiving  and 
praise  (67-79). 

3.  A  righteous  man  who  was  murdered  in 
the  court  of  the  temple,  between  the  sanctu- 
ary and  the  house  (Mat.  xxiii.  35 ;  Luke  xi. 
51)  ;  see  Zechariah  11. 

Za'cher.     See  Zechariah  1. 

Za'dok  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3).  He  was  the  son 
of  Ahitub  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  He  was  doubt- 
less the  young  man,  mighty  of  valor,  who 
went  with  the  chief  men  of  the  tribes  of  Is- 
rael to  David  at  Hebron  to  turn  the  kingdom 
of  Saul  unto  him  (1  Chron.  xii.  27,  28). 
Early  in  David's  reign  he  was  joint  high 
priest  with  AbJathar  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  Dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  Absalom  the  two  col- 
leagues joined  in  David's  flight  from  Jerusa- 
lem, carrying  with  them  the  ark,  but  the 
king  desired  them  to  return  to  the  capital, 
and  there  await  the  issue  of  the  contest  (xv. 
24-29).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  a  mes- 
sage, on  which  they  acted,  was  .sent  by  David 
to  Zadok  and  Abiathar,  requesting  them  to 
sugge.st  to  the  people  that  the  king  should  be 
called  back  (xix.  11).  When,  in  David's  old 
age,  Adonijah  plotted  to  usurp  the  throne, 
Zadok  remained  faithful,  while  his  colleague 
Abiathar  went  with  the  usurper  (1  Kin.  i  7,  8). 
When  the  plot  was  discovered  to  David, 
Zadok,  with  Nathan  the  iirophet,  received 
instructions  immediately  to  anoint  Solomon 
king  (.32-45).  Abiathar  was  deposed  from 
the  priesthood,  and  Zadok  was  the  sole  occu- 


Zaham 


827 


Zareth-shahar 


pant  of  the  high  office  till  liis  death,  duriug 
the  reign  of  the  new  monarch  (ii.  2G,  27  ;  cp. 
iv.  4).  The  office  of  the  high  priest  was  thus 
restored  to  the  line  of  Eleazar;  see  High 
Pkikst. 

2.  A  priest  in  the  line  of  high  priests, 
father  of  Shallum  (1  Chrou.  vi.  12).  He  was 
descended  from  the  second  Ahitub  (ibid.  ; 
Ezra  vii.  2)  through  the  second  Meraioth  (1 
Chron.  ix.  11  ;  Neh.  xi.  11). 

0.  Father  of  Jerusha,  king  Uzziah's  mother 
(2  Kin.  XV.  33). 

4.  A  son  of  Baana.  He  repaired  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4),  and  was 
perhaps  the  person  of  the  name  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (x.  21). 

5.  A  priest,  son  of  Immer.  He  repaired 
the  city  wall  opposite  to  his  house  (Neh.  Iii. 
29),  and  was  perhaps  the  scribe  who  was  made 
a  treasurer  (xiii.  13). 

Za'ham  [loathing]. 

A  sou  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  19). 

Za'in,  in  A.  R.  V.  Zayin. 

The  seventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  Z,  which  had  the  same  origin,  repre- 
sents it  in  Hebrew  names  iu  the  English 
version.  It  heads  the  seventh  section  of  Ps. 
cxix.  in  several  versions,  because  each  verse 
of  the  section  begins  with  this  letter. 

For  possibility  of  confusing  it  with  other 
letters,  see  Vau. 

Za'ir  [little]. 

A  place  in  or  near  Edom,  where  king 
Joram,  of  Judali,  encamped  before  making 
a  night  attack  on  the  Edomites  (2  Kin.  viii. 
21 ;  cp.  the  different  text  in  2  t'hron.  xxi.  9). 
Conder  proposes  Zuwera,  a  double  town 
near  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  road  from  the 
southern  end  of  the  sea  to  Hebron. 

Za'laph  [fracture]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Hanun  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

Zal'mon,  in  A.  V.  once  Salmon  (Ps.  Ixviii. 
14)  [shady]. 

1.  An  Ahohite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  28).  Also  called  Ilai  (1  Chron. 
xi.  29). 

2.  A  wooded  mountain  near  Shechem 
(Judg.  ix.  48  ;  cp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  14). 

Zal-mo'nah  [shady]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  (Num. 
xxxiii.  41,  42),  either  west  or  east  of  Edom. 

Zal-mun'na  [perhaps,  shelter  is  denied] . 

One  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian  slain  by 
Gideon  (Judg.  viii.  4-28  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11). 

Zam'bri.     See  Zimri  2. 

Zam-zum'mim,  in  A.  V.  Zamzummims 
[murmurers,  makers  of  noise]. 

A  tribe  of  Rephaim,  who  in  ancient  times 
inhabited  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan, 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  Ammonites  (Deut. 
ii.  20) ;  probably  the  same  as  the  Zuzim. 

Za-no'ah  [foul  water]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.Tosh. 
XV.  34).    It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 


(Neh.  xi.  30),  and  .seems  to  have  been  the 
Zanoah  whose  inhabitants  restored  the  val- 
ley gate  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  13).  Robinson 
plausibly  identified  it  with  Zanua.  nearly  3 
miles  southeast  by  south  of  Beth-sheniesh. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  ,')()  ;  and  i)robably  1  Cln-on.  iv.  18). 
Zanuta  about  12|  miles  southwest  by  south  of 
Hebron,  2^  south  of  Shuweikeh,  and  5  south- 
west by  west  of  es-Semua,  is  scarcely  the 
site  ;  for  it  belongs  to  the  group  of  Josh.  xv. 
48-51  rather  than  to  that  of  55-57. 

Zaph'e-nath-pa-ne'ah,  in  A.  V.  Zaph- 
nath-paaneali  [(4od  speaks,  he  lives  (Stein- 
dorff)].  From  the  sound  of  the  name,  the 
Jews  guessed  that  the  name  meant  revealer 
of  secrets  (Targum  Onkelos,  Antiq.  ii.  6,  1  . 

The  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  .los^ejOi 
after  he  had  interpreted  the  king's  dreams 
(Gen.  xli.  45). 

Za'phon  [concealment,  north]. 

A  town  of  the  Gadites  in  the  Jordan  val- 
ley (Josh.  xiii.  27;  cp.  Judg.  xii.  1.  R.  \'. 
margin).  The  Talmud  calls  it  'Amatho.  If 
this  is  correct,  it  is  Aniathus  (Antiq.  xiii.  13, 
5;  xiv.  5,  4),  and  its  site  is  Tell  Animete,  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  east  of  the  river  and  8  miles 
north  by  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok. 

Za'ra  and  Zarah.     See  Zer.\h. 

Za're-ah.     See  Zorah. 

Za're-ath-ite.     See  Zorathite. 

Za'red.     See  Zerkd. 

Zar'e-phath,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Sarepta 
(Luke  iv.  2(;)  [perhaps,  smelting  furnace]. 

A  town  belonging  to  Sidon  (1  Kin.  xvii.  9; 
Luke  iv.  26;  Antiq.  viii.  13,  2).  Thither 
Elijah  repaired  when  the  brook  Cherith  dried 
up.  Trusting  his  word,  spoken  iu  the  name 
of  Jehovah,  a  widowed  woman  of  Zarephatli 
gave  the  jirophet  a  home  while  the  famine 
lasted.  As  a  reward  of  her  faith  her  oil  and 
meal  failed  not,  and  her  boy  was  brought 
back  to  life  a  Kin.  xvii.  8-24).  It  is  the 
predicted  limit  iu  one  direction  of  the 
Isra?lites  (Obad.20).  The  name  still  lingers 
in  the  form  of  Surafend,  a  large  village  on  a 
hill  near  the  sea,  14  miles  north  of  Tyre, 
and  8  south  of  Sidon.  The  ancient  city 
was,  however,  on  the  shore,  where  consider- 
able ruins,  extending  for  a  mile  or  more, 
point  out  the  old  site. 

Zar'e-than,  in  A.  V.Zaretan  (Josh.  iii.  16), 
and  Zartanah  (1  Kin.  iv.  12),  and  Zartlian 
(1  Kin.  vii.  46). 

A  village  beneath  Jezreel  and  near  the 
towns  of  Betb-shean  and  Adam  (Josh.  iii.  16; 
1  Kin.  iv.  12).  In  the  marly  soil  between  it 
and  Succoth  the  bronze  work  for  Solomon's 
temple  was  cast  (1  Kin.  vii.  46).  The  name 
is  probably  another  form  of  Zeredah  (q.  v.). 
The  site  has  not  been  identified,  the  name 
not  corresponding  with  Kurn  Sartabeh,  a 
peak  southwest  of  the  ford  Damieh. 

Za-reth-slia'har.     See  Zereth-shahab. 


Zarhite 


828 


Zebulun 


Zar'bite,  in  R.  V.  Zerahite. 

A  person  belonging  to  the  family  of 
Zenih.  There  was  a  family  of  this  name  in 
the  tribe  of  Simeon  and  another  in  Judah 
(Num.  xxvi.  13,  20;  Josh.  vii.  17 ;  cp.  1 ;  1 
Chrou.  xxvii.  11,   13). 

Zar'ta-nah.    See  Zarethan. 

Zar'than.     See  Zaeethan. 

Zat'tu,  in  A.  V.  once  Zatthu  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  captivitj'  (Ezra  ii.  8  ;  Neh. 
vii.  13).  Some  of  them  married  foreign 
wives,  but  were  induced  to  put  them  away 
(Ezra  X.  27)  The  representative  of  the 
family  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Za'van.     See  Zaavan. 

Za'yin.     See  Zain. 

Za'za  [movement,  abundance]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Ghron.  ii.  33). 

Zeal'ot,  in  A.  V.  Zelotes  [zealous  one] ; 
Greek  equivalent  of  Canansean  (q.  v.). 

A  member  of  a  Jewish  patriotic  party 
(War  iv.  3,  9  ;  vii.  8.  1).  Simon  the  apostle 
was  distinguished  from  Simon  Peter  and 
others  by  this  epithet  (Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i. 
13).  The  party  was  started  into  being  by 
Judas  the  Galilsean  in  the  time  of  Cyrenius 
to  resist  Roman  aggression.  Its  increasing 
fanaticism  contributed  to  provoke  the  Roman 
war.  Ultimately  it  degenerated  into  a  body 
of  mere  assassins,  called  Sicarii  (Antiq.  xviii. 
1,  1  and  6  ;  War  ii.  8,  1  ;  17,  8 ;  iv.  3,  9  seq.). 

Zeb-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  or  en- 
dowed]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  house  of  Beriah  (1 
Chron.  viii.  15,  16). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Elpaal  (1 
Chron.  viii.  17,  18). 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor.  He  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

4.  Son  of  Asahel,  Joab"s  brother  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  7). 

5.  A  Korhite  Levite,  a  son  of  Meslielemiah, 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

6.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  forth  by  Jeho- 
shapiiat  to  teach  the  law  (2  Cliron.  xvii.  8). 

7.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  was  the  chief 
judicial  functionary  for  civil  cases  in  the 
court  which  Jehoshaphat  established  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

8.  A  descendant  of  Shephatiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  accompanied  Ezra  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

9.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Immer.  He 
was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  x.  20). 

Ze'bah  [slaughter,  sacrifice]. 

One  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian  pur.sued 
and  slain  by  Gideon  (Judg.  viii.  4-28;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  11). 

Ze-ba'im.     See  Pochereth-hazzebaim. 
Zeb'e-dee   [Greek  form  of  Hebrew  Z'bad- 
ynh,  Jehovah  hath  endowed]. 


The  husband  of  Salome  (q.  v.),  and  father 
of  James  and  John.  Like  his  sons,  he  was  a 
fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat.  iv.  21, 
22),  and  was  a  man  of  some  substance,  for  he 
had  hired  servants  (Mark  i.  19,  20).  He 
raised  no  obstacle  to  his  sons  following  Jesus. 

Ze-bi'dah,  in  A.  V.  Zebudab,  the  tradi- 
tional pronunciation  [given,  bestowed]. 

A  daughter  of  Pedaiah  of  Rumah,  and 
mother  of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36). 

Ze-bi'na  [acquired]. 

A  descendant  of  Nebo.  He  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  43). 

Ze-boi'im  and  Zeboim,  I.  [gaz(;lles].  In 
Hebrew  text  and  R.  V.  the  first  form  is  used 
in  the  Pentateuch,  the  second  in  Hosea. 

One  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x. 
19).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer 
(xiv.  2,  8,  10).  It  was  destroyed  with  the 
other  cities  of  the  plain  by  fire  from  heaven 
(xix.  17-29  ;  Deut.  xxix.  23  ;  Hosea  xi.  8j. 

Ze-bo'im,  II.  [hyenas]. 

1.  A  valley  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
between  Michmash  and  the  wilderness  on 
the  east  (1  Sam.  xiii.  16-18).  A  cliff  just 
above  the  Jordan  plain,  near  .lericho,  is 
called  Shukh  ed-Duba,  lair  of  the  hyena, 
and  perhaps  indicates  the  locality. 

2.  A  town  occupied  by  Benjamites  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34).  It  is  evidently 
to  be  sought  in  the  hills  bordering  the  plain 
of  Sharon,  near  Lydda. 

Ze-bu'dah.     See  Zebidah. 

Ze'bul  [habitation]. 

The  governor  of  the  city  of  Shechem  in 
the  time  of  Abimelech,  to  whom  he  showed 
unswerving  fidelity  (Judg.  ix.  28,  36-39). 

Zeb'u-lon-ite.     See  Zebulunite. 

Zeb'u-lun,   in   A.   V.   of   N.   T.  Zabulon 

[habitation,  dwelling]. 

1.  Tlie  tenth  son  of  Jacob,  and  the  sixth 
by  Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  19,  20).  He  went  down 
with  his  father  into  Egypt  (Ex.  i.  3).  He 
had  three  sons:  Sered,  Elon,  and  Jahleel 
(Gen.  xlvi.  14).  Jacob,  in  his  farewell  ad- 
dress, blessing  his  sons,  pictured  Zebulun  as 
dwelling  at  the  haven  of  the  sea,  being  a 
haven  of  ships,  and  having  his  border  on 
Zidoii  (xlix.  13).  This  picture  was  real- 
ized in  its  essentials,  but  not  in  its  details. 
Zebulun  was  allotted  territory  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea,  and  enjoyed  the  markets  of  the 
towns  on  the  coast ;  but  it  was  itself  sepa- 
rated from  the  sea  of  Galilee  by  Naphtali 
and  Issachar,  and  from  tlie  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  tlie  city  of  Zidon  by  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  This  lack  of  agreement  between  the 
picture  drawn  in  Jacob's  address  and  the 
actual  state  of  the  tribe  in  Palestine  is  a 
strong  argument  that  the  address  was  not 
composed  after  the  settlement  of  the  tribes, 
but  is  genuine. 

2.  The  tribe   of  which   Zebulun  was  the 


Zebulun 


829 


Zechariah 


progenitor.  From  his  three  sons  sprang  the 
great  families  into  which  the  tribe  was  di- 
vided (Num.  xxvi.  2(),  27).  The  prince  of 
the  tribe  early  in  the  wiklerness  wanderings 
was  Eliab,  son  of  IIi'h)n  (i.  9;  x.  16),  and  at 
a  later  period  Elizaphan,  son  of  I'arnach, 
was  a  prince  (xxxiv.  25).  The  spy  from 
the  tribe  was  Gaddiel,  son  of  Sodi  (xiii.  10). 
At  the  first  census  it  contained  57,400  fight- 
ing men  (i.  30,  31)  ;  at  the  second  60,500 
(xxvi.  27).  It  was  one  of  the  six  tribes  the 
representatives  of  which  stood  on  mount 
Ebal  to  pronounce  curses  on  transgressors 
(Deut.  xxvii.  13;  cp.  Joish.  viii.  32-35). 
Moses  l)efore  his  departure,  associating  the 
two  brothers,  later  sons  of  Leah,  and  with 
the  prophecy  of  Jacob  in  mind,  thus  in- 
dicated their  future  history  :  "  Eejoice,  Zebu- 
luu,  in  thy  going  out ;  and,  Issachar,  in  thy 
tents.  They  shall  call  the  peoples  unto  the 
mountain  ;  there  they  shall  otfer  sacrifices 
of  righteousness:  for  they  shall  suck  the 
abundance  of  the  seas,  and  the  hidden  treas- 
ures of  the  sand  "  (Deut.  xxxiii.  18,  19,  R.  V.). 
In  the  mountain  of  Jehovah's  inheritance 
( Ex.  XV.  17),  where  he  will  establish  his  chosen 
people,  Zebulun  and  Issachar  will  bring 
rich  otierings  to  their  bountiful  Benefactor. 
After  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  Zebulun  was 
allotted  territory  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country.  It  lay  north  of  Issachar,  east  of 
Asher,  and  south  and  west  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  xix.  27,  34).  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  by  Daberath  on  the  western  foot  of 
mount  Tabor,  passed  Chisloth-tabor,  and 
after  skirting  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and 
then  crossing  it  reached  the  brook  that  is 
before  Jokneam  (11,  12),  probably  the  wady 
el-Milh.  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Kishon. 
Its  eastern  boundary  went  to  Gath-hepher, 
which  was  probably  3  miles  uorth  by  east  of 
Nazareth,  and  on  to  Rimmon,  6  miles  almost 
due  north  of  Nazareth  (13,  R.  V.).  At  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  territory  was  the 
valley  of  Ipht^ih-el  (14),  probably  about  9 
miles  north  by  west  of  Nazareth,  and  leaving 
the  fertile  plain  of  el-Buttauf  within  the 
bounds  of  Zebulun.  Since  Bethlehem,  7 
miles  west-northwest  of  Nazareth,  belonged 
to  Zebulun  (15).  the  western  boundary  was 
doubtless  in  pai-t  the  wady  el-Khalladiyeh. 
The  region  possessed  by  Zebulun  was  fer- 
tile. It  embraced  a  part  of  the  mountainous 
country  of  lower  Galilee  and  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
The  Zebulunites  constituted  an  important 
])art  of  Barak's  force  in  the  fight  with  Sisera 
(Judg.  iv.  6-10;  V.  14,  181.  and  of  Gideon's 
army  in  the  war  with  Midian  (vi.  35).  Deb- 
orah sang  that  there  were  in  the  tribe  they 
that  handle  the  marshal's  stafi",  or  the  staff 
of  the  scribe  (v.  14,  R.  V.  text  and  margin), 
meaning  the  scribes  who  gathered  and  mus- 
t^ered  the  army  (2  Kin.  xxv.  19).  The  .judge 
Elon  was  a  member  of  the  tribe,  exercised  his 
office,  died,  and  was  buried  at  Aijalon.  within 
its  territory  (Judg.  xii.  12).     Fifty  thousand 


warriors  of  the  tribe,  with  skillful  and  faith- 
ful commanders,  went  with  the  other  tribes 
to  Hebron  to  make  David  king  (1  Chron.  xii. 
33,  40).  Ishmaiah  was  the  ruler  of  the 
Zebulunites  in  David's  reign  (xxvii.  19). 
The  tribe  with  the  rest  of  Galilee  suffered 
severely  during  the  Assyrian  wars,  but 
Isaiah  prophesied  that  it  would  obtain  com- 
pensatory blessings  in  Messianic  limes  (Is. 
ix.  1,  2;  Mat.  iv.  12-16).  Some  men  of  the 
tribe  accepted  Hezekiah's  invitation  to  come 
to  Jerusalem  for  his  great  passover  (2  Chron. 
XXX.  10,  11,  18).  Ezekiel,  of  course,  assigns 
a  gate  for  the  Zebulunites  in  the  Jerusalem 
which  he  describes  (Ezek.  xlviii.  33),  and  of 
the  tribe  there  were  sealed  in  the  apocalyptic 
vision  the  normal  number  12,000  (Rev.  vii.  8). 

Zeb'u-lun-ite,  in  A.  V.  in  Judges  Zebu- 
lonite. 

One  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  or 
resident  within  its  territory  (Num.  xxvi.  27; 
Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

Zech-a-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  four  times  Zacha- 
riah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29 ;  xv.  8,  11 ;  xviii.  2) 
[Jehovah  hath  remembered]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeou  (1  Chron.  ix.  37)  ;  called  in  1  Chron. 
viii.  31  Zecher  (in  A.  V.  Zacher).  If  the 
traditional  vocalization  is  correct,  Zecher  is 
a  synonymous  name  meaning  memory.  Per- 
haps, however,  it  was  an  abbreviation  of 
Zechariah,  as  Ahaz  is  of  Ahaziah,  and  was 
pronounced  Zachar,  meaning  he  hath  re- 
membered. 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  descended  through  Ebiasaph.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Me.shelemiah.  He  was 
porter  of  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  21,  22;  xxvi.  2). 
He  was  a  discreet  counselor  (14). 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree  who  i)layed 
a  psaltery  in  the  procession  that  escorted  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  was  per- 
manently employed  in  the  tabernacle  which 
David  pitched  for  the  ark  (  1  Chron.  xv.  18. 
20;  xvi.  5).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  word 
doorkeepers  (xv.  18)  is  intended  to  include 
him. 

4.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  when  the 
ark  was  brought  up  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

5.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel.  He  was  a  son  of  Isshiah  and  lived  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  25). 

6.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  and  fourth 
son  of  Hosah.  He  was  one  of  the  doorkeep- 
ers in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

7.  A  Manassite  of  Gilead  and  father  of 
Iddo,  who  lived  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  21). 

8.  A  Levite,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  and 
hence  of  the  family  of  Gershom  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

9.  One  of  the  princes  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  teach  the  people  of  Judali  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 


Zechahah 


830 


Zechariah 


10.  Fourth  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xxi.  2). 

11.  Son  of  Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  and  a 
righteous  man  like  his  father.  He  lived  in 
the  reign  of  king  Joash  of  Judah.  The  Spirit 
of  God  came  upon  him  and  he  remonstrated 
with  the  x^eople  on  their  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  which  ensued  on  the  death  of  Je- 
hoiada. At  the  instance  of  the  king  he 
was  stoned  to  death  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22).  It  is  com- 
monly believed  that  he  is  referred  to  by 
our  Lord  when  speaking  of  the  righteous 
blood  shed  on  earth,  from  the  blood  of 
Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zechariah,  who  per- 
ished between  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary 
(Luke  xi.  51).  Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  is 
the  only  person  mentioned  in  Scripture  as 
being  thus  slain ;  his  violent  death  was  mem- 
orable and  was  familiar  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions ;  and  he  is  the  last  of  the  righteous 
men  wickedly  slain,  as  Abel  was  the  first, 
who  are  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
Chronicles  being  the  last  book  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  is  called  the  son  of  Barachiah  in 
the  parallel  passage  (Mat.  xxiii.  3.5,  in  A.  V. 
Barachias),  which  naturally  identifies  him 
with  the  well-known  prophet  who  lived  after 
the  exile.  But  this  explanatory  clause  in 
Matthew  is  not  improbably  a  gloss  which  was 
written  on  the  margin  by  a  reader  and  after- 
wards crept  into  the  text. 

12.  A  man  who  had  understanding  in  the 
vision  of  God,  and  gave  wise  counsel  to  king 
Uzziah,  which  for  a  time  he  followed  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  5). 

13.  A  king  of  Israel  and  last  ruler  of  the 
dynasty  of  Jehu.  He  came  to  the  throne  of 
Samaria  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  Azariah, 
king  of  Judah,  and  reigned  six  months,  about 
749  B.  c.  He  was  the  son  of  Jeroboam  II., 
and  was  murdered  by  Shallum,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  as  king  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29;  xv. 
8-12).  By  his  occupancy  of  the  throne  the 
prediction  was  fulfilled  that  the  fourth  gen- 
eration of  Jehu's  sons  should  sit  on  the  throne 
(X.  30). 

14.  A  Eeubenite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  7). 

15.  Son  of  Jebei'echiah.  He  was  a  witness 
that  Isaiah  wrote  certain  enigmatical  words 
about  a  year  before  their  meaning  was  ex- 
plained by  a  prophecy  (Is.  viii.  2). 

16.  Maternal  grandfather  of  Hezekiah  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  2). 

17.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph.  He 
took  part  in  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  dur- 
ing the  reign  <it'  ihv.ckiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  13). 

18.  A  Kohatliite  Levite,  overseer  of  the 
workmen  employed  to  repair  the  temple  in 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

19.  A  ruler  of  the  house  of  God  in  Josiah's 
reign  and  doubtless  a  priest  (2  Chrcm.  xxxv. 
8). 

20.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  .5). 

21.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 


22.  A  priest  descended  from  Pashhur  of  the 
house  of  Malchijah  (Neh.  xi.  12). 

23.  A  descendant  of  Parosh.  He  returned 
from  Babylon  with  a  party  along  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  3). 

24.  A  son  of  Bebai  who  did  likewise  (Ezra 
viii.  11.) 

25.  One  of  the  chief  men  whom  Ezra  sent 
to  secure  Levites  and  Nethinim  to  accompany 
the  returning  exiles  (Ezra  viii.  Hi). 

26.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
stood  beside  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the 
law  (Nell.  viii.  4). 

27.  A  son  of  Elam,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26). 

28.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jonathan,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Asaph.  He  led  a  division  of 
Levitical  musicians  at  the  dedication  of  the 
rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  35,  36). 

29.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the 
dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  41). 

30.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Iddo  in  the  days  of  the  high  jjriest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  16).     See  the  following. 

31.  A  prophet,  son  of  Berechiah,  and  grand- 
son of  Iddo  (Zech.  i.  1).  His  first  recorded 
prophecy  was  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  520  B.  c.  (ibid.,  Ezra  iv.  24 
with  V.  1.).  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Zerubbabel  the  governor,  Jeshua  the  high 
priest,  and  Haggai  the  prophet  (Zech.  iii.  1  ; 
iv.  6 ;  vi.  11 ;  Ezra  v.  1,  2),  and  united  with 
Haggai  in  exhorting  the  leaders  of  the  Jew- 
ish colony  to  resume  work  on  the  house  of 
God.  It  scarcely  admits  of  question  that  he 
was  born  in  Babylonia,  for  the  exiles  had 
been  back  in  Palestine  eighteen  years  only 
and  Zechariah  hardly  began  to  prophesy  be- 
fore he  was  eighteen.  Not  improbably 
Zechariah  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and, 
like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  was  a  priest  as 
well  as  a  prophet;  for,  according  to  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xii.  1,  4,  7)  Iddo  was  head  of  a 
priestly  family  and  one  who  returned  from 
Babylonia  with  Zerubbabel  ;  and  a  descend- 
ant of  his,  Zechariah  by  name,  was  head  of  the 
priestly  house  of  Iddo  during  the  high-priest- 
hood of  Joiakim,  son  of  Jeshua  (10,  12,  16). 
It  is  true  that  the  lineage,  which  is  involved 
iuNehemiah's  statements,  may  be  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  genealogy  of  the  prophet, 
although  it  contains  the  same  names  in  the 
same  order,  but  the  theory  whicb.  identi- 
fies the  two  has  not  a  little  confirn>ation. 
1.  Since  Iddo  had  attained  to  the  head- 
ship of  a  priestly  family,  he  is  rightly  judged 
to  have  been  an  elderly  man  in  the  year  of 
the  return,  538  b.  c.  His  descendant,  Zech- 
ariah, attained  to  the  same  position  in  the 
next  generation,  which  would  naturally  in- 
involve  his  Itciug  of  such  an  age  in  520  B.  c, 
that  he  could  be  called  a  young  man.  The 
prophet  Zechariah  is  called  a  young  man 
(though  by  an  angel  it  is  true),  in  the  year 
520  b.  c.  (Zech.  ii.  4).  2.  Assuming  that' the 
prophet's  father  Berechiah  was  tlic  .son  of  the 


Zechariah 


831 


Zechariah 


priest  Iddo  and  died  prior  to  520,  without  at- 
taining to  the  headship  of  the  family,  then 
the  propliet  Zechariah  was  left  next  in  the 
line  of  succession,  and  this  would  lead  Ezra 
to  call  him  the  son  of  Iddo,  naming  him  both 
as  descendant  and  successor  of  Iddo.  But 
even  if  Berechiah  were  alive,  his  name 
might  be  omitted  ;  for  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  name  the  father's  house  to  which 
a  man  belonged,  in  order  to  locate  him 
among  the  tribes  and  families  of  Israel. 
The  assumption  of  Berechiah's  death  would 
also  account  for  the  fact  that  in  the  genera- 
tion after  the  return,  Zechariah  was  head  of 
the  father's  house.  3.  The  theory  that  the 
l)rophct  Zechariah  was  a  priest  accounts  for 
his  familiarity  with  priestly  functions  and 
ideas  (iii. ;  iv.). 

Another  view  is  that  favored  by  Kimchi. 
According  to  him,  the  term  prophet  in  i.  1 
and  7  refers  to  Iddo  (for  position  of  the  title, 
cp.  Ezra  vii.  5),  and  the  latter  is  the  seer  who 
prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Eehoboani  (2 
Chron.  xii.  15;  xiii.  22).  The  theory  is  im- 
probable, but  it  is  not  to  be  rejected  because 
four  centuries  intervened  between  the  seer 
Iddo  and  the  prophet  Zechariah. 

The  book  of  Zechariah  is  the  eleventh,of 
the  minor  prophets.  It  may  be  divided  as 
follows : 

I.  Introduction  to  the  book  and  a  series 
of  eight  visions.  The  introduction  (i.  1-6) 
strikes  the  keynote,  not  to  these  visions 
only,  but  to  the  whole  book.  Learn  the  les- 
son of  the  past:  "Return  unto  me  and  I 
will  return  unto  you."  Vision  1 :  the  drove 
of  horses  (7-17),  fleet,  tireless  messengers. 
By  this  picture  it  is  shown  that  God  is  watch- 
ing the  events  of  earth  ;  there  is  no  sign  of 
relief  for  God's  people  or  of  the  punishment 
of  their  oppressors;  the  nations  are  at  rest. 
Yet  God  is  jealous  for  Zion  and  sore  dis- 
pleased with  its  oppressors  ;  therefore,  he  is 
returned  to  Jerusalem  with  mercies ;  his 
house  and  his  city  shall  be  built,  the  land 
shall  greatly  prosjier.  The  first  vision  is  in- 
troductory to  the  seven  that  follow.  Vision 
2  :  the  four  horns  and  the  four  smiths  (18- 
21).  The  vision  means  that  for  each  of  the 
horns,  i.  e.  nations  that  scattered  Judah,  de- 
struction is  appointed.  Vision  3  :  the  man 
with  a  measuring  line  (ii.).  The  comfort- 
able message  of  the  first  vision  is  unfolded, 
namely,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  The 
idea  is  expanded,  however.  Jerusalem  shall 
not  be  measured,  as  cities  usually  are,  by  the 
extent  of  its  walls;  for,  enjoying  unbounded 
prosperity,  it  shall  spread  abroad  without 
walls.  It  will  not  be  insecure,  however ;  Je- 
hovah will  be  a  wall  of  fire  about  it.  Vision 
4  :  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (iii.).  The  priest- 
hood, altliough  human  and  defiled,  a  brand 
consuming  in  the  fire  of  God's  wrath,  is  by 
grace  plucked  forth,  cleansed,  and,  on  condi- 
tion of  obedience,  promised  continuance. 
Then  the  fact  is  emphasized  that  the  priests 
are  types  of  the  Messiah,  and  by  a  symbolical 


action  it  is  declared  that  God  has  a  purpose 
which  he  will  accomplish  ;  the  one  typified 
will  be  raised  up.  Vision  5  :  the  golden  can- 
dlestick and  the  two  olive  trees  (iv.).  It 
seems  as  though  the  light  of  the  church 
burning  feebly  after  the  exile  must  needs  go 
out;  not  so,  God  has  provided  an  abundant, 
unfailing,  self-furnishing  supply  of  oil.  Vi- 
sion 6  :  the  flying  roll  (v.  1-4).  God  has  pro- 
nounced a  curse  for  the  destruction  of  wick- 
edness. Vision  7  :  the  departing  ejihah  (5- 
11).  This  is  the  sequel  of  the  sixth  vision. 
Wickedness,  personified  as  a  woman  and  im- 
prisoned, is  removed  from  the  land.  Vision 
8 :  the  four  chariots  issuing  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Lord  of  all  the  earth  (vi.  1-8). 
The  four  chariots  are  declared  to  represent 
the  four  winds,  which  commonly  denote  the 
unseen  power  of  God ;  and  the  vision  is  a 
promise  that  the  entire  plan  outlined  in  the 
preceding  series  will  be  executed  by  the  Lord 
of  all  the  earth. 

II.  Symbolic  action  :  crowning  of  the  high 
priest  (vi.  9-15).  This  procedure  is  expressly 
declared  to  belong  to  the  future  and  to  relate 
to  the  well-known  Branch  who  was  the  ex- 
pected king  of  David's  line. 

III.  Deputation  from  Bethcd  to  inquire 
whether  the  fasts  shall  still  be  kept,  now  that 
the  disasters  which  they  commemorated  have 
been  in  part  retrieved,  and  the  prophet's  four 
answers  (vii. ;  viii.).  1.  Fasts  terminate  on 
the  faster  ;  they  do  not  aflfect  God  ;  obedience 
is  the  one  thing  God  requires  (vii.  4-7).  2. 
Justice  and  truth  are  the  will  of  God,  which  is 
to  be  obeyed.  The  desolation  of  the  land  and 
dispersion  of  the  people  were  not  a  calamity  to 
be  bewailed  ;  they  were  a  i)unishment  for 
disobedience  and  intended  to  work  reform 
(8-14).  3.  God  returns  to  Zion  in  jealousy, 
and  will  secure  truth  and  holiness  (viii.  l-17j. 
4.  The  fasts  will  become  festivals  (18-23). 

IV.  Burdens  naturally  follow  the  visions 
which  revealed  God's  purpose  to  destroy  the 
oppressors  of  Judah  and  bring  many  nations 
into  the  kingdom.  Burden  1 :  Jehovah's 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  God's  kingdom. 
Punishments  are  impending  which  shall 
bring  the  surrounding  nations  low.  A  rem- 
nant of  Philistia,  however,  shall  be  incor- 
porated in  God's  kingdom  ;  and  Jerusalem 
shall  be  safe  amid  the  widespread  desolation, 
for  God  shall  encamp  about  Judah  and  Ju- 
dah's  king  shall  come  (ix.).  Episode  :  ex- 
hortation to  look  to  the  Lord  for  promised 
blessings;  and  not  to  idols  and  soothsayer.*, 
who  only  cause  the  flock  to  err  (x.  1,  2).  Ee- 
sumption  of  the  prophecy.  The  Lord,  how- 
ever, as  already  said,  hath  visited  his  flock, 
and  because  of  his  wrath  will  make  it  as  his 
goodly  horse  in  battle,  free  Judah  from  all 
oppressors,  gather  both  Judah  and  Ephraim, 
and  make  Ephraim  joyful  in  his  former  hab- 
itation (3-12).  These  promised  blessings, 
however,  will  not  be  enjoyed  for  some  time 
to  come.  Desolation  to  the  land !  is  the 
prophet's  cry  (xi.  1-3).     The  reason  for  this 


Zechariah 


832 


Zechariah 


desolation  is  explained  by  the  parable  of  the 
rejected  shepherd  (4-17)  :  because  of  the  con- 
tinued rejection  of  God's  righteous  govern- 
ment, the  covenant  with  the  nations  is 
broken,  and  Israel  is  open  to  desolation  ;  be- 
cause of  the  same  sin,  the  unity  of  Judah 
and  Ephraim  remains  unaccomplished,  and 
vi^eakness,  discord,  and  desolation  result. 
Burden  2  :  the  conflict  and  final  triumph  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  The  nations  of  the 
earth  are  arrayed  against  Jerusalem  and  Ju- 
dah, which  at  the  time  of  the  prophet  Zech- 
ariah  were  coextensive  with  the  visible 
church  of  Jehovah  ;  but  Jehovah  makes  it  a 
cup  of  reeling  and  a  burdeusome  stone  to  the 
nations,  smiting  the  enemy  with  madness, 
and  revealing  the  fact  that  the  citizens  of 
Zion  are  strong  in  the  Lord  (xii.  1-8).  The 
preparation  of  Jerusalem  (9-xiv.  5)  :  God 
will  prepare  Jerusalem,  first,  by  gracious 
spiritual  change  wrought  by  God  (xii.  10- 
xiii.  (3) ;  second,  by  purifying  chastisement 
(7-xiv.  5").  The  final  triuinph  (S^-Sl).  The 
Lord  shall  come ;  it  shall  be  a  time  of  dark- 
ness and  judgment,  both  for  the  church  and 
the  nations ;  but  at  a  time  appointed  of 
God,  at  eventide  there  shall  be  light.  The 
church  shall  flourish,  and  a  remnant  of  the 
nations  shall  go  up  from  year  to  year  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah,  the  king.  Then  shall  the  idea 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  be  realized,  the 
church  shall  be  holy. 

The  first  to  hint  that  the  book  of  Zechariah 
did  not  proceed  in  its  entirety  from  the  pen 
of  the  prophet  whose  name  it  bears  was 
Joseph  Mede,  of  Christ  Church  college,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1653.  He  argued  that  chapters  ix. 
to  xi.  were  written  by  Jeremiah,  because 
Matthew  in  quoting  Zechariah  xi.  1.3  re- 
fers it  to  Jeremiah  (Mat.  xxvii.  9).  This 
argument  has  no  longer  weight  in  the  esti- 
mation of  critics.  Some  would  say  that  the 
mention  of  Jeremiah  is  an  error  by  Matthew, 
while  others  believe  that  it  is  probably  an 
early  corruption  of  Matthew's  text.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  since  the  Hebrews 
in  their  arrangement  of  the  Scriptures  at 
one  time  began  the  latter  prophets  with 
Jeremiah,  observing  the  sequence  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  Isaiah,  instead  of  the  present  order, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  (see  Canon),  this 
prophetic  section  was  sometimes  referred  to 
as  Jeremiah,  just  as  The  Psalms  and  The 
Proverbs  are  referred  to  as  the  Psalms  of 
David  and  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  al- 
though David  was  not  the  sole  author  of  The 
Psalms  nor  Solomon  of  The  Proverbs.  Since 
Mede's  day  many  critics  have  held  that  in  the 
present  book  of  Zechariah  there  are  the  writ- 
ings of  two,  three,  or  more  prophets.  The 
principal  views  are  :  1.  Chapters  ix.  to  xi.  were 
written  shortly  before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in 
722  B.  c,  and  chapters  xii.  to  xiv.  shortly  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  .587  b.  c. 
2.  Chapters  ix.  to  xiv.  were  written  in  the 
late  Persian  period  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half  after  the  death  of  Zechariah,  or  in  the 


Maccabsean  period.  3.  Chapters  ix.  to  xiv.,  as 
well  as  chapters  i.  to  viii,  proceeded  from 
Zechariah.  The  debate,  it  will  be  seen,  con- 
cerns chapters  ix.  to  xiv.  only.  All  critics 
confess  that  Zechariah  wrote  the  first  eight 
chapters.  The  debated  section  contains  the 
two  burdens.  What  then  is  the  date  of  these 
burdens?  In  regard  to  the  first  burden, 
when  it  was  written  the  house  of  the  Lord 
was  standing  (ix.  15 ;  xi.  13)  :  but  from  this 
fact  no  argument  as  to  the  date  of  the  burden 
can  be  drawn  ;  for  Solomon's  temple  was 
standing  down  to  the  exile,  and  the  new  tem- 
ple, built  after  the  return,  was  in  use  after  the 
year  515  b.  c.  The  reference  in  x.  10,  11  has 
been  cited  to  prove  that  Egypt  and  Assyria 
were  great  powers  at  the  time  that  this 
prophecy  was  delivered,  and  it  was  deliv- 
ered after  Israel  had  been  carried  captive 
(6),  hence  after  the  capture  of  Samaria  but 
before  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  about  606  b.  c. 
But  a  prophet  after  the  exile,  as  well  as  a 
prophet  of  an  earlier  date,  could  foretell  that 
the  Israelites  would  be  restored  to  the  lands 
from  which  they  had  been  carried,  namely, 
from  Egypt  and  Assyria ;  and  although  As- 
syria had  succumbed  to  a  later  world  empire, 
he  could  still  say  that  the  pride  of  Assyria, 
the  power  by  which  the  Israelites  were  still 
kept  in  captivity,  should  be  brought  down  ; 
or  Assyria  may  be  used  of  a  geographical 
region,  including  Babylonia,  just  as  the  term 
is  employed  by  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  22),  although 
the  region  was  then  under  the  government 
of  Persia.  Accordingly,  the  first  burden 
may  have  been  delivered  either  before  the 
fall  of  Nineveh,  while  Assyria  was  still  a 
power,  or  else  after  the  exile  when  the  As- 
syrian empire  had  given  place  to  other  em- 
pires, and  since  the  temple  is  standing,  after 
the  sixth  year  of  Darius  king  of  Persia. 
Another  datum  which  contributes  to  the 
solution  of  this  question  is  obtained  from 
the  statement  that  God  will  break  the 
brotherhood  between  Judah  and  Israel 
(Zech.  xi.  14).  The  brotherhood  existed 
until  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  when  it  was 
broken  by  the  refusal  of  the  northern  tribes 
to  render  further  allegiance  to  the  throne 
of  David.  It  might  also  be  said  to  have  been 
broken  when  Samaria  fell,  and  the  northern 
tribes  were  scattered.  The  brotherhood  existed 
once  more  after  the  Babylonian  exile.  Now 
this  burden  was  pronounced  after  the  fall  of 
Samaria  and  the  captivity  of  E]ihraim  (x.  6) ; 
and  therefore  it  properly  dates  from  the  time 
after  the  exile,  when  the  current  conception 
was  that  Ephraim  and  ,Tudah  were  reunited 
in  the  brotherhood.  In  point  of  fact  they 
were  reunited  :  many  members  of  the  ten 
tribes  had  joined  themselves  to  Judah  ;  and 
the  existing  nation  was  universally  regarded  . 
as  the  representative  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
and  in  Ezra's  day  accordingly  twelve  goatff 
were  offered  as  a  sin  offering  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  temple,  and  a  second  sin  offering 
of  twelve  bullocks  was  made  for  all  Israel 


Zechariah 


833 


Zedekiah 


(Ezra  vi.  17  ;  viii.  35  ;  cp.  Mat.  xix.  28  ;  Luke 
ii.  36;  Acts  iv.  3(5 ;  xxvi.  7  ;  Phil.  iii.  5).  It 
is  true  that  tlie  prophet  frequently  uses  the 
old  terms  Judah  and  Ephraiiu,  and  this  fact 
has  been  urged  to  prove  that  the  projjhecy 
was  uttered  long  before  the  time  of  Zecha- 
riah, but  many  people  living  after  the  exile 
used  the  old  terms.  Zechariah  himself  in 
the  first  eight  chapters  emi)loys  them.  He 
addresses  the  "house  of  Judah  and  house 
of  Israel"  (Zech.  viii.  13).  It  is  to  this  post- 
exilic  period  accordingly  that  the  references 
to  the  brotherhood  of  E})hraim  and  Judah 
point.  There  is  a  further  mark.  It  is  de- 
clared that  God  will  raise  up  Judah  against 
the  distant  sons  of  Javan,  or  the  Greeks  (ix. 
13).  rt  will  be  observed  that  the  Greeks  are 
chosen  for  two  reasons :  (1)  Because  the 
prophet  descries  the  conflict  of  the  church 
with  the  most  distant  nations  of  the  world. 
Javan  and  the  isles  were  at  this  time  Mathin 
the  geographical  horizon  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
they  were  used  as  types  of  the  remotest 
heathen  nations  (Gen.  x.  4,  5  ;  Is.  xli.  5  ;  lix. 
18  ;  Ixvi.  19;  Ezek.  xxvii.  13).  (2)  The  novel 
feature  here  is  that  Javan  looms  up  as  the 
world  power  of  heathenism.  The  earliest  date 
when  the  coming  power  of  Greece  became 
evident  to  observers  in  the  Persian  empire 
was  during  the  years  from  500  to  479  B.  c, 
and  the  coming  greatness  of  Greece  as  the 
successful  antagonist  of  Persia  was  clearly 
evident.  Greece  had  successfully  checked 
the  advance  of  Persian  arms,  and  the  Grecian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  in  open  revolt 
against  their  Per-sian  lords  during  the  years 
500  to  495  B.  c. ;  the  Persians  were  defeated 
at  Marathon  in  490  and,  after  their  victory 
at  Thermopylse,  were  crushingly  defeated  by 
the  Greeks  at  Salamis,  480,  Platsea  and 
Mycale,  479.  Zechariah,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  on  considerable  and  varied  evidence, 
was  a  young  man,  say  twenty  or  twenty-five, 
when  in  520  B.  c.  he  exhorted  Zerubbabel  to 
the  work  of  rebuilding  the  temple,  and  con- 
sequently these  stirring  events  which  re- 
vealed the  unsuspected  greatness  of  Greece 
and  opened  the  prospect  that  it  would  suc- 
cessfully intermeddle  in  oriental  afiairs  oc- 
curred during  the  years  which  were  Zech- 
ariah's  prime  of  life. 

The  second  burden,  chapters  xii.  to  xiv.,  is 
also  shown  by  its  contents  to  belong  to  the 
post-exilic  period.  The  writer  refers  to  the 
terror  of  the  people  when  the  earthquake  in 
the  days  of  Uzziah  occurred.  He  refers  to  it 
as  an  event  living  vividly  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  people.  It  was  vivid  to  them 
either  because  of  recent  occurrence  or  be- 
cause it  had  made  a  lasting  impression  on 
their  minds.  It  certainly  had  made  this 
lasting  impression ;  it  is  treated  as  an  epoch 
by  the  people  of  the  generation  in  which  it 
occurred  (Amos  i.  1),  and  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era  it  was  still  remembered 
as  a  solemn  and  striking  event  (Antiq.  ix. 
10,  4).  There  is  another  historical  mark  in 
53 


this  second  burden,  the  reference  to  the 
mourning  of  Hadadrimmon  in  the  valley  of 
Megiddon  (Zech.  xii.  11).  The  only  natural 
reference  here  is  to  the  killing  of  Josiah  who 
opposed  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo,  was  mor- 
tally wounded  there  and  soon  died,  and  his 
death  was  mourned  by  the  singing  men  and 
singing  women,  and  a  lamentation  was  com- 
posed by  the  projjhet  Jeremiah.  Accordingly 
the  second  burden  was  delivered  not  earlier 
than  the  eve  of  the  exile. 

Not  only  do  the  historical  referencas  in 
the  two  burdens  point  to  late  times,  but  the 
literary  characteristics  of  these  burdens  pro- 
claim them  to  have  proceeded  from  the  same 
source  as  the  first  eight  chapters.  This  is 
strenuously  denied  by  certain  critics.  It  is 
urged  that  a  dift'erence  of  style  is  discernible 
between  the  burdens  and  the  visions.  This 
is  true,  but  it  is  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  lit- 
erary criticism  that  the  style  of  an  author 
differs  at  various  periods  of  his  literary 
career,  and  when  he  essays  different  forms 
of  literature.  Zechariah's  style  naturally  un- 
derwent change  during  a  period  of  thirty  or 
forty  years  and  differed  when  he  depicted 
visions  and  symbolical  actions  from  the  style 
in  which  he  set  forth  solemn  warnings. 
Still,  in  the  parable  or  the  symbolic  repre- 
sentation of  the  good  shepherd,  there  are 
traces  of  the  same  literary  hand  as  that 
which  portrayed  the  visions  and  the  crown- 
ing of  the  high  priest.  And  the  more  subtle 
marks  of  the  same  hand  are  seen  in  the 
unique  usage  of  certain  words  and  expres- 
sions which  characterize  the  first  eight  chap- 
ters in  common  with  the  last  six.  A  few  of 
these  are  the  Qal  of  yashab  in  a  passive  sense 
(ii.  8;  ix.  5;  xii.  6),  me'ober  umishshab  (vii. 
14  ;  ix.  8),  'ehad  for  the  indefinite  article  (v. 
7;  xii.  7),  'al-yamin  w''al-s'mol  (iv.  11;  xii.  6), 
'"damah  (ii.  16;  ix.  16;  xiii.  5).  The  employ- 
ment of  the  same  word  in  different  senses  is 
also  a  characteristic  both  of  the  section  which 
is  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  and  of  the  sec- 
tion which  is  disputed.  These  reasons  afford 
proof  that  Zechariah  was  the  author  of  the 
entire  book,  and  that  his  mature  life  was 
passed  between  the  years  520  and  479  B.  c. 

Ze'cher.    See  Zechariah  1. 

Ze'dad. 

A  place,  probably  a  tower,  on  the  northern 
boundary  line  of  JPalestine  (Num.  xxxiv.  8  ; 
Ezek.  xivii.  15).  Sudud  or  Sadad,  in  the 
desert  east  of  the  road  from  Damascus  to 
Hums,  is  believed  by  many  to  be  the  site. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Zidkijah  (Neh. 
X.  1)  [righteousness  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  son  of  Chenaanah.  Having  joined 
with  other  false  prophets  in  encouraging 
Ahab  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Ramoth- 
gilead,  and  having  predicted  that  Ahab 
would  defeat  the  Syrians,  he  was  so  excited 
when  Micaiah,  a  prophet  of  Jehovah,  made  a 
contrary  prediction,  that  he  struck  the  man 
of  God"  upon  the  cheek,  accompanying  the 


Zedekiah 


834 


Zemarite 


blow  with  words  of  insult.  Micaiah  told  him 
that  he  would  have  cause  to  acknowledge  his 
error  (1  Kin.  xxii.  11-25). 

2.  A  lying  and  immoral  prophet,  the  son 
of  Maaseiah.  Jeremiah  predicted  that  Neb- 
uchadnezzar would  roast  him  in  the  fire 
(Jer.  xxix.  21-2.3). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah.  He  was  a  prince 
of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  12). 

4.  The  name  given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
Mattaniah,  one  of  Josiah's  sons,  on  appoint- 
ing him  vassal-king  of  Judah  in  the  room  of 
his  nephew,  Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  17;  1 
Chron.  iii.  15).  In  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  10  he  is 
called  Jehoiachin's  brother,  i.  e.,  kinsman 
of  the  same  ancestry ;  see  Brother.  He 
was  the  younger  of  Josiah's  two  sons  by 
Hamutal  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  with  xxiv.  18). 
He  was  twenty-one  years  old  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  reigned  eleven  years, 
from  about  598  to  587  B.  C.  Neither  he  nor 
his  people  gave  heed  to  the  word  of  the 
Lord  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  12;  Jer.  xxxvii.  2).  The 
temple  was  polluted  with  idolatry  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  14),  and  justice  was  not  executed 
(Jer.  xxi.  11,  12).  A  strong  party  in  the 
state,  assisted  by  false  prophets,  urged  the 
king  to  throw  olf  the  foreign  yoke  (xxvii. 
12-22).  At  the  beginning  of  Zedekiah's 
reign  (1,  R.  V.  margin)  messengers  from 
Edom,  Moab,  Ammon,  Tyre,  and  Zidon  came 
to  him  at  Jerusalem  to  plan  a  united  revolt 
from  the  king  of  Babylon  ;  but  Jeremiah 
was  divinely  instructed  to  condemn  the  pur- 
pose (2-11).  Zedekiah  sent  an  embassy  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  probably  to  assure  the  great 
king  of  his  fidelity  (xxix.  3),  and  in  his 
fourth  year  he  himself  visited  Babylon  (li. 
59).  Ultimately  he  was  rash  enough  to  rebel. 
On  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  in  the 
ninth  year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  Baby- 
lonian monarch  took  post  against  Jerusalem, 
and  began  to  erect  forts  around  the  city.  It 
was  too  strong  to  be  taken  by  assault ;  and 
the  Babylonians  held  it  in  siege.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  Egyptians  compelled  the  Baby- 
lonians to  withdraw  for  a  time  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
5),  but  they  soon  returned.  By  the  ninth 
day  of  the  fourth  month,  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  food  in  the  be- 
leagured  capital  was  exhausted.  That  night 
Zedekiah,  with  all  the  men  of  war,  secretly 
quitted  the  stronghold,  and,  passing  as  noise- 
lessly as  possible  between  the  Babylonian 
forts,  fled  in  an  easterly  direction  toward 
the  .Jordan.  On  learning  that  the  king  was 
gone,  the  Babylonian  army  pursued  and 
overtook  him  in  the  plain  of  Jericho,  his 
soldiers  having  fled  in  all  directions,  leaving 
him  nearly  alone.  He  was  brought  a  prisoner 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  retired  to  Eib- 
lah,  a  little  north  of  Palestine.  There,  after 
he  had  been  tried  and  condemned,  his  sons 
were  put  to  death  in  his  presence,  and  his 
own  eyes  put  out ;  after  which  he  was  bound 


in  fetters,  carried  to  Babylon  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  17- 
20;  XXV.  1-7;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  11-21;  Jer. 
xxxix.  1-14),  and  put  in  prison  till  the  day 
of  his  death  (,Jer.  Hi.  11).  Jeremiah  proph- 
esied during  the  wiiole  of  Zedekiah's  reign. 

5.  A  son  of  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  16);  but 
some  expositors  assume  that  son  is  used  here 
in  the  sense  of  successor. 

6.  A  high  oflicial  who  set  his  seal  to  the 
covenant  immediately  after  Nehemiah  the 
governor  (Neh.  x.  1). 

Zeeb  [wolf]. 

A  Midianite  prince  captured  and  put  to 
death  by  Gideon.  He  was  slain  at  a  wine 
press,  which  was  afterwards  called  that  of 
Zeeb  (Judg.  vii.  25).  Its  exact  situation  is 
unknown,  but  it  was  doubtless  west  of  the 
Jordan,  near  the  river. 

Ze'la,  in  A.  V.  Zelah,  and  so  once  in  E.  V. 
erroneously  (,Tosh.  xviii.  28)  [rib,  side]. 

A  town  allotted  to  Benjamin  (Josli.  xviii. 
28).  It  contained  the  sepulcher  of  Kish ; 
and  thither  the  bones  of  Saul  and  Jonathan 
were  carried  from  Jabesh  in  Gilead  and 
buried  (2  Sam.  xxi.  14).     Site  unidentified. 

Ze'lek  [a  cleft]. 

An  Ammonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  37  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Ze-lo'phe-had. 

A  Manassite,  family  of  Machir,  subfamily 
of  Gilead,  house  of  Hepher.  He  had  no 
sons,  but  five  daughters  (Num.  xxvi.  33). 
This  condition  of  afi'airs  gave  occasion  for 
enacting  the  law  that  if  a  man  die  and  have 
no  son  the  inheritance  pass  to  his  daughter 
(xxvii.  1-8).  The  law  was  soon  afterwards 
developed  by  the  addition  of  the  provision 
that  the  daughter  must  marry  within  her 
father's  tribe  in  order  that  no  part  of  the 
tribal  possession  be  transferred  to  another 
tribe  (xxxvi.  1-12).  The  inheritance  of  the 
family  was  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
1-6). 

Ze-lo'tes.     See  Zealot. 

Zel'zah  [perhaps,  shadow  in  the  heat  of 
the  sun], 

A  frontier  town  of  Benjamin,  near  Rachel's 
sepulcher  (1  Sam.  x.  2).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Zem-a-ra'im  [two  cuttings]. 

1.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  22). 
Es-Sumrah,  a  large  ruined  village  about  .*? 
miles  west  of  the  river  Jordan,  and  4  north- 
northeast  of  Jericho,  and  less  appropriately 
the  ravine  es-Sumra,  about  5i  miles  west  of 
Jericho  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  have  been 
suggested. 

2.  A  mountain  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim,  on  which  Abijah,  king  of  Judah, 
stood  to  address  the  ten  tribes  before  en- 
countering them  in  battle  (2  Chron.  xiii.  4). 
Perhaps  it  was  south  of  Bethel  (19).  Prob- 
ably it  lay  not  far  from  the  city  of  Zemaraim. 

Zem'a-rite. 

A  Canaanite  tribe  (Gen.  x.  18 ;  1  C^hron.  i. 


Zemiran 


835 


Zerah 


16).  They  are  enumerated  between  the  Ar- 
vadite  and  Hamathite ;  and  were  the  in- 
habitants of  Simura,  Sumura,  now  Sumra, 
on  the  coast  between  Arvad  and  Tripolis. 

Ze-mi'rali,  in  A.  V.  Zemira  [melody,  a 
song]. 

A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  S). 

Ze'nan  [point  or,  perhaps,  a  place  of 
flocks]. 

A  town  in  or  west  of  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  Perhaps  the  same  as  Zaanau 
(Mic.  i.  11).     Site  unknown. 

Ze'nas  [contraction  of  Greek  Zenodoros, 
gift  of  Zeus]. 

A  lawyer,  journeying  in  Crete  with  Apol- 
los,  whom  Titus  was  enjoined  by  Paul  to  set 
forward  on  their  journey  (Titus  iii.  13). 

Zepb-a-ni'ali  [Jehovah  has  hidden]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Kohath  and 
house  of  Izhar  (1  Chron.  vi.  36-38). 

2.  A  priest,  the  son  of  Maaseiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  carried  messages  between 
Zedekiah  and  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxxvii. 
3).  A  certain  false  prophet  who  dwelt  in 
Babylon,  Shemaiah  by  name,  having  sent 
him  letters  directing  him  to  punish  Jeremiah 
for  his  discouraging  predictions,  he  showed 
the  missive  to  the  prophet  (xxix.  24-32). 
He  had  the  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  was 
second  jiriest  under  the  chief  priest  Seraiah. 
After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, Zephaniah  was  put  to  death  at  Eib- 
lah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  18-21 ;  Jer.  Hi.  24-27). 

3.  A  man  whose  son  Josiah  lived  in  the 
days  of  Zerubbabel  and  the  prophet  Zecha- 
ria'h  (Zcch.  vi.  10,  14). 

4.  A  prophet,  whose  descent  is  traced 
through  four  degrees  to  Hezekiah  (Zeph.  i. 
1).  This  ancestor  is  probably  the  king,  from 
the  fact  that  so  remote  a  descent  is  traced 
and  because  the  time  suits.  The  prophet 
himself  lived  and  labored  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (ibid.). 

The  book  of  Zephaniah  is  the  ninth  among 
the  minor  prophets.  The  date  given  in  its 
title  (i.  1)  is  confirmed  by  the  omission  of 
Gath  in  the  enumeration  of  Philistine  cities 
(ii.  4),  by  Nineveh  being  still  in  existence 
(13),  and  by  the  ab.sence  of  allusion  to  the 
Chaldeans.  The  basis  of  the  prophecy  is 
the  great  doctrine  of  God's  universal  judg- 
ment. 1.  A  universal  judgment,  like  the 
deluge  in  destructiveness  (i.  2,  3j.  Idolatry 
will  be  overthrown  in  Jerusalem  (4-6),  and 
the  sinners  of  Judah  visited  with  judgment, 
as  though  Jehovah  conducted  a  great  sacrifice 
(7-13);  and  it  will  be  a  day  of  wrath  upon 
men  because  of  their  wickedness  (14-18).  2. 
A  call  to  repentance  as  the  only  possible 
means  of  escape  (ii.  1,  2),  especially  a  sum- 
mons to  the  humble  and  God-fearing  to  seek 
Jehovah  and  perhaps  obtain  deliverance  (3); 
enforced  by  the  certainty  thatGod  will  punish 
other  nations  for  their  wickedness  (4-15), 
and  Jerusalem  shall  not  escape,  for  it  does 


not  repent  and  the  Lord  in  the  midst  of  her 
is  righteous  (iii.  1-8).  2.  The  blessed  result 
of  the  judgment.  The  nations  shall  turn  to 
the  Lord  (9,  10),  the  remnant  of  Israel  shall 
trust  in  the  Lord  and  be  holy  (11-13),  and  the 
Lord  shall  reign  gloriously  and  beneficently 
as  king  in  the  midst  of  his  people  (14-18), 
who  shall  be  gathered  from  captivity  and  be 
a  praise  in  the  earth  (19,  20). 

Perhaps  the  prophecy  was  delivered  before 
the  religious  reformation  inaugurated  by 
Josiah  in  622  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  8-xxxv.  19).  But  a  later  date  is  pos- 
sible, during  the  years  of  sin  just  before  the 
advent  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xxv.  3; 
xxvi.  1-6,  12,  13,  20;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  32,  37). 

Ze'phath  [watchtower]. 

A  Canaanite  town  in  the  south  country 
toward  the  border  of  Edom,  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Simeon.  The  Simeonites,  assisted 
by  their  brethren  of  Judah,  captured  the 
place  and  changed  its  name  to  Hormah  (Judg. 
i.  17) ;  see  Hormah.  Eobinson  suggested 
that  the  name  is  perhaps  retained  in  es- 
Sufah,  the  name  of  a  pass  leading  up  from  the 
Arabah  to  the  south  of  Judah  ;  but  the  gener- 
al opinion  is  in  favor  of  S'baita,  discovered 
by  Rowlands  and  rediscovered  by  Palmer, 
24  miles  north  by  east  of  Kadesh-barnea, 
and  26|  south  by  west  of  Beer-sheba.  The 
ruins  cover  an  area  of  1500  yards.  The 
identification  is  philologically  doubtful. 

Zeph'a-thali  [watchtower]. 

A  valley  near  Mareshah,  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  10).  Conder  proposes 
the  wady  Safleh,  which,  commencing  about 
a  mile  northeast  of  Mareshah,  near  Beit 
Jibrin,  runs  for  a  short  distance  in  that  di- 
rection. 

Ze'pM  and  Zepho  [watch]. 

A  son  of  Eliphaz,  and  grandson  of  Esau. 
He  founded  a  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15;  1 
Chron.  i.  36).  For  the  difiFerence  in  spelling 
see  Vau. 

Ze'phon  [watching,  expectation.] 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  xxvi.  15).  Called  in  Gen.  xlvi.  16 
Ziphion,  a  synonym  having  the  form  usually 
assumed  by  similar  derivatives. 

Zer  [flint.] 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
Site  unidentified. 

Ze'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Zarah  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
30;  xlvi.  12) ;  once  Zara  (Mat.  i.  3)  [spring- 
ing up  of  light,  dawn]. 

1.  A  duke  of  Edom  descended  from  Esau 
and  also  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13, 
17;  1  Chron.  i.  37,  and  perhaps  44). 

2.  One  of  twins  borne  to  Judah  by  Tamar, 
and  the  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  20;  Josh.  vii.  1,  17). 

3.  A  .son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  1.3).  He  is  called  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  10  and  Ex.  vi.  15  Zohar,  which 
means  dazzling  whiteness  or  brightness. 


Zerahiah 


836 


Zerubbabel 


4.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21,  41). 

5.  An  Ethiopian  who  led  a  vast  army  to 
attack  king  Asa,  but  was  defeated  witli  great 
slaughter  in  a  battle  at  Mareshah  (2  Chrou. 
xiv.  8-15).     See  Pharaoh  4. 

Zer-a-hi'ah  [the  Lord  is  risen  (ep.  Is.  Ix. 
1,  2)]. 

1.  A  priest,  son  of  Uzzi,  and  a  descendant 
of  Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  6,  51 ;  Ezra  vii.  4). 

2.  One  of  the  children  of  Pahath-moab 
(Ezra  viii.  4). 

Ze'red,  in  A.  V.  once  Zared  (Num.  xxi.  12) 
[exuberant  growth]. 

A  brook  and  valley,  which  the  Israelites 
crossed  38  years  after  being  turned  back  into 
the  wilderness  at  Kadesh-barnea,  and  which 
cons*:ituted  the  farthest  limit  of  the  wander- 
ings in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  12  ;  Deut.  ii. 
I'.i,  14).  It  was  south  of  the  Arnon  ;  not,  how- 
ever, on  the  southern  boundary  of  Moab,  but 
somewhere  along  its  eastern  border  (Num. 
xxi.  11,  13).  Hence  not  the  wady  el-'Ahsy, 
which  was  the  boundary  between  Moab  and 
Edom.  It  may  be  either  the  Sail  Sa'ideh,  a 
southeastern  branch  of  the  Arnon,  or  the 
upper  course  of  the  wady  Kerek. 

Zer'e-dali,  in  A.  V.  Zereda,  and  with  the 
unaccented  vowel  of  the  old  case-ending 
Ze-red'a-thah  [cooling,  coolness]. 

A  village  whence  came  Nebat,  an  Ephraim- 
ite,  the  father  of  Jeroboam,  and  apparently 
also  Jeroboam  himself  (1  Kin.  xi.  26).  It  was 
not  far  from  Succoth.  In  the  clay  ground 
between  Succoth,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  Zere- 
dah,  we.st  of  the  river,  Solomon  cast  vessels 
for  the  temple  (2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  cast- 
ing place  must  have  been  west  of  the  Jordan 
as  the  opposite  eastern  bank  is  reported  to 
have  scarcely  any  level  ground  at  all.  Zere- 
dah  is  probably  the  place  elsewhere  called 
Zarethan  (1  Kin.  vii.  46).  Conder  doubtfully 
suggests  for  its  site  Surdah,  2\  miles  north- 
west of  Bethel ;  and  the  Septuagint  actually 
locates  it  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  (1 
Kin.  xii.  24).  But  the  Septuagint  probably 
confuses  it  with  Tirzah,  and  Zeredah  was  al- 
most certainly  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Zer'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  Zererath,  as  in  the 
present  Hebrew  text. 

Apparently  the  same  place  as  Zeredah  and 
Zarethan,  whether  the  second  r  should  be 
read  d,  as  in  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  versions, 
or  whether  the  two  r's  are  blended  in  Zare- 
than (Judg.  vii.  22  with  1  Kin.  iv.  12). 

Ze'resh  [probablv,  gold]. 

The  wife  of  Hanian  (Esth.  v.  10 ;  vi.  13). 

Ze'reth  [perhaps,  fissure  or  brightness]. 

A  son  of  Ashhur,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
by  his  wife  Helah  (1  Chron.  iv.  5-7). 

Ze-reth-sha'har,  in  A.  V.  Zareth-shaliar 
[brightness  of  the  dawn]. 

A  town  of  Reuben,  on  a  mountain  which 
overlooks  a  valley,  doubtless  that  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xiii.  19).     Seetzen  suggested 


Sara,  or  Zara,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Zerka 
Ma' in.  The  names,  however,  are  not  identical. 

Ze'ri. 

A  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3).  In 
ver.  11  he  is  called  Izri,  whicli  is  doubtless 
the  correct  form,  the  initial  jod  having  been 
lost  in  course  of  transcription. 

Ze'ror  [a  bundle]. 

A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul 
(1  Sam.  ix.  1). 

Ze-ru'ali  [smitten,  leprous]. 

The  mother  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ze-rub'ba-bel,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Zorobabel 

[probably,  begotten  in  Biibylon]. 

A  son  of  Pedaiah,  and  heir  to  the  throne 
of  judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17-19).  But  he  is 
constantly  called  the  son  of  Shealtiel,  who 
was  the  brother  of  Pedaiah,  quite  improbably 
his  son  (Ezra  iii.  2,  8  ;  Neb.  xii.  1 ;  Hag.  i.  1, 
12,  14  ;  ii.  2,  23  ;  Mat.  i.  12,  13  ;  Luke  iii.  27). 
Shealtiel  doubtless  died  childless  ;  and  either 
his  nephew  was  his  legal  heir,  and  hence 
called  his  son  (Ex.  ii.  10),  or  else  Pedaiah  mar- 
ried his  widow,  in  which  case  the  first  child 
would  bo  considered  that  of  the  deceased 
brother  (Deut.  xxv.  5-10,  etc.).  When  Cyrus, 
after  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  adopted  the 
wise  political  policy  of  allowing  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  land,  he  appointed  Ze- 
rubbabel, as  the  legal  successor  to  the  throne, 
Persian  governor  of  Judah  (Ezra  i.  8  ;  Hag. 
ii.  21).  In  the  royal  decree  he  is  called  by 
his  Babylonian  name  Sheshbazzar  (Ezra  i.  8, 
cp.  11;  V.  14-16).  Supported  by  the  high 
priest  Jeshua,  and  other  dignitaries,  Zerub- 
babel led  the  returning  captives  from  Baby- 
lon to  their  own  country  in  538  B.  c.  (Ezra 
ii.  ;  Neh.  vii. ;  xii.  1-9).  They  reared  an 
altar,  restored  the  feasts,  and  set  the  Levites 
again  to  their  appropriate  work  (Ezra  iii. 
1-9).  They  next  laid  the  foundations -of  the 
temple,  but  adversaries,  after  failing  to  make 
Zerubbabel  stop  proceedings,  acted  on  suc- 
cessive Persian  kings,  so  that  building  opera- 
tions ceased  till  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  (iv.  1-24).  In  this  year  the 
prophet  Haggai,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  strongly  counseled  the  resumption  of 
the  work  (Hag.  i.  2-11).  Zerubbabel  and 
his  advocates  gave  heed  to  the  exhortation 
and  recommenced  the  erection  of  the  holy 
house,  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
giving  them  great  spiritual  encouragement 
in  the  enterprise  (Ezra  v.  1,  2 ;  Hag.  i.  12-ii. 
23  ;  Zech.  iv.  1-14  ;  cp.  also  iii.).  The  build- 
ing was  completed  51.5  B.  c.  From  the  office 
Zerubbabel  held  when  the  second  temple 
was  built,  and  the  personal  interest  he  took 
in  its  erection,  it  is  often  called  Zernbbabel's 
temple.  His  governorship  continued  at  least 
till  515  B.  c.  How  much  longer  it  lasted  is 
unknown.  Zerubbabel  was  in  his  day  the 
representative  of  the  Davidic  monarchy  (Hag. 
ii.  20-23).  He  was  also  in  the  direct  line  of 
ancestry  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  12.  13 ;  Luke 
iii.  27). 


Zeruiah 


837 


Ziklag 


Ze-ru'iah  [cleft,  divided]. 

A  sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  16),  but 
probably,  like  her  sister  Abigail,  not  a 
daughter  of  Jesse,  but  a  daughter  of  David's 
mother  by  au  earlier  marriage  with  Nahash  (2 
Sam.  xvii.25).  She  was  the  mother  of  Abishai, 
Joab,  and  Asahel  (ii.  18;  1  Chrou.  ii.  Ifi). 

Ze'tham. 

A  Gershonite  Levite,  house  of  Laadan  and 
son  of  Jehiel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  8  and  xxvi.  22). 

Ze'tban  [olive  tree  or  place  of  olives]. 

A  Benjamite,  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

Ze'thar. 

A  chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  10). 

Zi'a  [motion,  terror]. 

A  Gadite,  probably  head  of  a  father's 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

Zi'ba. 

A  servant  or  slave  of  king  Saul's.  He  had 
l>een  set  free  (Antiq.  vii.  5,  5),  perhaps  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  overthrow  by  the  Philistines, 
and  he  was  father  of  a  large  family  and  had 
acquired  slaves  (2  Sam.  ix.  10).  David  made 
him  and  his  sons  and  slaves  servants  to 
Mephibosheth,  Saul's  son,  and  ordered  them 
to  till  Mcphibosheth's  lands  (9-12).  When 
David  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Jerusalem 
because  of  Absalom's  rebellion,  Ziba  appeared 
with  a  couple  of  asses  laden  with  provisions 
for  the  king,  and  stated  that  Mephibosheth 
was  expecting  that  Israel  would  restore  Saul's 
kingdom  to  him.  Thereupon  David  trans- 
ferred Mephibosheth's  estates  to  Ziba  (xvi. 
1-4).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  when  the 
king  was  returning  to  Jerusalem,  among 
those  who  went  to  the  Jordan  to  welcome 
him  back  was  Ziba  with  his  sons  and  slaves 
(xix.  17).  Mephibosheth  also  went  to  meet 
the  king.  He  had  neglected  his  person,  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow,  during  the  king's  absence, 
and  now  he  declared  that  he  had  ordered 
his  ass  to  be  saddled  in  order  to  accompany 
David  on  his  flight;  but  Ziba  had  disobeyed 
his  orders  and  had  also  slandered  him  to  the 
king,  and  he  asked  David  to  do  what  seemed 
right.  David  replied  somewhat  crustily,  and 
ordered  half  of  the  estates  to  be  restored  to 
Mephibosheth.  and  the  rest  left  in  the  pos- 
se.ssion  of  Ziba  (24-30). 

Zib'e-on  [dyed  or,  perhaps,  seizing  prey]. 

A  Hivite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2  ;  if  the  text  should 
not  be  amended  to  Horite),  who  perhaps 
migrated  with  his  family  to  mount  Seir  and 
became  a  Horite  tribe  (20,  24),  organized 
under  a  chief  (29).  He  was  ancestor  of  a 
wife  of  Esau  (2,  25). 

Zib'i-a  [a  female  gazelle]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

Zib'i-ah  [a  female  gazelle]. 

A  woman  of  Beer-sheba,  wife  of  Ahaziah, 
and  mother  of  Jehoash,  king  of  Judah  (2 
Kin.  xii.  1). 


Zich'ri  [mindful,  famous]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Ex.  vi.  21).  Zithri  in  this  verse  in 
many  editions  of  the  A.  V.  is  a  modern  mis- 
print. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shimei  (1  Chron. 
viii.  19). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  23). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 
In  all  probability  he  is  the  person  called 
Zaccur,  a  synonymous  name,  in  xxv.  2,  10  ; 
Neb.  xii.  35 ;  and  also  the  person  called 
Zabdi  in  xi.  17,  in  the  latter  instance  the 
letters  k,  anglicized  ch,  and  r  having  been 
misread  as  b  and  d  ;  see  Beth,  Daleth. 

0.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses'  son, 
Eliezer  (1  Chrou.  xxvi.  25). 

7.  A  Eeubenite  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  16). 

8.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  father  of  Amasiah, 
a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xvii.  16),  and  quite  possibly  of 
Elishaphat  who  aided  Jehoiada  in  overthrow- 
ing Athaliah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

9.  A  valiant  Ephraimite  in  Pekah's  army, 
who  slew  Maaseiah,  a  royal  prince,  and  two 
of  Ahaz'  chief  officers  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

10.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

11.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Abijah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Zid'dim  [sides]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
The  Talmud  calls  the  place  Kefar  Chittai, 
which  has  led  to  locating  it  at  Hattin,  about 
5|  miles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias,  and  less 
than  a  mile  north  of  the  celebrated  Horns 
of  Hattin. 

Zid-ki'jah.     See  Zedekiah. 

Zi'don.    See  Sidon. 

Zif.     See  Ziv. 

Zi'ha  [sunniness,  drought]. 

Founder  or  possibly  only  the  head  of  a 
family  of  Nethinim,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  43  :  Neh. 
vii.  46).  If  he  was  identical  with  Ziba,  an 
overseer  of  the  Nethinim,  who  is  named  in 
Neh.  xi.  21,  the  family  was  of  recent  origin 
among  the  Nethinim,  and  small,  or  else  it 
was  an  older  family  named  from  its  present 
chief. 

Zik'lag. 

A  city  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31),  assigned  to  the  Simeonites 
(xix.  5;  1  Chron.  iv.  30).  In  the  time  of 
Saul  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines, 
and  at  one  time  David  held  it  as  the  vassal 
of  their  king,  Achish  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6  ;  1 
Chron.  xii.  1-22).  It  was  captured,  plun- 
dered, and  burnt  by  the  Amalekites,  but 
David  pursued  them,  recovered  the  spoil, 
and  sent  portions  of  it  to  manv  other  towns 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  1-31 ;  2  Sam.  i.  1 ;"  iv.  10).    The 


Zillah 


838 


Ziph 


connection  of  David  with  Ziklag  detached 
it  permanently  from  the  Philistines,  and 
placed  it  nnder  the  kings  of  Judah  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  fi).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  28).  Not  identified  ;  unless  its  site 
is  Zuheilikah,  a  ruin  discovered  by  Conder 
11  miles  east-southeast  of  Gaza.  Identifica- 
tion with  'Asluj,  32  miles  south  of  Gaza,  has 
nothing  in  its  favor. 

Zil'lali  [a  shadow]. 

One  of  Lamech's  wives,  and  the  mother  of 
Tubal-cain  (Gen.  iv.  19,  22,  23). 

Zil'le-thai,  in  A.  V.  Zilthai. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chrou. 
viii.  20). 

2.  A  Manassite,  captain  of  a  thousand 
men,  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  20). 

Zil'pah  [dropping,  a  drop]. 

A  maidservant,  given  by  Laban  to  Leah 
on  her  marriage  with  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  24). 
At  Leah's  request,  she  became  his  secondary 
wife,  and  bore  to  him  Gad  and  Asher  (xxx. 
9-13). 

Zil'thai.     See  Zillethai. 

Zim'mah  [counsel,  device]. 

A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei,  and 
grandson  of  Jahath  (1  Chron.  vi.  20,  42,  43; 
and  perhaps  2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

Zim'ran  [probably  connected  with  the 
name  for  antelope]. 

A  son  or  rather  tribe  descended  from 
Abraham  and  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1 
Chrou.  i.  32).  An  echo  of  the  name  has  been 
surmised  either  in  Zabram,  a  town  west  of 
Mecca,  on  the  Red  Sea  (Ptol.  vi.  7,  5),  or  in 
Zamareni,  an  Arabian  tribe  (Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  vi.  32,  5). 

Zim'rl  [pertaining  to  an  antelope]. 

1.  Sou  of  Zerah,  and  grandson  of  Judah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  6) ;  called  in  Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  18 
Zabdi  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon.  He  was 
slain  at  Shittim  for  participating  with  the 
Midianites  in  licentious  idolatrj^  (Num.  xxv. 
14;  1  Mac.  ii.  26,  in  A.  V.  Zambri). 

3.  A  Benjamite.  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36 ;  ix.  42). 

4.  A  military  ofiicer  who  commanded  half 
the  chariots  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  whom 
he  assassinated,  fulfilling  the  denunciation 
against  Baasha's  house  by  extirpating  it. 
Then  he  set  up  for  himself  as  king  in  Tirzah. 
Israel  at  once  proclaimed  Omri,  the  comman- 
der-in-chief, king.  He  marched  against  the 
usurper,  and  captured  his  capital,  Tirzah. 
When  Zimri  saw  that  the  city  was  taken  he 
set  the  palace  on  fire  and  perished  in  the 
flames.  His  reign,  which  lasted  only  a  week, 
fell  within  the  year  885  b.  c.  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
8-20).  It  has  been  suggested  that  he  may 
have  been  Saul's  descendant  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36),  seeking  to  regain  the  throne. 

5.  A  people  (Jer.  xxv.  25),  not  otherwi.se 
known.      They  may   have  been   descended 


from  Zimran,  but  there  is  no  certainty  in 
the  case. 

Zin  [dwarf  palm]. 

A  wilderness  traversed  by  the  Israelites  on 
their  way  to  Canaan.  It  was  close  to  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  that  land  (Num.  xiii.  21). 
Kadesh-barnea  was  within  its  limits  (xx.  1; 
xxvii.  14 ;  xxxiii.  36  ;  Dent,  xxxii.  51).  Itcon- 
stituted  the  limit  of  Edom  on  the  west  and 
of  Judah  on  the  southeast  (Josh.  xv.  1-3). 
It  was  either  a  part  of  the  wilderness  of 
Paran  or  marched  on  that  wilderness  at 
Kadesh.  It  is  not  the  same  place  as  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  the  Hebrew  words  for  the 
two  being  quite  difi"erent. 

Zl'na.     See  Zizah. 

Zl'on  ;  in  Maccabees  Sion,  and  so  in  A.  V. 
of  N.  T.  always,  and  in  O.  T.  once  (Ps.  Ixv.  1) 
[a  dry,  sunny  place  or  a  mound  or  even  a 
defense] . 

1.  One  of  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem 
stood.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  as 
the  seat  of  a  Jebusite  fortress.  David  cap- 
tured this  stronghold  and  changed  its  name 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v.  7 ;  1  Chrou. 
xi.  5).  Hither  he  brought  the  ark,  and  the 
hill  from  that  time  forth  became  sacred  (2 
Sam.  vi.  10-12).  The  ark  was  afterwards  re- 
moved by  Solomon  to  the  temple  which  he 
erected  on  mount  Moriah  (1  Kin.  viii.  1;  2 
Chron.  iii.  1 ;  v.  2).  From  the  last  two  of 
these  passages  it  is  plain  that  Zion  and 
Moriah  were  distinct  eminences.  For  the 
question  which  hill  was  known  as  Zion  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  topography. 

2.  After  the  building  of  the  temple  on 
mount  Moriah  and  the  transfer  of  the  ark  to 
it,  the  name  Zion  was  extended  to  compre- 
hend the  temple  (Is.  viii.  18 ;  xviii.  7 ;  xxiv. 
23 ;  Joel  iii.  17 ;  Mic.  iv.  7).  This  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  while  Zion  is  meiitioned 
between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred  times 
in  the  O.  T.,  mount  Moriah  is  named  only 
once  (2  Chron.  iii.  1),  or  at  most  twice  (Gen. 
xxii.  2). 

3.  Zion  is  often  used  for  the  whole  of  Jeru- 
salem (2  Kin.  xix.  21;  Ps.  xlviii. ;  Ixix.  35; 
cxxxiii.  3 ;  Is.  i.  8  ;  iii.  16 ;  iv.  3 ;  x.  24 ;  Hi.  1 ; 
Ix.  14). 

4.  In  the  Maccabsean  period  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood,  as  distinct  from  the 
city  of  David  (1  Mac.  vii.  32,  33). 

5.  The  Jewish  church  and  polity  (Ps. 
cxxvi.  1 :  cxxix.  5;  Is.  xxxiii.  14  ;  xxxiv.  8  : 
xlix.  14  ;  Iii.  8). 

6.  Heaven  (Heb.  xii.  22;  cp.  Eev.  xiv.  1). 

Zi'or  [smallness]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  near 
Hebron  (Josh.  xv.  54).  Robinson  suggested 
Sia'ir,  4J  miles  north-northeast  of  Hebron. 

2iph. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  55),  near  a  wilderness  and  a  forest 


Ziphah 


839 


Zoar 


(1  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15).  It  was  fortified  liy 
Eelioboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  8).  The  ruins,  called 
Zif,  are  on  a  low  ridge  between  two  small 
valleys,  4  miles  south  by  east  of  Hebron.  To 
the  east  is  a  wilderness,  very  hilly,  with 
narrow  valleys  of  rich  loam.  A  woods  ex- 
isted at  the  time  of  the  Crusaders,  but  only 
a  few  straggling  trees  remain. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jehallelel  (1 
Chron.  iv.  16). 

Zi'pliali. 

A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jahallelel  (1 
Chron.  iv.   16). 

Ziph'ims.     See  Ziphite. 

Zipb'i-on.     See  Zephon. 

Ziph'ites,  in  A.  V.  once  Ziphims  (Ps.  liv. 
title). 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Ziph  2  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  19;  xxvi.  1;  Ps.  liv.  title). 

Ziph'ron  [fragrance]. 

A  place  on  the  northern  boundary  line  of 
the  promised  land  (Num.  xxxiv.  9).  Not 
identified. 

Zip'por  [a  small  bird,  a  sparrow]. 

Father  of  Balak,  king  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxii.  4,  10). 

Zip'po-rah  [a  small  bird,  a  sparrow]. 

A  daughter  of  Jethro,  priest  of  Midian. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Moses  (Exod.  ii.  21, 
22).  She  evidently  opposed  the  circumcision 
of  their  second  son  ;  but  when  the  family 
was  journeying  to  Egypt  and  her  husband's 
life  was  in  danger  on  account  of  that  breach 
of  the  covenant,  she  acquiesced  (Ex.  iv.  18- 
26) ;  see  Moses.  She  may  have  returned 
with  her  sons  to  her  father  at  this  time  ;  but 
quite  probably  they  accompanied  Moses  to 
Egypt,  and  after  the  exodus,  when  the  host 
of  Israel  was  slowly  approaching  mount  Sinai, 
were  sent  forward  to  visit  Jethro  and  in- 
form him  of  all  that  God  had  done  for  Moses 
and  for  the  Israelites,  how  that  the  Lord  had 
brought  Israel  out  of  Egypt  (Ex.  xviii.  1). 
Jethro  returned  with  them  to  the  camp  at 
Eephidim  (2-6). 

Zith'ri.     See  Sithri  and  Zichei  1. 

Ziv,  in  A.  V.  Zif  [splendor  (of  flowers  in 
bloom)]. 

The  second  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (1 
Kin.  vi.  1,  37),  approximately  May.  Later  it 
was  commonly  called  lyar.     See  Year. 

Ziz  [brightness,  burni.shed  plate,  flower]. 

A  clifl'  or  ascent  by  which  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  ascended  from  En-gedi 
toward  the  wilderness  of  Jeruel  and  Tekoa 
(2  Chron.  xx.  16;  cp.  2,  20).  Robinson  be- 
lieves it  to  be  the  pass  up  from  En-gedi ; 
Tristram  and  Conder  the  table-land  west  of 
En-gedi,  to  w'hich  the  pass  leads  up,  and  by 
which  it  is  commanded. 

Zi'za  [plenty,  fertility]. 

1.  A  Simeonite,  descended  from  Shemaiah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  37). 


2.  A  son  of  Rchoboam,  bv  his  (iuecu  jMaaeah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  20). 

Zi'zah  [plenty,  fertility]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom,  house  of 
Shiniei  (1  Chron,  xxiii.  11).  In  ver.  10  the 
name  is  mistranscribed  Zina. 

Zo'an  [Egyptian  T'a,  early  changed  to 
T'an]. 

An  Egyptian  city  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  delta,  on  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile, 
near  the  31st  degree  of  north  latitude.  It 
was  built  seven  years  later  than  Hebron, 
which  was  in  existence  in  Abraham's  life- 
time (Num.  xiii.  22).  Zoan  existed  at  least 
as  early  as  Eanieri  Pejii  of  the  sixth  dynasty, 
whose  pyramid  remains.  The  earliest  kings 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty  made  it  their  capital 
in  order  to  check  invasions  from  the  east. 
The  .shepherd  kings  fortified  it  and  retained 
it  as  the  capital.  After  their  expulsion  the 
city  was  neglected  for  several  centuries;  but 
it  was  again  raised  to  importance  by  Ramses 
II.  and  other  kings  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  who  erected  buildings  and  fre- 
quently held  court  there.  The  new  town 
which  thus  grew  up  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortress  was  called  Pa-Ramses,  that  is  the  city 
of  Ramses.  Zoan  was  the  place  of  meeting 
between  Moses  and  Pharaoh  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12, 
43).  It  was  still  an  important  city  in  the 
time  of  Isaiah  and  also  of  Ezekiel  (Is.  xix. 
11,  13;  cp.  XXX.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxx.  14).  Between 
the  days  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Assyrians.  The  city  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Tanis.  It  has  lingered  on 
to  modern  times,  and  is  now  called  San. 
The  site  has  been  explored  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund. 
The  remains  consist  of  a  temple  surrounded 
by  a  great  ring  of  mounds.  A  colossal  statue 
of  Ramses  II.  was  exhumed. 

Zo'ar  [littleness,  smallness  (Gen.  xix.  20, 
22)]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  appar- 
ently the  smallest  of  the  five  (Gen.  xix.  20, 
22).  The  plain  was  visible  from  mount  Nebo 
as  far  as  Zoar  (Dent,  xxxiv.  3).  Its  original 
name  was  Bela,  and  it  had  a  king,  one  of 
those  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiii. 
10;  xiv.  2,  8).  When  threatened  judgment 
was  about  to  descend  on  the  guilty  cities.  Lot 
successfully  interceded  for  Zoar,  and  fled 
thither  from  the  catastrophe  (xix.  20-23).  A 
mountain  (or  at  least  high  land)  rose  imme- 
diately behind  it,  with  a  cavern,  in  which 
Lot  and  his  two  daughters  dwelt  for  a  time 
(.30).  Zoar  still  existed  in  the  days  of  Isaiah 
and  in  those  of  Jeremiah,  and,  from  their 
mentioning  it  in  connection  with  Moab,  it 
may  be  presumed  that  it  was  on  the  Moabite 
or  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Is.  xv.  5; 
Jer.  xlviii.  34  ;  cp.  also  Gen.  xix.  37).  In  the 
Maccabsean  period  it  belonged  to  an  Arabian 
kingdom  of  which  Petra  was  the  capital 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4;  xiv.  1,  4).  It  stood  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (War  iv. 


Zobah 


840 


Zuziiu 


8,  4).  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  impor- 
tant point  on  tlie  road  from  Elath  to  Jerusa- 
lem, three  days'  journey  from  the  latter  citj' 
via  Hehron.  These  data  indicate  that  the 
site  was  not  on  a  spur  of  mount  Nebo 
(Tristram)  nor  even  on  the  Lisan,  the  penin- 
sula which  projects  into  the  soutliern  waters 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Robinson).  They  are  satis- 
lied  by  assuming  that  Zoar  was  situated  near 
where  the  wady  el-'Ahsy  opens  through  the 
Moabite  mountains  into  the  plain,  about  2 
miles  from  the  southern  end  of  the  sea 
(Wetzstein). 

Zo'toah,  in  A.  V.  and  Hebrew  text  twice 
Zotoa  (2  Sam.  x.  6,  8) ;  see  Aram  2  (3). 

Zo-be'bali  [gentle  movement]. 

Son  of  Hakkos,  a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 

Zo'har  [brightness,  whiteness]. 

1.  Father  of  Ephron  the  Hittite  (Gen. 
xxiii.  8). 

2.  Son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10).  Called 
also  Zerah  (Num.  xxvi.  13) ;  see  Zeeah. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  7,  R.  V. 
margin) ;  see  Izhak. 

Zo'he-leth  [a  serpent  or  other  creeper]. 

A  stone  beside  En-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  9).  Not 
identified.  Clermont-Ganneau  pointed  out 
that  the  ledge  of  rocks,  on  which  the  village 
of  Silwan  stands,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  Zeh- 
wele  or  Zahweileh,  which  is  like  an  altered 
form  of  Zoheleth.  But  the  Arabic  and  He- 
brew words  have  no  real  affinity,  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  term  stone  would  have 
been  applied  to  a  clitF,  and  the  distance  of 
the  ledge  from  En-rogel  seems  too  great. 

Zo'heth. 

A  son  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Zo'phah  [expanse,  a  flask]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35,  36). 

Zo'phai.     See  Zuph. 

Zo'phar  [chirper]. 

A  Naamathite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii. 
11 ;  xi.  1  ;  XX.  1 ;  xlii.  9). 

Zo'phim  [watchers]. 

A  fleld  on  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which 
Balaam  could  see  a  part  of  the  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim  (Num.  xxiii.  14). 
Conder  places  it  at  Tal'at  es-Safa,  in  the 
valley  separating  the  southeastern  point  of 
Pi.sgah  from  Luhith. 

Zo'rah,  in  A.  V.  once  Zoreah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  once  Zareah  (Neh.  xi.  29)  [perhaps, 
stroke  or  scourge]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),    inhabited    by    the    Danites   (xix.   41). 


Manoah,  Samson's  father,  belonged  to  the 
place  (Judg.  xiii.  2),  and  Samson  was  buried 
near  the  town  (xvi.  31).  Some  of  the  five 
Danite  spies  and  of  the  warriors  who  subse- 
quently took  Laish  were  from  Zorah  (xviii. 
2,  8,  11).  The  town  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi.  10).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  29).  Its  site  is 
doubtless  Sur'ah,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley  of  Sorek,  2  miles  west-southwest  of 
Eshtaol. 

Zo'rath-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  ZareatMte  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53). 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Zorah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53;  iv.  2). 

Zo're-ah.     See  Zoeah. 
Zo'rite. 

Either  the  same  as  Zorathite,  or  a  citizen 
of  some  unknown  place  (1  Chron.  ii.  54). 
Zo-rob'a-toel.     See  Zerubbabel. 

Zu'ar  [smallness]. 

Father  of  that  Nethaneel  who  was  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  i.  8;  ii.  5;  vii.  18,  23;  x.  15). 

Zuph  [honeycomb]. 

1.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Kohath,  and 
an  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  35).  A  variant  form,  of  similar  meaning, 
is  Zophai  (26). 

2.  A  district  beyond  the  borders  of  Benja- 
min and  apparently  lying  to  the  south  of 
the  territory^  of  that  tribe  (1  Sam.  ix.  4-6  ; 
X.  2).  It  may  have  received  its  name  from 
the  settlement  of  the  family  of  Zuph  there. 
See  further  in  connection  with  Ramah  2. 

Zur  [a  rock] . 

1.  A  king  of  Midian,  ally  or  vassal  of 
Sihon,  and  the  father  of  the  woman  Cozbi 
(Num.  XXV.  15).  He  was  killed  in  the  war 
of  extermination  waged  by  Moses  against 
the  Midianites  for  their  seduction  of  the  Is- 
raelites to  licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv.  15, 
18;  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  sonof  Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii. 
30). 

Zu'ri-el  [God  is  a  rock] . 
A  Levite,  chief  of  the  Merarites  in   the 
wilderness  (Num.  iii.  35,  R.  V.). 

Zu-ri-shad'dai  [the  Almighty  is  a  rock]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  the  Simeonites  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41 ; 
X.  19). 

Zu'zim,  in  A.  V.  Zuzims. 

A  trilie  occupying  a  district  called  Ham, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  conquered  by  Chedorla- 
omer  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  Apparently  the  same  as 
Zamzummim. 


LIST  OF  MAPS. 


MAPS 

The  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Powers I 

Lands  of  the  Sojourn  and  Wandering II 

Palestine  as  Divided  Among  the  Twelve  Tribes Ill 

The  Dominions  of  David  and  Solomon IV 

The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel V 

Lower  Galilee  and  Esdraelon VI 

Hill  Country  of  Eastern  Jud^a  and  Benjamin VII 

The  Shephelah  or  Low  Country,  Philistia  and  Sharon   .     .     .  VIII 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ IX 

Palestine   and    Adjacent    Countries,    Illustrating    Maccab.ean 

and  Early  Apostolic  History X 

The  World  as  Known  in  the  Apostolic  Age XI 

St.   Paul's  First  and  Second  Journeys XII 

St.  Paul's  Third  Journey  and  Journey  to  Rome XIII 

Plan  of  Jerusalem,  with  Adjacent  Territory XIV 


Map  I 


Map  II 


liANDS 

of  t  lie 

SOJOURN 

a  11  cl 

WANDERING. 


SCALE   OF   MILES, 


Map  III 


Map  IV 


:\Iai)  V 


Map  VI 


Map  VII 


Hill  Country  of 

Eastern  Judah 
and  Beiijainiii. 


:\Iap  VIII 


ilap  IX 


Map  X 


Copijriijht,  iS'ji:,by  Trustees  uf  thi:  Prcsbuteriun  Board  uf  Publication  and  Sabbath  School  Work 


Map  XI 


Map  XII 


Map  XIII 


Map  XIV 


PliATSr  OF 
JERUSALEM 


THE  M.-N.  WORKS 


